EBMP2203 Introduction To Manufacturing Systems - Vapr20

EBMP2203
Introduction to Manufacturing Systems
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

EBMP2203
INTRODUCTION TO
MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS
Assoc Prof Ir Dr Faris Tarlochan
Abdul Ghani

Project Directors: Prof Dr Widad Othman
Dr Raziana Che Aziz
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Assoc Prof Ir Dr Faris Tarlochan

Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN)
Moderator: Assoc Prof Ir Dr Kanesan Muthusamy

Enhancer: Ahmad Hafifi Abu Bakar
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, December 2010

Second Edition, August 2014 (rs)
Third Edition, April 2020 (MREP)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2020, EBMP2203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix–xiii
Topic 1 Introduction to Manufacturing 1

1.1 What is Manufacturing? 2
1.2 Components of a Manufacturing System 4
1.2.1 Machines and Equipment 5
1.2.2 Material Handling System 7
1.2.3 Automation System 8
1.2.4 Manpower 10
1.3 Classification of Manufacturing Systems 10
1.4 Manufacturing Progress Function 12
Summary 14
Key Terms 14
Self-Test 15
References 15
Topic 2 Single Station Manufacturing Cell 16

2.1 Single Station Workstations 17
2.1.1 Single Station Manned Cell 17
2.1.2 Single Station Automated Cell 20
2.2 Single Station Applications 25
2.3 Analysis of Single Station Cells 27
Summary 33
Key Terms 34
Self-Test 34
References 35
Topic 3 Group Technology and Cellular Manufacturing 36

3.1 Batch Manufacturing 37
3.2 Group Technology and Cellular Manufacturing 38
3.3 Part Families 42
3.3.1 Groups 44
3.3.2 Manual Visual Inspection 45
3.3.3 Production Flow Analysis 45
3.3.4 Rank Order Cluster Algorithm 48
3.3.5 Classification and Coding 51

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary 58
Key Terms 58
Self-Test 59
References 59
Topic 4 Material Flow Systems 61

4.1 Facility Layout 62
4.1.1 Process Layout 63
4.1.2 Product Layout 65
4.1.3 Fixed-position Layout 67
4.1.4 Hybrid Layout 69
4.2 Line Balancing 71
4.2.1 Precedence Requirements 73
4.2.2 Desired Rate of Production 75
4.2.3 LineÊs Cycle Time 75
4.2.4 Theoretical Minimum (TM) 76
4.2.5 Idle Time, Efficiency and Balance Delay 77
4.2.6 Finding a Line Balancing Solution 79
4.3 Material Handling 83
4.3.1 Material Handling Equipment 83
4.3.2 Consideration In Material Handling System Design 84
Summary 86
Key Terms 86
Self-Test 86
References 87
Topic 5 Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) 89

5.1 An Overview of FMS 90
5.1.1 History of Flexible Manufacturing System 90
5.1.2 Objective of FMS 91
5.2 What Makes an FMS Flexible? 91
5.3 Types of Flexible Manufacturing System 94
5.4 Components of Flexible Manufacturing System 99
5.4.1 Workstation 99
5.4.2 Material Handling and Storage System 101
5.4.3 Computer Control System 106
5.4.4 People or Human Resources 107
5.5 Benefits of a Flexible Manufacturing System 107
Summary 109
Key Terms 110
Self-Test 110
References 111

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 6 Computer Simulation 112

6.1 Introduction to Computer Simulation 112
6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Simulation 115
6.2.1 Advantages of Computer Simulation Technique 115
6.2.2 Disadvantages of Computer Simulation Technique 116
6.3 Construction of Computer Simulation Models 117
6.3.1 Discrete and Continuous Model 118
6.3.2 Static and Dynamic Model 119
6.3.3 Stochastic and Deterministic Models 120
6.3.4 Simulation Software 120
Summary 122
Key Terms 122
Self-Test 122
References 123

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE  ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
EBMP2203 Introduction to Manufacturing Systems is one of the courses at Open
University Malaysia (OUM). Like all other courses offered by the faculty, this
course is a three (3) credit hours course.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to students who are undertaking the Bachelor of
Manufacturing Management.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
3
discussions
Study the module 60
Attend 3 tutorial sessions 6
Online Participation 16
Revision 15
Assignment(s), test(s) and examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Identify the different manufacturing systems in the manufacturing
industry;
2. Differentiate between the different manufacturing models; and
3. Explain materials flow systems and computer simulation in manufacturing.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into six topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 covers the basic introduction to a manufacturing system.
Topic 2 explains single cell workstations and ways to determine how many
workstations are needed for a certain production.
Topic 3 provides an overview of batch manufacturing, group technology and

cellular manufacturing concepts.
Topic 4 describes the various types of facility layouts, line balancing and material
handling.

COURSE GUIDE  xi
Topic 5 explains the process of flexible manufacturing system.
Topic 6 covers to the basic aspects of computer simulations used in

manufacturing systems.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one subtopic or a few subtopics.
It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the subtopic(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be
found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Brusa, E., Cala, A., & Feretto, D. (2019). Systems engineering and its application
to industrial product development. New York, NY: Springer.
Cloutier, R., Baldwin, C., & Bone, M. A. (2015). Systems engineering simplified.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Groover, M. P. (2000). Automation, production systems, and computer-

integrated manufacturing (2nd ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Groover, M. P. (2001). Fundamentals of modern manufacturing: Materials,

processes, and systems (2nd ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Prentice Hall.

integrated manufacturing (3rd ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Prentice Hall.

integrated manufacturing (4th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Pearson.

processes, and systems (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Heizer, J., Render, B., & Munson, C. (2016). Operations management:

sustainability and supply chain management, Global Edition. Harlow,
United Kingdom: Pearson.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Krajewski, L. J., & Ritzman, L. P. (2002). Operations management: Strategy and

analysis. New Jersey, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Krajewski, L. J., & Ritzman, L. P. (2018). Operations management: Processes and

supply chains. New Jersey, NJ: Pearson.
Professor Samuel, C. O. (2013). Introduction to manufacturing systems,

Bloomington, IN: Authorhouse.
Russell, R. S., & Taylor, B. W. (2003). Operations management. New Jersey,

NJ: Prentice Hall.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24×7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Introduction to
Manufacturing
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe what is manufacturing;
2. Discuss the components of a manufacturing system;
3. Discuss the classification of manufacturing systems; and
4. Explain what is a manufacturing progress function.
 INTRODUCTION
Welcome! This topic is an introduction to the background and scope of
manufacturing systems. Unlike traditional engineering approaches towards
production, manufacturing systems adopt a systemic methodology in the design
and operation of production activities.
Before we proceed, what is manufacturing? Basically, manufacturing is an

organised activity that transforms raw materials into marketable goods. These
goods are produced based on the collection of integrated equipment, human
labour and raw material resources. In this topic, we will classify the
manufacturing system to have a better understanding of it.

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING
1.1 WHAT IS MANUFACTURING?
In laymanÊs terms, manufacturing can be defined as a set of operations needed to

be carried out to produce goods and wares. It also includes the joining of
multiple parts to make assembled products. The entire manufacturing system is a
collection of people, equipment and procedures organised to accomplish certain
tasks, namely to produce goods with quality and efficient cost management.
Generally, a manufacturing system consists of an operation that will have inputs
and outputs as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Overall concept of a manufacturing system
A complete manufacturing system will require facilities and supporting

infrastructure for production operations. These facilities include factories, plants,
equipment and control systems. Manufacturing systems are basically the logical
grouping of these tools and machinery, as well as the workers who operate them.
In manufacturing, we can process or assemble a part, or do a combination of
both. Each operation is carried out in sequence, where in every sequence
operation brings the raw material closer to the desired final product.
Manufacturing adds value to the material by manipulating its shape and
properties or combining it with other material. For example, a plastic is an added
value when moulded into complex geometry of a container.
What is a process? A process is a work method that modifies the properties,

shape and size of a given raw material to make parts or products. This is usually
done by means of some physical and/or chemical processes.
What is an assembly? From a manufacturing standpoint, an assembly is the

joining of multiple components to make assembled parts or products. This can be
accomplished by a combination of machinery, tools, power and manual labour.
The entire system is almost always carried out as a sequence of operations.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING  3
In this topic, we will introduce a few basic terms used in manufacturing system
designs, such as production rate, time cycle, production capacity, utilisation,
availability and manufacturing lead time. The following are definitions of these
terms:
(a) Production Rate

The quantity of parts to be produced in a given timeframe.
(b) Time Cycle

For any manufacturing operation, the operation time cycle is the time that a
workpiece undergoes various processes until it becomes an assembled or
final part.
(c) Production Capacity

For any particular production facility, certain operating conditions are
assumed to be in place. Based on these conditions, we can define the
production capacity, which is the maximum rate of output.
(d) Utilisation
The amount of output of a production facility relative to its capacity.
(e) Availability
A measure of reliability for equipment. It is defined by using two factors,
namely the mean time between failure (MTBF) and mean time to repair
(MTTR).
(f) Manufacturing Lead Time

The total manufacturing time to produce a finished workpiece.

Example 1.1 shows the application of some of these definitions.
Example 1.1
A machine operates 100 hours/week. Its production rate is 20 units/hour.
During a certain week, the machine produced 1,000 parts and was idle the
remaining time. Determine the production capacity and utilisation of the
machine.
Solution
Capacity, PC = (100 hours/week) x (20 units/hours) = 2,000 units/week.
Utilisation can be defined as the ratio of the number of parts made relative
to its capacity:
U = 1000/2000 = 0.5 or 50% utilised.
ACTIVITY 1.1
What do you understand by the term manufacturing? Discuss with

your coursemates in the myINSPIRE forum.
1.2 COMPONENTS OF A MANUFACTURING

SYSTEM
Generally, a manufacturing system has four components:
(a) Machines and equipment;
(b) Material handling system;
(c) Automation system; and
(d) Manpower.
We will now discuss each of these in detail.

1.2.1 Machines and Equipment

In the majority of production factories, products are mainly developed by
machines. These machines can be classified into three types as shown in
Figure 1.2. Generally, a machine can be considered from two different aspects: its
hardware and its software (controls).
Figure 1.2: Types of machine and equipments in a manufacturing plant
For manually operated machines, the hardware is the machine itself, but the
software is the human operator, meaning that the human is the „intelligence‰
that controls the machine. Examples of such machines are lathes (Figure 1.3),
milling and grinding machines.
On the other hand, semi-automated machines are those that are able to work
partly on automation, and partly with the intervention of a human worker. An
example of this is a CNC machine (Figure 1.4). Once this machine has been
programmed, it will perform all the required manufacturing processes but
humans are still needed to put and remove the workpiece/unit from the
machine.
Figure 1.3: Example of a manually operated machine – Lathe machine

Source: www.balajilathe.com

Figure 1.4: Example of a semi-automated machine – CNC machine

Source: www.jasu-cnc.com
Therefore, when we refer to a fully automated machine, we mean a machine that

operates for a long period of time without direct human interaction. This means
that the worker does not need to be at the side of the machine as it runs or
operates on its own. Workers only need to attend to it periodically to refill raw
materials or remove waste. An example of this machine is the injection moulding
machine as shown in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5: Example of a fully automated machine – Injection moulding machine

Source: www.csdchina.com

1.2.2 Material Handling System

Products are typically manufactured out of something or materials. Hence, a
manufacturing plant requires a proper material handling system to facilitate the
manufacturing process. Material handling are activities in distribution system
which materials, parts and products are moved, stored and tracked. The material
handling system is made up of several functions as shown in Figure 1.6.
It is good to mention here that in manufacturing systems, workstations refer to

the locations in the factory or production plant where certain tasks or operations
are accomplished by production machines, and work units are the products
being developed from base material.
Figure 1.6: Functions of a typical material handling system
The complexity of the material handling system is often unique to the particular
type of manufacturing system. One of the interesting aspects to discuss is the
work unit transportation between workstations. There are two types: variable
and fixed routing. In variable routing, the work units are transported through a
variety of different station sequences and are associated to batch production
operations. On the other hand, fixed routing only allows the work unit to flow
through the same sequence. Hence, all units are identical and the processing
sequence is also the same. Two common types of material handling equipment
are shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Examples of material handling equipment

Source: http://news.thomasnet.com and www.upmconveyors.co.uk
1.2.3 Automation System

For the human body, the brain is the central processing unit that sends signals to
various parts of the body to perform motor activities like walking, running and
sitting. In an analogous manner, the computer plays the information processing
role in automated and semi-automated production machines. Automation is
implemented using a program containing instructions which combine with a
control system that executes the instructions. Typically, a computerÊs functions
are as shown in Figure 1.8. An example of computer control system is shown in
Figure 1.9.

Reasons for having automation systems are to:

(a) Increase productivity;
(b) Reduce labour cost;
(c) Overcome problems of labour shortage;
(d) Improve overall safety;
(e) Improve product quality; and
(f) Reduce manufacturing lead time (time required for delivery).
Figure 1.8: Functions of a computer in a manufacturing system
Figure 1.9: Example of a computer control system

Source: www.china-ogpe.com

1.2.4 Manpower
There is no denying that the long-term inclination in manufacturing is to move
towards the greater use of automated systems to replace manpower.
Nonetheless, manpower or labour is a crucial element in the success of a
manufacturing system. Workers add value by controlling the machines that
produce the manufactured products or goods. Even though a system may be
fully automated, labour is still needed to place working pieces, remove wastages,
sharpen and replace tools and perform periodic corrective and preventive
maintenance checks on the equipment. At times, not all tasks can be passed on to
automated machines. A human worker is still required in instances where
operations are too difficult to automate, when a short product life cycle is crucial
or when customised products are needed.
There are several critical jobs that need to be performed by humans such as:
(a) Equipment maintenance;
(b) Programming and computer operation;
(c) Engineering project work, and
(d) Plant management.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING

SYSTEMS
The classification of manufacturing systems exists because of several factors such
as types of operations performed, number of workstations, level of automation
and product variety.

This can be further explained in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Factors Affecting the Classification of Manufacturing Systems
Factor Activity
Types of This can be based on whether the plant is using processing
operations operations or assembly operations, or both. Within each
performed operation, there exists sub-operations.
Number of Does the plant require a single workstation or multiple stations? If
workstations multiple stations, are they using fixed or variable routing?
Level of Are the machines semi-automated, fully automated or manually
automation operated? Each type requires different sets of computers and
manpower involvement.
Product variety Are the work units produced identical or different? If different,
then different processing techniques may be needed.
With this said, we can now proceed in identifying the classification used in
manufacturing systems. Figure 1.10 gives an overview of the classification
scheme. As a further illustration, Figure 1.11 shows a multiple fixed routing
system as an example of a classification scheme.
Figure 1.10: Overview of manufacturing systems classification scheme

Figure 1.11: Example of a multiple fixed routing system

Source: www.commons.wikimedia.org
1.4 MANUFACTURING PROGRESS FUNCTION
What is a manufacturing progress function? It is simply a mathematical function

or equation that describes the production output over time for a given operation.
It is the learning curve of a manufacturing plant, or more accurately, of a
particular production technology.
How do we visualise it? Suppose that you are asked to assemble a small desk
bought from a hypermarket. Initially you will have difficulty in assembling the
desk. It may even take you hours to finish just one desk. What happens if you are
asked to assemble 10, 50 or 100 desks? Will you still take the same time you took
to assemble the first desk? Obviously not! Why? This is because by this time,
learning has taken place; hence, the time required to perform the task decreases
with each successive desk produced. Nonetheless, after some time, the amount of
time needed to assemble other desks will remain the same. This is because there
is a reduction in task time as the time to assemble each additional desk becomes
lesser.

This brings us to the term continuous improvement which means that learning
has to continue to grow and not diminish. This phenomenon applies to both
large organisations and manufacturing systems. Based on the learning curve
theory, the following equation can be used to calculate the time to produce the
Nth unit:
TN = T1(N)m (1.1)
Where TN = Task time for the Nth unit of work;

T1 = Task time for the first unit;
N = Number of units produced;
m = ln (LR)/ln(2); and
LR = Learning rate.
Example 1.2
The first desk took 20 minutes to assemble. You will have to assemble
50 desks. How long will it take you to assemble the 25th desk, 50th desk,
1,000th desk and 10,000th desk, if the learning rate is 80%?
Solution
A learning rate of 80% means the time to produce the second unit is 80% of the
first unit and so on.
Hence: TN = Task time for the Nth unit of work;

T1 = 20 minutes; N = 25, 50, 1000, 10000;
m = ln (0.8)/ln(2) = –0.3219;
LR = 0.8.
T25 = 20(25)(–0.3219) = 7.10 minutes
T50 = 20(50)(–0.3219) = 5.67 minutes
T1000 = 20(1000)(–0.3219) = 2.16 minutes
T10000 = 20(10000)(–0.3219) = 1.03 minutes
It can be seen that as the units increase, the production task time diminishes.

ACTIVITY 1.2
The graphical representation of the manufacturing progress function,

or the plantÊs learning curve, reflects how a manufacturing operator
can improve his output with practice and training, which leads to a
long-term cost improvement over time.
Discuss other factors that can contribute to the long-term cost

improvement besides operator skill. Consider the effects of product
design, machinery, overall engineering planning, etc. Share your
thoughts in the myINSPIRE forum.
• Manufacturing system can be defined as a collection of integrated equipment

and human resources that functions together to perform assembly or
processing operations.
• There are several classifications of the manufacturing system, depending on

the number of workstations, operations performed, level of automation and
product variety.
• The learning curve occurs when the cycle time required to perform a given
task decreases as the number of cycles increases.
Assembly Manpower
Automation system Manufacturing lead time
Availability Process
Equipment Production capacity
Machines Production rate
Material handling system Utilisation

1. The production capacity of a machine is 2,400 units/week. Determine the

utilisation of the machine if the machine produced 1,400 parts and was idle
for the remaining time in a certain week.
(Answer: 0.7 or 70% utilised)
2. A certain electrical assembly job requires 30 minutes to complete a circuit

the first time. The job is performed to produce 100 such circuits. If the
learning rate is 85%, what will be the time needed to finish the 100th
circuit? If the worker works non-stop, how many days will he need to finish
100 circuits?
(Answer: 6.8 minutes, 0.68 days)]




integrated manufacturing (Global Edition). New York, NY: Pearson
Education Limited.

Topic  Single Station
Manufacturing
2 Cell
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe what a single station manufacturing cell is;
2. Explain the various applications pertaining to single station
cells; and
3. Calculate the number of single cell workstations required to
produce a certain quantity of units.
 INTRODUCTION
How are we doing so far? Now that you have a basic understanding of what a
manufacturing system is, and learned some common definitions related to
manufacturing systems, let us take a look at one of the most common
manufacturing systems in the industry − single stations.
In a single station system, each single station works independently of other work
stations in the plant. Nonetheless, the activities of each of these stations are
coordinated at a larger (plant or factory) scale. These stations can be designed to
produce work units as single models or as batch production, or even as mixed
production. They can be used either in processing- or assembly-type
manufacturing.

TOPIC 2 SINGLE STATION MANUFACTURING CELL  17
We will cover single stations in this topic, as we examine both manned and
automated stations. We will then discuss some typical applications and common
analysis of single stations. Sit tight on the conveyor and letÊs have the system
started for us. LetÊs go!
2.1 SINGLE STATION WORKSTATIONS
In practice, single station workstations can either be manned or automated. You

will learn the advantages of each type in the following subtopics.
2.1.1 Single Station Manned Cell

Single stations that are manned (manually operated or semi-automated), consist
of one worker attending to one machine. They are likely found throughout the
production shop and batch production environment, and in high production
scenarios. The key point to remember is that the worker performs the task at one
location in the plant or factory.
This method is common simply because:

(a) It is easy to implement;
(b) It requires a shorter timeframe;
(c) It does not require a huge investment;
(d) It is easy to install and operate;
(e) The overall cost of production per unit is low; and
(f) It is very flexible with regards to changeovers from one part or product
style to the next.
The job of the worker is to control the machine, as well as load and unload the
work units. An example of such a situation in processing-type manufacturing is
an operator handling drilling machine, lathe or press machine (Figure 2.1).
Meanwhile, an example of assembly-type manufacturing is a worker assembling
the components of an electronic device (Figure 2.2). In both cases, the workerÊs
utmost attention is required for the entire work cycle of producing a work unit.

18  TOPIC 2 SINGLE STATION MANUFACTURING CELL
Figure 2.1: Press machine

Source: www.tradeget.com
Figure 2.2: Components assembly

Source: www.mnres.com
For a semi-automated machine, the machine works on automation for part of the
task, while the remaining portion of the task is carried out manually by a human
worker. An example of this is a CNC machine. Once programmed, the machine
will perform all the required manufacturing processes but humans are still
needed to place and remove the workpiece/unit from the machine.

It is pertinent to mention here that a single station manufacturing cell does not
always require a task ratio of one machine to one worker. There may well be
situations where there can be more than one worker in a single cell.
For example, two workers are required to manipulate heavy forgings in a forge
press (Figure 2.3), a welder and fitter are needed to work together in a welding
setup, many workers are needed to assemble one huge machine at a single
assembly station, and several operators must coordinate their tasks in polymer
composite fabrications (resin transfer moulding). You may also see in certain
plants or factories that there are other machines (supporting machines)
supporting a main machine (principal machine) or workstation. These other
machines are merely subordinates to the principal machine. An example of this is
the drying equipment needed to dry plastic moulding powder prior to moulding
in a manually operated injection moulding machine.
Figure 2.3: Forge press machinery

Source: www.bombayharbor.com

2.1.2 Single Station Automated Cell
ACTIVITY 2.1
Before proceeding with this section, discuss what you think are the
benefits of having an automated system in manufacturing products.
Share your thoughts in the myINSPIRE forum.
Now that we have discussed a single station manned cell, let us move on to a
single station automated cell. In an automated station, the machine runs without
needing to be attended to, at least for most part of the machine processing cycle.
Here, workers are not required except for certain periodic processes.
Using an automated station has many benefits, which are:

(a) The cost for hiring workers will be reduced;
(b) It is easy to implement; and
(c) The production volume is usually higher than manned stations due to the
higher accuracy and reliability of automated stations.
In a single model or batch model production:

(a) All steps in a programmed operation are done in one work cycle;
(b) There is a parts storage subsystem;
(c) There is automatic loading, unloading and transfer between parts storage
subsystem and the machine; and
(d) Human interaction is minimal whereby the workers are only needed for
removal of finished work units, re-supply of starting work units and other
machine issues such as maintenance.
As with manned stations there are also supporting machines to the principal
machines in a single automated cell. An example is a robot loading and
unloading working units on and off a principal machine.

Several features are required to make a system fully automated:

(a) All the necessary steps or sequence in the work cycle must be programmed.
(b) Parts storage, loading, unloading and transfer of parts between the storage
system and other systems should be integrated within the machine cycle.
(c) The workers are only needed for removal of finished work units, re-supply
of starting work units and other machine-related issues such as
maintenance.
(d) Safety has to be taken into consideration.
This is common for a single or batch work unit production. At times, there may
be a mixed mode production. For this, additional features are needed, such as:
(a) Workpiece identification:

(i) Sensors or automated measurement system that recognises alternative
features of starting units should be in place.
(ii) If starting units are the same, then workpiece identification is
unnecessary.
(b) There should be advanced capabilities to download programs for each
batch.
(c) The changeover from batch to batch should be done quickly to reduce
downtime.
Another important aspect, especially when it comes to single automated cells, is

parts storage and retrieval subsystem. The parts storage and retrieval subsystem
is an important feature of an automated cell. The storage subsystem has to be
designed to have a work unit storage capacity of np. Since the storage has a
certain capacity, this means that the cell can operate unattended until the storage
capacity fills up and needs a worker to remove the parts to vacate the storage
space. This time is given by:
T = npTc (2.1)
where T = Unattended time of operation and Tc is the cycle time (minute/piece).

In reality, unattended time will be less than T because the worker needs time to
unload finished work units/parts and load raw work parts into the storage
subsystem. The design of storage capacity has to be based on certain objectives,
such as:
(a) Make T = a fixed time interval that allows one worker to tend to multiple
machines.
(b) Make T = time between scheduled tool changes.
(c) Make T = one complete shift.
(d) Make T = one overnight („lights-out operation‰).
Let us have a look at an example of a one-part storage capacity. The two-position

automatic pallet changer (APC) shown in Figure 2.4 is one such example. This
machine requires the worker to be in attendance full-time, to unload and load the
work unit to be processed, thus making it a manned manufacturing system
rather than an automated one. The cycle time is given by:
Tc = Max{Tm, Ts} + Tr (2.2)
where Tr = Repositioning time;

Ts = Worker service time; and
Tm = Machine time.
If there is no storage part, (no pallet changer), work cycle elements of

loading/unloading and processing would have to be performed sequentially.
Equation 2.2 then becomes:
Tc = Tm + Ts (2.3)

Figure 2.4: CNC machine centre

Adapted from: Automation, production systems, and computer integrated
manufacturing (2nd ed.) (2000)
Now we will look at systems that have storage capacities greater than one work
unit. There are several types as can be seen in Figures 2.5 to 2.8.
Figure 2.5: A system with the storage capacity of 5

Adapted from: Groover (2000)





2.2 SINGLE STATION APPLICATIONS

As mentioned previously, a vast majority of manufacturing systems in plants or
factories are usually single station cells, either manned or automated. Let us
briefly go through each of them:
(a) Manned Cells

Examples of manned cells includes:
(i) CNC machine – to categorise this as a manned cell, we consider the
machining centre (Figure 2.4) and turning centre (Figure 2.8), where a
worker is needed to load/unload.
(ii) Plastic injection moulding.
(iii) Printed circuit boards.
(iv) Stamping press.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Explore and explain further why the earlier mentioned examples of

applications are categorised as manned cells. Discuss with your
coursemates.

(b) Automated Cells

Examples of automated cells include:
(i) CNC machine centre with auto pallet changer and parts storage
subsystem.
(ii) CNC turning centre (TC) with robot and parts storage conveyor
(Figure 2.9).
(iii) Plastic injection moulding with robotic automation.
(iv) Printed circuit boards with robotic automation.
(v) Stamping press that stamps parts from long coil (Figure 2.10).
Figure 2.9: Turning centre machining

Figure 2.10: Punch Press


ACTIVITY 2.3
Explore and explain further why the above examples of applications

are categorised as automated cells. Discuss with your coursemates.
2.3 ANALYSIS OF SINGLE STATION CELLS
We just cannot go about placing single station cells in our factory or plant.
Correct analysis has to be conducted to determine the number of single stations
required to meet the specified production requirements. Let us take a look at how
the analysis, which involves calculating the number of workstations required,
is done.
In a plant or factory, a manufacturing system is designed to help the factory

produce a specified quantity of parts, products or work units for a given time
period. In the case of a single cell manufacturing plant, it is possible that we may
need more than one cell to meet the production rate. We first have to determine
the total workload that must be accomplished. Workload (WL) is defined as the
total hours required to complete a given quantity of production units. This will
then be divided by the capability (time needed) of one cell station. This can be
more precisely represented by equation 2.4:
WL = QTc (2.4)
where Q = Quantity to be produced during the specified time period

(piece/hour); and
Tc = Cycle time (hour/piece).
If the workload includes multiple parts or product variety that can all be
produced on the same type of workstation, then the following summation can be
used:
WL = Σ (QiTci) (2.5)
where Qi = Quantity of part variety i to be produced during the specified

time period;
Tc = Cycle time (hr/piece) of part variety i.

To calculate the number of workstations required, we divide the workload with

the available time (AT) on one station in the period. The following equation
describes this:
WL
n= (2.6)
AT
Example 2.1
A total of 1.000 rods must be produced in the lathe section of the machine
shop for each week. The rods produced are identical and have a cycle time of
10 minutes. All of the lathes in the department have the same behaviour and
operational parameters.
How many lathes are needed to run in a week if a lathe machine runs for 45
hours?
Solution
Workload, WL = 1,000 rods at 10 minutes/rod = 1000* 10 = 10,000 minutes =

166.67 hours.
Time available per lathe AT = 45 hours.
Hence,
WL 166.67
n= = = 3.70 lathes
AT 45
Since the number has to be an integer, we can assume four lathes will do the
job.
In terms of manufacturing systems, our manufacturing process or assembly will

not always run smoothly. There are several factors that will affect the overall
operation of these single cells. These factors are:
(a) Setup time – Before we can start any production, setting up is required
(especially for batch production) during which no work units are made.
Setting up consumes time. The longer the setup time, the more loss the
plant incurs.
(b) Availability – Not all machines can be available. At times, some machines
are down for maintenance or repair. This again will affect the production.

(c) Utilisation – If scheduling is not done correctly, some machines may be

underutilised, again with a negative impact on the overall production.
(d) Worker efficiency – In a manned cell, the workersÊ efficiency also

determines the overall production rate. As humans, we may have days
when we are lethargic or tired; hence, the quality of our work deteriorates,
affecting the production of the plant.
(e) Defect rate – As always, you will not find 100% of good apples in a cart. The
same goes for goods produced from plants or factories. A certain fraction of
the produced goods will be defective.
So how do we deal with these issues? The next two examples illustrate two
possible ways, depending on the information given.
Example 2.2
Let us revisit Example 2.1. Suppose that a setup will be required for each lathe
that is used to satisfy the production requirements. The lathe setup for these
rods takes 4 hours. How many lathes are required during the week?
Solution
Workload, WL = 1,000 rods at 10 min/rod = 1000 x 10 = 10,000 minutes =
166.67 hours.
Time available per lathe AT = 45 hours (without setup).
With setup ATnew = 45 – 4 = 41 hours.
Hence,
WL 166.67
n= = = 4.07 lathes
AT new 41
Since the number has to be an integer, we can assume five lathes will do the
job.
Hence, the number of lathes devoted to the job has increased from four to
five lathes. With five lathes, the utilisation U will be:
4.07
U = = 0.814 or 81.4%
5
Note: Utilisation is the amount of output relative to its capacity.

