Class- 11th

Subject- Biology
Chapter- 5
Morphology of flowering plants

Angiosperms or flowering plants also referred to as phanerogams are the vascular plants in
which seeds are enclosed inside fruits.
Morphology (Morphe-form, logos-study)is the science that deals with the study of form, size,
colour, structure, and relative position of various parts of organisms.
-Morphology of a plant, we mean "the external appearance of the plant".
Importance of morphology
-Study of morphology is essential for recognition and identification of plants.
-Gives information about the ranges of variations found in a species.
-Help in the study of morphological adaptations of plant to different types of habits.
-Knowledge of morphology is necessary for studying various aspects of plant life like
anatomy, physiology, ecology, genetics etc.
Lifespan of plants
Depending upon lifespan plants are classified as-
1. Annuals- These plants complete their life cycle in a single growing season, varying from a
few weeks to few months.
e.g- wheat, rice, pea, mustard etc.
2. Biennials- The plant complete their life cycle in two growing seasons.
● In first season they grow only vegetatively and store food in roots and underground
stems.
● In second season they produce flowers, fruits, and seeds and then die off.
e.g- cabbage, radish, turnip etc growing in cold regions.
3. Perennials- These plants continue to grow from more than two growing seasons to
several years.
-They bear flowers and fruits during the specific seasons.
-Several perennials bear flowers and fruits during specific seasons.
e.g-Mango, Apple, Lemon etc.
Habits of plants
Plants are classified on the basis of their texture and height as:
1. Herbs- They are small plants with soft stem.
e.g-mustard, radish etc.
2. Shrubs- They are medium sized plants with hard and Woody stems.
e.g-rose, cotton, Jasmine etc.
3. Trees- They are the plants of great height with a thick Woody stem called trunk.
Parts of a flowering plant
Plant body consist of-
1. Root system- The root system normally lies underground and consists of a main root and
its branches.
2. Shoot system- The shoot system is normally aerial and consists of main stem, natural
branches and leaves.
Parts of a typical flowering plant:
Modifications of roots-Modifications are the morphological changes (in shape, form or
structure) in an organ to perform certain special function other than or in addition to the
normal function.
1. Modification for food storage- Tap roots of carrot and turnip and adventitious root of sweet
potato get swollen and store food.
2. Modification for support -Banyan trees, after going to a large size, develop hanging routes
from branches. These are called prop roots.
-The stems of maize and sugarcane have supporting roots coming out of the lower nodes of
the stem. These are called stilt roots.
3. Modification of respiration- In some plants such as Rhizophora growing in swampy areas,
many roots come out of the ground and grow vertically upwards. Such roots are called
pneumatophores.
-They help to get oxygen for respiration.

-The underground secondary and tertiary roots of the plants comes out of swamp for
exchange of gases through small pores called lenticles or pneumathodes near their tip.

Functions of roots
1. Primary or main function
● Anchorage- The root fixes the plant in the soil formally and support aerial shoot
system.
● Absorption-They absorbed water and minerals from the soil.
● Translocation- The absorbed water and minerals are translocated to the stem
through the xylem of the root.
● Prevention of soil erosion- Roots hold the soil particles and prevent soil erosion.
2. Secondary function
● Storage of food- e.g carrot, radish, sweet potato etc.
● Additional support- Prop and stilt root.
● Climbing- Some weak stemmed plant climb up a support with the help of clinging or
climbing roots.
e.g Betel (paan), money plant.
● Nitrogen fixation- Roots of leguminous plants contain nitrogen fixing bacteria in their
nodules.
● Breathing- Respiratory roots are pneumatophores of mangrove plant.
● Absorption of food- In parasitic plant e.g. cuscuta advantage of roots penetrate the
host.
● Reproduction- The roots of some plants have adventitious buds which help in
 reproduction.
e.g. sweet potato

Morphology of stem
Stem is usually aerial, erect part of the plant body, which develops from the plumule and
epicotyl of the embryo and grows by of a terminal bud.

Buds-A bud is a compact under developed shoot having a growing point, surrounded by
closely placed immature leaves.
Classification of buds
According to the nature of structure the buds are of following types:
1. Vegetative buds- They grow into leafy shoot.
2. Floral or flower bud- They grow in flowers or floral shoots.
3. Mixed bud- They produce both vegetative shoot and flower.
According to the origin and position buds are of following types:
1. Terminal or apical buds- They occurs at the tip of main stem and its branches and
responsible for the growth in length of stem and its branches.
2. Lateral bud- They are present on the stem and branches at various places except apices
like axillary bud.
3. Adventitious buds- They develop at places other than stem.
e.g. may be foliar (in Bryophyllum)

Modification of buds
1. Bulbils- They are specialised buds which become fleshy due to storage of food and take
part in vegetative reproduction.
-Bulbils may be axillary, on the leaf, in place of flower on the floral axis or base of the swollen
roots.
2. Tendrillar buds- Buds in some plants are modified into long thread called tendrils.
-Help the plants in climbing over some support.
3. Bud thorns- In some plants, buds are modified into thorns to reduce transpiration and to
act as organs of defence against grazing.

Branching of stem
The mode of arrangement of branches on the stem is known as branching.
-Few stems are unbranched called caudex or columnar.
e.g. Date, coconut.
-Branching are of two types:
1. Dichotomous branching- This type of branching is produced by the division of the apical
growing or bud into two equal parts, producing two branches in a forked manner.
-Dichotomous branching mainly found in cryptogams (non flowering plants).
-In flowering plants, it is observed in palm trees.

2. Lateral branching- These branches arise from the sides of main stem.
-The lateral branching is further of two types:
(i) Racemose or monopodial (indefinite)- In this type, the main stem continues to grow
indefinitely by terminal bud and the branches are produced laterally in acropetal succession (
i.e. older branches are at the base and younger ones at the apex).
e.g. Pinus, polyalthia (Ashok) etc.
(ii) Cymose or sympodial (definite)- In this type of branching,the terminal bud after forming a
small portion of the axis, either stops its activity or get modified into a flower, tendril, thorn
etc.
-Further growth of the axis is continued by one or more axillary branches.

Forms of stem:
1. Aerial or epiterranean stems- stems grow above the soil surface.
2. Sub-aerial or sub- epiterranean stems- Aerial stems of some plants creep on the land.
3. Underground or subterranean stem- Stems grow in the soil.
Aerial stems are of three types:
1. Reduced stem- The system is reduced to small disc above the base of root.
-Nodes and internodes are not distinct and leaves arise crowded together on the stems.
-Such leaves appear to arise directly from the root are called radical leaves.
e.g. radish, carrot, turnip etc.
2. Erect stems- They are the commonest type of aerial stems. The stems are strong enough
to remain erect or upright without any external support.
e.g. wheat, coconut, eucalyptus etc.
3. Weak stems- They are thin, delicate and slender stems, which cannot stand erect.
-Weak stems may climb up the support or grow prostrate.

Underground or subterranean stem

-The stem of some plants lie below the soil surface.
-They are non- green, store food and are adapted for Perennation (surviving unfavourable
conditions).

Modification of Aerial ( epiterranean) stems

The various stem modification are as follows:
1. Stem tendrils- They are thin thread- like sensitive leafless branches, which coil around the
support and help the plants in climbing.
2. Stem spines or thorns- These are modified branches, which have lost growing point.
-They become stiff, Woody, sharp and pointed. They reduce transpiration and also prevent
browsing by animals.
e.g. Bougainvillea, citrus, pomegranate etc.
3. Phylloclade- They are green, flattened or cylindrical stem or branches, which appear leaf-
like and have taken over the function of photosynthesis in absence of normal green leaves.
-Phylloclade are characteristics of some xerophytic plants such as Opuntia (Nagphani), cacti
etc.
-The phylloclade is thick, angular and contain milky latex.
4. Cladodes (cladophylls)- They are green, cylindrical or flattened stem branches of limited
growth (usually one internode long).

5. Flower- A flower is a highly modified shoot, which performs the function of sexual
reproduction.

Functions of the stem:

Primary or main functions-
1. Stern bears leaves, flowers and fruits in such a position that they are able to carry out
their functions most effectively.
2. It conducts water and minerals from the roots to the leaves, flowers and fruits.
3. It also transports food manufactured by leaves to the roots, fruits and other storage
organs of the plant.
Secondary functions-
1. A large number of plants store food and water in their underground stem.
2. In many plants, stems serves as a mean of vegetative propagation as in case of runner.
e.g. mint, potato
3. Some weak stemmed plants may be modified into tendrils.
4. The stem of some plants is modified into thorns.
5. The stem when modified into flower perform the function of sexual reproduction.

Morphology of leaf
-Leaf is a flattened, lateral outgrowth, which is born exogenously on the nodes of a stem or
its branches and bears bud in its axil.
-Typically, it is green in colour due to presence of chlorophyll and is the chief photosynthetic
organ of the plant.
-All green leaves of a plant are collectively called foliage.

Modification of leaves:
leaves are their parts are modified to perform special function-
1. Leaf tendrils- In some weak stemmed plants, the leaves or their parts are modified into
sensitive, thread like slender, coiled structure called tendrils. e.g. pea
-Leaf tendrils help the plant to climb up the support to expose its foliage to sunlight.
2. Leaf spines- In some plants, leaves or something their parts modified into sharp pointed
structures called spines. e.g. zizypus, cacti.
They protect the plant from grazing animals and excessive transpiration.
3. Leaf pitchers- In some insectivorous plants, the leaf or lamina is modified into a pitcher
like structure. e.g. picture plants.
These leaf pitcher are meant for catching and digesting the insects.
4. Succulent leaves- They are fleshy or swollen leaves which store water,mucilage or food
materials.
Succulent leaves occur in plants of saline and xerophytic habitats.
e.g. Aloe, Bryophyllum.

Function of leaves:
1. Synthesis of organic food through photosynthesis.
2. Stomata help in the exchange of gases.
3. Leaves protect the axillary and terminal buds from mechanical injury and desiccation.
4. Modified leaves are used in different -different ways.

The inflorescence
-The flower born either single or in cluster on a plant.
-Flowers that are born singly are called solitary.
-Solitary flower developed at the tip of branch or main stem. e.g. Rosa( Rose)
-While a solitary flower born in the axil of a leaf is called solitary solitary axillary. e.g.
Hibiscus (shoe flower)
- In majority of plants, however the flower are borne in clusters on an axis called floral axis or
peduncle.
-An axis bearing a cluster of flowers is called inflorescence.
-The inflorescence may be defined as the arrangement and mode of distribution of flowers
on a floral axis or peduncle.
-Thus inflorescence ensured greater chances of pollination and abundant seed formation.

Kinds of inflorescence:
Depending on the mode of branching of peduncle inflorescence is of different types:
1. Racemose inflorescence-The peduncle shows indefinite growth due to the presence of
active growing point.
-It bears flowers naturally in acropetal order (i.e.older towards base and younger towards
apex).
-When peduncle is reduced, the flower are borne in centripetal manner(i.e. older towards
the periphery and younger towards the centre).
Racemose inflorescence is of two types:
1. Simple Racemose inflorescence- In these type of inflorescence, the peduncle is
unbranched and flowers are born directly on it.
The main types are as follows:
(i) Typical Raceme- An unbranched elongated peduncle bears pedicellate( stalked) flower in
an acropetal order.
e.g. Gulmohar ( Delonix)
(ii) Spike- An unbranched elongated peduncle bears sessile ( unstalked) flowers in acropetal
manner.
e.g. Bottle brush, Amaranthus etc.

(iii) Catkin- It is a compact spike of unisexual flower pistillate or staminate on a shorted and
pedulous peduncle.
e.g. Morus(mulberry), oak etc.
(iv) Spadix- It is a special spike with fleshy peduncle enclosed by one or more large green
for coloured bract called spathe.
e.g. Colocasia (Arabi) etc.

(v) Corymb- An unbranched peduncle bears pedicellate flowers in an acropetal manner.

-But the pedicel of the lower or older flowers are longer than those of the upper or younger
flowers so that all the flowers come lie at the same level.
e.g. Iberis ( Candytuft)
(vi) Corymbose Raceme- It is a mixture of corymb and typical raceme.
-The upper flowers are arranged like a corymb while those in lower region form a typical
raceme.
e.g. Brassica campestris (mustard), Radish etc.
(vii) Umbel- The peduncle is short or reduced, which bears a cluster of pedicellate flowers of
equal length arising from a common point in a centripetal manner.
e.g. Centella (Brahmi booti)

(viii) Capitulum or Racemose head- The peduncle is somewhat flattened to form a

receptacle that bears sessile flowers called florets.
2. Compound Racemose inflorescence- In these type of inflorescence, the peduncle is
branched in racemose fashion and ultimate branches bears flowers in acropetal or
centripetal manner.
Following are the main types:
(i) Penicle or Raceme of Racemes- Peduncle is branched in raceme manner and each
branch of it bears flowers in raceme manner.
e.g. Yucca, Asphodelus, Cassia fistula.
(ii) Compound Corymb or Corymb of Corymb- Peduncle is branched in corymb manner and
each branch of it bears flower in corymb fashion.
e.g. cauliflower, pinus etc.
(iii) Compound umbel or umbel of Umbel- Several small umbel are born at a common point
in an umbellate fashion.
e.g. Coriandrum (coriander),Daucus carota(carrot)
(iv) spike of spikelets- Many small spikes are arranged in spike manner on the peduncle.
e.g. Triticum (wheat)
(v) Compound spadix or spadix of spadices- Axis is branched and whole inflorescence is
covered by stiff boat shaped shpathes.
e.g. Date palm, coconut.
(vi) Compound capitulum or Capitulum of capitula- The main axis of capitulum inflorescent is
branched.Several capitula are included within the same involucre of bract.
e.g. Echinops.

2. Cymose inflorescence- The growth of the peduncle is definite. The tip of the main axis
terminate in a flower, but further growth continuous by the formation of one or more lateral
branches, which also behave like the main axis.
The main type of cymose inflorescence are as follows:
(i) Monochasial cyme(uniparous cyme)- -The main axis terminates in a flower.
-A single lateral branch develops from its base which also ends in a flower. This pattern is
repeated a number of times.

(ii) Dichasial cyme(Biparous cyme)- After the formation of a single terminal flower two lateral
branches develop on either side of the terminal flower.
-The lateral branches also end in a flower and may again branch similarly.
e.g. Jasminum (Jasmine), Bougainvillea etc.

(iii) Polychasial cyme (multiparous cyme)- More than two lateral branches continue the
growth of the inflorescence when a parent axis terminates in a flower.
The flower
-The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms. It is meant for sexual reproduction.
-A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged successively on the swollen end
of the stalk or pedicel, called thalamus or receptacle.

-A flower having all the four types of floral organs is known as complete (calyx, Corolla
androecium and gynoecium).
-Absence of any one or more than one floral organ makes the flower incomplete.
-The flower that contain the both essential organ i.e. stamen and carpel is termed as perfect,
bisexual, hermaphrodite or intersexual (monoecious).
-The flower that bears only one of the two essential floral organ is described as imperfect or
unisexual (dioecious).
-A unisexual flower would be male or staminate and female or pistillate.
Floral symmetry:
The arrangement of the flower organs around the axis of a flower is known as floral
symmetry.
Floral symmetry is of three types:
1. Actinomorphic- A cyclic flower which can be divided into two equal vertical halves or
mirror image by any vertical plane is said to be actinomorphic.
-They have radial symmetry.
e.g. Solanum, Hibiscus etc.

2. Zygomorphic- A flower which can be divided into two equal vertical halves by one plane
only, is termed as zygomorphic.
e.g. Salvia, Fumaria etc.
3. Acyclic or asymmetric- A flower which cannot be divided into two equal halves by any
vertical plane is known as acyclic or asymmetric.
e.g. Opuntia.

Forms of floral parts:

1. Calyx- The calyx is the outermost whorl of the flower and the members are called sepals.
-Sepals are green, leaf like and protect the flower in the bud stage.
-The calyx may be gamosepalous (sepals united) or polysepalous (sepals free).
2. Corolla- Corolla is composed of petals.
-Petals are usually bright coloured to attract insects for pollination.
-Like calyx, Corolla may be also United (gamopetalous) or free (polypetalous).
-The shape and colour of Corolla vary greatly in plants.
-Corolla may be tubular, bell-shaped, funnel shaped, or wheel-shaped.
3. Androecium (andros- male)- It is the third whorl, which consist of male reproductive organ
called stamen.
-Each stamen which represent the male reproductive organ consists of a stalk or a filament
and an anther.
-Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two chambers, the pollen sacs.
-The pollen grains are produced in pollen sacs.
-A sterile stamen is called staminodes.
4. Gynoecium (gyne- female)- It is the fourth and innermost whorl, which consists of female
reproductive organs of the flower called carpels.
-A unit of gynoecium is called pistil.
-A carpel consists of three parts namely stigma, style and ovary.
-Ovary is the elongated basal part, on which lies the elongated tube, the style.
-The style connects the ovary to the stigma.
-The stigma is usually at the tip of the style and is the receptive surface for pollen grains.
-Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached to a flattened, cushion like placenta.
-When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is bisexual.
-A flower having either only stamens or only carpels is unisexual.
-A flower may be trimerous, tetramerous or pentamerous, when the floral appendages are in
multiple of 3, 4 or 5 respectively.
-Flower with bracts, reduced leaf found at the base of the pedicel are called bracteate and
those without bracts ebracteate.

Type of flower based on position of ovary

1. Hypogynous flower- In the hypogynous flower, the gynoecium occupies the highest
position, while other parts are situated below it.
-The ovary in such flowers is said to be superior.
e.g. mustard, China rose and brinjal
2. Perigynous flower- If gynoecium is situated in the centre and other parts of the flower are
located on the rim of the thalamus almost at the same level, it is called perigynous.
-The ovary here is said to be half inferior.
e.g. plum, rose, peach.
3.Epigynous flower- In epigynous flower, the margin of thalamus grows upward enclosing the
ovary completely and getting fused with it, the other parts of flower arise above the ovary.
-The ovary is said to be inferior .
e.g. guava, cucumber, sunflower.
Aestivation
The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other members
of the same whorl is known as restoration.
The main type of aestivation are as follows:
1. Valvate- When sepals are petals in a whorl, just touch one another at the margin, without
overlapping.
Example-Calotropis.
2. Twisted- If one margin of the appendage overlaps that of the next one and so on as in
example China rose, lady's finger cotton.
3. Imbricate- If the margins of sepals or petals overlap one another but not in any particular
direction.
Example- gulmohar, cassia.

4. Vexillary- In pea & bean flowers, there are five petals, the largest (standard) overlaps the
two lateral petals (wings) which in turn overlap the two smallest anterior petals (keel).
This type of aestivation is known as vexillary or papilionaceous.
Types of attachment of androecium
Stamens of flowers may be united with other members such as petals or among themselves.
1. Epipetalous- When stames are attached to the petals.
Example- brinjal
2. Epiphyllous- When is stamen attached to the perianth.
Example- Lily
Arrangement of stamens:
The stamens in a flower may either remain free ( polyandrous) or may be united in varying
degrees.
1. Monoadelphous- The stamens may be united into one bunch or one bundle.
Example- China rose
2. Diadelphous- Stamens are in two bundles. example- in pea
3. Polyadelphous- stamens are in more than two bundles.
Example- citrus
-There may be a variation in the length of filament within a flower.
Example- salvia and mustard
Arrangement of gynoecium
(a) Apocarpous- When more than one carpel is present, they may be free (as in lotus and
rose)
(b) Syncarpous- When carpels are fused as in mustard and tomato.
-After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds and the ovary matures into a fruit.

Placentation

The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known as placentation.

-Different types of placentation are:
1. Marginal- A single longitudinal placenta having one or two alternate rows of ovule, occurs
along the wall of the ovary called ventral suture.
Example-pea, cassia, Acacia.
2. Parietal- Two or more longitudinal placenta /ovules developed along the wall of ovary.

3. Axile- Ovules occur in the central region where the septa meet so that an axile column
bearing ovules are formed.
Example- Hibiscus, Datura
4. Basal- It bears a single placenta at the base with generally a single ovule.
Example- Sunflower, Ranunculus

4. Free Central- The ovules are born around a central column, which is not connected with
the ovary wall by any septum.
Example- Dianthus, Please
 The fruit
In common language, fruit is considered to be a sweet, juicy or pulpy structure, which can be
eaten raw.
-Fruit may be defined as a fruit is a structure formed from ripened ovary or ovaries which
may or may not be associated with adjoining parts.
-Botanically fruit may be of three types-
True, false and parthenocarpic fruit.
1. True fruit (Eucarp)-A true fruit is that fruit which develops from only the ovary part of a
flower and contain one or more viable seeds.
Example- Mango, brinjal etc.
-The wall of a true fruit is called pericarp.
-In some cases it becomes fleshy and it divisible into three zones, an outer epicarp, middle
mesocarp and inner endocarp.
2. False fruit (pseudocarp)- A fruit is said to be false fruit which develops from the ovary
along the adjoining accessory floral parts( like sepals, petals, thalamus etc) and contain one
or more viable seeds.
Example- Apple
-False fruits are also called spurious fruit or accessory fruits.
3. Parthenocarpic fruit- Some plants are able to form fruits without fertilization. Such fruits
are called as parthenocarpic fruits and the phenomenon is called as parthenocarpy.
-They contain either seedless or contain empty or non viable seeds.
Example- banana, grapes.

Types of fruits:
1. Simple fruits- A simple fruit is that fruit which develops from a flower having single ovary of
monocarpellary or polycarpellary syncarpous pistil.
Example- Triticum (wheat), litchi, Cashew nut.
It is of two types-
(a) Simple dry fruits- In these fruits, the pericarp fruit wall is dry usually papery or Woody and
is not distinguishable into three layers.
Example- Mirabilis jalapa(4 o'clock plant),
Coriandrum.
(b) Simple succulent fruits- In this fruits, either the pericarp alone or along with associated
parts becomes fleshy which is generally distinguishable into three parts- epicarp, mesocarp
and endocarp.
-Berries- The three layers are easily distinguishable. The epicarp is thin or leathery. The
mesocarp is massive and formed the prominent part of the fruit. The endocarp is either
membranous or pulpy.
Example- Date, Citrus, Tomato
-Drupes (stony fruit)- The pericarp is well differentiated into an outer skin like epicarp, a
middle fleshy of fibrous mesocarp and an inner hard or stony endocarp.
-endocarp usually encloses only one seed.
Example- Mango, coconut, almond.
2. Aggregate fruits- An aggregate fruits is a group of fruitlets, which develop from a flower
having polycarpellary apocarpous (free) gynoecium.
-They are also called etaerio.
Example- Strawberry, custard Apple.
3. Composite or multiple fruits- A composite or multiple fruits is the one which develops from
an entire inflorescence.
-They are also called influorescence fruit or infrutescence.
Example- Mulberry, Jackfruit, Pineapple.
Pomology- The branch of horticulture that deals with the study of fruits and their cultivation is
called pomology.
Economic importance of fruits:
1. Fruits are important items of our food.
2.Cereals, which are one seeded dry fruits constituted the staple food of the human beings.
3. A large number of fruits such as lady finger, tomato etc. are used as vegetables.
4. Fruits are important items of food for fruit eating (frugivorous) birds and some other
animals.
5. