EBMP2203 Introduction To Manufacturing Systems - Vapr20
EBMP2203 Introduction To Manufacturing Systems - Vapr20
Summary 58
Key Terms 58
Self-Test 59
References 59
INTRODUCTION
EBMP2203 Introduction to Manufacturing Systems is one of the courses at Open
University Malaysia (OUM). Like all other courses offered by the faculty, this
course is a three (3) credit hours course.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to students who are undertaking the Bachelor of
Manufacturing Management.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
3
discussions
Study the module 60
Attend 3 tutorial sessions 6
Online Participation 16
Revision 15
Assignment(s), test(s) and examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into six topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 2 explains single cell workstations and ways to determine how many
workstations are needed for a certain production.
Topic 4 describes the various types of facility layouts, line balancing and material
handling.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Brusa, E., Cala, A., & Feretto, D. (2019). Systems engineering and its application
to industrial product development. New York, NY: Springer.
Cloutier, R., Baldwin, C., & Bone, M. A. (2015). Systems engineering simplified.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
INTRODUCTION
Welcome! This topic is an introduction to the background and scope of
manufacturing systems. Unlike traditional engineering approaches towards
production, manufacturing systems adopt a systemic methodology in the design
and operation of production activities.
In this topic, we will introduce a few basic terms used in manufacturing system
designs, such as production rate, time cycle, production capacity, utilisation,
availability and manufacturing lead time. The following are definitions of these
terms:
(d) Utilisation
The amount of output of a production facility relative to its capacity.
(e) Availability
A measure of reliability for equipment. It is defined by using two factors,
namely the mean time between failure (MTBF) and mean time to repair
(MTTR).
Example 1.1
A machine operates 100 hours/week. Its production rate is 20 units/hour.
During a certain week, the machine produced 1,000 parts and was idle the
remaining time. Determine the production capacity and utilisation of the
machine.
Solution
Capacity, PC = (100 hours/week) x (20 units/hours) = 2,000 units/week.
Utilisation can be defined as the ratio of the number of parts made relative
to its capacity:
ACTIVITY 1.1
For manually operated machines, the hardware is the machine itself, but the
software is the human operator, meaning that the human is the „intelligence‰
that controls the machine. Examples of such machines are lathes (Figure 1.3),
milling and grinding machines.
On the other hand, semi-automated machines are those that are able to work
partly on automation, and partly with the intervention of a human worker. An
example of this is a CNC machine (Figure 1.4). Once this machine has been
programmed, it will perform all the required manufacturing processes but
humans are still needed to put and remove the workpiece/unit from the
machine.
The complexity of the material handling system is often unique to the particular
type of manufacturing system. One of the interesting aspects to discuss is the
work unit transportation between workstations. There are two types: variable
and fixed routing. In variable routing, the work units are transported through a
variety of different station sequences and are associated to batch production
operations. On the other hand, fixed routing only allows the work unit to flow
through the same sequence. Hence, all units are identical and the processing
sequence is also the same. Two common types of material handling equipment
are shown in Figure 1.7.
1.2.4 Manpower
There is no denying that the long-term inclination in manufacturing is to move
towards the greater use of automated systems to replace manpower.
Nonetheless, manpower or labour is a crucial element in the success of a
manufacturing system. Workers add value by controlling the machines that
produce the manufactured products or goods. Even though a system may be
fully automated, labour is still needed to place working pieces, remove wastages,
sharpen and replace tools and perform periodic corrective and preventive
maintenance checks on the equipment. At times, not all tasks can be passed on to
automated machines. A human worker is still required in instances where
operations are too difficult to automate, when a short product life cycle is crucial
or when customised products are needed.
There are several critical jobs that need to be performed by humans such as:
(a) Equipment maintenance;
(b) Programming and computer operation;
(c) Engineering project work, and
(d) Plant management.
Factor Activity
Types of This can be based on whether the plant is using processing
operations operations or assembly operations, or both. Within each
performed operation, there exists sub-operations.
Number of Does the plant require a single workstation or multiple stations? If
workstations multiple stations, are they using fixed or variable routing?
Level of Are the machines semi-automated, fully automated or manually
automation operated? Each type requires different sets of computers and
manpower involvement.
Product variety Are the work units produced identical or different? If different,
then different processing techniques may be needed.
With this said, we can now proceed in identifying the classification used in
manufacturing systems. Figure 1.10 gives an overview of the classification
scheme. As a further illustration, Figure 1.11 shows a multiple fixed routing
system as an example of a classification scheme.
How do we visualise it? Suppose that you are asked to assemble a small desk
bought from a hypermarket. Initially you will have difficulty in assembling the
desk. It may even take you hours to finish just one desk. What happens if you are
asked to assemble 10, 50 or 100 desks? Will you still take the same time you took
to assemble the first desk? Obviously not! Why? This is because by this time,
learning has taken place; hence, the time required to perform the task decreases
with each successive desk produced. Nonetheless, after some time, the amount of
time needed to assemble other desks will remain the same. This is because there
is a reduction in task time as the time to assemble each additional desk becomes
lesser.
This brings us to the term continuous improvement which means that learning
has to continue to grow and not diminish. This phenomenon applies to both
large organisations and manufacturing systems. Based on the learning curve
theory, the following equation can be used to calculate the time to produce the
Nth unit:
TN = T1(N)m (1.1)
Example 1.2
The first desk took 20 minutes to assemble. You will have to assemble
50 desks. How long will it take you to assemble the 25th desk, 50th desk,
1,000th desk and 10,000th desk, if the learning rate is 80%?
Solution
A learning rate of 80% means the time to produce the second unit is 80% of the
first unit and so on.
It can be seen that as the units increase, the production task time diminishes.
ACTIVITY 1.2
• The learning curve occurs when the cycle time required to perform a given
task decreases as the number of cycles increases.
Assembly Manpower
Automation system Manufacturing lead time
Availability Process
Equipment Production capacity
Machines Production rate
Material handling system Utilisation
INTRODUCTION
How are we doing so far? Now that you have a basic understanding of what a
manufacturing system is, and learned some common definitions related to
manufacturing systems, let us take a look at one of the most common
manufacturing systems in the industry − single stations.
