Landscape and Urban Planning: Editorial
Landscape and Urban Planning: Editorial
Editorial
1. Introduction and their effects on spatial inequality from multiple dimensions (eco-
nomic, social, political, environmental etc.). We seek to examine how
According to the United Nations, 2014 ‘World Urbanization Pro- urban expansion/sprawl affect sustainable outcomes, especially spatial
spects’, the pace of urbanization in the recent decades has been rapid, inequality.
often doubling in size every decade; urbanization could add another 2.5 We announced a call for papers in various academic and profes-
billion urban residents by 2050, with close to 90 percent of the increase sional organizations including AAG and ACSP to broaden the partici-
occurring in Asia and Africa. The greatest urban growth will take place pation and publicize our efforts. All the submitted papers have been
in developing countries such as China and India. This unprecedented reviewed following the Landscape and Urban Planning’s standard review
increase in urban population could not only pose challenges to pro- protocol and quality standards. Ten research articles that address the-
viding jobs, housing, and infrastructure, but also exert more pressure on oretical, methodological, empirical, and policy issues in urban expan-
urban land management, spatial equity, and more generally sustainable sion/sprawl and its effects on spatial inequality in the broad contexts of
development. The recent global financial crisis has intensified the de- globalization, urbanization, and institutional change have been in-
bates over inequality (Stiglitz, 2012; Wei, 2015), and equity has be- cluded in this special issue, including Wei et al. (2017), which was
come a top sustainable development goal of the UN's post-2015 de- mistakenly published separately.
velopment agenda.
As cities are where population is increasingly concentrated, and 2. Objectives and research questions
land is a vital yet limited resource, equitable and sustainable develop-
ment of urban land and urban space to cater the needs of this growing This Special Issue aims at providing new insights on urban expan-
urban population is seen as one of the key challenges globally (UN- sion/sprawl and spatial inequality, with relevance to Landscape and
Habitat, 2011; Wei, 2017; Wei & Ye, 2014). Urban expansion and Urban Planning and its related fields. In the recent years, urbanization
sprawl have been identified as the most significant aspects of urbani- has accelerated in developing countries, and equitable and sustainable
zation and urban development. A key tenet for sustainable development urban development has found relevance in diverse contexts and coun-
and smart growth is promoting equitable urbanization and land de- tries across the globe. With increasing global urbanization, interests in
velopment and mitigating land use conflicts (Wei, 2017). However, equity and sustainability of urban places continue to grow among re-
there is relatively limited scholarship that explores the global char- searchers, academics, and practitioners engaged in urban planning,
acteristics and mechanisms of urban land expansion and sprawl and public policy and sustainable development in diverse nations, including
their implications on equity and sustainable development (Ewing & United States, China, India, and United Kingdom.
Hamidi, 2017). The causal relationship between urban sprawl and While there have been several special issues on urbanization and
spatial inequality has not been comprehensively and thoroughly ex- sustainability (e.g., Wei, 2017; Wei & Ye, 2014) and special issues on
amined; current literature overemphasizes subjects of patterns and ex- spatial inequality (e.g., Wei, 2015, 2017), no special issues have fo-
periences of the West (Li, Wei, & Korinek, 2018; Wei, Li, & Yue, 2017). cused on the linkages between urban expansion/sprawl and spatial
Moreover, existing literature connecting urban development with in- inequality. This Special Issue is unique. It includes articles from a varied
equality mainly emphasizes environmental dimensions, and the subject group of scholars from interdisciplinary fields and international con-
of social sustainability is particularly under-researched (Frenkel & texts. Conclusively, this Special Issue will provide a new lens on urba-
Israel, 2018). nization and equitable development, with four unique contributions: 1)
Therefore, we need more sophisticated studies examining processes, comparative perspectives, 2) global coverage, 3) multiple dimensions
mechanisms, equity, and sustainability of urban expansion and sprawl and interactions, and 4) equity as a key component of sustainable de-
globally and comparatively, to understand the myriad ways in which velopment. We hope that this issue will contribute to broadening the
urban expansion/sprawl, spatial inequality, and sustainable develop- understanding of the spatial and temporal aspects of urban expansion/
ment relate to each other. We also need efforts to develop new theories, sprawl – their patterns, processes and intertwinement with equitable
and innovative concepts and methods to understand the myriad ways in and sustainable development.