Example 2.3
A total of 1,000 rods must be produced in the lathe section of the machine
shop for each week. The rods produced are of 20 different types, each type
being produced in its own batch. The average batch size is 50 rods. Each batch
requires a setup with the average being 3.5 hours. The average cycle time is
10 minutes. How many lathes are needed to run in a week if a lathe machine
runs for 45 hours?
Solution
We can include the setup up time in the work load calculation as follows:
WL = Setup time + Production time

WL = 20(3.5 hours) + 1000(10 minutes) = 236.67 hours
WL 236.67
n= = = 5.26 lathes
AT 45
Since the number has to be an integer, we can assume six lathes will do the
job.
Let us continue our analysis by looking at the influence of availability and

utilisation on the available time (AT). In principle, when we have 100%
availability and utilisation, the available time is equal to actual clock time during
the period of operation (T), that is AT = T. However, in most manufacturing
systems this might not be true; hence, the available time is given by:
AT = T*A*U (2.7)
where T = Actual clock time during the period (in hours);

A = Availability (from Topic 1); and
U = Utilisation (from Topic 1).
Besides this, we also have to account for workersÊ efficiency and defect rate. The
former is defined as the number of work units or parts actually completed by the
worker in a stipulated time frame divided by the number of units that should be
produced at normal operations by the worker for the same time period.
For example, if a worker is supposed to assemble 50 desks in a day (10-hour

shift), but the worker actually only completed 40 desks, then the workerÊs
efficiency is 40 out of 50 desks, which is 0.8 or 80%.

On the other hand, defect rate is the number of parts or units produced that are
defective. It is usually expressed as a fraction. For example, 100 parts were
produced, out of which three parts were defective and had to be thrown or
discarded as waste. Hence, the defect rate is 3 out of 100, which is 0.03 or 3%.
This can be expressed in the following equation:
Q = Qo (1 – q) (2.8)
where Q = Actual quantity produced;

Qo = The targeted quantity; and
q = The defect rate.
Now to summarise, let us look at the workload (WL) due to worker efficiency
(Ew), and defect rate (q), both expressed in terms of fraction decimal:
QTc
WL = (2.9)
E w (1 − q )
Example 2.4
Let us revisit Example 2.3. Suppose the anticipated availability of the lathes is
90% and the expected utilisation is 90%. The expected worker efficiency
during production is 95% and during setup is 90%. The defect rate for lathe
machines is 5%. The data from Example 2.3 is applicable. How many lathes
are required during the week, given this additional information?
Solution
It is best if we analyse the system as having two phases, i.e. setup and
production. Defect rate and availability does not affect the setup.
For Setup:
The workload is simply the time spent performing the 20 setups, adjusted by
the workerÊs efficiency:
WL = 20(3.5 hr)/(0.9) = 77.78 hr
The available hours during the week, AT = TU = 45 (0.9) = 40.5 hr
Number of lathes required just for setup, nsetup = WL/AT = 77.78/40.5 =

1.92 lathes.

For Production:
The total workload needed for 20 production runs is based on equation 2.9:
( 20 batch )  50
units 
 ( 10 min )
WL =
QTc
=  batch  = 11, 080 min = 184.67 hr
Ew (1 − q ) 0.95 ( 1 − 0.05 )
The available time, AT = TAU = 45(0.9)(0.9) = 36.45 hr

Number of lathes required for production, nproduction = WL/AT =
184.67/36.45 = 5.07 lathes
Hence total lathe machine required nsetup + nproduction = 1.92 + 5.07 =
6.98 lathes
Using integers, we would need seven lathe machines to do the job.
Example 2.5
Future production requirements in a plant call for several automatic bar
machines to be acquired to produce three new parts (A, B, and C) that have
been added to the shopÊs product line. Annual quantities and cycle times for
the three parts are given in the table below. The machine shop operates one
8-hour shift for 250 days per year. The machines are expected to be 95%
reliable, the utilisation is 85%, and the scrap rate is 3%. How many automatic
bar machines will be required to meet the specified annual demand for the
three new parts?
Part Annual Demand Cycle Time Worker Efficiency

A 25,000 5.0 min 1.10
B 40,000 7.0 min 0.85
C 50,000 10.0 min 0.90

Solution
 QT 
Σ 
j cj
n=
WL 
= 
(
E wj 1 − q j ) 

AT TAU
 25000 ( 5.0 ) 40000 ( 7.0 ) 50000 ( 10.0 )   1 hr 
 + +  ( min/ yr ) ×  
 1.1 ( 1 − 0.03 ) 0.85 ( 1 − 0.03 ) 0.90 ( 1 − 0.03 )   60 min 
n=
 8hrs 
 × 250 days  ( 0.95 )( 0.85 ) ( hr/yr )
 day 
1952.51 + 5660.00 + 9545.63
n=
1615
n = 10.62 workstations
= 11 workstations (integer)
• A single station that is manned (manually operated, or semi-automated),

consists of one worker attending one machine, and is the most common
production method today. The key is that the worker performs the task at one
location in the plant or factory.
• In an automated station, the machine runs without needing to be attended to,

at least for most part of the machine processing cycle. Workers are not
required except for periodic tending.
• Using an automated station has many benefits, which are the cost for hiring
workers will be reduced, it is easy to implement, and due to the accuracy and
reliability, the production volume is usually higher than manned stations.
• Workload (WL) is defined as the total hours required to complete a given

amount of production units.

Automated cell Single station system

Manned cell
1. A plastic injection moulding plant will be built to produce 6 million

moulded parts per year. The plant will run three 8-hour shifts per day, five
days per week, 50 weeks per year. For planning purposes, the following
data is used:
Average order size = 5,000 mouldings;
Average changeover time between orders = 6 hrs;
Average moulding cycle time per part = 30 sec;
Scrap rate = 2%;
Average uptime proportion (reliability)
per moulding machine (applicable to both
processing time and changeover time) = 97%;
Operator efficiency for setups = 1.20;
Operator efficiency for processing = 0.90.
How many moulding machines are required in the new plant?
(Ans: 10.77 or 11 machines)
2. A certain type of machine will be used to produce three products A, B and

C. Sales forecast for these products are 52 000, 65 000 and 70 000 units per
year respectively. Production rates for these three products are 12, 15 and
10 pieces per hour. The waste rates are 5%, 7% and 9% respectively. The
plant will operate 50 weeks per year, 10 shifts per week and 8 hours per
shift. It is anticipated that the production machines of this type will be
down for repairs on average 10% of the time. How many machines of this
type will be required to meet the demand?
(Ans: 4.70 or 5 machines)


processes, and systems (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Groover, M. P. (2015). Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-

Integrated Manufacturing, Global Edition: Pearson Education Limited.

processes, and systems (6th ed.). Wiley.

integrated manufacturing (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Topic  Group
Technology
3 and Cellular
Manufacturing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the terms batch manufacturing, group technology and
cellular manufacturing;
2. Describe part families;
3. Perform production flow analysis; and
4. Apply a classification and coding system.
 INTRODUCTION
Batch manufacturing is a long-established form of manufacturing where
production is completed in lots of various sizes.
In the United States alone, batch manufacturing constitutes 50% of its total
manufacturing. Worldwide, it accounts for 60 to 80% of all manufacturing
activities. The widespread use of batch production can be attributed to the
economics of scale: a single production line can be used to produce several
products, and it is cheaper to produce a number of each item in one go. However,
inherent problems with batch production (inventory handling, crossed
production flow, unproductive setup and idle time, unfinished stocks waiting in
queue, etc.) led engineers to look for ways to increase its efficiency.

TOPIC 3 GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND CELLULAR MANUFACTURING  37
The result of this search for an improved system is a manufacturing concept

called group technology and cellular manufacturing.
3.1 BATCH MANUFACTURING
In batch manufacturing, where production is made in lots, the idea is to keep the
level of inventory such that it minimises the total inventory holding costs and
ordering costs. The size of the production lots, which gives maximum economy
in purchasing any material and maintaining the materials at optimum level and
minimum cost, is called the „Economic Order Quantity‰ or EOQ. However,
changes can be made between batches for example food colouring can be
changed between batches makes output product have variety of colours.
Batch manufacturing is a production where the materials are processed in finite

amounts or quantities. The finite amount or quantity of materials is called a
„batch‰ in both process and discrete manufacturing facilities. When compared to
continuous manufacturing as shown in Figure 3.1, batch manufacturing runs in a
discontinuous form because there are manufacturing interruptions between
batches. The main characteristics of batch manufacturing are:
(a) High level of product variety; and
(b) Small manufacturing lot size.
Batch manufacturing is used because of the nature of the process where only a
specified amount or quantity of material is demanded at any one time. This
situation can be apparent when the quantity of material is limited by the size of
the container used in the manufacturing. Batch manufacturing is also used when
there are variations between parts or products manufactured in different batches.
An example of this is a manufacturing process where a batch of 100 units of part
Q is followed by a batch of 150 units of part R, and a setup/changeover is
required between these batches due to a requirement for different tooling and
fixtures.
Similarly, in process industries, batch manufacturing refers to a production

process where the starting materials are in liquid or bulk form, and they are
processed altogether as a single unit. However, in the discrete manufacturing
industries, a batch is a finite amount of quantity of work units and the work units
is processed one at a time rather than all together at once. The number of parts in
a batch ranges from one to thousands of units. The product that produced using
batch are bakery products, clothing, shoes, fast-food products and
pharmaceuticals.

38  TOPIC 3 GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND CELLULAR MANUFACTURING
Figure 3.1: Continuous and batch manufacturing

Source: Groover (2000)
3.2 GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND CELLULAR

MANUFACTURING
„Group technology is the realisation that many problems are similar, and that
by grouping similar problems, a single solution can be found to a set of
problems thus saving time and effort.‰
(Solaja, 1973)
Group technology, or GT for short, is a manufacturing technique in which

functionally-grouped machines that produce parts or products with similar
characteristics (similar parts are arranged into part families) are organised into
cells to achieve high repeatability levels. For example, a factory producing 1000
different part numbers may be grouped into 10 or 20 distinct families. Group
technology was first introduced by Frederick Taylor in 1919 as a way to improve
productivity.

Group technology is a concept which is characterised by the following:

(a) Activity simplification: same or similar activities are performed together.
(b) Process standardisation: same or similar tasks are standardised.
(c) Production control: information on repeating problems is stored and
retrieved efficiently.
Since processing each member of a given family is similar, this will result in
greater manufacturing efficiency and productivity. Group technology places
great emphasis on groupings based on similarities in design attributes and
processing methods. The integration of CAD and CAM into the system will be
much easier, since the use of common parts or product definitions is a key factor
in integrating CAD and CAM.
Definitions of a Cell
• The smallest structural unit of an organism that is capable of
independent functioning.
• A small confining room.
• Any various small compartments or bounded areas forming part of a
whole.
• A small group acting as a unit within a larger organisation.
Generally, efficiencies are achieved by organising the manufacturing equipment

into machine groups or, cells. Each cell is specialised in the manufacturing of a
part family. This is called „cellular manufacturing‰. Cellular manufacturing is
also an application of group technology in which different machines or processes
have been combined into cells, each of which is dedicated to the manufacturing
of a part, product family, or limited group of families.
Group technology is widely used in manufacturing industry because;

(a) Average lot size can be decreased,
(b) Part variety can be increased,
(c) Increase variety of materials and diverse properties,
(d) Closer tolerances can be achieved.

In a cellular manufacturing, related operations according to the product flow are

grouped together. In a cell, machines are typically laid out in a tight U-shaped
sequence to allow single-line flow without queuing or interruption. Also called
cell layout, it contrasts with a functional layout (Figure 3.2 and 3.3).
Figure 3.2: Functional layout

Figure 3.3: Cell layout

The typical objectives of cellular manufacturing are similar to group technology

objectives, namely to:
(a) Reduce manufacturing lead time by reducing setup and waiting times,
handling of work parts, and batch sizes.
(b) Reduce work-in-process (WIP) inventory by having smaller batch sizes and
shorter lead times.

(c) Improve quality by having each cell specialised in producing a smaller

number of different parts, hence reducing process variability.
(d) Simplify manufacturing scheduling by reducing complexity and
standardising processes.
(e) Reduce setup times by using group tooling and fixtures that have been
designed to process the part family.
Group technology and cellular manufacturing can lead to various tangible and
intangible benefits in engineering design, layout planning, specification of
equipment, tools, jigs, and fixtures, manufacturing process planning, production
control, and quality control, purchasing and customer service.
In addition, cells represent sociological units that are more conducive to

teamwork. This means that motivation for process improvements often arises
naturally in manufacturing cells. Manufacturing cells are natural candidates for
just-in-time (JIT) implementation.
Group technology and cellular manufacturing can be applied or adopted to

various manufacturing environment. The following conditions are most
appropriate for GT:
(a) The factory currently uses traditional batch production and a process type
layout, which results in much material handling effort, high in-process
inventory, and long manufacturing lead times.
(b) The parts can be grouped into part families. This condition is necessary as
each machine cell is designed to produce a given part family, or a limited
collection of part families.
Two major tasks that a company must undertake when implementing group
technology are:
(a) Part families identification; and
(b) Rearranging production families into machine cells.

ACTIVITY 3.1
1. Review all the concepts learnt so far, and then answer the
following questions:
(a) Describe how group technology can improve your
organisation.
(b) What potential obstacles can an organisation expect when
implementing group technology, and how can these
obstacles be overcome?
2. Discuss the relevance of the above exercise to your own

organisation.
3. Present your answers to the group for further discussion.
3.3 PART FAMILIES
The word „family‰ is used as a name for any list of similar parts. The families
used with group layout are lists of parts which are similar because they are all
made on the same group of machines. This type of family is called a „Production
Family‰. However, not all parts which are similar in shape will appear in the
same family. So, a part family is a collection of parts that are similar either in
geometric shape and size or in the processing steps required to produce them.
For example, Figure 3.4 and 3.5 show two different part families. In Figure 3.4,
the two parts are very similar in terms of geometric design, but quite different in
terms of tolerances, production quantities and materials. On the other hand, the
items in Figure 3.5 are members of a part family from a manufacturing aspect,
but their different geometries make them appear quite different from a design
viewpoint. Additional examples of parts grouped by geometric shape and
manufacturing process are shown in Figure 3.6 and 3.7.

Figure 3.4: Two parts of identical shape and size but

different manufacturing requirements
Figure 3.5: A family with similar manufacturing process requirements

but different design attributes
Figure 3.6: Parts grouped by geometric shape


Figure 3.7: Parts grouped by manufacturing process

The other features that are important in choosing the families are:
(a) Manufacturing tolerances;
(b) Required quantities;
(c) Materials; and
(d) Special features, which will require the use of different machines.
3.3.1 Groups
A group is a list of machines, selected for layout together in one place, because it
contains all the necessary facilities to complete the processing of a given family of
parts. A family of parts can only be defined by relating it to a particular group of
machines, and a group by relating it to a family. Groups vary greatly in type and
size, widely in the number of machines and different machine types.
As group size is reduced, more types of machines will be needed in more than
one group and there is an increased risk that some new machines must be
purchased. Another factor in choosing the size of groups is the number of people
who will employ them.
Group technology begins by grouping parts into families. There are three
methods that can be used to form part families:
(a) Manual visual inspection;
(b) Production flow analysis; and
(c) Classification and coding.