In a single station system, each single station works independently of other work
stations in the plant. Nonetheless, the activities of each of these stations are
coordinated at a larger (plant or factory) scale. These stations can be designed to
produce work units as single models or as batch production, or even as mixed
production. They can be used either in processing- or assembly-type
manufacturing.
We will cover single stations in this topic, as we examine both manned and
automated stations. We will then discuss some typical applications and common
analysis of single stations. Sit tight on the conveyor and letÊs have the system
started for us. LetÊs go!
The job of the worker is to control the machine, as well as load and unload the
work units. An example of such a situation in processing-type manufacturing is
an operator handling drilling machine, lathe or press machine (Figure 2.1).
Meanwhile, an example of assembly-type manufacturing is a worker assembling
the components of an electronic device (Figure 2.2). In both cases, the workerÊs
utmost attention is required for the entire work cycle of producing a work unit.
For a semi-automated machine, the machine works on automation for part of the
task, while the remaining portion of the task is carried out manually by a human
worker. An example of this is a CNC machine. Once programmed, the machine
will perform all the required manufacturing processes but humans are still
needed to place and remove the workpiece/unit from the machine.
It is pertinent to mention here that a single station manufacturing cell does not
always require a task ratio of one machine to one worker. There may well be
situations where there can be more than one worker in a single cell.
For example, two workers are required to manipulate heavy forgings in a forge
press (Figure 2.3), a welder and fitter are needed to work together in a welding
setup, many workers are needed to assemble one huge machine at a single
assembly station, and several operators must coordinate their tasks in polymer
composite fabrications (resin transfer moulding). You may also see in certain
plants or factories that there are other machines (supporting machines)
supporting a main machine (principal machine) or workstation. These other
machines are merely subordinates to the principal machine. An example of this is
the drying equipment needed to dry plastic moulding powder prior to moulding
in a manually operated injection moulding machine.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Before proceeding with this section, discuss what you think are the
benefits of having an automated system in manufacturing products.
Share your thoughts in the myINSPIRE forum.
Now that we have discussed a single station manned cell, let us move on to a
single station automated cell. In an automated station, the machine runs without
needing to be attended to, at least for most part of the machine processing cycle.
Here, workers are not required except for certain periodic processes.
As with manned stations there are also supporting machines to the principal
machines in a single automated cell. An example is a robot loading and
unloading working units on and off a principal machine.
This is common for a single or batch work unit production. At times, there may
be a mixed mode production. For this, additional features are needed, such as:
T = npTc (2.1)
In reality, unattended time will be less than T because the worker needs time to
unload finished work units/parts and load raw work parts into the storage
subsystem. The design of storage capacity has to be based on certain objectives,
such as:
(a) Make T = a fixed time interval that allows one worker to tend to multiple
machines.
(b) Make T = time between scheduled tool changes.
(c) Make T = one complete shift.
(d) Make T = one overnight („lights-out operation‰).
Tc = Tm + Ts (2.3)
Now we will look at systems that have storage capacities greater than one work
unit. There are several types as can be seen in Figures 2.5 to 2.8.
ACTIVITY 2.2
ACTIVITY 2.3
We just cannot go about placing single station cells in our factory or plant.
Correct analysis has to be conducted to determine the number of single stations
required to meet the specified production requirements. Let us take a look at how
the analysis, which involves calculating the number of workstations required,
is done.
WL = QTc (2.4)
If the workload includes multiple parts or product variety that can all be
produced on the same type of workstation, then the following summation can be
used:
WL = Σ (QiTci) (2.5)
WL
n= (2.6)
AT
Example 2.1
A total of 1.000 rods must be produced in the lathe section of the machine
shop for each week. The rods produced are identical and have a cycle time of
10 minutes. All of the lathes in the department have the same behaviour and
operational parameters.
How many lathes are needed to run in a week if a lathe machine runs for 45
hours?
Solution
Hence,
WL 166.67
n= = = 3.70 lathes
AT 45
Since the number has to be an integer, we can assume four lathes will do the
job.
(a) Setup time – Before we can start any production, setting up is required
(especially for batch production) during which no work units are made.
Setting up consumes time. The longer the setup time, the more loss the
plant incurs.
(b) Availability – Not all machines can be available. At times, some machines
are down for maintenance or repair. This again will affect the production.
(e) Defect rate – As always, you will not find 100% of good apples in a cart. The
same goes for goods produced from plants or factories. A certain fraction of
the produced goods will be defective.
So how do we deal with these issues? The next two examples illustrate two
possible ways, depending on the information given.
Example 2.2
Let us revisit Example 2.1. Suppose that a setup will be required for each lathe
that is used to satisfy the production requirements. The lathe setup for these
rods takes 4 hours. How many lathes are required during the week?
Solution
Workload, WL = 1,000 rods at 10 min/rod = 1000 x 10 = 10,000 minutes =
166.67 hours.
Time available per lathe AT = 45 hours (without setup).
With setup ATnew = 45 – 4 = 41 hours.
Hence,
WL 166.67
n= = = 4.07 lathes
AT new 41
Since the number has to be an integer, we can assume five lathes will do the
job.
Hence, the number of lathes devoted to the job has increased from four to
five lathes. With five lathes, the utilisation U will be:
4.07
U = = 0.814 or 81.4%
5
Example 2.3
A total of 1,000 rods must be produced in the lathe section of the machine
shop for each week. The rods produced are of 20 different types, each type
being produced in its own batch. The average batch size is 50 rods. Each batch
requires a setup with the average being 3.5 hours. The average cycle time is
10 minutes. How many lathes are needed to run in a week if a lathe machine
runs for 45 hours?
Solution
We can include the setup up time in the work load calculation as follows:
WL 236.67
n= = = 5.26 lathes
AT 45
Since the number has to be an integer, we can assume six lathes will do the
job.
AT = T*A*U (2.7)
Besides this, we also have to account for workersÊ efficiency and defect rate. The
former is defined as the number of work units or parts actually completed by the
worker in a stipulated time frame divided by the number of units that should be
produced at normal operations by the worker for the same time period.
