GNS 204 Module 4A

Logic and History of Science
GNS 204/CGNS
Prof. O.G.F. Nwaorgu; Dr. M.S.C. Okolo;

Dr. E.O. Akintona; and Dr. Uchenna S. Odozor
1
Module 3
6.0 LANGUAGE:
6.1 Informative; Expressive; Directive
6.2 MULTIPLE LANGUAGE USAGE
6.3 LANGUAGE: FORM AND FUNCTION
7.0 DEFINITION
7.1 PURPOSES OF DEFINITION
7.2 TYPES OF DEFINITION
7.3 RULES OF DEFINITION
2
6. LANGUAGE
• Language is the vehicle of communication, and, by implication,
the means by which logic is conveyed;
• it is impossible to apply Logic without some understanding of

the underlying principles of language;
• It is on the basis of language that thinking, reasoning, and

communication are possible;
• many logical fallacies arise from the misuse of language;
• Therefore, there can be no logic without some form of language

3 basic uses of language
• However, language is a very complex phenomenon, because of
the multiplicity of its uses.
• What is meant is utterly dependent on the manner in which it is

expressed or communicated, as well as the context in which
language is used.
• below are some three major divisions into which the very many
uses of language can be categorised, for the purposes of our
study:
➢Informative
➢Expressive
➢Directive
4
a. Informative Language
• Language is used to communicate facts and states of affairs, as language
enables us to describe the world of facts.
• Informative language affirms or denies propositions and presents arguments.
• As long as what is reported can pass as true or false, language has been used
informatively.
• E.g.: scientific language, news broadcasting, minutes of meetings,

newspapers, magazines, history, etc.
Examples of informative language:
i. The Greenwich Meridian passes through Tema in Accra, Ghana.

ii. Didier Drogba is a Nigerian football star.
iii. Quantity is not a preferable ideal to quality.
iv. Some crocodiles are able to fly.
5
b. Expressive Language
• Type of language used by a speaker or writer to convey feelings
or emotions and to make the audience become emotionally
moved.
• However, expressive language is not the same thing as

‘expressing’ opinions, ideas, or beliefs.
• Opinions, beliefs and ideas can be true or false; but expressive

language is neither;
• Examples of expressive language: ‘Oh, my!’; ‘Too bad’; ‘Wow!’

‘Come on!’ ‘Darling’;
• Sources of expressive language include poems, worship, or
lyrics 6
c. Directive Language
• This is the language used to cause or prevent overt action; examples include
commands and requests.
• Example: ‘Two, please’, said to the waiter in a bar, directs him to serve two bottles
of drink; ‘Don’t move!’ ‘Eat!’
• A question may become directive if it requests an answer; e.g.: “What is that your
name, again?”
• Directive language is, like the expressive type, neither true nor false; it can only be
reasonable and proper, or unreasonable and improper.
• Finally, reasons are sometimes given for why a command or a directive may be
complied with; and the whole discourse translates into an argument. For example:
1. Making phone call while driving leads to distraction and accident.

➢ Therefore, avoid making phone call while driving.
7
MULTIPLE LANGUAGE USAGE
• Speakers and writers do not restrict themselves to only one
type of language; rather, they usually combine two, or all
three, of them, in order to carry out effective communication;
They do this in three major ways:

• motivational, which is used to inform, to express, and to
direct; in politics, religion, and other social situations
• ceremonial, also used to inform, to express and to direct;

found in university seminars and marriage celebrations;
ceremonial language is mainly ritualistic;
• performative: A performative statement is one which is used to

carry out an action of the stated kind. 8
Performative
• Example of performatives:
i. I pray/beg/plead.
ii. We appreciate the gesture.
iii. We greet you.
iv. I regret my action.
v. I apologise.
vi. I accept the offer.
vii. I promise.
viii. I reject it.
ix. I congratulate you.
x. We thank him.
xi. We agree/disagree with you; etc.
The action in question takes place at the very time of the utterance.
Performatives also involve the combination of two or three different language
types.
9
LANGUAGE: FUNCTION AND FORM
• Language may be of any form—declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and exclamatory—and yet result in any function—
informative, expressive, directive—depending on the intended
meaning.
• FUNCTION : usage • FORM : outward appearance
➢Informative ➢Declarative = like a statement