3.3.2 Manual Visual Inspection

Manual visual inspection involves arranging a set of parts into groups, known as
part families, by visually inspecting the physical characteristics of the parts.
Features of manual visual inspection are:
(a) Prone to incorrect results due to human error;
(b) Different judgement by different people;
(c) Inexpensive method;
(d) Least sophisticated method; and
(e) Good for small companies having smaller number of parts.
3.3.3 Production Flow Analysis

Production flow analysis (PFA) is a method for identifying part families and
associated machine groupings that uses the information contained on
manufacturing route documents instead of parts drawings. Work parts with similar
or identical routings are classified into part families. These families can then be used
to form logical machine cells in a group technology layout. Since PFA uses
manufacturing data rather than design data to identify part families, it can
overcome two possible irregularities that occur in parts classification and coding:
(a) Firstly, parts which basic geometrics are quite different may nevertheless
require similar or even identical process routings.
(b) Secondly, parts which geometrics are quite similar may nevertheless
require process routings that are quite different.
A production flow analysis consists of the following steps:
Step 1: Data Collection

Data that is required in the analysis are part number and operation sequence.
This information is normally contained in the route documents or sheets.
Normally, an operation sequence also determines the machine sequence.
Step 2: Process Routings Sorting

In the second step, parts are arranged into groups according to the similarity of
their process routings. In order to do this, all operations or machines included in
the shop are coded using numbers as shown in Table 3.1. The coding is listed in
the order of the processing steps. Later, a sorting technique is used to arrange
parts into „packs‰, which are part groups with identical routings.

Table 3.1: Possible Code Numbers
Machine or Operation Code

Cut 01
Mill 02
NC drill 03
Lathe 04
Turret lathe 05
Manual drill 06
Grind 07
Step 3: Production Flow Analysis Chart

In the PFA chart, the processes applied for each „pack‰ are displayed. Figure 3.8
shows an example of a PFA chart. In this chart, the process or machine code
numbers for all of the part „packs‰ are tabulated. In addition to this, a PFA chart
can be referred to as the part-machine incident matrix. Here, the entries have a
value xij = 1 or 0 where a value of xij = 1 indicates the corresponding part i
requires processing on machine j, and xij = 0 indicates that no processing of part i
is accomplished on machine j. Normally, xij = 0 are indicated as blank or empty
spaces in the PFA chart.
Figure 3.8: Example of a PFA chart


Step 4: Cluster Analysis

Based on the data pattern in the PFA chart, related groupings are identified and
rearranged into a new pattern that brings together „packs‰ with similar machine
sequences. Figure 3.9 shows a possible rearrangement of the original PFA chart
from Figure 3.8. In some cases, „packs‰ do not fit into logical groupings. In such
cases, these packs might then be analysed to see if a revised process sequence can
be developed, which can fit the parts into one of the groups. In subtopic 3.3.4, we
will examine a powerful technique called rank order cluster algorithm that is
used to perform cluster analysis.
Figure 3.9: Rearranged PFA chart


Example 3.1
Consider a problem of four machines and six parts. Try to group them.
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6
M1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1
Solution:
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6
M1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1
3.3.4 Rank Order Cluster Algorithm

Rank order clustering algorithm is specifically applicable in production flow
analysis. It is a simple and efficient technique for grouping machines into cells. It
works by reducing the part-machine incidence matrix to a set of diagonal blocks
that represent part families and corresponding machine groups. By starting from
the initial part-machine incidence matrix, the technique involves the following
steps:
Step 1:
By using the following equations, allocate the binary weight and determine a
decimal weight for each column and row:
n
Decimal weight for column j , W j =  b pj 2n − p
p =1

m
Decimal weight for row i , Wi =  bip 2m − p
p =1
Step 2:
Rank the rows in order of decreasing decimal weight values.
Step 3:
Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each column.
Step 4:
Then, continue these steps until there is no change in the position of each element
in the row and column.
Example 3.2
Consider a problem of seven machines and nine parts. Try to group them by
using the rank order clustering algorithm.
Parts
Machines A B C D E F G H I
1 1 1 1
2 1 1
3 1 1 1
4 1 1
5 1 1
6 1 1
7 1 1 1

Solution:
Step 1: Assign the binary weight and calculate the decimal weight.
For example, for Row M/C1 , decimal weight =
(1 × 28 ) + (0 × 27 ) + (0 × 26 ) + (1 × 25 ) + (0 × 24 ) + (0 × 23 ) + (0 × 22 ) + (1 × 21 ) + (0 × 20 ) = 290
Binary values 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Decimal
M/C A B C D E F G H I Rank
Weight
1 1 1 1 290 1
2 1 1 17 7
3 1 1 1 81 5
4 1 1 136 4
5 1 1 258 2
6 1 1 65 6
7 1 1 1 140 3
Step 2: Rank the rows in order of decreasing decimal weight values.
Decimal
M/C A B C D E F G H I Rank
Weight
1 1 1 1 290 1
5 1 1 258 2
7 1 1 1 140 3
4 1 1 136 4
3 1 1 1 81 5
6 1 1 65 6
2 1 1 17 7
Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each column
Binary
M/C A B C D E F G H I
Values
1 1 1 1 26
5 1 1 25
7 1 1 1 24
4 1 1 23
3 1 1 1 22
6 1 1 21
2 1 1 20
Decimal
96 24 6 64 5 24 16 96 7
Weight
Rank 1 4 8 3 9 5 6 2 7

Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each column
Binary
M/C A B C D E F G H I
Values
1 1 1 1 26
5 1 1 25
7 1 1 1 24
4 1 1 23
3 1 1 1 22
6 1 1 21
2 1 1 20
Decimal
96 24 6 64 5 24 16 96 7
Weight
Rank 1 4 8 3 9 5 6 2 7
Binary
M/C A H D B F G I C E
Values
1 1 1 1 26
5 1 1 25
7 1 1 1 24
4 1 1 23
3 1 1 1 22
6 1 1 21
2 1 1 20
The part families are AHD, BFG and ICE (three families). The machine groups
are machines 1 and 5, machines 7 and 4 and machines 3, 6 and 2 (three
machine cells).
3.3.5 Classification and Coding

In the parts classification and coding method, similarities among parts are
identified and these similarities are related in a coding system. Generally, two
categories of part similarities can be distinguished as follows:
(a) Design attributes which are related with part characteristics, such as
geometry, size and material; and
(b) Manufacturing attributes which consider the processing steps required to
make a part.

Normally, the design and manufacturing attributes of a part are correlated; the
correlation is less than perfect. In normal practice, classification and coding
systems are formulated to incorporate both parts design attributes and its
manufacturing attributes. There are various reasons for using a coding system
and the main ones are:
(a) Retrieval of design;
(b) Automated process planning; and
(c) Machine cell design.
A number of classifications and coding systems have been developed, but none
has been universally adopted. This is because a classification and coding system
must be customised for each industry. The products of each industry are unique
and the best system for one industry may not be the best for another.
In general, there are three distinct structures used in a classification and coding
scheme. They are:
(a) Hierarchical Structure, also known as a Mono-code. The interpretation of
each successive symbol depends on the value of the preceding symbols;
(b) Chain-type Structure, also known as a Poly-code or Attribute. The
interpretation of each symbol in the sequence is always the same; it does
not depend on the value of the preceding symbols; and
(c) Mixed-mode Structure, also known as a Hybrid of the two previous coding
schemes.
These three distinct structures can be explained as follows:
(a) Hierarchical Structure or Mono-code

The hierarchical code or mono-code system was originally developed for
biological classification in the 18th century. The structure of hierarchical
code is like a tree in which each symbol or digit amplifies the information
provided in the previous symbol or digit.
A hierarchical code or mono-code provides a large amount of information

in a relatively small number of digits useful for storage and retrieval
of design-related information such as part geometry, material and size.
It is difficult to capture information on manufacturing sequences in a
hierarchical manner, so applicability of this code in manufacturing is rather
limited.

Figure 3.10 illustrates the structure of a mono-code.
Figure 3.10: Structure of a mono-code hierarchy

(b) Chain-type Structure or Poly-code

The poly-code or attribute code symbols are independent of each other.
Each digit in a specific location of the code describes a unique property of
the workpiece. It is easy to learn and useful in manufacturing situations
where the manufacturing process has to be described. The length of a poly-
code may become excessive because of its unlimited combinational features.
Figure 3.11 illustrates the structure of a poly-code.
Figure 3.11: Structure of a poly-code


There are some differences in information storage capacity between mono-

code and poly-code as shown in the following example:
Assume that a code consists of five symbols and that in each of the five
code fields the digits 0 to 9 are used. Determine how many mutually
exclusive characteristics can potentially be stored in the mono-code and the
poly-code.
The number of characteristics that may be stored in a mono-code:

101 + 102 + 103 + 104 + 105 = 111110
Meanwhile, the number of characteristics that may be stored in a poly-code:

10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 50
(c) Mixed-mode Structure or Hybrid Code

It is a mixture of both mono-code and poly-code systems. Mixed code
retains the advantages of both systems. Most coding systems use this code
structure.
The first digit for example, might be used to denote the type of part, such as
a gear. The next five positions might be reserved for a short attribute code
that would describe the attribute of the gear. The next digit (7th digit) might
be used to designate another subgroup, such as material, followed by
another attribute code that would describe the attributes. A code created
by this manner would be relatively more compact than a pure attribute
code, while retaining the ability to easily identify parts with specific
characteristics.
(d) The OPITZ Classification System

The OPITZ classification system is a mixed (hybrid) coding system that
was developed by Opitz, Technical University of Aachen in the 1970s. This
system is widely used in the industry and provides a basic framework for
understanding the classification and coding process. It can be applied to
machined parts, non-machined parts (both formed and cast) and purchased
parts. It also considers both design and manufacturing information.

The OPITZ coding system consists of three groups of digits, as shown in

Figure 3.12 to 3.14.
Figure 3.12: The OPITZ coding system

Figure 3.13: The basic structure of the OPITZ coding system


Figure 3.14: Form code (digits 1–5) for rotational parts


Example 3.3
Given the rotational part design as below, determine the form code in the
OPITZ parts classification and coding system.
Solution:
Referring to Figure 3.14, the five-digit code is developed as follows:
Length to diameter ratio L/D = 1.5 Digit 1 = 1

External shape: stepped on both ends with screw
threads on one end Digit 2 = 5
Internal shape: part contains a through hole Digit 3 = 1
Plane surface machining: none Digit 4 = 0
Auxiliary holes, gear teeth, etc: none Digit 5 = 0
Hence, the form code in the Opitz system is: 15100
For the purpose of selecting or developing your own code, it is important to

understand the attributes of classification and coding systems. Some of the
important classification and coding system attributes include:
(a) Flexibility for various applications such as part family formation, process
planning, costing and purchasing;
(b) Accuracy, to provide correct information on parts;
(c) Expandability, to accommodate information on more part attributes
deemed important later on;
(d) Ease of learning;

(e) Ease of retrieval;

(f) Reliability and availability of software; and
(g) Suitability for specific applications.
• Batch manufacturing is a concept of producing quantities of a product to

achieve maximum economic order quantities or EOQ. Batch manufacturing
occurs when the materials are processed in finite amounts or quantities.
• Batch manufacturing is used because of the nature of the process, where only
a specified amount or quantity of material is demanded at any one time.
• Group technology, or GT for short, is a manufacturing technique in which

functionally-grouped machines that produce parts or products with similar
characteristics (similar parts are arranged into part families) are organised
into cells to achieve high repeatability levels.
• Cellular manufacturing is also an application of group technology in which

different machines or processes have been combined into cells; each of which
is dedicated to the manufacturing of a part, product family or limited group
of families.
Batch manufacturing Part families

Cellular manufacturing Production flow analysis
Group technology Rank order cluster algorithm
Manual visual inspection

1. What is batch manufacturing?
2. List the two main characteristics of batch manufacturing.
3. Briefly explain group technology.
4. Group technology is also a philosophy that implies the notion of

recognising and exploiting similarities in three different ways. List the three
ways.
5. What is cellular manufacturing?
6. What is the primary objectives in implementing a cellular manufacturing

system?
7. State the production conditions under which group technology and cellular
manufacturing are most suitable.
8. What are the two major tasks that a company must undertake when
implementing group technology?
9. What is a part family?
10. What features are important when choosing the families?
11. List the three methods that can be used to form part families.
12. Explain the production flow analysis method.






Topic  Material Flow
Systems
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the four types of facility layouts;
2. Solve line balancing problems; and
3. Describe material handling equipment and considerations in
material handling system design.
 INTRODUCTION
Materials are very important components in any manufacturing process.
The way the handling of materials is linked to production processes in a
manufacturing system is a major factor affecting the systemÊs performance. It is
therefore important to study material flow in relation to manufacturing as a
whole.
A system that addresses the issues in facilities and material handling is called a
material flow system. Such a system will typically comprise of the design and
operational control aspects pertaining to the physical movement of materials
(parts, tools, containers and material-handling devices) in a manufacturing
process. In this topic, we will cover the subject of facilities layout, line balancing
and material handling.

62  TOPIC 4 MATERIAL FLOW SYSTEMS
4.1 FACILITY LAYOUT
In any organisation, facilities can make a difference. A facility layout has an

influence on the quality of the products being manufactured and the productivity
of the workers involved. In general, facility layout can be defined as the process
by which the placement of workstations, machines, departments, workgroups
and stock-holding points within an existing facility or proposed facility is
determined.
The fundamental objective of the layout decision is to ensure a smooth flow of

materials, work, people and information through the system. Effective layouts
will bring the following benefits:
(a) Minimised costs related to material handling;
(b) Efficient utilisation of space and labour;
(c) Increased capacity;
(d) Identification and elimination of bottlenecks;
(e) Reduced manufacturing cycle time and customer service time;
(f) Improved communication and interaction between workers, workers and
their superiors, as well as workers and customers;
(g) Enhanced employee morale;
(h) Elimination of unwanted or redundant movements;
(i) Facilitation of the entry, exit and placement of material, products and
people;
(j) Greater safety and security measures;
(k) Promotion of product and service quality;
(l) Promotion of effective maintenance activities;
(m) Provision of flexibility to adapt changes; and
(n) Provision of a visual control of activities.

TOPIC 4 MATERIAL FLOW SYSTEMS  63
An organisation must answer the following four questions before it can make
decisions regarding its facility layout:
(a) What departments or sections should the layout include?
(b) How much space and capacity does each department or section require?
(c) What is the space configuration for each department or section?
(d) Where should each department or section be located?
There are four basic types of layout:

(a) Process;
(b) Product;
(c) Fixed-position; and
(d) Hybrid.
4.1.1 Process Layout

A process layout, also known as a functional layout. It is a process where
machines and equipment integral to a workflow are grouped together by the
process or function they perform. For example, in a machine shop as shown in
Figure 4.1, all lathes would be located in one work centre, milling machines in
another work centre, drilling machines in yet another work centre, and grinding
machines in a different work centre.
Figure 4.1: A process layout in manufacturing


Figure 4.2: A process layout in services
Meanwhile, in a supermarket layout shown in Figure 4.2, items such as meat,

vegetables, dry groceries, frozen food and bread are located in separate sections.
The process layout is most common when the same type of operation or activities
required to periodically produce many different products or serve many
different customers. The volume of each customerÊs order is low or unpredictable
and the sequence of operations and activities required to complete a customerÊs
order can vary considerably.
The advantages and disadvantages of a process layout are as follows:
Advantages:
(a) Equipment is for general purpose. This equipment may be less costly to
purchase and easier to maintain than specialised equipment.
(b) The workers are skilled at operating a variety of equipment and operations,
and can multi-task.
(c) Less vulnerable to changes in product mix or new marketing strategies;
hence, there is high flexibility.
(d) Since there are multiple machines available, they are not particularly
vulnerable to equipment failures.
Disadvantages:
(a) Processing rates tend to be slower as jobs or customers do not flow through
the system in an orderly manner. Backtracking is common and queues tend
to develop.
(b) New arrival of products or services may require different set-up, which can
lead to loss of productive time.
(c) Requires large space to accommodate the large amount of in-process
inventory. In services firms, large aisles are mandatory for customers to
move back and forth and there is substantial display space to accommodate
different customer preferences.
(d) The time lags between job starts and end points are rather long.

(e) Diversity in routings and jumbled flows necessitate the use of variable path
devices such as pallets rather than conveyors.
(f) Requires flexible material handling equipment, such as forklifts to move the
pallets. Therefore, material handling tends to be costly.
(g) Production planning and control is more complicated and rather difficult.
In a process layout, it is best to locate departments and sections they are

responsible for to be close to each other. A common criticism of this layout
however, is that the work can be monotonous for staff, especially if they are
involved only in one stage of the process. This criticism can be eliminated if the
staff are rotated to different departments (involving different processes) thus
developing a multi-skilled body of staff. This brings some order to the apparent
chaos of the flexible flow operation.
4.1.2 Product Layout

Product layout is best for repetitive or continuous manufacturing. It is better
known as an „assembly line‰, where activities are arranged in a line according to
the sequence of operations that need to be performed, as shown in Figure 4.3. For
example, a cafeteria line has a product layout. In manufacturing, product layouts
are used to produce one product, or a small group of products, efficiently. Since
the line is set up for one product, or a small group of products or service, special
machines can be acquired to match a productÊs specific processing requirement.
This is an efficient system when the same product is being made without
variation. Workers do not need to search or collect tools or supplies to perform
their job. Giving workers one job to perform repeatedly reduces potential
mistakes in the product assembly.
Automated processes commonly use a product layout, and the role of the worker
here is different. Workers perform specific and narrowly-defined tasks which do
not require high skills and wage rates, as compared to those working in a process
layout.
Figure 4.3: A product layout

Usually, product layout is suitable for mass manufacturing or repetitive

operations where demand is stable and volume is high. Product layouts often
follow a straight line but this is not always the best type of layout. A layout may
also take an L, O, S or U shape. A typical product layout in manufacturing is
shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4: A typical product layout in manufacturing

Generally, product layout consists of two types of lines, which are:
(a) Paced
On paced lines, we are able to use conveyor types that shift the product
output in a continuous rate or manner. Here, the worker is able to perform
process operations on a particular product as the product goes by. In
special circumstances, such as when longer operating hours are needed, the
worker will have to walk along with the work when it moves until the
worker is finished and can walk back to his or her original workstation to
begin working on another part or product. This is the way the automobile
manufacturing operates.
(b) Unpaced
On an unpaced assembly line, the workers build up queues between
workstations to allow a variable work pace. This type of line does not work
well with large and bulky products because of storage space requirements.
At the same time, it is difficult to balance an extreme variety of output rates
without significant idle time. In normal practice, the assembly-line
balancing technique is used to group the individual tasks performed into
workstations, so that there will be a reasonable balance of work among the
workstations.
Usually, line balancing is often used to enhance the product layout

efficiency. In line balancing, the tasks are assigned to workstations in such a
way that workstations have approximately equal time requirements. This
minimises the amount of time that some workstations are left idle, due to
waiting on parts from an upstream process or to avoid building up an
inventory queue in front of a downstream process.

The advantages and disadvantages of product layout are as follows:
Advantages:
(a) Product layouts can generate a large volume of products in a short time.
(b) Unit cost is low as a result of the high volume. Labour specialisation results
in reduced training time and cost. A wider span of supervision also reduces
labour costs. Accounting, purchasing and inventory control are routine. As
routing is fixed, less attention is required.
(c) There is a high degree of labour and equipment utilisation.
Disadvantages:
(a) The systemÊs inherent division of labour can result in dull, repetitive jobs
that can prove to be quite stressful. Also, assembly-line layouts make it
very hard to administer individual incentive plans.
(b) Product layouts are inflexible and cannot easily respond to required system
changes – especially changes in product or process design.
(c) The system is at risk from equipment breakdown, absenteeism and
downtime due to preventive maintenance.
4.1.3 Fixed-position Layout

The third basic type of layout is fixed-position layout. This layout is appropriate
for a product that is too large or too fragile, or heavy to move. Some examples are
ships, aircraft, spacecraft, dams, buildings, electric and nuclear power plants
which are not produced on an assembly line (Figure 4.5 and 4.6). In a fixed
position layout, personnel, supplies, and equipment are brought to the site where
the product will be assembled, rather than the product being moved through an
assembly line or set of assembly stations.
Read more at: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/fixed-position-

layout.htmlFor services, other reasons may dictate the fixed position (e.g., a
hospital operating room where doctors, nurses and medical equipment are
brought to the patient).

Figure 4.5: A fixed-position layout in aircraft manufacturing

Source: Russell & Taylor (2003)
Figure 4.6: A fixed-position layout in ship-building

Source: Krajewski & Ritzman (2018)

The advantages and disadvantages of fixed-position layout are as follows:
Advantages:
(a) Suitable for products that are project-based.
(b) Workers are highly skilled, performing special tasks such as welding,
pipefitting, wiring and so on.
(c) Minimises the number of times that the product must be moved and often
is the only feasible solution.
Disadvantages:
(a) For many fixed-position layouts, the work area may be crowded so that
little storage space is available.
(b) The crowded work area can also cause material handling problems.
(c) WorkersÊ wages are high as they are highly skilled. Fixed cost is relatively
low (equipment may not be owned but leased or rented) whereas the
variable costs would be high (due to the high labour wages and the cost of
leasing and moving equipment).
(d) The administrative burden is higher for fixed-position layouts. The span of
control can be narrow and coordination is difficult.
4.1.4 Hybrid Layout

In some situations, there is a need for a mixture of the three main layout
types (process, product and fixed-position). These mixtures are commonly called
hybrid or combination layouts. The need for developing a hybrid layout is
justified based on the product routing and layout requirements.
The size of the problem is minimised using product analysis techniques which
also minimises the computational time. New similarity measures are developed
to consider the missing entities of the previous research works. Products and
machines are segregated for different type of layouts (assembly layout, process
layout and distributed layout) based on machine utilisation and the similarities
between the products. For example, one firm may utilise a process layout for the
majority of its process along with an assembly in one area. Alternatively, a firm
may utilise a fixed-position layout for the assembly of its final product but use
assembly lines to produce the components and subassemblies that make up the

final product. Organisations also create hybrid layouts when introducing cells
and flexible automation, such as flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) which we
will discuss in Topic 5.
Before the products and machines are segregated for the different kind of
layouts, the product data should be analysed. However, for a large size problem
with more number of products and machines, determining the best suited layout
is difficult. This is because the properties of some products may change the
dominance quotient and may drift away from the assignment of layout.
Although, the layout is determined for all the products, there exists a possibility
that a group of products may be best suited for a different layout when they are
not considered as a whole. In other words, a product group may consist of
several subgroups which are best suited for different type of layouts. Hence, for
the same set of products we may yield better results when the products are
assigned to the combination of different kind of layouts. The need for designing
different type of layouts can be identified by analysing the product
characteristics such as product volume, product similarity, sequence similarity
and machine utilisation.
For instance, supermarket layouts are fundamentally of a process nature.

However, we find most use fixed-path material-handling devices such as roller-
type conveyors both in the stockroom and at checkouts, and belt-type conveyors
at the cash registers. Hospitals also use the basic process arrangement, although
frequently, patient care involves more of a fixed-position approach in which
nurses, doctors, medicines and special equipment are brought to the patient.
A typical hybrid layout in manufacturing is shown in Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7: A typical hybrid layout in manufacturing

Source: Groover (2000).

ACTIVITY 4.1
„The system's inherent division of labour can result in dull, repetitive
jobs that can prove to be quite stressful.‰
The statement above describes the disadvantage of a particular

layout. Which layout does it refer to? If you implemented such a
layout in your production process, how would you overcome this
issue? Discuss.
4.2 LINE BALANCING
Line balancing is the process of assigning tasks to workstations in such a way

that the workstations have approximately equal time requirements. The main
objective is to minimise the imbalance between machines or personnel while
meeting production goals and maximising output. It is a production strategy that
sets an intended rate of production to produce a particular product within a
particular timeframe.
Also, the assembly line needs to be designed effectively and tasks needs to be
distributed among workers, machines and workstations ensuring that every line
segments in the production process can be met within the time frame and
available production capacity. Assembly line balancing can also be defined as
assigning proper number of workers or machines for each operations of an
assembly line so as to meet required production rate with minimum or zero ideal
time. Line balancing is done in the following circumstances:
(a) A line is set up initially;
(b) A line is rebalanced to change its hourly output rate; or
(c) Product or process changes.

A simple way to understand the concept of line balancing is shown in Figure 4.8
and 4.9.
Figure 4.8: Unbalanced Line (y axis depicts minutes; x axis depicts operators)
In Figure 4.8, we see operator number 1 over-producing, thus creating the other
six wastes. We simply re-balance the work content (redistribute some of the
work), using line balancing as shown in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9: Balanced Line (y axis depicts minutes; x axis depicts operators)

Line balancing operates under three constraints, namely:

(a) Precedence requirements;
(b) Desired rate of production; and
(c) LineÊs cycle time restrictions.
4.2.1 Precedence Requirements

Precedence requirement is the physical restriction on the sequence in which
operations are performed in a production line. What this means is that certain
elements must be done before the next action can begin. The cycle time of a
layout must meet the cycle time defined by the management. Cycle time is the
maximum amount of time a product is allowed to spend at each workstation. For
example, a worker must assemble all the components before packing a product.
To facilitate line balancing, precedence requirements are expressed in the form of
a precedence diagram. A precedence diagram is a typical network diagram
where we denote the work elements by circles, with time required to perform the
work shown below each circle. Precedence relationships are shown by directed
line segments connecting the circles as shown in Figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10: Precedence diagram for an assembly


Example 4.1
You have just been assigned the job of setting up an electrical fan assembly
line with the following tasks:
Task Time (Mins) Description Predecessors

A 2 Assemble frame None
B 1 Mount switch A
C 3.25 Assemble motor housing None
D 1.2 Mount motor housing in frame A, C
E 0.5 Attach blade D
F 1 Assemble and attach safety grill E
G 1 Attach cord B
H 1.4 Test F, G
Solution:
Task Predecessors Task Predecessors

A None E D
B A F E
C None G B
D A, C H E, G
The precedence diagram is constructed as illustrated below:

4.2.2 Desired Rate of Production

One of the objectives of line balancing is to match the production rate to the
production plan. For example, if the production plan is for 2,000 units per week
and the line operates 40 hours per week, the desired production rate would be:
2000
Production Rate, p = = 50 units per hour
40
The matching rate of production to production plan or demand ensures on-time

delivery to customers. This also will prevent unwanted inventory build-ups.
However, one must remember that frequent line balancing can lead to an
operatorÊs job re-designation and can affect productivity.
Industries such as automobile plants avoid frequent line balancing by

eliminating a shift entirely when demand decreases and inventory becomes
excessive; or add a shift or overtime when demand increases. Adding a shift or
overtime can increase equipment utilisation which is very crucial in capital-
intensive industries.
4.2.3 Line’s Cycle Time

LineÊs cycle time is the maximum amount of time allowed to spend at each
workstation to complete a set of tasks on a unit. If the time required for a set of
tasks at a workstation exceeds the lineÊs cycle time, the station will be a
bottleneck, preventing the line from reaching its desired production rate. The
desired cycle time is calculated by the reciprocal of the desired production rate:
c = 1/p (4.1)
where c = Desired cycle time in hours per unit; and

p = Desired production rate in units per hour.
Example 4.2
If the lineÊs desired production rate is 120 units per hour, determine the
desired cycle time.
Solution:
1 1
c= = = 0.5 min
p 120

Cycle time can also be assumed as the time between completed items coming off
the assembly line. The following example demonstrates this:
Example 4.3
Consider the four-station assembly line as shown below. Calculate the lineÊs
cycle time.
Solution:
We can see that it will take 12 minutes (3 + 3 + 3 + 3) for each item to pass
completely through all four workstations. However, the assembly line does
not work on only one item at a time but four items at a time when it is fully
operational.
The actual cycle time can be calculated as follows:
Cycle time = Max {3, 3, 3, 3} = 3 minutes.
Every 3 minutes, a new item enters the line at workstation 1 and at the same
time a completed items leaves the assembly line at workstation 4. This
3-minute interval is the actual cycle time of the line and 12 minutes is the total
flow time of an item.
4.2.4 Theoretical Minimum (TM)

In order to achieve the desired production rate, managers use the line balancing
method to assign a set of tasks to a workstation, provided it fulfils the precedence
requirements. At the same time, managers would like to minimise the number of
workstations, n. Minimising the number of workstations, n, means maximising
worker productivity.

A perfect line balance can be achieved if the sum of the task times at each
workstation equals the desired cycle time, c and no workstation has any idle
time. In practice, a perfect line balance is unachievable; hence, managers can only
aim to minimise the number of workstations and increase line efficiency. The
theoretical minimum (TM) for the number of workstations is given by:
Σt
TM = (4.2)
c
where Σt = Total time required to complete each unit (the sum of all task
times); and
c = Cycle time.
Example 4.4
The sum of all task time is 10 minutes and the cycle time is 1 minute. Calculate
the theoretical minimum or TM.
Solution:
Σt
TM = = 10/1 = 10 workstations
c
4.2.5 Idle Time, Efficiency and Balance Delay

The following benefits can be achieved when minimising the number of
workstations, n:
(a) Minimal idle time;
(b) Maximum efficiency; and
(c) Minimal balance delay.
The total unproductive time for all workstations in the assembly of each unit is
called idle time and is given by:
Idle time = nc – Σt (4.3)
where n = Number of workstations;

c = Cycle time; and
Σt = Total time required to assemble each unit.

The ratio of productive time to total time, which is expressed as a percentage, is

called efficiency and is given by:
Σt
Efficiency (%) = × 100% (4.4)
nc
The amount by which efficiency falls short of 100 per cent is called balance delay
and is given by:
Balance delay (%) = 100% – Efficiency (4.5)
As long as the cycle time, c, is fixed, we can optimise all three goals by
minimising the number of workstations, n.
Example 4.5
A manufacturing manager wants to make 1,600 units of product A per week.
The sum of all tasks for one unit of Product A is 5 minutes. The factory
operates
40 hours per week. Calculate:
(a) LineÊs cycle time;
(b) The smallest number of workstations; and
(c) The line efficiency.
Solution:
1600
(a) Production Rate, p = = 40 units per hour
40
1 1
c= = hour/unit = 1.5 minutes/unit
p 40
Σt 5
(b) TM = = = 3.33 ≈ 4 workstations
c 1.5
Σt 5
(c) Efficiency (%) = (100) = (100) = 83.3%
nc 4(1.5)
The manager obtains a solution with four workstations with an efficiency of

83.3%.

4.2.6 Finding a Line Balancing Solution

Nowadays, assembly line solutions are done with computer assistance.
Computer software packages consider every feasible combination of tasks
without violating the precedence requirements. The combination that minimises
the workstationÊs idle time is selected. If any task remains unassigned, a second
workstation is formed and so on.
The manual approach described here is a simpler method. A task is selected from
a list of task candidates and it is assigned to a workstation. We will repeat this
step until all workstations have been formed, using k as a counter for the
workstation being formed.
Step 1
Start with workstation, k = 1. Prepare a task candidate list to be assigned to this
station, k, where each task candidate must satisfy the conditions as below:
(a) The task has not been assigned to this or any previous workstation;
(b) The task predecessors have been assigned to this or a previous workstation;
and
(c) The task time does not exceed the stationÊs idle time, which accounts for all
tasks already assigned. If no tasks have been assigned, the workstationÊs
idle time equals the cycle time.
If no task candidate can be found, go to Step 4.
Step 2
Select a task candidate. To select a task from the task candidate list, the following
three decision rules are normally used:
(a) Pick the task with the largest time;
(b) Pick the task with the most successors or followers; and
(c) Pick the task with the greatest sum of task times of its predecessors.
Then, assign the task chosen to station k. For cases where two or more tasks are
tied, choose one of them arbitrarily.

Step 3
Compute the cumulative time for all tasks assigned to workstation k. To find the
workstationÊs idle time, subtract this total from the cycle time. Go to Step 1, and
generate a new list of task candidates.
Step 4
If there are some unassigned tasks, but none are task candidates for workstation
k, create a new workstation k + 1, and go to Step 1. Otherwise, the solution is
complete.
Example 4.6
A lawn equipment manufacturer is designing an assembly line to produce a
new equipment. The following information of manufacturing process is given.
The decided production rate is 2,400 units/week. The plant operates 40 hours
per week. Find a line-balancing solution.
Time Immediate
Tasks Description
(sec) Predecessor(s)
A Bolt leg frame to hopper 40 None
B Insert impellar shaft 30 A
C Attach axle 50 A
D Attach agiator 40 B
E Attach drive wheel 6 B
F Attach free wheel 25 C
G Mount lower post 15 C
H Attach controls 20 D, E
I Mount nameplate 18 F, G
Total 244

Solution:
First, draw the precedence diagram:
Next, calculate the following:
2400
40
1 1
c= = hour/unit = 1 minute/unit = 60 seconds/unit
p 60
Next, calculate the following:
2400
40
1 1
c= = hour/unit = 1 minute/unit = 60 seconds/unit
p 60
Σt 244
TM = = = 4.067 ≈ 5 workstations
c 60
Σt 244
Efficiency (%) = (100) = (100) = 81.3%
nc 5(60)
The next step is to apply the line balancing heuristic.
The following table shows how to begin. Beginning with the first
workstation, S1 (k = 1), the precedence diagram shows that only task A can be
a task candidate. With task A assigned, workstation S1 has an idle time of 20
seconds (60 − 40). Task B and C are not qualified to become task candidates
for S1 because their time exceed 20 seconds, and so S1 is complete.

For the second workstation S2 (k = 2), tasks B and C are candidates, and we
select C because it has the larger task time (50 seconds) as compared to task B
(30 seconds). Now, S2 consists of task C with idle time equals to 10 seconds
(60 − 50). No other task candidates can be added because adding any task B, F,
or G will bring the total S2 time to exceed the cycle time of 60 seconds.
This procedure is continued until we have assigned all tasks. The final
solution calls for only five workstations as shown in Figure 4.11.
As n = TM = 5, we can do no better than this with a 60-second cycle time.
Cumulative
Station Candidate Choice Idle Time
Time (Sec)
(step 1) (step 2) (step 3) (step 5)
(step 4)
S1 A A 40 20
S2 B, C C 50 10
S3 B, F, G B 30 30
E, F, G F 55 5
S4 D, E, G D 40 20
E, G G 55 5
S5 E, I I 28 42
E E 24 36
H H 44 16
Figure 4.11: Line balancing solution

4.3 MATERIAL HANDLING
Material handling is a function of moving the right material to the right place at
the right time, in the right amount, in sequence, and in the right condition to
minimise manufacturing cost. As a process, material handling incorporates a
wide range of manual, semi-automated and fully automated equipment and
systems that support logistics and make the supply chain work. A companyÊs
material handling system and processes are put in place to improve customer
service, reduce inventory, shorten delivery time and lower the overall handling
costs in manufacturing, distribution and transportation.
Goals of material handling are to:
(a) Reduce unit costs of production.
(b) Maintain or improve product quality and reduce damage of materials.
(c) Promote safety and improve working conditions.
(d) Promote productivity where:

(i) Material should flow in a straight line;
(ii) Use the gravity concept and it is free power;
(iii) Move more material at one time;
(iv) Mechanise material handling; and
(v) Automate material handling.
(e) Promote increased use of facilities.
(f) Reduce tare weight (dead weight).
(g) Control inventory.
4.3.1 Material Handling Equipment

There is a variety of manual, semi-automated and fully automated material
handling equipment and technologies available to aid in the movement,
protection, storage and control of materials and products throughout
manufacturing, distribution, consumption and disposal.

The types of equipment can be classified into:
(a) Transport Equipment

Transport equipment includes industrial trucks, automated guided vehicles
(AGVs), monorails, conveyors, cranes and hoists.
(b) Storage Systems

A storage system includes bulk storage, rack systems, shelving and bins,
drawer storage, and automated storage systems.
(c) Unitising Equipment such as palletisers.
(d) Identification and Tracking Systems such as barcodes and scanners.
4.3.2 Consideration in Material Handling System

Design
There are three important considerations that we must pay attention to when it
comes to material handling system design. Each of them is equally important and
plays a vital role in the design and selection of material handling system. The
considerations are:
(a) Material Characteristics

Table 4.1 describes the categories and the measures for materials.
Table 4.1: Material Characteristics
Category Measures
Physical state Solid, liquid or gas
Size Volume, length, width, height
Weight Weight per piece, weight per unit volume
Shape Long and flat, round, square, etc.
Condition Hot, cold, wet, etc.
Safety risk and risk of damage Explosive, flammable, toxic, fragile, etc.

(b) Flow Rate

Material moving distance and the quantity of materials being moved will
determine the flow-rate. Figure 4.12 illustrates the various options available
when it comes to the material handling equipment selection.
Figure 4.12: Flow-rate factor in material handling equipment selection

(c) Facility Layout

As we have seen earlier, different types of facility layouts have different
characteristics and require different material handling equipment. Table 4.2
illustrates the types of facility layouts, their characteristics and typical
material handling equipment.
Table 4.2: Facility Layout Type and Typical Material Handling Equipment
Layout Typical Material Handling

Characteristics
Type Equipment
Process Variation in product and processing, low Hand trucks, forklift trucks,
and medium production rates. AGVs.
Product Limited product variety, high production Conveyors for product flow,
rate and mass manufacturing. trucks to deliver components
to stations.
Fixed- Large product size, low production rate. Cranes, hoists, industrial
position trucks.

• A facility layout has an impact on the quality of the products being

manufactured as well as the productivity of the workers involved. In general,
facility layout can be defined as the process by which the placement of
workstations, machines, departments, workgroups, and stock-holding points
within an existing facility or proposed facility is determined.
• Line balancing is the process of assigning tasks to workstations in such a way

that the workstations have approximately equal time requirements. The main
objective is to minimise the imbalance between machines or personnel while
meeting production goals and maximising output.
• Material handling is a function of moving the right material to the right place
at the right time, in the right amount, in sequence, and in the right condition
to minimise manufacturing cost.
Fixed-position layout Minimal idle time

Hybrid layout Precedence requirement
Line balancing Process layout
Maximum efficiency Product layout
Minimal balance time
1. Define facility layout.
2. What are the fundamental objectives of the layout decision?
3. List any SIX effective facility layout benefits.
4. In your own words, describe a process layout.
5. List any THREE advantages and disadvantages of a process layout.

6. In your own words, describe a product layout.
7. List any TWO advantages and disadvantages of a product layout.
8. In your own words, describe a fixed-position layout.
9. List any TWO advantages and disadvantages of a fixed-position layout.
10. What is the meaning of hybrid layout?
11. What is line balancing?
12. You have just been assigned the job of setting up an assembly line with the
following tasks. Draw the precedence diagram.
Task Description Operation time (min) Predecessors

A Inspection 5 –
B Trim the shaft to length 4 A
C Weight the head 13 A
D Finish the shaft 9 B
E Gel coat the head 7 C
F Assemble the head to the shaft 6 D, E
Total work content 44
13. The weekly demand for the problem in Q12 is 120 units and the plant
operates 40 hours per week. Calculate the cycle time (c), theoretical
minimum (TM), line efficiency (E) and perform the line balancing
(Answer: c = 20 min/unit; TM = 3 workstations; E = 73.3%).

integrated manufacturing (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

integrated manufacturing (4th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson.


Krajewski, L. J., & Ritzman, L. P. (2002). Operations management: Strategy and

analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Krajewski, L. J., & Ritzman, L. P. (2018). Operations management: Processes and

supply chains. New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Russell, R. S., & Taylor, B. W. (2003). Operations management. New Jersey:

Prentice Hall.

Topic  Flexible
Manufacturing
5 System (FMS)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe flexible manufacturing system (FMS);
2. Explain how to classify the types of flexible manufacturing
system;
3. Explain the four components of a flexible manufacturing
system; and
4. Describe the benefits and limitations of a flexible
manufacturing system.
 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important aspects of manufacturing is to have the ability to
meet customersÊ needs by adjusting the operational setup without compromising
the organisationÊs capabilities. This is the driving force behind the concept of
„flexible‰ manufacturing. A flexible manufacturing system or FMS gives
manufacturing firms an advantage to quickly change their manufacturing
environment to improve process efficiency and thus lower production cost.
However, upfront costs may be greater for installing specialised equipment that
allows for flexibility and customisation. In its most generalised form, flexible
manufacturing alludes to the idea of the systemÊs adaptability in reacting to
changing demands.

90  TOPIC 5 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM (FMS)
However, as you will learn later, the term „flexible‰ has different meanings that
vary according to the different approaches. In group technology or GT, an FMS is
one of the machine cell types used to implement cellular manufacturing (CM). In
fact, FMS is the most automated and technologically sophisticated of all the
GT cells.
5.1 AN OVERVIEW OF FMS
Flexibility, which is the capability of a system to adapt to changes made to it,

is becoming one of the most critical factors for success in the manufacturing
industry.
(Manzini, Persona, Regattieri, 2006)
An FMS is a highly automated GT machine cell consisting of a group of

processing workstations, which are usually computer numerical control (CNC)
machine tools, interconnected by a distributed central computer control system.
In an FMS, various machining cells are interconnected via an automated material
handling system, such as loading and unloading stations and automated
transport systems.
The FMS is said to be flexible because it is capable of processing numerous

product designs in small quantities simultaneously at various workstations with
faster delivery. The FMS is also known as an automated job shop and as a
miniature automated factory. It is most suitable for the mid-variety, mid-volume
production range. Today, this prospect of automation and flexibility presents the
possibility of producing non-standard parts to create a competitive advantage.
5.1.1 History of Flexible Manufacturing System

During the early 1960s, marketing competition was very intense in the
manufacturing industry. At that time, cost was the main factor. With intense
market competition, quality also became a priority.
Two developments following World War II proved critical in the development of

flexible manufacturing systems. These are the manufacturing philosophy of
group technology and the introduction of numerical control machine tools (soon

TOPIC 5 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM (FMS)  91
to be followed by the related development of computer numerically controlled

machine tools and other applications). Both developments have been
instrumental in narrowing the gap between the increased variety characteristic of
FMS and the efficiency associated with assembly line automation. When the
market became more and more complex, faster delivery to the customer became
a priority.
During this time, the idea of FMS advanced when robots, programmable
controllers and computerised numerical controls brought a controlled
environment to the factory floor in the form of numerically-controlled and direct-
numerically-controlled machines to improve the quality and speed of delivery of
products to customers. Everyday new technologies are being developed and
even FMS are evolving. However, overtime FMS have worked for many
manufacturers and hence will be around for the time to come.
5.1.2 Objective of FMS

The objective of an FMS is to maintain the flexibility for small and medium lot
sized production of a variety of parts while maintaining the manufacturing
efficiency and economies of scale. To be considered flexible, the flexibility must
exist during the entire life cycle of a product, from design to manufacturing to
distribution. FMS is a computer-controlled system that can produce a variety of
parts or products in any order, without the time-consuming task of changing
machine setups.
5.2 WHAT MAKES AN FMS FLEXIBLE?
Today, flexibility is identified as the ability to produce reasonably priced

customised products of high quality that can be quickly delivered to customers.
There are three identified capabilities that a manufacturing system must possess
to be flexible:
(a) The ability to identify and distinguish among the different part or product
styles processed by the system;
(b) Quick changeover of operating instructions; and
(c) Quick changeover of physical setup.

Flexibility is an attribute that applies to both manual and automated systems. In

a manual system, the human workers are often the enablers of the systemÊs
flexibility.
Let us look at Figure 5.1 which depicts an automated manufacturing cell with
two machine tools and a robot. Is it a flexible cell?
Figure 5.1: An automated manufacturing cell

To maintain flexibility, a manufacturing system should fulfil several criteria.

There are four practical tests of flexibility in an automated manufacturing
system, as shown below:
(a) Part Variety Test

Is the system able to process different part styles in a non-batch mode?
(b) Schedule Change Test

Can the system readily accept changes in manufacturing schedules?
(c) Error Recovery Test

Is the system able to recover quickly from equipment malfunctions and
breakdowns, so that the manufacturing is not completely interrupted?
(d) New Part Test

Is the system able to introduce new part designs into the existing product
mix with relative ease?

These questions can be grouped into five main approaches as shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Different Approaches to Flexibility and Their Meanings
Approach Flexibility Meaning

Manufacturing • The capability of producing different parts without major
retooling.
• A measure of how fast the company converts its processes from
making an old line of products to produce a new product.
• The ability to change a production schedule, to modify a part, or
to handle multiple parts.
• The ability to recover quickly from equipment malfunctions and
breakdowns.
Operational The ability to efficiently produce highly customised and unique products.
Customer The ability to exploit various dimensions of speed of delivery.
Strategic The ability of a company to offer a wide variety of products to its
customers.
Capacity The ability to rapidly increase or decrease production levels or to shift
capacity quickly from one product or service to another.
Adapted from: Anita Lee-Post „Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS)‰,

University of Kentucky.
There are seven basic flexibility measures in manufacturing which have been
identified, as shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Flexibility Type and Definitions
Flexibility
Definition Depends on Factors Such As
Type
Machine Capability to adapt a given • Setup or changeover time.
flexibility machine (workstation) in the • Ease of machine reprogramming
system to a wide range of (ease with which part programs
production operations and part can be downloaded to machines).
styles. The greater the range of
operations and part styles, the • Tool storage capacity of machines.
greater the machine flexibility. • Skill and versatility of workers in
the system.
Production The range or universe of part • Machine flexibility of individual
flexibility styles that can be produced on stations.
the system. • Range of machine flexibilities of
all stations in the system.

Mix Ability to change the product • Similarity of parts in the mix.

flexibility mix while maintaining the same • Relative work content times of
total production quantity; that parts produced.
is, producing the same parts
only in different proportions. • Machine flexibility.
Product Ease with which design changes • How closely the new part design
flexibility can be accommodated. Ease matches the existing part family.
with which new products can • Off-line part programme
be introduced. preparation.
• Machine flexibility.
Routing Capacity to produce parts • Similarity of parts in the mix.
flexibility through alternative workstation • Similarity of workstations.
sequences in response to
equipment breakdowns, tool • Duplication of workstations.
failures, and other interruptions • Cross-training of manual workers.
at individual stations. • Common tooling.
Volume Ability to economically produce • Level of manual labour
flexibility parts in high and low total performing production.
quantities of production, given • Amount invested in capital
the fixed investment in the equipment.
system.
Expansion Ease with which the system can • Expense of adding workstations.
flexibility be expanded to increase total • Ease with which layout can be
production quantities. expanded.
• Type of part handling system
used.
• Ease with which properly trained
workers can be added.
Adapted from: Anita Lee-Post „Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS)‰,

University of Kentucky
5.3 TYPES OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING

SYSTEM
Generally, FMS can be classified according to:
(a) The types of operations they execute:

(i) Processing operations; or
(ii) Assembly operations.

(b) Number of machines. There are three categories of flexible manufacturing

cells and systems. They are:
(i) Single Machine Cell (SMC), which consists of one processing
workstation (refer to Figure 5.2).
(ii) Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC), which consists of two or three
processing workstations (refer to Figure 5.3).
(iii) Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS), which has four or more
processing workstations connected mechanically by a common
material handling system and electronically by a computer control
system.
Figure 5.2: Single machine cell consisting of one

CNC machining centre and parts storage unit

Figure 5.3: A flexible manufacturing cell consisting of three

identical processing stations (CNC machining centres),
a load/unload station and a part handling system
Some of the distinctive characteristics of the three categories of flexible

manufacturing cells and systems are summarised in Figure 5.4 and
Table 5.3.
Figure 5.4: Features of the three categories of flexible cells and systems

Table 5.3: Flexibility Criteria Applied to the Three Types of

Manufacturing Cells and Systems
Flexibility Criteria (Tests of Flexibility)

System Type 1. Part 2. Schedule 3. Error 4. New
Variety Change Recovery Part
Single Yes, but processing Limited recovery
machine cell is sequential, not Yes due to only one Yes
(SMC) simultaneous. machine.
Flexible Yes, simultaneous Error recovery
manufacturing production of Yes limited by fewer Yes
cell (FMC) different parts. machines than FMS.
Flexible Yes, simultaneous Machine redundancy
manufacturing production of Yes minimises effect of Yes
system (FMS) different parts. machine breakdowns
(c) Levels of Flexibility

Another classification method of FMS is by the level of flexibility designed
into the system. This method of classification can be adapted to systems
with any number of workstations, but its application seems most common
with FMS. The following distinguishes two categories:
(i) Dedicated FMS. The features of the dedicated FMS are:
• Limited variety of part styles;
• Complete universe of parts known;
• Machine designed for specific processes required to make the

limited part family increasing production rate; and
• Flexible transfer line.
(ii) Random-order FMS. The features of the random-order FMS are:
• Large part family – substantial variations in part configurations;
• New part designs and engineering changes in parts;
• Production scheduling changes from day-to-day;
• General purpose; and
• More computer control required.

As we observe in these two system types, there is a trade-off between

flexibility and productivity. The dedicated FMS is less flexible but has high
production rates. The random FMS is more flexible but at the cost of lower
production rates. A comparison of these two FMS types is shown in
Figure 5.5 and Table 5.4.
Figure 5.5: Comparison of dedicated and random-order FMS types

Table 5.4: Flexibility Criteria Applied to Dedicated and Random-order FMS
Flexibility Criteria (Tests of Flexibility)

System
Type 2. Schedule
1. Part Variety 3. Error Recovery 4. New Part
Change
Dedicated Limited. All Limited Limited by No New part
FMS parts known in changes can be sequential introductions
advance. tolerated. processes. difficult.
Random- Yes. Substantial Frequent and Machine Yes. System
order part variations significant redundancy designed for
FMS possible. changes minimises effect of new part
possible. machine introductions.
breakdowns.

ACTIVITY 5.1
„An FMS is distinguished from an automated production line by its
ability to process more than one product style simultaneously.‰
What is the difference between an FMS and an automated production

line? In answering the question, consider how changes in product
mix, production schedule, demand patterns and task variety are
handled by an FMS and an automated production line. Share your
thoughts in the myINSPIRE forum.
5.4 COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE

MANUFACTURING SYSTEM
There are four basic components of an FMS. They are:
(a) Workstation;
(b) Material handling and storage system;
(c) Computer control system; and
(d) People or human resources.
5.4.1 Workstation
In an FMS, the common types of processing workstations are computer
numerical control (CNC) machine tools. However, the FMS concept is applicable
to various other processes as well. The following are the types of workstations
found in an FMS:
(a) Load/Unload Stations

Physical interface between the FMS and the entire company. This is where
the raw materials enter the system and the finished parts exit the system.
(b) Machining Stations

The common applications of FMS are CNC machines tools. A typical
example is a CNC machining centre with features that make it compatible
with the FMS, such as the automatic tool changing and tool storage, use of
palletised work parts and capacity for DNC.

(c) Other Processing Stations

Apart from machining, sheet-metal fabrication, press working operations
such as forging, trimming, punching, shearing and certain bending and
forming processes.
(d) Assembly
Some FMS are designed to perform assembly operations in order to replace
or reduce substantially the need for manual labour. FMS can be
programmed to perform tasks with variations in sequence and motion
pattern to accommodate the different product styles.
Figure 5.6 illustrates the workstation component of an FMS.
Figure 5.6: FMS incorporated with load/unload stations,

CNC machine tools and AS/RS stations

5.4.2 Material Handling and Storage System

Materials handling and storage system is the second major component of an
FMS. Material handling is an important area of concern in FMS because more
than 80 % of time that material be on the shop floor is spent either in waiting or
in transportation, although both these activities are non-value added activities.
Material handling can be defined as an integrated system involving such
activities as moving, handling, storing and controlling of materials by means of
gravity, manual effort or power activated machinery.
Moving materials utilise time and space. Any movement of materials requires
that the size, shape, weight and condition of the material, as well as the path and
frequency of the move be analysed. The materials handling and storage system
performs the following functions in an FMS:
(a) Allows random independent movement of work parts between stations;
(b) Handles a variety of work part configuration palettes and robots;
(c) Provides a buffer as a temporary storage; and
(d) Allows the convenient access for loading and unloading work parts.
The material handling system establishes the FMS layout. There are five
categories of FMS layout configurations established. Figure 5.7 to 5.10 show four
of these FMS layouts. Table 5.5 summarises the types of material handling
equipment utilised in these five layouts.

Key: Load = Parts loading station, Unld = Parts unloading station,

Mach = Machining station, Man = Manual station, Aut = Automated station
Figure 5.7: FMS in-line layouts: (a) one direction flow similar to a transfer line,
(b) linear transfer system with secondary part handling system at each station
to facilitate flow in two directions.


Figure 5.8: (a) FMS loop layout with secondary part handling system at each station to
allow unobstructed flow on loop, (b) rectangular layout for recirculation of pallets to the
first workstation in the sequence.


Figure 5.9: FMS ladder layout



Mach = Machining station, Man = Manual station, Aut = Automated station,
AGV = Automated guided vehicles, Rechg = Battery recharging station for AGVÊs
Figure 5.10: FMS open field layout (Reference 2)


Table 5.5: Material Handling Equipment Typically used for the Five FMS Layouts
Layout Configuration Typical Material Handling System

In-line layout • In-line transfer system
• Conveyor system
• Rail-guided vehicle system
Loop layout • Conveyor system
• In-floor towline carts
Ladder layout • Conveyor system
• Automated guide vehicle (AGV) system
• Rail-guided vehicle system
Open field layout • Automated guide vehicle (AGV) system
• In-floor towline carts
Robot-centred layout • Industrial robot
5.4.3 Computer Control System

In a typical FMS, the workstations, material handling system and other related
hardware components are connected by a distributed computer system interface.
Individual machines and components are controlled by a central computer and
microcomputers. In addition, even though an FMS is highly automated, people
are required to manage and operate the system. The processing or assembly
equipment used in an FMS depends on the type of work accomplished by the
system. In a system designed for machining operations, the principle types of
processing station are CNC machine tools. However, the FMS concept is also
applicable to various other processes as well.
There are nine functions performed by the FMS computer control system,
they are:
(a) Workstation control;
(b) Distribution of control instructions to workstations;
(c) Production control;
(d) Traffic control;
(e) Shuttle control;
(f) Work piece monitoring;

(g) Tool control;

(h) Performance monitoring and reporting; and
(i) Diagnostics.
5.4.4 People or Human Resources

People are required to manage the FMS. The following functions are performed
by people in an FMS:
(a) Loading raw work parts;
(b) Unloading the finished parts;
(c) Changing and setting up tools;
(d) Repairing and maintaining equipment;
(e) Programming the CNC;
(f) Programming and operating the computer system; and
(g) Managing the overall FMS.
5.5 BENEFITS OF A FLEXIBLE

MANUFACTURING SYSTEM
The potential benefits from the implementation and utilisation of a flexible
manufacturing system have been detailed by numerous researchers on the
subject. Some of the advantages associated with FMS include reduced
manufacturing cost, increased labour productivity, increased machine efficiency,
improved product quality, increased system reliability, reduced parts inventory,
shorter lead times and increased production rate. Table 5.6 summarises the
benefits of FMS.

Table 5.6: Typical Benefits of FMS
No. Benefits of FMS Description

1 Equipment 85% or higher compared to the maximum 30%
utilisation in conventional systems.
2 Flexibility Machines can be kept running for several measured
shifts with lower crew levels program.
3 Number of machines Fewer required, though more expensive.
4 Floor space requirement Often reduced to about one third.
5 JIT manufacturing Due to the ability to change manufacturing plans
instantaneously during manufacturing.
6 Production Detailed production sequences are not required well
in advance.
7 Batch size Batch size of 1 reduces work-in-progress (WIP)
inventory and throughput time.
8 Variable cost Reduced.
9 Direct labour cost Reduced.
10 Throughput time Reduced.
11 Manufacturing Enhanced through reduction in variable cost and
competitiveness throughput time.
12 Standardised Through constant use of machines which eliminates
performance start-up cycles.
13 Modular design Allows phased implementation and expansion
depending on financial and market forces.
14 Turn-over capability FMS capability is easily turned over to a new set of
products at the expiration of the current life cycles.
Despite these benefits, FMS does have certain limitations and disadvantages.
Some of the disadvantages associated with FMS include a high initial set up cost,
increased difficult in pre-planning, requirements of skilled workers and a more
complicated system. Dr. Anita Lee-Post of University of Kentucky identifies
them as:
(a) Limited ability to adapt to changes in product or product mix (e.g.,
machines of limited capacity and the tooling necessary for products, even
of the same family, is not always feasible in a given FMS).
(b) Systems are very complex and expensive, costing millions of dollars.

(c) Due to increased complexity and cost, an FMS also requires a longer
planning and development period than traditional manufacturing
equipment.
(d) Equipment utilisation for the FMS sometimes is not as high as one would
expect. Japanese firms tend to have a much higher equipment utilisation
rate than the American manufacturers utilising FMS.
(e) Technological problems of exact component positioning and precise timing
necessary to process a component.
(f) Lack of technical literacy, management incompetence and poor
implementation of the FMS process.
(g) Sophisticated manufacturing systems which requires highly skilled staff to
manage.
ACTIVITY 5.2
„Any customer can have a car painted any colour that he wants so
long as it is black.‰
(Henry Ford, ca. 1920s)
„Flexibility is the speed at which a system can react to and
accommodate change.‰
(Reza Maleki, 1991)
How do the statements above reflect the manufacturing sentiments
at the time they were made? How did the environment under
which manufacturers operated during those periods determine
manufacturing priorities and strategy? Consider this in the light of
competition, cost, quality, delivery and customisability. Discuss.
• A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a highly automated group

technology (GT) machine cell which consists of a group of processing
workstations, which are usually computer numerical control (CNC) machine
tools, interconnected by a distributed central computer control system.
• The FMS objective is to maintain the flexibility for small and medium lot
sized productions of a variety of parts while maintaining the manufacturing
efficiency and economies of scale.

• Generally, the FMS can be classified according to:

– The types of operations they execute; and
– The number of machines.
• There are four basic components of a flexible manufacturing system.

They are:
– Workstation;
– Material handling and storage system;
– Computer control system; and
– People or human resources.
Computer control system Product flexibility

Expansion flexibility Production flexibility
Flexible manufacturing system Routing flexibility
Human resources Storage system
Machine flexibility Volume flexibility
Material handling Workstation
Mix flexibility
1. Describe briefly about flexible manufacturing system (FMS).
2. Why is the FMS defined as flexible?
3. List the objective of FMS.
4. Describe the three identified capabilities that a manufacturing system must

possess to be flexible.

5. Discuss what „flexibility‰ means from the following perspectives:

(a) Manufacturing;
(b) Operational;
(c) Customer;
(d) Strategic; and
(e) Capacity.
6. Explain any of the FOUR basic flexibility measures in manufacturing.
7. Flexible manufacturing systems can be distinguished according to:

(a) The types of operations they execute;
(b) Number of machines; and
(c) Levels of flexibility.
Explain ALL of the above.
8. Explain any ONE basic component of a flexible manufacturing system.
9. List any FIVE potential benefits of implementing and utilising a flexible

manufacturing system.
10. List any FIVE limitations or disadvantages of implementing and utilising a

flexible manufacturing system.
Groover, M. P. (2008). Automation, production systems, and computer integrated

manufacturing (3rd ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Prentice Hall.


Professor Samuel, C. O. (2013). Introduction to manufacturing systems, United

States: Authorhouse.

Topic  Computer
Simulation
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe what a computer simulation is;
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of simulation
software; and
3. Discuss the three possible computer simulation models.
 INTRODUCTION
In this final topic, we will look into computer simulation. Computer simulations
have been applied to the manufacturing sector for more than 40 years and have
often proved to be of immense value. Almost everyone has heard of simulation
in one way or another.
Now let us see how it is applied in the context of the manufacturing system. This
topic will only cover a general overview of computer simulation.
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

SIMULATION
Computer simulation is a representation of a real-life situation using a computer
program. Users of the computer simulation program will have to modify the
variables that define the situation under study, and see whether it achieves the
desired effect.

TOPIC 6 COMPUTER SIMULATION  113
Computer simulations have become a useful part of mathematical modelling of

many natural systems in physics, chemistry and biology, human systems in
economics, psychology, and social science and in the process of engineering new
technology, to gain insight into the operation of those systems. Traditionally, the
formal modelling of systems has been via a mathematical model, which attempts
to find analytical solutions to problems which enables the prediction of the
behaviour of the system from a set of parameters and initial conditions.
Computer simulations build on, and are a useful adjunct to purely mathematical
models in science, technology and entertainment. The reliability and the trust
people put in computer simulations depends on the validity of the simulation
model.
Computer simulation is thus a tool for studying certain properties of an event by

experimenting with an approximate computer model rather than with the real
system itself. It is basically conducting experiments on computer through
computer models to predict the behaviour and response of the real system.
Computer simulation provides an efficient and economical – and sometimes even

the only – means to analyse a system. Compared to conducting actual physical
experiments and tests, computer simulations are cheaper, need shorter time to
reach a solution, provide greater flexibility in variable manipulation and have
considerably smaller risk. As a consequence, computer simulation methods have
been extensively used in the area of manufacturing systems. Engineers and
manufacturing executives use simulation to improve the performance of existing
manufacturing operations as well as to plan and design new systems. For
example, in almost all new plants, engineers perform simulation to evaluate
operating conditions and determine the optimal manufacturing environment
before building the plant. This technique will save a lot of money.
Problem solving in the industry is growing increasingly complex, so that

engineers require increasingly effective robust input in their decision making.
Computer simulation is seen as being a method for predicting the dynamic
characteristics of a situation, thus improving the basis of decision making.
Through a computer simulation model, an engineer or system analyst is able

to observe the behaviour of a process without having to experiment with the
actual system. They may try, for example, different manufacturing runs, new
operational scenarios, new equipment layouts or different cycle times and
evaluate the systemÊs performance under various conditions.

114  TOPIC 6 COMPUTER SIMULATION
Generally, simulations can be applied to many different activities. When we

decide to narrow down the scope of application, we can define the characteristics
of the system with more precision. Every manufacturing system shows mostly
the same characteristics, although differing in detail. Every manufacturing
system comprises products and the facilities which are used to produce them,
such as machines, operators, material handling systems, pallets and conveyors as
described in the previous topics.
Consequently, simulation models will have common features. The difference

between them will reflect the different ways in which the various facilities are
combined to form a particular system. Manufacturing systems comprise so many
different elements, making them very complex. This makes computer simulation
a viable and valuable tool in studying those elements and in analysing their
behaviour and response. An example is in the application of automated
manufacturing system design.
Implementing an automated manufacturing system is a major challenge for the

engineers who are responsible for the successful design, commissioning and
operation of the system. As a result, computer simulation has found a wide range
of applications in the design of automated manufacturing systems, reason being
that computer capabilities along with several simulation techniques form a very
powerful and efficient tool to assist the tasks and design work involved.
In summary, computer simulation is important to:

(a) Assess the capacity and equipment utilisation in the system;
(b) Identify bottlenecks in the system;
(c) Compare performances of alternative designs;
(d) Ensure that there is no fundamental weakness in the design; and
(e) Develop operating strategies for work scheduling and job sequencing.
Before we proceed, it would be good if we first define the word model. The word
model is used a lot when one is talking about computer simulations. In computer
simulation, a model is in the logic of the program. It is a simplified or idealised
description of a system devised to facilitate calculations and predictions. Thus,
we are not concerned about physical models but rather abstract ones which
describe in logic the behaviour of the system.

For example, we might know that if a product arrives at a machine for which
some other operations are waiting, the product has to wait and the length of the
queue will increase by one. We also know that whenever a product leaves the
queue and is processed by the machine, the number of operations in the queue
will decrease by one.
These relationships hold for whatever the length of the queue at any point in
time. Now if we have this information, and record all the arrivals and departure,
we can build an exact record of the queue length at all subsequent times.
A logical model of a complex system may be built by incorporating many such
simple relationships and hence, we may be able to predict the response and
behaviour of the whole manufacturing system. If we examine the behaviour of
the system over a sufficiently long period, we may be able to draw general
conclusions about the system which we can use to predict its performance.
Simulation modelling is therefore a means of studying the behaviour of the

system as a whole by defining in detail how its various components interact with
each other. The more complex the system, the more inappropriate theoretical
equations become and the more appropriate computer simulations become. Since
most manufacturing systems are rather complex, simulation is a most suitable
tool.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Try to identify if computer simulations are being used by conducting

an Internet search or exploring your companyÊs manufacturing plant.
6.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

COMPUTER SIMULATION
As described earlier, computer simulation is an important tool in decision
making. As an aid to decision making, this technique has many advantages and
some disadvantages when compared to other conventional ways.
6.2.1 Advantages of Computer Simulation Technique

In general, we can list four of its main advantages:
(a) Flexibility;
(b) Allows for the study of transient behaviour;

(c) Animation; and

(d) Ability to tackle complex problems.
One of the most significant advantages of computer simulation is that it is a very

flexible approach. In general, computer simulation has to be verified. Once this is
verified, the simulation can be altered easily to include new parameters. With
this, we can quickly get results by trying different alternatives. An alternate
approach is to do an analytical remodelling approach, which would take much
longer.
A graphical representation can give a very good idea of the logical behaviour of
the simulated process. It is easy to spot graphically if a particular computer
experiment is fruitful by watching the dynamic graphics display. Information
that would otherwise require several pages of written documentation can be
conveyed within a very short amount of presentation time by using animation
with appropriate notation.
Computer simulation models may be large and complex, and as a result take a
long time to build. Still, they can have many advantages over other analytical
methods. In comparison to actual physical experiments, computer simulation has
the advantages of lower cost, time savings, precise replication and safety. A
computer simulation model also has advantages over a mathematical model
which is usually unable to cope with dynamic or transient effects.
6.2.2 Disadvantages of Computer Simulation

Technique
Nevertheless, computer simulations have certain shortcomings as well. The
obvious and direct shortcoming is that we need an expert who is good in
computer simulation. There are other difficulties that limit the use of simulations,
such as the number of design alternatives that can be simulated within a
reasonable time.

6.3 CONSTRUCTION OF COMPUTER

SIMULATION MODELS
In general, computer simulation projects follow the order shown in
Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: General Simulation Steps
Shown in Figure 6.1 are the steps used in most manufacturing system
simulations. However, at times there are different types of simulations, which are
designed to handle unique or different types of systems. A complex
manufacturing system model will involve a combination of methods.
Hence, it would be good if we could spend some time looking into the different
forms of simulation and the circumstances when each might be appropriate. In
choosing the appropriate modelling approach, one should consider the
behaviour of the system under study and the types of problems to be addressed.
The three simulation models or schemes can be classified as discrete-continuous,
static-dynamic and stochastic-deterministic schemes.

6.3.1 Discrete and Continuous Model

Discrete model depicts that the state variables change only at a countable number
of points in time. These points in time are the ones at which the event
occurs/change in state. Continuous model demonstrates that the state variables
change in a continuous way and not abruptly from one state to another (infinite
number of states).
Let us start by looking at a simple machine shop where simple manufacturing

processes are carried out, such as drilling and lathing. In the machine shop, we
can see that the system changes only at distinct points in time. The process is
simple, as the machines begin and complete jobs only at distinct points in time.
This is known as discrete change (Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2: Discrete change system
On the other hand, change is going on all the time during such occurrences as the
gradual but continuous change of night and day, the increase in temperature
when water is boiled and the turning of winter into spring. A graph of
continuous varying variables is a smooth curve as shown in Figure 6.3.
For example, a mass that is vibrating due to its attachment to a spring can be
considered as continuous. It is also good to note here that the continuous graph
can also be represented by either a linear straight line or irregular shapes. An
example of a linear graph is the volume of liquid in a tank where the liquid flows
into the tank at a constant rate.

Figure 6.3: Continuous change system
The two possible ways a system can behave, either discrete or continuous, lead
us to two basic types of simulation models. Manufacturing systems contain both
types of change. In addition to discrete changes such as starting and stopping a
machine, the amount of stock in storage may be treated as a discrete variable. Let
us look at these two kinds of simulation separately.
In discrete simulation, discrete change in the system is being modelled. The

components of the system can be in any one of a number of discrete states at any
point in time and changes from one state to the other instantaneously (step
change). There are two basic elements of discrete simulation: rules which
determine when the next event will occur, and rules for changing the state of the
model when an event does occur.
In continuous modelling, we can frequently describe the way the variables

change over time by mathematical equations. For example in mechanical
vibrations, the movement of a vibrating mass can be described by a differential
equation.
6.3.2 Static and Dynamic Model

A static simulation represents a model of a system at particular points in time. This
kind of simulation has no activity because it does not change with time. Typical
examples of static simulations are Monte Carlo simulation and spreadsheet-based
analytical models. On the other hand, a dynamic simulation represents a model of
an operation that is dynamic, i.e. its activity changes over time. A typical example
of this type of simulation is the simulation model of a production operation in
which the work unit moves into and out of the system as time passes.

6.3.3 Stochastic and Deterministic Models

To differentiate between stochastic and deterministic models is very straight
forward. When a simulation model contains no random variable as its system
parameters, it is said to be deterministic. For example, in the machining
operation, if the work unit arrival interval and the machining time of the work
unit are entirely predictable, then it is deterministic. Given a set of inputs, a
deterministic model would produce a unique set of system responses.
On the other hand, if the system responses cannot be predicted, but can only be
analysed through statistical means, then the simulation model is considered as
stochastic. For a given set of inputs, a stochastic model will produce only
estimates of the true system responses.
6.3.4 Simulation Software

Simulation modelling involves creating a model using computer software. Thus
far, there are four ways to do so, which are:
(a) Writing your own program in a general purpose computer language such
as MATLAB or C++;
(b) Acquiring a simulation package and writing the model in that language;
(c) Acquiring and using an already written generic model or code; and
(d) Engaging a consultant to carry out the simulation project for you.
Let us look into each of the available options more closely.
To write your own program in programming languages such as MATLAB or

C++ could be challenging. There are advantages and disadvantages to it. The
advantages are it is cost-saving because we can avoid purchasing a simulation
package which could be costly, and the programmer knows all the details of the
program. Therefore, it will be easier to modify for future needs. On the other
hand, the disadvantages are it takes time to develop the program, and the entire
program has to be validated before use.
As for a commercial simulation package, the advantages are that it will be a

powerful software program that can be tailored to meet your purpose or needs,
permits models to be developed more quickly than general purpose computer
language and is suitable for use by any simulation personnel. The negative
aspects are it is costly and its users need training.

A generic model is a model of a specific type of system written in such a way that
certain parameters can be altered by the user. Its advantages are it does not
require any extra programming, minimises the time to get results, usually with
acceptable cost and runs on any standard hardware. Its disadvantages are it may
not be capable of modelling specific features, and may include unacceptable
simplification or assumptions.
Finally, a consultant is hired when the necessary expertise is not available in an

organisation. Consultants are professionals in their work and can obtain results
fast. Nonetheless, this is a very costly option, and there is little knowledge
sharing between the client and consultant.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Computer games are a form of computer simulation.
Make a case to support the statement above. Choose a computer game

that you are familiar with (it does not have to be a complicated one)
and describe the game's salient features. Take note of the use of
graphics in the game.
Support your argument by considering the following:

(a) What real-life situation is the game trying to simulate?
(b) What assumptions have been made in the game's features to
simplify and approximate real-life conditions?
(c) What variables can the player control, and what are the effects of
those variables?
(d) Can the player be a better real-life player of the game after
playing the computer version?

ACTIVITY 6.3
Search the Internet for instances where computer games have been
effective as simulation models. List three different examples that you
have found.
• Computer simulation is a representation of a real-life situation using a

computer program.
• The advantages of simulation are flexibility and animation, and its use in the
study of transient behaviour and tackling problems. The disadvantages are its
limited use and the need for expertise.
• There are several types of simulation construction models such as static-

dynamic, discrete-continuous and deterministic – stochastic models.
• There are four possible means of simulation software, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages
Computer simulation Simulation software

Simulation models
1. What is a computer simulation?
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of computer simulation.
3. List the types of simulation models.

Brusa, E., Cala, A., & Feretto, D. (2019). Systems engineering and its application
to industrial product development. New York, NY: Springer.




Professor Samuel, C. O. (2013). Introduction to manufacturing systems,

Bloomington, IN: Authorhouse.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to [email protected]
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-78012140
Fax No.: 03-78875911 / 03-78875966


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EBMP2203

Introduction to Manufacturing Systems

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Assoc Prof Ir Dr Faris Tarlochan

Moderator: Assoc Prof Ir Dr Kanesan Muthusamy

Enhancer: Ahmad Hafifi Abu Bakar

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, December 2010

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Manufacturing 1

Topic 2 Single Station Manufacturing Cell 16

Topic 3 Group Technology and Cellular Manufacturing 36

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 4 Material Flow Systems 61

Topic 5 Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) 89

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 6 Computer Simulation 112

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

Topic 1 covers the basic introduction to a manufacturing system.

Topic 3 provides an overview of batch manufacturing, group technology and

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5 explains the process of flexible manufacturing system.

Topic 6 covers to the basic aspects of computer simulations used in

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Groover, M. P. (2000). Automation, production systems, and computer-

Groover, M. P. (2001). Fundamentals of modern manufacturing: Materials,

Groover, M. P. (2008). Automation, production systems, and computer-

Groover, M. P. (2015). Automation, production systems, and computer-

Groover, M. P. (2015). Fundamentals of modern manufacturing: Materials,

Heizer, J., Render, B., & Munson, C. (2016). Operations management:

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Krajewski, L. J., & Ritzman, L. P. (2002). Operations management: Strategy and

Krajewski, L. J., & Ritzman, L. P. (2018). Operations management: Processes and

Professor Samuel, C. O. (2013). Introduction to manufacturing systems,

Russell, R. S., & Taylor, B. W. (2003). Operations management. New Jersey,

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Before we proceed, what is manufacturing? Basically, manufacturing is an

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 WHAT IS MANUFACTURING?

In laymanÊs terms, manufacturing can be defined as a set of operations needed to

Figure 1.1: Overall concept of a manufacturing system

A complete manufacturing system will require facilities and supporting

What is a process? A process is a work method that modifies the properties,

What is an assembly? From a manufacturing standpoint, an assembly is the

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(a) Production Rate

(b) Time Cycle

(c) Production Capacity

(f) Manufacturing Lead Time

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)