which these three constructs correlate with each other. While leaving an amplitude of space for innovative contributions
This special issue focuses on the inter-relationship between urban that bring a new lens on equitable and sustainable urban development,
expansion/sprawl and equitable and sustainable development. It ex- this Special Issue examines spatially and temporally patterns and pro-
amines patterns, structures, and dynamics of urban expansion/sprawl cesses of urban expansion and sprawl, analyzes the effects of urban
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.05.021
expansion/sprawl on spatial inequality and equitable development, and In this special issue, Talen, Wheeler, and Anselin (2018) provide a
provides helpful insights for urban planners and administrators to GIS-based analysis to identify urban sprawl through urban morpholo-
balance efficiency and equity, in policy making and implementation. It gical patterns in the United States. By examining six diverse U.S. me-
focuses on papers that address questions such as the following: tropolitan regions: Boston, Atlanta, Chicago, Las Vegas, Portland, and
Sacramento, they find that loops & lollipops, rural sprawl, upscale en-
• What is the nature, structure, and trajectory of urban expansion/ claves, degenerate grids, and garden suburbs are the core residential
sprawl in different contexts, including institutional change, global landscapes of sprawl, joined by non-residential built landscape types
urbanization and climate change? such as heavy industry, airports, trailer parks, and commercial strips.
• How is urban expansion/sprawl displayed in terms of spatial con- Contemporary globalization and urbanization have important spa-
vergence/divergence, dimension, scale and time? tial dimensions, with the rise of central business districts (CBDs) for
• What are the underlying concepts, mechanisms and the main drivers advanced business services, newly formed production centers in sub-
of urban expansion and sprawl? urban areas, and spatially segregated neighborhoods dividing the rich
• What are the governance and political processes? How are the roles and the poor, especially in developing countries such as China. Studies
of geography, contexts, and institutions in urban expansion/sprawl of China have also found unique patterns of urban expansion, mani-
best measured? fested in multiple forms, including leapfrogged industrial parks, low-
• What effects do they have on equitable development at the local, density suburban residential communities, and chaotic peri-urban in-
regional, and global scales? Does urban sprawl increase residential formal development (Liu, Fan, Yue, & Song, 2018). Consequently,
segregation, spatial mismatch, digital divide, environmental in- urban expansion in China has occurred at unprecedented rates, and
justice, and in general spatial inequality? Chinese cities have become multinucleated or polycentric, even in
• How are developments in GIS, multimedia, and big data best used to China’s western cities (Schneider, Chang, & Paulsen, 2015).
advance our knowledge? The magnitude and measurement of urban expansion in developing
• What are the theoretical and policy implications of the research? countries have also been improved by the development of GIS and RS
How can they be used to promote equitable and sustainable urba- techniques. Based on the reclassification results of satellite images, the
nization and development in terms of policy, governance, and absolute changes and growth rates of built-up areas and construction
practices? land uses have been widely used to capture the urban expansion process
(Huang, Wei, He, & Li, 2015; Li, Wei, Liao, & Huang, 2015; Li, Wei, &
3. Urban expansion/sprawl: characteristics and measurements Zhou, 2017; Wei et al., 2017). With the social data revolution and big
data technology, increasing numbers of studies have focused on the
The debate over urbanization and its consequences have been on- application of open data sources. In this special issue, using the data of
going since the late 1940s with the end of the World War II. points of interest, night light images, and Weibo records from 2009 to
Globalization since the late 1980s has stimulated a new wave of ur- 2014, Long, Zhai, Shen, and Ye (2018) re-define the natural urban area
banization (Sassen, 1991). Demographic urbanization is accompanied in China based on the fractural analysis. They assess the magnitude and
by equally rapid urbanization of land, and the rise of urban problems pattern of natural cities and their expansion in size and space, and then
such as access to jobs, housing affordability, and inequality, as well as find that the spatial expansion rate of official statistics has been sig-
environmental and health challenges. Massive state investment in in- nificantly underestimated. Their study provides a more realistic picture
frastructure and mega-projects characterize Asia’s efforts to promote of urban land expansion in China.
their cities and capitalize on globalization (Chen, 2009; Wei, Leung, & Besides the magnitude and dynamics of urban expansion, a key
Luo, 2006; Wu, 2003). Scholars have been increasingly concerned with issue concerning urban land development is the efficiency of urban land
equity and justice issues worldwide in the broad contexts of globali- use. Patterns of urban land development differ within cities, and the
zation and urbanization (Benner & Pastor, 2012; Fainstein, 2010; Wei, extent of urban sprawl differs within metropolitan areas as well. It is
2017). important to understand the internal structure of cities, which influ-
Urban expansion and sprawl have been treated as two different ences the efficiency of urban land use. Researchers have started to
terms describing physical urban development process in developing evaluate the quality of urban land development based on the indicator
countries and developed nations, respectively. Characterized by low- of land use efficiency, which is defined as the economic output of an
density, single-use, scattered, leapfrog development, urban sprawl has area of land. In general, the existing literature finds that the quality of
been identified as the most critical feature of urbanization and sub- urban expansion is highly associated with patterns of urban develop-
urbanization in the United States (Ewing, 1997). Urban land develop- ment, environmental change, industrialization, economic transition, as
ment in developing countries has been identified as urban expansion, well as the establishment of development zones (Barbosa, Bragança, &
since most of this process lacks the characteristics of leapfrog and low Mateus, 2015; Huang, He, & Wei, 2016; Wu, Wei, Huang, & Chen,
density (Li et al., 2018). However, there is no clear dividing line be- 2017).
tween sprawling and compact development, and the process of urban Additionally, Long, Zhai, Shen, and Ye (2018) utilize the perspective
land development in many cities cannot simply be characterized as of natural cities to evaluate the quality of urban expansion by calcu-
sprawling development (Ewing & Hamidi, 2017). Over the years, infill lating the ratio between the density of the expanded urban areas and
development has reduced the level of urban sprawl in many cities, even that of the existing urban areas in the BTH, the Yangtze River Delta
such cities as Los Angeles, which has been at the center of the debate (YRD) and the Pearl River Delta (PRD). They find that the BTH has the
over urban sprawl (Ewing, 1997; Gordon & Richardson, 1997). highest functional quality of urban expansion, while the PRD has the
Since divergent definitions have been employed to capture the two best social quality. Urban land use efficiency in the YRD has improved
similar processes of urban expansion and sprawl, different geographic over time, with the process of globalization and the improvement of
and spatial patterns, measurements and underlying mechanisms have accessibility (Wu et al., 2017).
also been developed. Based on the application of GIS techniques,
scholars have developed a series of methods to identify the spatial 4. Mechanism
patterns of urban sprawl using different indicators such as time cost of
traffic, mixed land uses, centrality of population distribution, density of The underlying mechanism of urban land development has also
development, and compactness scores (Galster, Hanson, Wolman, been hotly debated. With the development of GIS and modeling tech-
Coleman, & Freihage, 2001; Hamidi, Ewing, Preuss, & Dodds, 2015; niques, scholars have concluded a series of studies on the mechanisms
Sierra Club, 1998; Tsai, 2005). of urban expansion and sprawl (Li et al., 2018). Transportation
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improvements, local accessibilities, economic growth, the desire of generating spatial inequality in multiple dimensions (Wei, 2012). The
better life quality, fiscalization of land use, globalization, roles of state, role of focalization in land development is even more significant in
patterns of economic transition, and entrepreneurship have all been developing countries, especially in China where local governments rely
employed in explaining urban land development in both developed and heavily on land finance through the proactive approach of land leasing
developing countries (Chapple, 2018; Gordon & Richardson, 2000; (Liu et al., 2018). Land development in China follows the adminis-
Lewis, 2001; Wei et al., 2017). Particularly noticeable are efforts to trative hierarchy, and higher ranked cities such as centrally admini-
theorize the process of urbanization and land development, including strated municipalities and provincial capitals tend to have more power
the notion of teleconnection (Seto, Reenberg, et al., 2012), the use of in land development and urbanization (Li et al., 2015, 2017; Wei et al.,
concepts in economic geography (Li, Deng, & Seto, 2012; Li et al., 2018; 2017). In this special issue, Wang, Chen, Zheng, and Deng (2018)
Lin, 2007), and the conceptualization of urbanization and urban ex- analyze the trade-off impacts of urban expansion and land use effi-
pansion in China as a triple process of globalization, decentralization ciency in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) of China and find that changes in
and marketization (e.g., Gao, Wei, Chen, & Chen, 2014; Gao, Wei, Chen, land use efficiency are primarily influenced by rural income growth.