➢Expressive ➢Interrogative = like a question
➢Directive ➢Imperative = like an order
➢Exclamatory = like a shout
10
LANGUAGE: FORM AND FUNCTION
Examples:
• ‘Aren’t we late?’ is interrogative in form; but it may be a simple
directive to hurry up.
• ‘O my God!’ is exclamatory in form, but can also pass for an

expression of horror or disgust; or it may be informative to the effect
that the worst has happened.
• ‘He is a dangerous person’, is certainly declarative in form; but it

might as well function as a directive to avoid him or to be careful of
him.
• ‘I enjoyed myself at your party’, is also declarative, but may primarily

express appreciation to the celebrant.
➢ This is why the focus must be on the function or intended meaning instead of
on the form. 11
Test your knowledge:
• Revision Exercises
1. Why does language occupy a central position in Logic?
2. What is the essential characteristic of ceremonial language?
3. What is a performative utterance? Give three new examples from

the ones you have studied above.
4. Mention the one thing that enables us to correctly interpret a

language usage.
5. Which of ‘function’ and ‘form’ would you consider as more

important in Logic? Why?
12
DEFINITION
• A definition is a statement which breaks a logical term down into
its constituent parts called genus and difference (in a process of
description).
• The function of definition is to set limits to the meaning of the thing

to be defined, to ease comprehension.
• If I define ‘paper’ as a material made from wood on which writing is done, I

automatically exclude other kinds of materials from the definition,
such as sand, stone, cloth, plastic, glass, rubber, metal, etc.
• The purpose of definition, therefore, is to improve and perfect our

conceptual knowledge of objects or phenomena that are known
only in a confused and imperfect way.
13
GENUS AND DIFFERENCE
• genus refers to the family or group to which a thing, or a

concept, ordinarily belongs;
• difference refers to the notes that distinguishes it from other

types of things, or concepts.
For instance, the definition of ‘clock’ as a device used for

measuring time immediately places it in the genus, ‘device’,
and, at the same time, sets it apart from other things that do
not belong to that genus.
14
DEFINIENDUM AND DEFINIENS
• The definiendum refers to the concept, symbol, word, phrase
or term to be defined, while the definiens is the group of
words, phrase or sentence used in rendering the definition.
Example:
Definiendum → Democracy
Definiens → A form of government ← genus
in which there is active and free
participation of all the citizens of
a state, sometimes through duly difference
elected representatives.
15
PURPOSES OF DEFINITION
1. To increase vocabulary
2. To influence attitudes: For example, overseas travels, whether
official or private, by Nigerian government officials are usually
referred to as ‘working visits’ in government media
3. To resolve dispute: to avoid unnecessary argument
4. To explain theoretically in science;
5. To eliminate ambiguity and confusion: Example:
1. The perfection of a thing is its ultimate end.
2. The greatest virtue is perfection.
➢ Therefore, the greatest virtue is a thing’s ultimate end.
6. To reduce vagueness and set out limits in borderline cases:

➢ A term is vague when there are borderline cases (that is, grey areas) of its
application, but a term is ambiguous when it is liable to two or more legitimate
interpretations. Examples of vague words include ‘youth’, ‘adult’,
‘development’, ‘vehicle’, ‘democracy’, ‘child’, etc. 16
TYPES OF DEFINITION
I. Nominal or stipulative definition: that arises from the
deliberate assignment of (new) meanings to words or phrases.
For instance, the idea of development; and Abraham
Lincoln’s famous definition of democracy.
II. Real or essential definition: is a definition that says what

something is in essence, that is, its exact nature. For example,
a spinster is a woman who has never married.
III.Lexical definition: A lexical definition is a dictionary-based