On the other hand, defect rate is the number of parts or units produced that are
defective. It is usually expressed as a fraction. For example, 100 parts were
produced, out of which three parts were defective and had to be thrown or
discarded as waste. Hence, the defect rate is 3 out of 100, which is 0.03 or 3%.
This can be expressed in the following equation:
Q = Qo (1 – q) (2.8)
Now to summarise, let us look at the workload (WL) due to worker efficiency
(Ew), and defect rate (q), both expressed in terms of fraction decimal:
QTc
WL = (2.9)
E w (1 − q )
Example 2.4
Let us revisit Example 2.3. Suppose the anticipated availability of the lathes is
90% and the expected utilisation is 90%. The expected worker efficiency
during production is 95% and during setup is 90%. The defect rate for lathe
machines is 5%. The data from Example 2.3 is applicable. How many lathes
are required during the week, given this additional information?
Solution
It is best if we analyse the system as having two phases, i.e. setup and
production. Defect rate and availability does not affect the setup.
For Setup:
The workload is simply the time spent performing the 20 setups, adjusted by
the workerÊs efficiency:
For Production:
The total workload needed for 20 production runs is based on equation 2.9:
( 20 batch ) 50
units
( 10 min )
WL =
QTc
= batch = 11, 080 min = 184.67 hr
Ew (1 − q ) 0.95 ( 1 − 0.05 )
Example 2.5
Future production requirements in a plant call for several automatic bar
machines to be acquired to produce three new parts (A, B, and C) that have
been added to the shopÊs product line. Annual quantities and cycle times for
the three parts are given in the table below. The machine shop operates one
8-hour shift for 250 days per year. The machines are expected to be 95%
reliable, the utilisation is 85%, and the scrap rate is 3%. How many automatic
bar machines will be required to meet the specified annual demand for the
three new parts?
Solution
QT
Σ
j cj
n=
WL
=
(
E wj 1 − q j )
AT TAU
25000 ( 5.0 ) 40000 ( 7.0 ) 50000 ( 10.0 ) 1 hr
+ + ( min/ yr ) ×
1.1 ( 1 − 0.03 ) 0.85 ( 1 − 0.03 ) 0.90 ( 1 − 0.03 ) 60 min
n=
8hrs
× 250 days ( 0.95 )( 0.85 ) ( hr/yr )
day
1952.51 + 5660.00 + 9545.63
n=
1615
n = 10.62 workstations
= 11 workstations (integer)
• Using an automated station has many benefits, which are the cost for hiring
workers will be reduced, it is easy to implement, and due to the accuracy and
reliability, the production volume is usually higher than manned stations.
INTRODUCTION
Batch manufacturing is a long-established form of manufacturing where
production is completed in lots of various sizes.
In the United States alone, batch manufacturing constitutes 50% of its total
manufacturing. Worldwide, it accounts for 60 to 80% of all manufacturing
activities. The widespread use of batch production can be attributed to the
economics of scale: a single production line can be used to produce several
products, and it is cheaper to produce a number of each item in one go. However,
inherent problems with batch production (inventory handling, crossed
production flow, unproductive setup and idle time, unfinished stocks waiting in
queue, etc.) led engineers to look for ways to increase its efficiency.
In batch manufacturing, where production is made in lots, the idea is to keep the
level of inventory such that it minimises the total inventory holding costs and
ordering costs. The size of the production lots, which gives maximum economy
in purchasing any material and maintaining the materials at optimum level and
minimum cost, is called the „Economic Order Quantity‰ or EOQ. However,
changes can be made between batches for example food colouring can be
changed between batches makes output product have variety of colours.
Batch manufacturing is used because of the nature of the process where only a
specified amount or quantity of material is demanded at any one time. This
situation can be apparent when the quantity of material is limited by the size of
the container used in the manufacturing. Batch manufacturing is also used when
there are variations between parts or products manufactured in different batches.
An example of this is a manufacturing process where a batch of 100 units of part
Q is followed by a batch of 150 units of part R, and a setup/changeover is
required between these batches due to a requirement for different tooling and
fixtures.
„Group technology is the realisation that many problems are similar, and that
by grouping similar problems, a single solution can be found to a set of
problems thus saving time and effort.‰
(Solaja, 1973)
Since processing each member of a given family is similar, this will result in
greater manufacturing efficiency and productivity. Group technology places
great emphasis on groupings based on similarities in design attributes and
processing methods. The integration of CAD and CAM into the system will be
much easier, since the use of common parts or product definitions is a key factor
in integrating CAD and CAM.
Definitions of a Cell
• The smallest structural unit of an organism that is capable of
independent functioning.
• A small confining room.
• Any various small compartments or bounded areas forming part of a
whole.
• A small group acting as a unit within a larger organisation.
Group technology and cellular manufacturing can lead to various tangible and
intangible benefits in engineering design, layout planning, specification of
equipment, tools, jigs, and fixtures, manufacturing process planning, production
control, and quality control, purchasing and customer service.
Two major tasks that a company must undertake when implementing group
technology are:
(a) Part families identification; and
(b) Rearranging production families into machine cells.
ACTIVITY 3.1
1. Review all the concepts learnt so far, and then answer the
following questions:
(a) Describe how group technology can improve your
organisation.
(b) What potential obstacles can an organisation expect when
implementing group technology, and how can these
obstacles be overcome?
The word „family‰ is used as a name for any list of similar parts. The families
used with group layout are lists of parts which are similar because they are all
made on the same group of machines. This type of family is called a „Production
Family‰. However, not all parts which are similar in shape will appear in the
same family. So, a part family is a collection of parts that are similar either in
geometric shape and size or in the processing steps required to produce them.
For example, Figure 3.4 and 3.5 show two different part families. In Figure 3.4,
the two parts are very similar in terms of geometric design, but quite different in
terms of tolerances, production quantities and materials. On the other hand, the
items in Figure 3.5 are members of a part family from a manufacturing aspect,
but their different geometries make them appear quite different from a design
viewpoint. Additional examples of parts grouped by geometric shape and
manufacturing process are shown in Figure 3.6 and 3.7.
