Insects 11 00460
Insects 11 00460
Insects 11 00460
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +64-6-356-9099 (ext. 84833)
Abstract: Infestation of willow plants by the giant willow aphid Tuberolachnus salignus (Hemiptera:
Aphididae) is associated with copious deposition of sugar-rich honeydew under the plant canopy.
We explored the effect of aphid honeydew on the soil biota and biochemical indicators in a two-
year field trial. Soil samples from under aphid-infested and control willow trees, as well as samples
from black sooty mould spots under the aphid-infested willows were compared; soil samples before
aphid inoculation were used as a baseline. The honeydew deposition had a positive effect on the
total soil carbon (C), but not on the total soil nitrogen content or soil pH. Microbial biomass C, basal
respiration, number of yeast colony forming units, and the geometric mean of activities for six
enzymes were significantly higher in honeydew-affected soils than in the control treatment on both
years. The honeydew deposition also increased soil meso-fauna abundance, especially in the black
sooty mould spots. The soil biochemical properties, which differed before and after aphid
infestation, showed considerable overlap between the first and second year post-infestation. The
results highlight the cascading effects of T. salignus on soil biological activity and the importance of
using a multitrophic approach to explore similar scenarios.
Keywords: Tuberolachnus salignus; honeydew; soil biochemical indicators; soil enzymes; yeasts;
meso-fauna
1. Introduction
The giant willow aphid, Tuberolachnus salignus (Gmelin) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is an invasive
stem-feeding pest of willow trees, which has recently arrived in New Zealand [1]. Willows (Salix spp.)
are important multi-purpose farm trees used for biomass production, bioremediation, erosion
control, and soil nutrient management [2,3]. As T. salignus is a new species in New Zealand, not much
is known about the ecological consequences associated with its presence in willow growing systems,
such as its effects on the soil biota.
One of the prominent features of infested willow plantings is the deposition of copious amounts
of honeydew by aphid colonies, and the growth of black sooty mould on the leaves, stems, and on
the soil surface ([1]; see also Figure 1). A single adult T. salignus can exude 1.71–2.08 mm3 of honeydew
per hour [4,5]. Chemically, the honeydew is a mixture of water, carbohydrates (90–95% dry weight),
amino acids (< 5%), lipids and other nutrients [6,7]. When this energy-rich liquid is deposited on the
leaves and understory plants, it is splashed onto the soil surface by rainfall [8]. It can be hypothesized
that deposition of T. salignus honeydew on the soil surface will initiate a cascade of changes in soil
processes, causing modifications in soil chemical properties, microbial activities and in the
abundance of soil microbivores. Previous studies have linked the labile carbon (C) input from
aboveground aphid herbivory to changes in belowground biochemical properties [9–12]. These
effects are linked to aphid population density [13] and the identity of the aphid species [14].
Figure 1. Black sooty mould spots under the canopy of willow plants.
Aphid honeydew deposition on the soil surface is expected to increase nutrient availability, fuel
the growth of microbial communities in belowground systems [11,15], and influence the soil
decomposition processes [16,17]. Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and other taxa) contribute to the
functioning of soil ecosystems [18], regulating the processes of organic matter decomposition and
nutrient cycling [19]. Soil microorganisms are assumed to be energy-limited, and as a result, mostly
remain dormant when C resources are scarce [20]. The daily addition of sugar to the soil can cause a
2.5-fold increase in bacterial diversity, compared to control treatments, as sugar supplementation
encourages the soil microbes to become active [21]. Aphid honeydew is a suitable growing medium
for various saprophytic microbes [22] and has been shown to increase the activities of soil
microorganisms [11,16]. Among soil microbes, yeasts are important degraders and saprotrophs
[23,24], utilizing various C and nitrogen (N) sources [25]. Soil yeasts are ubiquitously present in many
agroecosystems [26] and in nutrient-rich forest environments [23], and exhibit a quick response to
changes in soil nutrient content [27].
Changes in soil microbial activity can also be reflected in the activities of soil enzymes [28]. Soil
enzymes activity is a commonly used soil bioindicator [29], because of their quick response to subtle
changes in available resources such as organic C input [30,31], and the ease of enzyme quantification
[32]. So far, soil enzyme activities have not been used to explore honeydew-mediated changes in soil
quality. Measuring the changes in the activities of soil enzymes following aphid infestation can
provide a good tool to quantify the soil microbial responses to honeydew deposition [19,33].
An increase in microbial biomass could have potential consequences for soil meso-fauna, as their
abundance is likely to be affected through food web interactions [14,34]. Soil meso-fauna (Collembola
and Acari) live in top soil layers and play different functional roles in soil processes and nutrient
cycling [35]. Collembola, Astigmata, and Oribatida are dominant soil microbivores [36–41], while
Gamasida are mobile predators of meso-fauna [42]. Although some studies have been conducted to
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explore the effect of honeydew deposition on soil meso-fauna abundance [14,34], the results are
inconclusive as both increases and decreases in meso-fauna abundance have been reported in
honeydew-affected soils.
The aim of this study was to investigate the cascading effects of honeydew deposition by T.
salignus on soil chemical properties (pH, C and N), soil microbial biomass and basal respiration, soil
yeasts, abundance of soil meso-fauna (Acari and Collembola), and soil enzyme activity. Six enzymes
were selected based on their sensitivities and importance in the electron transport system
(dehydrogenase), cycling of C (glucosidase, invertase and amylase), and N (amidase and urease) in
the soil. We analysed and compared soil biochemical properties and biota under control plants, under
aphid-infested plants and in black sooty mould spots under aphid-infested plants.
2.2. Aphids
Willow plants in the aphid-infested rows were inoculated with five adult aphids per plant on
25–27 January 2018 and 6–7 December 2019. Additional inoculations with ten adult aphids per plant
were performed on 13–14 February 2018 and 30 January 2019. The willow plants in the control rows
were inspected for colonising aphids on a weekly basis, and any aphids found were removed
manually. The plants in control rows were sprayed with Mavrik® insecticide on 28 February 2018 and
on 17 January 2019, when manual control was impractical due to high population densities of T.
salignus.
(Spectrum Technologies Inc., Aurora, IL, USA), and the average of the three readings was then
recorded. Soil temperature at 5 cm depth was measured with a QM7216 Digital Stem Thermometer.
At each sampling point, two samples were collected, one for soil fauna extraction and another for
analysing the soil chemical properties, microbial respiration and enzyme activities. The samples were
put into labelled plastic bags, placed in an ice chest and immediately brought to the laboratory.
The samples used to quantify the soil meso-fauna (Collembola and Acari) were taken using a 25
cm2 soil corer to 5 cm depth. The sample (300–500 g) for soil chemical properties, microorganisms
and enzymes was collected using a spade to 5 cm depth from five spots within a 1.0 m diameter circle
around each sampling point, and then mixed thoroughly in a plastic tray to get a homogenous
sample. Earthworms, plant roots, moss, stones, and other debris were removed before sieving the soil
through a 2 mm drum sieve. The sieved soil was then divided into two subsamples. The subsample
for analysing the soil chemical properties and enzyme activities was air-dried at room temperature,
ground and sieved through a 1 mm mesh drum sieve. The subsample for determining the yeast
colony forming unit (CFU), microbial respiration and biomass was frozen at −20 °C.
(0.2 mL), 67 mM sodium acetate buffer (4.3 mL, pH 5.0) and 50 mM maltose (0.5 mL) in plastic tubes
at 37 °C for 1 h; the activity of this enzyme was assayed after placing the tubes in a boiling water bath
for 5 min [49]. The activity of each enzyme was expressed based on 1 g of dry soil. One gram of each
fresh soil sample was used to estimate the dry-weight equivalent conversion factor. The samples were
oven-dried at 80 °C for 72 h until constant weight was achieved, and the dry weight measured.
The geometric mean of the enzyme activities (GMea) is regarded as a sensitive indicator for soil
quality and soil health assessment [54–56]. The GMea calculation is based on the activities of all the
assayed enzymes [54], and it is a more reliable index than any of the specific enzyme activities alone
[57]. In this study, the GMea for six enzyme activities in the aphid-infested and control rows, and the
black sooty mould soil spots was calculated according to Paz-Ferreiro, et al. [57] as follows:
6
the GMea= ඥUre × Inv × Amy × Glu × Dehy × Ami (1)
where Ure, Inv, Amy, Glu, Dehy and Ami represent urease, invertase, β-amylase, α-glucosidase,
dehydrogenease and amidase, respectively.
2.3.4. Yeasts
The frozen soil samples were incubated at 25 °C for 24 h. Fresh soil was divided into three plastic
tubes (1 g dry soil equivalent each), and suspended in Milli Q water to obtain three dilutions (v/w,
1:5, 1:10 and 1:20) according to Yurkov, et al. [58]. After shaking the suspensions on an orbital shaker
for 1 h, 0.1 mL aliquots were plated in triplicate on casein-peptone glucose yeast extract agar,
supplemented with chloramphenicol (0.1 g L−1). Lactic acid was added to acidify the medium to pH
4.5. The plates were incubated at 25 °C for 2 days and then transferred to a chiller (5 °C) to prevent
mould development. Visible colonies were counted weekly for three consecutive weeks. The yeast
counts were expressed as the colony forming units (CFU) per 1 g of dry soil, multiplied by the dilution
factor (5, 10 and 20).
significant differences of the means. Full results of all GLM tests are provided in the Supplemental
Table S1.
The principal component analysis-linear discriminant analysis (PCA-LDA) was used to visualise
the data and maximize the treatment segregation [63,64]. All variables were square-root transformed,
scaled, and centred (divided by their respective standard errors) to assure equal variance, before
conducting the PCA-LDA [65]. First, the PCA was performed to produce the principal components
(PCs) in the “FactoMineR” and “factoextra” packages. The first eight PCs together explained more than
80% of the variance in the data and were used in the linear discriminant analysis (LDA). The “caret”,
“MASS” and “tidyverse” packages [63] were used to perform LDA.
In the PCA-LDA evaluating the honeydew-related changes in the soil biochemical properties
among the control, aphid-infested treatments, and black sooty mould spots, the baseline
measurements (collected before aphid inoculation) were excluded, as the aphid absence on the plants
meant no honeydew was deposited on the soil surface. In the PCA-LDA, which compared the
selected soil indicators over time, the baseline measurements as well as data from first and second
year after aphid inoculation were included. Soil temperature and moisture measurements were
excluded from the time analysis to remove bias due to weather.
In the current study, the effect of the willow cultivars was excluded from consideration. Previous
research had showed the total sugar content in the honeydew of T. salignus was not statistically
different among the willow cultivars [66]. The soil samples were taken from under the canopies of
the same willow cultivars, in the aphid-infested and control rows.
3. Results
Table 1. Soil chemical properties before aphid inoculation (baseline) and after aphid inoculation
(control, aphid-infested and black sooty mould spots), during the first and second year of the
experiment. Values are the means ± SE. Different letters in each column indicate significant differences
between the treatments at each sampling time (Tukey’s HSD test, α = 0.05).
Sampling Time
Parameter Treatment Before Aphid Infestation First Year Second Year
Baseline 5.75 ± 0.03
Control 6.102 ± 0.032a 6.073 ± 0.029a
pH
Aphid-infested 6.177 ± 0.052a 6.058 ± 0.065a
Black sooty mould spots 6.163 ± 0.091a 6.067 ± 0.040a
Honeydew deposition resulted in a higher total C content in the black sooty mould spots
compared to the control and aphid infestation treatments in both first and second year after aphid
infestation (Table 1). There was no effect of the treatments on the soil pH values or total N content in
both years. The C:N ratio was significantly higher in the black sooty mould spots in both years (Table
1).
Figure 2. The effect of T. salignus honeydew deposition on the abundance of soil meso-fauna:
Collembola (a), Gamasida (b), Astigmata (c), Oribatida (d) and others (e), prior to aphid inoculation
(before infestation), and after aphid inoculation (control, aphid-infested, and black sooty mould spots)
in the first and second year. The values are the means ± SE. Different letters indicate statistically
significant differences between treatments within each sampling time (Tukey’s HSD test, α = 0.05).
The soil Acari (0.92 × 106 individuals) accounted for 19.3% of the soil meso-fauna. Gamasida was
the most abundant taxon, comprising 67.9% of the Acari. The aphid infestation had a significant effect
on gamasid mites only in the first year, with higher densities in the black sooty mould spots (Figure
2b). Astigmata accounted for 19.3% of the total soil mites. Their densities were higher in the black
sooty mould spots than the control and aphid infestation treatments in first year (Figure 2c). Oribatida
was the least abundant group (12.8%) of soil mites. In the second year, significantly higher densities
of Oribatida were recorded in the black sooty mould spots than in aphid infestation treatment but
not in the control treatment (Figure 2d). The black sooty mould spots also had higher population
densities of the ‘other’ fauna in the second year (Figure 2e).
enzyme activities, the Gmea for the six enzymes was significantly influenced by the honeydew
deposition; the Gmea in the first and second year was in the order: black sooty mould spots > aphid-
infested > control (Figure 4).
Figure 3. The activity of the soil enzymes: dehydrogenase (a), urease (b), amidase (c), β-amylase (d),
invertase (e) and α-glucosidase (f) under the canopies of willow plants, prior to aphid inoculation
(before infestation), and after aphid inoculation (control, aphid-infested, and black sooty mould spots)
in the first and second year. The values are the means ± SE. Different letters indicate significant
differences between the treatments at each sampling time (Tukey’s HSD test, α = 0.05).
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Figure 4. The effect of T. salignus honeydew deposition on the geometric mean of soil enzyme
activities, prior to aphid inoculation (before infestation), and after aphid inoculation (control, aphid-
infested, and black sooty mould spots) in the first and second year. The values are the mean ± SE.
Different letters represent statistically significant differences between the treatments at each sampling
time (Tukey’s HSD test, α = 0.05).
Figure 5. The effect of T. salignus honeydew deposition on (a) soil microbial biomass (µg C g−1 soil),
(b) basal respiration (µg CO2-C g−1 soil h−1), and (c) metabolic quotient over time (µg CO2-C µg−1 Cmic
h−1), prior to aphid inoculation (before infestation), and after aphid inoculation (control, aphid-
infested, and black sooty mould spots) in the first and second year. The values are the means ± SE.
Different letters indicate statistically significant differences at each sampling time (Tukey’s HSD test,
α = 0.05).
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Figure 6. The yeast colony forming units (CFU) per gram of dry soil, collected under the canopies of
willow plants prior to aphid inoculation (before infestation), and after aphid inoculation (control,
aphid-infested, and black sooty mould spots) in the first and second year. The values are the means ±
SE. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences at each sampling time (Tukey’s HSD
test, α = 0.05).
Figure 7. PCA-LDA bi-plots of the soil biochemical variables, classified (a) by treatment, and (b) by
sampling time. A PCA was run to reduce the dimensions, followed by LDA to separate the treatments
and sampling times. The variables were scaled and centred prior to the analysis. The shaded ellipses
represent the 95% confidence areas.
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(a)
(b)
Figure 8. Path diagrams for the effects of T. salignus honeydew deposition on (a) soil biochemical
properties, and (b) meso-fauna communities. The circles above the rectangles indicate the error terms.
The solid and dotted arrows represent significant and non-significant associations, respectively. The
path coefficients are the standard regression weights, with asterisks showing different levels of
significance (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001). The squared multiple correlations (r2) are expressed
above the top right corner of each rectangle.
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4. Discussion
In the willow field trial, the development of black sooty mould spots on the soil surface (Figure
1) is an indication of a high population density of T. salignus. As expected, we found that the copious
deposition of honeydew on the soil surface affected the soil biological and biochemical properties,
especially in the spots marked by the black sooty mould. Overall, the soil biological indicators
(microbial properties, enzyme activities and meso-fauna abundance) were found to be more sensitive
to aphid honeydew deposition than the soil chemical properties.
In our study, T. salignus honeydew deposition increased the soil total C content but did not
change soil total N content. Stadler, et al. [16] found that honeydew input increased the dissolved
organic C in litter, but reduced inorganic N content, and suggested that net N immobilization had
occurred. Aphid honeydew is a C-rich but N-poor resource [5], inducing the population of soil
microorganisms to increase and then compete for the limited N, which can increase the N
immobilization rate and result in the depletion of inorganic N [16,74]. Thus, the honeydew deposition
could indirectly decrease the soil N content through enhanced microbial activity [15,75], where
microorganisms could emerge as potential competitors of willow plants for nitrogen resources [76].
However, there is some evidence that N limitations can be compensated through increased non-
symbiotic N2-fixation by soil microorganisms [77].
The results of our study showed that sugar supplementation in the honeydew increased the
yeast CFU count, microbial biomass C and microbial respiration. Soil microorganisms are mostly
energy limited and remain dormant in the absence of a suitable substrate [20], so honeydew addition
could increase their population numbers and respiration rate by promoting favourable growth
conditions [78]. Soil yeasts prefer nutrient-rich environments and are known to utilize low molecular
weight sugars [23] that are the major components of aphid honeydew. The increase in microbial
biomass C (Cmic) and basal respiration are in accordance with the study of Milcu, et al. [14], who
found that Cmic and basal respiration increased by 330% and 58.4%, respectively, in honeydew
treatments. However, care should be taken in interpreting the microbial response to honeydew
addition, as the sugar component of honeydew can shut down the metabolism of some microbes [79].
Further studies using molecular techniques are advised to determine the changes in the soil microbial
community structure following honeydew deposition.
The activity of soil enzymes is regarded as a direct measurement of the metabolic response of
the soil microbial communities to nutrient availability [28]. Our results show a significant effect of
nutrient supplementation from aphid honeydew on the soil enzyme activities. Although honeydew
contains an unbalanced ratio of C to N, we found that both C-hydrolysing (β-amylase, invertase, α-
glucosidase), and N-hydrolysing (urease and amidase) enzymes positively responded to the
honeydew deposition. Dehydrogenase was also found to be a sensitive indicator of increased
microbial activity [80,81] as a result of the supplementary C input from honeydew. The interpretation
of enzyme activity results should be treated cautiously as enzyme assays generate the highest
potential estimates, under optimum substrate, pH and temperature conditions, rather than the actual
values [51]. However, both the specific enzyme activities and the GMea were suitable indicators
discriminating the black sooty mould spots from the control, with GMea being the best predictor.
Soil meso-fauna (Collembola and Acari) normally live in the topsoil layers, and play different
functional roles in the soil processes and nutrient cycling [35]. We observed that Collembola counts
in the honeydew-affected soil were higher than in control. Sinka, et al. [34] found no significant
influence of honeydew deposition on Collembola abundance, while Milcu, et al. [14] reported the
decline in Collembola and mite numbers in soil treated with synthetic honeydew. Seeger and Filser
[82] noted that the effect varied for different collembolan taxa. The mite groups Astigmata and
Oribatida are fungivores and saprophages [83], while the Gamasida are predators of other soil mites
and Collembola [84]. In our study, the abundance of Oribatida and Gamasida varied over time, while
that of Astigmata was fairly consistent. All three mite groups are known to respond to external
resources [85,86], with the degrees of response to the aphid honeydew reflecting their different life
histories. The Astigmata are known for their rapid response to the changing environment, due to
their faster metabolism, shorter generation time, and higher fecundity than the Oribatida [83]. On the
Insects 2020, 11, 460 17 of 21
other hand, the higher population density of Gamasida reflects the presence of the prey on which
they feed [87].
The SEMs were a useful tool to assess the multiple linkages between the honeydew and the soil
biological and biochemical indicators, linking the aboveground herbivory to the below-ground soil
processes. The path diagrams show that honeydew deposition by T. salignus has a multitrophic
cascading effect on the soil biota, similarly as in Michalzik, et al. [13], Milcu, et al. [14] and Stadler, et
al. [88]. In the current study, the Cmic was positively correlated with the soil total C content, but not
with the total N. Our results are in line with those of Cheng, et al. [70] and Johnson, et al. [89], who
suggested that the Cmic was mainly dependent on the soil C source, and additional N input could
decrease the Cmic.
In our study system, the willow plants, aphids, soil chemical properties and soil biota are
interacting with each other, highlighting the need for a multitrophic approach to investigate similar
settings. It is important to mention that this study was conducted over two years only, so the long-
term effects of the honeydew deposition on the soil remain unknown and require further
investigation. Likewise, the impacts of the other sources of variation, including the different insect
and host plant species [14], weather conditions [90] and seasonality [91], require additional attention.
5. Conclusions
The deposition of T. salignus honeydew affect the various soil biotic and abiotic properties
through a multitrophic cascade. The aphid honeydew provides an energy-rich source for the soil
microbes, causing an increase in the Cmic, that leads to increased soil enzyme activities. These
processes affect the abundance of soil meso-fauna microbivores and their predators. This example
illustrates the importance of multitrophic interactions, and the cascading effects of an aphid herbivore
on soil chemical properties and soil biological communities.
Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/11/8/460/s1, Figure
S1: Sampling layout for the soil samples, Figure S2: Correlation plots for contributing variables to each dimension
in the PCA for treatments (a), and sampling times (b), Table S1: Summary of treatment effects of T. salignus
honeydew deposition on soil biochemical properties, soil enzymes, and soil meso-fauna abundance in first and
second year of the experiment.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.M., A.C.-M. and T.J.; methodology, M.M., A.C.-M., S.G. and
K.M.T.; validation, M.M., A.C.-M. and T.J.; formal analysis, K.M.T. and S.G.; investigation, M.M., K.M.T. and
S.G.; resources, M.M., and S.G.; writing—original draft preparation, K.M.T.; writing—review and editing, S.G.,
M.M., A.C.-M. and T.J.; visualisation, K.M.T.; supervision, M.M., A.C.-M. and T.J.; project administration, M.M.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This was a part of PhD project funded by the New Zealand Government Scholarship to K.M.T.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution to the willow field trial from the
Sustainable Farming Fund Project, Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI), New Zealand. Thanks also go to Evans
Effah, Michelle Guerrero, Mari Nakano, Claire Zucchetta and Shaun Nelson for assisting in aphid inoculation
and soil sampling. We thank Paul Barrett, Ian Furkert, Kay Sinclair, Sunmeet Bhatia, Sue Nicholson and Peter
Jeffery for their assistance with laboratory work. We are also grateful to anonymous reviewers for improving
the earlier draft of manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no potential conflicts of interest.
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