definition. For instance, the English word, ‘story’
17
TYPES OF DEFINITION (CONTD.)
IV. Precising definitions: These serve to reduce ambiguity and
vagueness; for instance, who is a ‘child’ or an ‘adult’? What is a
‘vehicle’?
V. Theoretical or operational definition: Science-based definitions;

example: ‘force’ and ‘mass’
VI. Persuasive definition: This is used to persuade or influence

people’s attitudes
VII.Ostensive definition (From the Latin verb, ostendere, meaning ‘to

show’, ‘to reveal’ or ‘to expose’): used to demonstrate things
18
RULES OF DEFINITION
a) A definiens must be co-extensive with the definiendum.
b) A definition must not be expressed in negative sentences, except

when absolutely necessary.
c) A definition must not be circular. Example: ‘evolution’ defined as

‘the process by which life evolved’
d) A definition must not be rendered in ambiguous or

metaphorical language, but in simple, univocal terms.
e) A definition must state the essential attributes of the

definiendum, not its peripheral attributes.
19
Test your knowledge
• Revision Exercises
1. Define ‘definition’. Why, precisely, is Definition considered to be a

tool of Logic?
2. Discuss five uses or purposes of definition.
3. Explain the nature of an essential definition, giving a suitable

example.
4. Distinguish between ‘vagueness’ and ‘ambiguity’. What type of

definition is best suited for solving the problems of vagueness and
ambiguity?
5. State and explain the five simple rules for improving logical
definitions. 20
THANK YOU
FOR LISTENING
21

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Logic and History of Science

Prof. O.G.F. Nwaorgu; Dr. M.S.C. Okolo;

• it is impossible to apply Logic without some understanding of

• It is on the basis of language that thinking, reasoning, and

• many logical fallacies arise from the misuse of language;

• Therefore, there can be no logic without some form of language

• What is meant is utterly dependent on the manner in which it is

• Informative language affirms or denies propositions and presents arguments.

• E.g.: scientific language, news broadcasting, minutes of meetings,

Examples of informative language:

i. The Greenwich Meridian passes through Tema in Accra, Ghana.

• However, expressive language is not the same thing as

• Opinions, beliefs and ideas can be true or false; but expressive

• Examples of expressive language: ‘Oh, my!’; ‘Too bad’; ‘Wow!’

1. Making phone call while driving leads to distraction and accident.

They do this in three major ways:

• ceremonial, also used to inform, to express and to direct;

• performative: A performative statement is one which is used to

• FUNCTION : usage • FORM : outward appearance

➢Informative ➢Declarative = like a statement

• ‘O my God!’ is exclamatory in form, but can also pass for an

• ‘He is a dangerous person’, is certainly declarative in form; but it

• ‘I enjoyed myself at your party’, is also declarative, but may primarily

2. What is the essential characteristic of ceremonial language?

3. What is a performative utterance? Give three new examples from

4. Mention the one thing that enables us to correctly interpret a

5. Which of ‘function’ and ‘form’ would you consider as more

• The function of definition is to set limits to the meaning of the thing

• If I define ‘paper’ as a material made from wood on which writing is done, I

• The purpose of definition, therefore, is to improve and perfect our

• genus refers to the family or group to which a thing, or a

• difference refers to the notes that distinguishes it from other

For instance, the definition of ‘clock’ as a device used for

6. To reduce vagueness and set out limits in borderline cases:

II. Real or essential definition: is a definition that says what

III.Lexical definition: A lexical definition is a dictionary-based

V. Theoretical or operational definition: Science-based definitions;

VI. Persuasive definition: This is used to persuade or influence

VII.Ostensive definition (From the Latin verb, ostendere, meaning ‘to

b) A definition must not be expressed in negative sentences, except

c) A definition must not be circular. Example: ‘evolution’ defined as

d) A definition must not be rendered in ambiguous or

e) A definition must state the essential attributes of the

1. Define ‘definition’. Why, precisely, is Definition considered to be a

2. Discuss five uses or purposes of definition.

3. Explain the nature of an essential definition, giving a suitable

4. Distinguish between ‘vagueness’ and ‘ambiguity’. What type of

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