The other features that are important in choosing the families are:
(a) Manufacturing tolerances;
(b) Required quantities;
(c) Materials; and
(d) Special features, which will require the use of different machines.
3.3.1 Groups
A group is a list of machines, selected for layout together in one place, because it
contains all the necessary facilities to complete the processing of a given family of
parts. A family of parts can only be defined by relating it to a particular group of
machines, and a group by relating it to a family. Groups vary greatly in type and
size, widely in the number of machines and different machine types.
As group size is reduced, more types of machines will be needed in more than
one group and there is an increased risk that some new machines must be
purchased. Another factor in choosing the size of groups is the number of people
who will employ them.
Group technology begins by grouping parts into families. There are three
methods that can be used to form part families:
(a) Manual visual inspection;
(b) Production flow analysis; and
(c) Classification and coding.
Example 3.1
Consider a problem of four machines and six parts. Try to group them.
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6
M1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1
Solution:
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6
M1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1
Step 1:
By using the following equations, allocate the binary weight and determine a
decimal weight for each column and row:
n
Decimal weight for column j , W j = b pj 2n − p
p =1
m
Decimal weight for row i , Wi = bip 2m − p
p =1
Step 2:
Rank the rows in order of decreasing decimal weight values.
Step 3:
Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each column.
Step 4:
Then, continue these steps until there is no change in the position of each element
in the row and column.
Example 3.2
Consider a problem of seven machines and nine parts. Try to group them by
using the rank order clustering algorithm.
Parts
Machines A B C D E F G H I
1 1 1 1
2 1 1
3 1 1 1
4 1 1
5 1 1
6 1 1
7 1 1 1
Solution:
Step 1: Assign the binary weight and calculate the decimal weight.
For example, for Row M/C1 , decimal weight =
(1 × 28 ) + (0 × 27 ) + (0 × 26 ) + (1 × 25 ) + (0 × 24 ) + (0 × 23 ) + (0 × 22 ) + (1 × 21 ) + (0 × 20 ) = 290
Binary values 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Decimal
M/C A B C D E F G H I Rank
Weight
1 1 1 1 290 1
2 1 1 17 7
3 1 1 1 81 5
4 1 1 136 4
5 1 1 258 2
6 1 1 65 6
7 1 1 1 140 3
Decimal
M/C A B C D E F G H I Rank
Weight
1 1 1 1 290 1
5 1 1 258 2
7 1 1 1 140 3
4 1 1 136 4
3 1 1 1 81 5
6 1 1 65 6
2 1 1 17 7
Binary
M/C A B C D E F G H I
Values
1 1 1 1 26
5 1 1 25
7 1 1 1 24
4 1 1 23
3 1 1 1 22
6 1 1 21
2 1 1 20
Decimal
96 24 6 64 5 24 16 96 7
Weight
Rank 1 4 8 3 9 5 6 2 7
Binary
M/C A B C D E F G H I
Values
1 1 1 1 26
5 1 1 25
7 1 1 1 24
4 1 1 23
3 1 1 1 22
6 1 1 21
2 1 1 20
Decimal
96 24 6 64 5 24 16 96 7
Weight
Rank 1 4 8 3 9 5 6 2 7
Binary
M/C A H D B F G I C E
Values
1 1 1 1 26
5 1 1 25
7 1 1 1 24
4 1 1 23
3 1 1 1 22
6 1 1 21
2 1 1 20
The part families are AHD, BFG and ICE (three families). The machine groups
are machines 1 and 5, machines 7 and 4 and machines 3, 6 and 2 (three
machine cells).
Normally, the design and manufacturing attributes of a part are correlated; the
correlation is less than perfect. In normal practice, classification and coding
systems are formulated to incorporate both parts design attributes and its
manufacturing attributes. There are various reasons for using a coding system
and the main ones are:
(a) Retrieval of design;
(b) Automated process planning; and
(c) Machine cell design.
A number of classifications and coding systems have been developed, but none
has been universally adopted. This is because a classification and coding system
must be customised for each industry. The products of each industry are unique
and the best system for one industry may not be the best for another.
In general, there are three distinct structures used in a classification and coding
scheme. They are:
(a) Hierarchical Structure, also known as a Mono-code. The interpretation of
each successive symbol depends on the value of the preceding symbols;
(b) Chain-type Structure, also known as a Poly-code or Attribute. The
interpretation of each symbol in the sequence is always the same; it does
not depend on the value of the preceding symbols; and
(c) Mixed-mode Structure, also known as a Hybrid of the two previous coding
schemes.
Assume that a code consists of five symbols and that in each of the five
code fields the digits 0 to 9 are used. Determine how many mutually
exclusive characteristics can potentially be stored in the mono-code and the
poly-code.
The first digit for example, might be used to denote the type of part, such as
a gear. The next five positions might be reserved for a short attribute code
that would describe the attribute of the gear. The next digit (7th digit) might
be used to designate another subgroup, such as material, followed by
another attribute code that would describe the attributes. A code created
by this manner would be relatively more compact than a pure attribute
code, while retaining the ability to easily identify parts with specific
characteristics.
Example 3.3
Given the rotational part design as below, determine the form code in the
OPITZ parts classification and coding system.
Solution:
Referring to Figure 3.14, the five-digit code is developed as follows:
• Batch manufacturing is used because of the nature of the process, where only
a specified amount or quantity of material is demanded at any one time.
7. State the production conditions under which group technology and cellular
manufacturing are most suitable.
8. What are the two major tasks that a company must undertake when
implementing group technology?
11. List the three methods that can be used to form part families.
INTRODUCTION
Materials are very important components in any manufacturing process.
The way the handling of materials is linked to production processes in a
manufacturing system is a major factor affecting the systemÊs performance. It is
therefore important to study material flow in relation to manufacturing as a
whole.
A system that addresses the issues in facilities and material handling is called a
material flow system. Such a system will typically comprise of the design and
operational control aspects pertaining to the physical movement of materials
(parts, tools, containers and material-handling devices) in a manufacturing
process. In this topic, we will cover the subject of facilities layout, line balancing
and material handling.
An organisation must answer the following four questions before it can make
decisions regarding its facility layout:
(a) What departments or sections should the layout include?
(b) How much space and capacity does each department or section require?
(c) What is the space configuration for each department or section?
(d) Where should each department or section be located?
Advantages:
(a) Equipment is for general purpose. This equipment may be less costly to
purchase and easier to maintain than specialised equipment.
(b) The workers are skilled at operating a variety of equipment and operations,
and can multi-task.
(c) Less vulnerable to changes in product mix or new marketing strategies;
hence, there is high flexibility.
(d) Since there are multiple machines available, they are not particularly
vulnerable to equipment failures.
Disadvantages:
(a) Processing rates tend to be slower as jobs or customers do not flow through
the system in an orderly manner. Backtracking is common and queues tend
to develop.
(b) New arrival of products or services may require different set-up, which can
lead to loss of productive time.
(c) Requires large space to accommodate the large amount of in-process
inventory. In services firms, large aisles are mandatory for customers to
move back and forth and there is substantial display space to accommodate
different customer preferences.
(d) The time lags between job starts and end points are rather long.
(e) Diversity in routings and jumbled flows necessitate the use of variable path
devices such as pallets rather than conveyors.
(f) Requires flexible material handling equipment, such as forklifts to move the
pallets. Therefore, material handling tends to be costly.
(g) Production planning and control is more complicated and rather difficult.
Automated processes commonly use a product layout, and the role of the worker
here is different. Workers perform specific and narrowly-defined tasks which do
not require high skills and wage rates, as compared to those working in a process
layout.
(a) Paced
On paced lines, we are able to use conveyor types that shift the product
output in a continuous rate or manner. Here, the worker is able to perform
process operations on a particular product as the product goes by. In
special circumstances, such as when longer operating hours are needed, the
worker will have to walk along with the work when it moves until the
worker is finished and can walk back to his or her original workstation to
begin working on another part or product. This is the way the automobile
manufacturing operates.
(b) Unpaced
On an unpaced assembly line, the workers build up queues between
workstations to allow a variable work pace. This type of line does not work
well with large and bulky products because of storage space requirements.
At the same time, it is difficult to balance an extreme variety of output rates
without significant idle time. In normal practice, the assembly-line
balancing technique is used to group the individual tasks performed into
workstations, so that there will be a reasonable balance of work among the
workstations.
Advantages:
(a) Product layouts can generate a large volume of products in a short time.
(b) Unit cost is low as a result of the high volume. Labour specialisation results
in reduced training time and cost. A wider span of supervision also reduces
labour costs. Accounting, purchasing and inventory control are routine. As
routing is fixed, less attention is required.
(c) There is a high degree of labour and equipment utilisation.
Disadvantages:
(a) The systemÊs inherent division of labour can result in dull, repetitive jobs
that can prove to be quite stressful. Also, assembly-line layouts make it
very hard to administer individual incentive plans.
(b) Product layouts are inflexible and cannot easily respond to required system
changes – especially changes in product or process design.
(c) The system is at risk from equipment breakdown, absenteeism and
downtime due to preventive maintenance.
Advantages:
(a) Suitable for products that are project-based.
(b) Workers are highly skilled, performing special tasks such as welding,
pipefitting, wiring and so on.
(c) Minimises the number of times that the product must be moved and often
is the only feasible solution.
Disadvantages:
(a) For many fixed-position layouts, the work area may be crowded so that
little storage space is available.
(b) The crowded work area can also cause material handling problems.
(c) WorkersÊ wages are high as they are highly skilled. Fixed cost is relatively
low (equipment may not be owned but leased or rented) whereas the
variable costs would be high (due to the high labour wages and the cost of
leasing and moving equipment).
(d) The administrative burden is higher for fixed-position layouts. The span of
control can be narrow and coordination is difficult.
The size of the problem is minimised using product analysis techniques which
also minimises the computational time. New similarity measures are developed
to consider the missing entities of the previous research works. Products and
machines are segregated for different type of layouts (assembly layout, process
layout and distributed layout) based on machine utilisation and the similarities
between the products. For example, one firm may utilise a process layout for the
majority of its process along with an assembly in one area. Alternatively, a firm
may utilise a fixed-position layout for the assembly of its final product but use
assembly lines to produce the components and subassemblies that make up the
final product. Organisations also create hybrid layouts when introducing cells
and flexible automation, such as flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) which we
will discuss in Topic 5.
Before the products and machines are segregated for the different kind of
layouts, the product data should be analysed. However, for a large size problem
with more number of products and machines, determining the best suited layout
is difficult. This is because the properties of some products may change the
dominance quotient and may drift away from the assignment of layout.
Although, the layout is determined for all the products, there exists a possibility
that a group of products may be best suited for a different layout when they are
not considered as a whole. In other words, a product group may consist of
several subgroups which are best suited for different type of layouts. Hence, for
the same set of products we may yield better results when the products are
assigned to the combination of different kind of layouts. The need for designing
different type of layouts can be identified by analysing the product
characteristics such as product volume, product similarity, sequence similarity
and machine utilisation.
ACTIVITY 4.1
„The system's inherent division of labour can result in dull, repetitive
jobs that can prove to be quite stressful.‰
Also, the assembly line needs to be designed effectively and tasks needs to be
distributed among workers, machines and workstations ensuring that every line
segments in the production process can be met within the time frame and
available production capacity. Assembly line balancing can also be defined as
assigning proper number of workers or machines for each operations of an
assembly line so as to meet required production rate with minimum or zero ideal
time. Line balancing is done in the following circumstances:
(a) A line is set up initially;
(b) A line is rebalanced to change its hourly output rate; or
(c) Product or process changes.
A simple way to understand the concept of line balancing is shown in Figure 4.8
and 4.9.
Figure 4.8: Unbalanced Line (y axis depicts minutes; x axis depicts operators)
In Figure 4.8, we see operator number 1 over-producing, thus creating the other
six wastes. We simply re-balance the work content (redistribute some of the
work), using line balancing as shown in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9: Balanced Line (y axis depicts minutes; x axis depicts operators)
Example 4.1
You have just been assigned the job of setting up an electrical fan assembly
line with the following tasks:
Solution:
2000
Production Rate, p = = 50 units per hour
40
c = 1/p (4.1)
Example 4.2
If the lineÊs desired production rate is 120 units per hour, determine the
desired cycle time.
Solution:
1 1
c= = = 0.5 min
p 120
Cycle time can also be assumed as the time between completed items coming off
the assembly line. The following example demonstrates this:
Example 4.3
Consider the four-station assembly line as shown below. Calculate the lineÊs
cycle time.
Solution:
We can see that it will take 12 minutes (3 + 3 + 3 + 3) for each item to pass
completely through all four workstations. However, the assembly line does
not work on only one item at a time but four items at a time when it is fully
operational.
Every 3 minutes, a new item enters the line at workstation 1 and at the same
time a completed items leaves the assembly line at workstation 4. This
3-minute interval is the actual cycle time of the line and 12 minutes is the total
flow time of an item.
A perfect line balance can be achieved if the sum of the task times at each
workstation equals the desired cycle time, c and no workstation has any idle
time. In practice, a perfect line balance is unachievable; hence, managers can only
aim to minimise the number of workstations and increase line efficiency. The
theoretical minimum (TM) for the number of workstations is given by:
Σt
TM = (4.2)
c
where Σt = Total time required to complete each unit (the sum of all task
times); and
c = Cycle time.
Example 4.4
The sum of all task time is 10 minutes and the cycle time is 1 minute. Calculate
the theoretical minimum or TM.
Solution:
Σt
TM = = 10/1 = 10 workstations
c
The total unproductive time for all workstations in the assembly of each unit is
called idle time and is given by:
Σt
Efficiency (%) = × 100% (4.4)
nc
The amount by which efficiency falls short of 100 per cent is called balance delay
and is given by:
As long as the cycle time, c, is fixed, we can optimise all three goals by
minimising the number of workstations, n.
Example 4.5
A manufacturing manager wants to make 1,600 units of product A per week.
The sum of all tasks for one unit of Product A is 5 minutes. The factory
operates
40 hours per week. Calculate:
(a) LineÊs cycle time;
(b) The smallest number of workstations; and
(c) The line efficiency.
Solution:
1600
(a) Production Rate, p = = 40 units per hour
40
1 1
c= = hour/unit = 1.5 minutes/unit
p 40
Σt 5
(b) TM = = = 3.33 ≈ 4 workstations
c 1.5
Σt 5
(c) Efficiency (%) = (100) = (100) = 83.3%
nc 4(1.5)
The manual approach described here is a simpler method. A task is selected from
a list of task candidates and it is assigned to a workstation. We will repeat this
step until all workstations have been formed, using k as a counter for the
workstation being formed.
Step 1
Start with workstation, k = 1. Prepare a task candidate list to be assigned to this
station, k, where each task candidate must satisfy the conditions as below:
(a) The task has not been assigned to this or any previous workstation;
(b) The task predecessors have been assigned to this or a previous workstation;
and
(c) The task time does not exceed the stationÊs idle time, which accounts for all
tasks already assigned. If no tasks have been assigned, the workstationÊs
idle time equals the cycle time.
Step 2
Select a task candidate. To select a task from the task candidate list, the following
three decision rules are normally used:
(a) Pick the task with the largest time;
(b) Pick the task with the most successors or followers; and
(c) Pick the task with the greatest sum of task times of its predecessors.
Then, assign the task chosen to station k. For cases where two or more tasks are
tied, choose one of them arbitrarily.
Step 3
Compute the cumulative time for all tasks assigned to workstation k. To find the
workstationÊs idle time, subtract this total from the cycle time. Go to Step 1, and
generate a new list of task candidates.
Step 4
If there are some unassigned tasks, but none are task candidates for workstation
k, create a new workstation k + 1, and go to Step 1. Otherwise, the solution is
complete.
Example 4.6
A lawn equipment manufacturer is designing an assembly line to produce a
new equipment. The following information of manufacturing process is given.
The decided production rate is 2,400 units/week. The plant operates 40 hours
per week. Find a line-balancing solution.
Time Immediate
Tasks Description
(sec) Predecessor(s)
A Bolt leg frame to hopper 40 None
B Insert impellar shaft 30 A
C Attach axle 50 A
D Attach agiator 40 B
E Attach drive wheel 6 B
F Attach free wheel 25 C
G Mount lower post 15 C
H Attach controls 20 D, E
I Mount nameplate 18 F, G
Total 244
Solution:
First, draw the precedence diagram:
2400
Production Rate, p = = 60 units per hour
40
1 1
c= = hour/unit = 1 minute/unit = 60 seconds/unit
p 60
2400
Production Rate, p = = 60 units per hour
40
1 1
c= = hour/unit = 1 minute/unit = 60 seconds/unit
p 60
Σt 244
TM = = = 4.067 ≈ 5 workstations
c 60
Σt 244
Efficiency (%) = (100) = (100) = 81.3%
nc 5(60)
The following table shows how to begin. Beginning with the first
workstation, S1 (k = 1), the precedence diagram shows that only task A can be
a task candidate. With task A assigned, workstation S1 has an idle time of 20
seconds (60 − 40). Task B and C are not qualified to become task candidates
for S1 because their time exceed 20 seconds, and so S1 is complete.
For the second workstation S2 (k = 2), tasks B and C are candidates, and we
select C because it has the larger task time (50 seconds) as compared to task B
(30 seconds). Now, S2 consists of task C with idle time equals to 10 seconds
(60 − 50). No other task candidates can be added because adding any task B, F,
or G will bring the total S2 time to exceed the cycle time of 60 seconds.
This procedure is continued until we have assigned all tasks. The final
solution calls for only five workstations as shown in Figure 4.11.
As n = TM = 5, we can do no better than this with a 60-second cycle time.
Cumulative
Station Candidate Choice Idle Time
Time (Sec)
(step 1) (step 2) (step 3) (step 5)
(step 4)
S1 A A 40 20
S2 B, C C 50 10
S3 B, F, G B 30 30
E, F, G F 55 5
S4 D, E, G D 40 20
E, G G 55 5
S5 E, I I 28 42
E E 24 36
H H 44 16
Material handling is a function of moving the right material to the right place at
the right time, in the right amount, in sequence, and in the right condition to
minimise manufacturing cost. As a process, material handling incorporates a
wide range of manual, semi-automated and fully automated equipment and
systems that support logistics and make the supply chain work. A companyÊs
material handling system and processes are put in place to improve customer
service, reduce inventory, shorten delivery time and lower the overall handling
costs in manufacturing, distribution and transportation.
Category Measures
Physical state Solid, liquid or gas
Size Volume, length, width, height
Weight Weight per piece, weight per unit volume
Shape Long and flat, round, square, etc.
Condition Hot, cold, wet, etc.
Safety risk and risk of damage Explosive, flammable, toxic, fragile, etc.
Table 4.2: Facility Layout Type and Typical Material Handling Equipment
• Material handling is a function of moving the right material to the right place
at the right time, in the right amount, in sequence, and in the right condition
to minimise manufacturing cost.
12. You have just been assigned the job of setting up an assembly line with the
following tasks. Draw the precedence diagram.
13. The weekly demand for the problem in Q12 is 120 units and the plant
operates 40 hours per week. Calculate the cycle time (c), theoretical
minimum (TM), line efficiency (E) and perform the line balancing
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important aspects of manufacturing is to have the ability to
meet customersÊ needs by adjusting the operational setup without compromising
the organisationÊs capabilities. This is the driving force behind the concept of
„flexible‰ manufacturing. A flexible manufacturing system or FMS gives
manufacturing firms an advantage to quickly change their manufacturing
environment to improve process efficiency and thus lower production cost.
However, upfront costs may be greater for installing specialised equipment that
allows for flexibility and customisation. In its most generalised form, flexible
manufacturing alludes to the idea of the systemÊs adaptability in reacting to
changing demands.
However, as you will learn later, the term „flexible‰ has different meanings that
vary according to the different approaches. In group technology or GT, an FMS is
one of the machine cell types used to implement cellular manufacturing (CM). In
fact, FMS is the most automated and technologically sophisticated of all the
GT cells.
During this time, the idea of FMS advanced when robots, programmable
controllers and computerised numerical controls brought a controlled
environment to the factory floor in the form of numerically-controlled and direct-
numerically-controlled machines to improve the quality and speed of delivery of
products to customers. Everyday new technologies are being developed and
even FMS are evolving. However, overtime FMS have worked for many
manufacturers and hence will be around for the time to come.
Let us look at Figure 5.1 which depicts an automated manufacturing cell with
two machine tools and a robot. Is it a flexible cell?
These questions can be grouped into five main approaches as shown in Table 5.1.
There are seven basic flexibility measures in manufacturing which have been
identified, as shown in Table 5.2.
Flexibility
Definition Depends on Factors Such As
Type
Machine Capability to adapt a given • Setup or changeover time.
flexibility machine (workstation) in the • Ease of machine reprogramming
system to a wide range of (ease with which part programs
production operations and part can be downloaded to machines).
styles. The greater the range of
operations and part styles, the • Tool storage capacity of machines.
greater the machine flexibility. • Skill and versatility of workers in
the system.
Production The range or universe of part • Machine flexibility of individual
flexibility styles that can be produced on stations.
the system. • Range of machine flexibilities of
all stations in the system.
Product Ease with which design changes • How closely the new part design
flexibility can be accommodated. Ease matches the existing part family.
with which new products can • Off-line part programme
be introduced. preparation.
• Machine flexibility.
Routing Capacity to produce parts • Similarity of parts in the mix.
flexibility through alternative workstation • Similarity of workstations.
sequences in response to
equipment breakdowns, tool • Duplication of workstations.
failures, and other interruptions • Cross-training of manual workers.
at individual stations. • Common tooling.
Volume Ability to economically produce • Level of manual labour
flexibility parts in high and low total performing production.
quantities of production, given • Amount invested in capital
the fixed investment in the equipment.
system.
Expansion Ease with which the system can • Expense of adding workstations.
flexibility be expanded to increase total • Ease with which layout can be
production quantities. expanded.
• Type of part handling system
used.
• Ease with which properly trained
workers can be added.
Figure 5.4: Features of the three categories of flexible cells and systems
Source: Groover (2008).
ACTIVITY 5.1
„An FMS is distinguished from an automated production line by its
ability to process more than one product style simultaneously.‰
5.4.1 Workstation
In an FMS, the common types of processing workstations are computer
numerical control (CNC) machine tools. However, the FMS concept is applicable
to various other processes as well. The following are the types of workstations
found in an FMS:
(d) Assembly
Some FMS are designed to perform assembly operations in order to replace
or reduce substantially the need for manual labour. FMS can be
programmed to perform tasks with variations in sequence and motion
pattern to accommodate the different product styles.
Moving materials utilise time and space. Any movement of materials requires
that the size, shape, weight and condition of the material, as well as the path and
frequency of the move be analysed. The materials handling and storage system
performs the following functions in an FMS:
(a) Allows random independent movement of work parts between stations;
(b) Handles a variety of work part configuration palettes and robots;
(c) Provides a buffer as a temporary storage; and
(d) Allows the convenient access for loading and unloading work parts.
The material handling system establishes the FMS layout. There are five
categories of FMS layout configurations established. Figure 5.7 to 5.10 show four
of these FMS layouts. Table 5.5 summarises the types of material handling
equipment utilised in these five layouts.
Figure 5.7: FMS in-line layouts: (a) one direction flow similar to a transfer line,
(b) linear transfer system with secondary part handling system at each station
to facilitate flow in two directions.
Source: Groover (2008).
Figure 5.8: (a) FMS loop layout with secondary part handling system at each station to
allow unobstructed flow on loop, (b) rectangular layout for recirculation of pallets to the
first workstation in the sequence.
Source: Groover (2008).
Table 5.5: Material Handling Equipment Typically used for the Five FMS Layouts
There are nine functions performed by the FMS computer control system,
they are:
(a) Workstation control;
(b) Distribution of control instructions to workstations;
(c) Production control;
(d) Traffic control;
(e) Shuttle control;
(f) Work piece monitoring;
Despite these benefits, FMS does have certain limitations and disadvantages.
Some of the disadvantages associated with FMS include a high initial set up cost,
increased difficult in pre-planning, requirements of skilled workers and a more
complicated system. Dr. Anita Lee-Post of University of Kentucky identifies
them as:
(a) Limited ability to adapt to changes in product or product mix (e.g.,
machines of limited capacity and the tooling necessary for products, even
of the same family, is not always feasible in a given FMS).
(b) Systems are very complex and expensive, costing millions of dollars.
(c) Due to increased complexity and cost, an FMS also requires a longer
planning and development period than traditional manufacturing
equipment.
(d) Equipment utilisation for the FMS sometimes is not as high as one would
expect. Japanese firms tend to have a much higher equipment utilisation
rate than the American manufacturers utilising FMS.
(e) Technological problems of exact component positioning and precise timing
necessary to process a component.
(f) Lack of technical literacy, management incompetence and poor
implementation of the FMS process.
(g) Sophisticated manufacturing systems which requires highly skilled staff to
manage.
ACTIVITY 5.2
„Any customer can have a car painted any colour that he wants so
long as it is black.‰
(Henry Ford, ca. 1920s)
„Flexibility is the speed at which a system can react to and
accommodate change.‰
(Reza Maleki, 1991)
How do the statements above reflect the manufacturing sentiments
at the time they were made? How did the environment under
which manufacturers operated during those periods determine
manufacturing priorities and strategy? Consider this in the light of
competition, cost, quality, delivery and customisability. Discuss.
• The FMS objective is to maintain the flexibility for small and medium lot
sized productions of a variety of parts while maintaining the manufacturing
efficiency and economies of scale.
INTRODUCTION
In this final topic, we will look into computer simulation. Computer simulations
have been applied to the manufacturing sector for more than 40 years and have
often proved to be of immense value. Almost everyone has heard of simulation
in one way or another.
Now let us see how it is applied in the context of the manufacturing system. This
topic will only cover a general overview of computer simulation.
system comprises products and the facilities which are used to produce them,
such as machines, operators, material handling systems, pallets and conveyors as
described in the previous topics.
Before we proceed, it would be good if we first define the word model. The word
model is used a lot when one is talking about computer simulations. In computer
simulation, a model is in the logic of the program. It is a simplified or idealised
description of a system devised to facilitate calculations and predictions. Thus,
we are not concerned about physical models but rather abstract ones which
describe in logic the behaviour of the system.
For example, we might know that if a product arrives at a machine for which
some other operations are waiting, the product has to wait and the length of the
queue will increase by one. We also know that whenever a product leaves the
queue and is processed by the machine, the number of operations in the queue
will decrease by one.
These relationships hold for whatever the length of the queue at any point in
time. Now if we have this information, and record all the arrivals and departure,
we can build an exact record of the queue length at all subsequent times.
A logical model of a complex system may be built by incorporating many such
simple relationships and hence, we may be able to predict the response and
behaviour of the whole manufacturing system. If we examine the behaviour of
the system over a sufficiently long period, we may be able to draw general
conclusions about the system which we can use to predict its performance.
ACTIVITY 6.1
A graphical representation can give a very good idea of the logical behaviour of
the simulated process. It is easy to spot graphically if a particular computer
experiment is fruitful by watching the dynamic graphics display. Information
that would otherwise require several pages of written documentation can be
conveyed within a very short amount of presentation time by using animation
with appropriate notation.
Computer simulation models may be large and complex, and as a result take a
long time to build. Still, they can have many advantages over other analytical
methods. In comparison to actual physical experiments, computer simulation has
the advantages of lower cost, time savings, precise replication and safety. A
computer simulation model also has advantages over a mathematical model
which is usually unable to cope with dynamic or transient effects.
Shown in Figure 6.1 are the steps used in most manufacturing system
simulations. However, at times there are different types of simulations, which are
designed to handle unique or different types of systems. A complex
manufacturing system model will involve a combination of methods.
Hence, it would be good if we could spend some time looking into the different
forms of simulation and the circumstances when each might be appropriate. In
choosing the appropriate modelling approach, one should consider the
behaviour of the system under study and the types of problems to be addressed.
The three simulation models or schemes can be classified as discrete-continuous,
static-dynamic and stochastic-deterministic schemes.
On the other hand, change is going on all the time during such occurrences as the
gradual but continuous change of night and day, the increase in temperature
when water is boiled and the turning of winter into spring. A graph of
continuous varying variables is a smooth curve as shown in Figure 6.3.
For example, a mass that is vibrating due to its attachment to a spring can be
considered as continuous. It is also good to note here that the continuous graph
can also be represented by either a linear straight line or irregular shapes. An
example of a linear graph is the volume of liquid in a tank where the liquid flows
into the tank at a constant rate.
The two possible ways a system can behave, either discrete or continuous, lead
us to two basic types of simulation models. Manufacturing systems contain both
types of change. In addition to discrete changes such as starting and stopping a
machine, the amount of stock in storage may be treated as a discrete variable. Let
us look at these two kinds of simulation separately.
On the other hand, if the system responses cannot be predicted, but can only be
analysed through statistical means, then the simulation model is considered as
stochastic. For a given set of inputs, a stochastic model will produce only
estimates of the true system responses.
A generic model is a model of a specific type of system written in such a way that
certain parameters can be altered by the user. Its advantages are it does not
require any extra programming, minimises the time to get results, usually with
acceptable cost and runs on any standard hardware. Its disadvantages are it may
not be capable of modelling specific features, and may include unacceptable
simplification or assumptions.
ACTIVITY 6.2
ACTIVITY 6.3
Search the Internet for instances where computer games have been
effective as simulation models. List three different examples that you
have found.
• The advantages of simulation are flexibility and animation, and its use in the
study of transient behaviour and tackling problems. The disadvantages are its
limited use and the need for expertise.
• There are four possible means of simulation software, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages
Brusa, E., Cala, A., & Feretto, D. (2019). Systems engineering and its application
to industrial product development. New York, NY: Springer.
OR
Thank you.