& Yenneti, 2015; Huang et al., 2015; Li et al., 2015, 2017; Wei, 2012). The efforts to integrate factors from various perspectives have
While most of the studies employ a mixed perspective to provide a provided a more complete conceptual framework to understand urban
comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms, for simplicity, the expansion and sprawl, and helped to theorize variable selections in the
underlying mechanisms of urban sprawl/expansion have been studied modeling traditions. The significance of these factors and their inter-
from the neoclassical, sociological and institutional perspectives. action should vary with different contexts of research. For example, the
Neoclassical theories tend to emphasize the role of markets and prices triple transition framework of urbanization in China have to be revised
in urban sprawl/expansion. They point out that agricultural land price, when studying other developing countries (Li et al., 2018). Also, more
commuting cost, increasing incomes and population, transportation case studies are needed to unfold and compare the role of different
improvements, and consumer choices are the primary factors resulting factors including states and markets in urban expansion and sprawl,
in urban sprawl in the United States (Brueckner & Fansler, 1983; especially in the context of developing countries.
Gordon & Richardson, 2000). Scholars have used neoclassical theories
in the context of developing countries and found that economic factors, 5. Outcomes and effects on inequality
such as population, income, transportation costs, and agriculture land
rent, are primary determinants of urban expansion (Li et al., 2012; Seto Many outcomes of urbanization of land in developed countries,
& Kaufman, 2003). This school of thought has become the basis for especially urban sprawl, have been extensively researched in the past
numerous model-based studies, which tend to use a variety of in- two decades. The debate over metropolitan sprawl and its costs has
dicators, often with little theoretical justification, to model the de- been ongoing since the early 1970s in the U.S. (Ewing, Pendall, & Chen,
terminants of urban expansion. However, how market mechanisms 2002), and spills over into European and Asian countries (Wei & Ye,
function and the relationships among influencing factors remain un- 2014; Wilson & Chakraborty, 2013). Since the 2000s, the consequences
derstudied. have drawn increasing scholarly attention, and thus, literature con-
Social and behavioral scientists tend to emphasize personal choices necting urban development with inequality has emerged. Consequently,
and racial relations in spatial decisions and urban sprawl. They believe the concepts of upward mobility, environmental justice, jobs-housing
that residents as individuals have the desire to avoid the real and per- imbalance, social segregation, digital divide, and gated communities,
ceived blight of more centralized locations, which has been marked by have been widely connected with the process of urban expansion and
higher tax rates, higher crime rates, crumbling infrastructures, as well sprawl (Ewing, Hamidi, & Grace, 2016; Ewing, Hamidi, Grace, & Wei,
as low-performing public schools (Batchis, 2010; Mieszkowski & Mills, 2016; Goix, 2005; Jargowsky, 2001; Lee, Ambrey, & Pojani, 2018;
1993). For some, suburbanization is a personal choice, while for others, Zhao, Lu, & Roo, 2011).
the process of suburbanization can be considered as “white flight,” and The literature has been more heavily oriented toward costs of
is an even racialized, discriminatory process against minorities in the sprawl than to equity and sustainability issues. While the literature on
inner cities. The development of the Internet and social media techni- sprawl and its impacts is well-established, there is little understanding
ques, as well as availability of open data, have empowered researchers of how urban sprawl may affect the so-called “topical outcomes”
to truly understand movement patterns and job-housing relations at the especially spatial inequality, upward mobility, public health, and sus-
individual level, thereby providing the potential for better under- tainable development in general. Rising income inequality and the as-
standing of the mechanisms of urban development . sociated lack of upward mobility, have emerged among the most im-
Institutional perspectives emphasize the role of institutions espe- portant issues of our time (Piketty, 2014; Stiglitz, 2012). While
cially local government in the process of urban sprawl/expansion. inequality often makes the headlines of news, spatial inequality remains
Scholars have used such concepts as globalization, development state, less studied and upward mobility is barely on the radar of geographers
entrepreneurship state, transitional institutions, growth machine, as and planners (Wei, 2015). Ewing, Hamidi, and Grace (2016) and
well as economic transition to conceptualize the underlying mechan- Ewing, Hamidi, Grace, et al.’s (2016) pioneering work provides evi-
isms of urban expansion, especially on urbanization and urban expan- dence of negative effects of urban sprawl on upward mobility. Lee et al.
sion in China (Li et al., 2015, 2017, 2018; Wei, 2012). In terms of urban (2018) find that, consistent with a priori expectations, lower levels of
sprawl, scholars find that land use decisions are driven heavily by fiscal sprawl are, on average, associated with lower levels of income in-
considerations, which influences the degree of sprawl observed in equality and lower levels of sprawl correspond to higher levels of fi-
urban areas (Chapple, 2018; Ladd, 1998; Lewis, 2001). A property tax nancial well-being. Nevertheless, many research issues remain, in-
on land improvements results in a reduction in the intensity of land cluding the role of scale and neighborhoods, and international contexts.
development (Brueckner & Kim, 2003). In this special issue, Chapple Moreover, while the discourses on sustainability emphasize overall
(2018) confirms suburban jurisdictions are disproportionately likely to interactions among the three pillars of sustainable development – so-
fiscalize land uses, to make local land-use decisions to maximize rev- ciety, economy, and environment – most of the research has been fo-
enue generation through the attraction of tax-generating uses and the cused on preserving the ecological capital against economic capital and
reduction of government service costs. development or vis-à-vis. There is little research on the intertwinement
Governments have used land urbanization as the primary approach among the economic, social (e.g., health, inclusion), and environment
to stimulate economic growth and eliminate poverty (United Nations, capitals of sustainable development – the essence of sustainability of
2014). Land urbanization has been identified as a global process that urban societies. The effects of urban expansion and sprawl on multiple
reshapes and restructures the traditional urban space and organization, dimensions of spatial inequality – a complex and alarming issue for
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both developed and developing countries – largely remain untouched. Burchell et al., 1998, 2002; Lieske, McLeod, Coupal, & Srivastava,
The global urbanization process has become more spatially frag- 2012).
mented and more socially segregated (Goix, 2005). Most urban projects Along with the costs, there have been reported benefits too
of recent decades, no matter whether in developed or developing (Bruegmann, 2006; Cox & Utt, 2004; Ewing & Hamidi, 2015; Gordon &
countries, have contributed to a physical reinforcement of inequality Lee, 2013). Bruegmann (2006), for example, describes suburban sprawl
and segregation in multiple dimensions (Burdett, 2016). Still, there is as a natural manifestation of the American Dream of a big house in the
little agreement on the process of urban expansion/sprawl and its im- suburbs. Gordon et al. (2013) also find that given the population size
pacts on spatial inequality and sustainable development (Bruegmann, and suburbanization, more decentralized and dispersed employment
2006; Burchell et al., 1998, 2002; Duany, Plater-Zyberk, & Speck, 2001; distribution is associated with shorter average commute time. A recent
Ewing, 1997; Ewing & Hamidi, 2017; Ewing et al., 2002; Gordon et al., study shows that lower housing prices in sprawling areas are offset by
1997; Hayden, 2004; Hirschhorn, 2005). Since multiple dimensions are higher transportation costs, giving a slight edge to compact areas when
the nature of inequality (Li & Wei, 2010; Wei, 2015), the section will it comes to H + T (housing plus transportation costs) affordability.
discuss how the urban expansion/sprawl reshape economic, social, and In this special issue, using the land use and socioeconomic data of
environmental inequalities, as well as the relevant policy suggestion in 1.2 million tax assessor parcels in California from 2007 to 2013,
both developed and developing nations. Given the interdisciplinary Chapple (2018) quantitatively proves that the urban sprawl negatively
feature of inequality, research on outcomes and be divided into eco- affects net job quality, specifically wages, over time. She further asserts
nomic, social, and environmental dimensions for simplicity (Redman & that land use strategies have failed in achieving broader economic de-
Jones, 2005; Zhao, 2013). velopment goals since the new job opportunities created by urban
sprawl tends to pay relatively low wages and offer little upward mo-
5.1. Economic dimension bility, which further reinforces the findings in Ewing, Hamidi, and
Grace (2016) and Ewing, Hamidi, Grace, et al.’s (2016) and Lee et al.’s
There have been a large number of studies relating urban sprawl (2018) papers.
and expansion to economic inequality since the 1960s. Along with the Also in this special issue, Mueller, Hilde, and Torrado (2018) pro-
urbanization, urban expansion and sprawl have been widely identified pose to incorporate housing preservation into transit-oriented devel-
as a significant factor influencing economic/income inequality in both opment planning. By paying special attention to poverty sprawl, they
developed and developing countries (UN-Habitat, 2011; Wei, 2012). In assess and compare transit corridors in terms of the benefits they pro-
the context of western urban areas, the expanded economic and income vide to low-income renters, the potential scale of displacement, and
gaps, as well as the spatial mismatch caused by urban sprawl are the redevelopment pressure, and then test them on comparative case cities
most popular topics in this dimension (Ewing, Hamidi, & Grace, 2016; of Austin and Denver. Their suggestions should help preservation of
Ewing, Hamidi, Grace, et al., 2016; Jargowsky, 1996, 2001). Urban affordable rental housing in central, transit-rich neighborhoods.
sprawl and the concentration of poverty in inner cities are the same In developing countries, concentrated development and distribu-
metropolitan development processes, which further limit equality of tions of public services and transport infrastructures in core urban areas
opportunity and increase spatial inequality (Jargowsky, 2001). result in a cluster of high-income residents in the urban center, while
After World War II, many wealthy Americans decentralized out of the low-income residents and migrants are confined in the periphery
the core cities and moved to the suburbs. Shopping and ancillary ser- urban regions (Zhao, 2013). By innovatively treating urban expansion
vices followed them, leaving poor and minority populations behind. In as the source and dimension of spatial inequality, Wei et al. (2017)
this regard, Kain (1968) formulated the spatial mismatch hypothesis, analyze spatial patterns and dynamics of urban land expansion in China
arguing that poor black workers left in central cities were increasingly to better understand the role of institutions and urbanization in spatial
distant from and poorly connected to major centers of employment in inequality. They find that urban land expansion in China is highly
suburban areas. They were constrained by discrimination in labor and uneven at both intra-provincial and intra-prefectural levels, and in-
housing markets and central city job shortages. The spatial mismatch equalities are much higher in the Western region than the Eastern re-
hypothesis has important implications for inner city residents that are gion. The provincial level development policies are the major driver of
dependent on low level entry jobs. Distance from work centers can lead increased urban land expansion and economic development gaps across
to increasing unemployment rates among inner city residents and prefectures, which have further intensified regional inequality in China.
thereby increasing poverty outcomes for the region as a whole.
Many empirical studies tested the spatial mismatch hypothesis in 5.2. Social dimension
the early 1970s, soon after the advance of the hypothesis by Kain
(1968). There was resurgent interest in the hypothesis in the early Scholars are also widely concerned with the impacts of sprawl on
1990s, when at least five review articles were published (Holzer, 1991; quality-of-life outcomes. Urban sprawl and expansion have enormous
Ihlanfeldt, 1994; Jencks & Mayer, 1990; Kain, 1992; Moss & Tilly, influences on social inequality in terms of education, life-chances,
1991), and at least six more after 2000 (Blumenberg, 2004; Blumenberg mobility, health and access to public services (Batchis, 2010; Ewing,
& Manville, 2004; Chapple, 2006; Fan, 2012; Gobillon, Selod, & Zenou, Hamidi, & Grace, 2016; Ewing, Hamidi, Grace, et al., 2016; Ragusett,
2007; Houston, 2005). 2016; Zhao, 2013). In general, scholars have agreed that urban sprawl
An established positive correlation between urban sprawl and in- has largely increased the racial and gender inequality for residents in
come inequality and segregation have been widely found (Guo, terms of access employment opportunities, public services, and urban
Buchmann, & Schwarz, 2017; Jargowsky, 2001; Watson, 2009). amenities (Glaeser, Kahn, & Rappapo, 2008; McLafferty & Preston,
Wheeler (2008) identifies that the variance of the household income 1992; Thomas, 1998). Sprawl has also reduced social capital (Kim,
distribution significantly raises as urban density declines, which con- Subramanian, Gortmaker, & Kawachi, 2006; Nguyen, 2010).
firms that the negative effect of urban sprawl on equitable development Urban sprawl is believed to contribute to traffic congestion (Ewing
in the United States. Sprawl contributes to low housing affordability et al., 2002; Holcombe & Williams, 2012; Zolnik, 2011) and traffic
(Kahn, 2001, 2006; Wassmer & Baass, 2006). Wassmer and Baass safety problems (Ewing, Hamidi, & Grace, 2016; Ewing, Hamidi, Grace,
(2006) find that more centralized metropolitan areas actually exhibit et al., 2016; Ewing, Schmid, Killingsworth, Zlot, & Raubenbush, 2003;
lower median home prices and lower proportions of homes in upper- Trowbridge, Gurka, & O’Connor, 2009). Ewing, Pendall, and Chen
end price categories than sprawling regions. Many studies have also (2003) and Ewing and Hamidi (2014) find that sprawl is associated
reported savings on infrastructure costs as densities rise (e.g., American with significantly higher fatal crash rates. Urban sprawl also reduces
Farmland Trust, 2006; Burchell, Downs, McCann, & Mukherji, 2005; physical activity and increases obesity (Doyle, Kelly-Schwartz,
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Schlossberg, & Stockard, 2006; Ewing & Hamidi, 2014; Ewing, Schmid distribution and the related inequality issue. To relate environmental
et al., 2003; Fan & Song, 2009; Kelly-Schwartz, Stockard, Doyle, & injustice with urban sprawl, scholars mainly focus on where poor and
Schlossberg, 2004; Lee, Ewing, & Sesso, 2009; Plantinga & Bernell, minority communities suffer disproportionately from urban disinvest-
2007; Sturm & Cohen, 2004). Ewing, Schmid et al. (2003) and Ewing ment (Boone & Fragkias, 2013; Wilson et al., 2013; Young, 2012). This
et al. (2014) find that adults living in sprawling countries walk less, outcome of environmental injustice is obviously correlated with urban
weigh more, and are more likely to be obese and to suffer from high sprawl, inasmuch as urban sprawl incorporates a transfer of people and
blood pressure than those living in compact counties. resources from the inner city to suburban areas, and such transfer is
In this special issue, based on a case study that includes a medium performed with less control over land use (Downs, 1994, 1999; Ewing &
sized city and eight of its suburbs located within Israel's central me- Hamidi, 2017). Existing studies have concluded that urban sprawl re-
tropolitan region, Frenkel et al. (2018) point out that suburbanization sults in more poor and minority population living in a toxic and ha-
results in highly unequal patterns of social stratification. Social groups zardous environment close to abandoned brownfields, least-desirable
in the suburbs are found to benefit from better life-chances than their areas, and old buildings in the inner cities (Bryant, 1995). Grineski,
urban counterparts. Also, this inequality is positively related to the Bolin, and Boone (2007) add air pollutants to measure environmental
accumulation of capital forms and the formation of the physical en- injustice, and then link it to urban sprawl. They point out that racial
vironment. Economic, cultural, and social forms of capital, formed in an segregation caused by urban sprawl further intensifies the environ-
individual's living environment, determine a space's equality of op- mental injustice from the perspective of air pollution. However, most
portunity. Antoniucci and Marella (2018) analyze the variation in studies are conducted based on a single measurement of environmental
housing market polarization in Italian cities and correlate it to urban injustice and urban sprawl (Sze & London, 2008).
density, which is highly associated with urban sprawl. They find that Studies on environmental effects of urban expansion in developing
housing market polarization increased since 2008 when economic and countries also notice the problem of environmental degradation.
sovereign debt crisis began, and lower density areas tend to have a Studies find that urban expansion negatively affects biodiversity, sur-
higher housing market polarization index. face temperature, and global climate change (Seto, Guneralp, & Hutyra,
Regarding the post-urban sprawl era in the United States, scholars 2012; Weng, 2001; Yue, Fan, Wei, & Qi, 2014). The studies which di-
have found that there are more than 25% of large cities experiencing rectly link environmental inequality and urban expansion are still
shrinkage. Along with suburbanization, the shrinking process has also limited. In this special issue, Wang, Chen, Zheng, and Deng (2018)
led to a significant issue of social inequality. Using Detroit as an ex- helps us to better understand the linkage between urban expansion and
ample, Xie, Gong, Yang, Li, and Zeng (2018) develop a systematic and environmental degradation. The fast population growth is not the root
quantitative framework to connect the causes and dynamics of city of environmental degradation, and structural effects of ecological inter-
shrinking with primary inequality factors. They find that the odds of correlation determine the pattern of urban–rural landscape changes and
becoming vacant are largely related to the concentration of less edu- environmental inequality.
cated and African American population, under-developed housing
structures, and poverty. The racial segregation and persistent poverty 6. Conclusion
were the primary cause of long-lasting urban shrinkage in Metropolitan
Detroit. This paper has situated the special issue in the massive literature on
Methodologically, Talen et al. (2018) present a quantified, GIS- urban sprawl and expansion. Existing studies have developed myriad
based analysis of the relationship between urban morphological pat- methods to measure the characteristics, causes, and costs of urban
terns and racial, ethnic, and household characteristics to understand sprawl (Ewing & Hamidi, 2017), including impacts on inequality.
how the built landscapes of American cities differ in sociological terms, However, the studies to understand how urban expansion/sprawl,
such as racial concentration and prevalence of particular family types. spatial inequality, and sustainable development relate to each other are
They find that urban sprawl causes significant equity implications be- still limited.
cause of the uneven distribution of services, amenities, schools, parks, By examining spatiotemporal patterns and processes of urban ex-
and tax base, and identify the specific social inequality status for each pansion and sprawl, analyzing the effects of urban expansion/sprawl on
pattern. Rural sprawl and upscale enclave have the least diverse de- spatial inequality, this special issue provides comprehensive lens on
mographics across all six metro areas. Older built landscape types urbanization and equitable development, contributes to the existing
(urban grids, rectangular block grids, and degenerate grids) are rela- literature of urban sprawl/expansion by providing comparative per-
tively diverse. spectives, global coverage, as well as multiple dimensions and inter-
actions.
5.3. Environmental dimension This special issue has made an effort to study urban sprawl/ex-
pansion and its linkages to inequality from multiple perspectives in the
Urban sprawl’s effect on environment in developed countries has world, including both developed and developing countries. It has
been widely studied. It has been documented that urban sprawl in- showcased that most recent development in geographical, planning,
creases the challenges in open space preservation (Nelson, 1992; Nelson and sociological research on urban development and inequality. These
& Sanchez, 2005) and results in poor air quality (Bereitschaft & studies have examined the economic dimension of inequality
Debbage, 2013; Kahn, 2006; Schweitzer & Zhou, 2010; Stone, 2008; (Antoniucci & Marella, 2018; Wei et al., 2017), and have broadened the
Stone, Hess, & Frumkin, 2010). Stone (2008) finds that large sprawling scope of their research to include more social considerations (Frenkel
metropolitan regions experience a greater number of ozone ex- et al., 2018; Talen et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2018). Most articles are still
ceedances than more spatially compact metropolitan regions. On the largely dependent on western experiences and theories, and more stu-
other hand, a more recent study by Schweitzer et al. (2010), while dies focusing on developing countries are still needed.
confirming that ozone concentrations are significantly lower in com- Studies have provided some policy suggestions to reduce the ne-
pact regions, also found that human exposure to ozone was higher in gative effects of urban sprawl, such as adjusting land use strategies
these regions because more people live in areas where emissions are (Chapple, 2018), more policy support for mixed-use development
concentrated. (Ewing, Hamidi, & Grace, 2016; Ewing, Hamidi, Grace, et al., 2016),
Another topic connected to urban sprawl and spatial inequality is more even distribution of urban amenities and services in both space
environmental injustice (Darby & Atchison, 2014). As a central aca- and quality (Batchis, 2010; Frenkel et al., 2018; Li, Wei, Yu, & Tian,
demic concern in a variety of disciplinary contexts, environmental in- 2016), as well as adjustment of land administration and legislation of
justice’s initial application confines in the environmental risk land property (Wang et al., 2018; Wei et al., 2017). This special issue
263
Editorial Landscape and Urban Planning 177 (2018) 259–265
provides helpful insights for urban planners and administrators to Ewing, R., & Hamidi, S. (2017). Costs of sprawl. Routledge.
balance efficiency and equity, and plan and market in policy making Ewing, R., Hamidi, S., & Grace, J. B. (2016). Urban sprawl as a risk factor in motor vehicle
crashes. Urban Studies, 53(2), 247–266.
and implementation. Ewing, R., Meakins, G., Hamidi, S., & Nelson, A. C. (2014). Relationship between urban
sprawl and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity–Update and refinement. Health &
Acknowledgements Place, 26, 118–126.
Ewing, R., Pendall, R., & Chen, D. (2002). Measuring sprawl and its impact. Washington,
DC: Smart Growth America.
We would like to acknowledge funding of the US National Science Ewing, R., Pendall, R., & Chen, D. (2003). Measuring sprawl and its transportation im-
Foundation (1759746), the National Natural Science Foundation of pacts. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
1831(1) Washington DC: Smart Growth America.
China (41329001), and the Ford Foundation (0155-0883). We would
Ewing, R., Schmid, T., Killingsworth, R., Zlot, A., & Raubenbush, S. (2003). Relationship
also like to thank the careful guidance of Co-Editor-in-Chief Wei-Ning between urban sprawl and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity. American Journal
Xiang and the research assistance of Han Li. of Health Promotion, 18(1), 47–57.
Ewing, R., Hamidi, S., Grace, J. B., & Wei, Y. H. D. (2016). Does urban sprawl hold down
upward mobility? Landscape and Urban Planning, 148, 80–88.
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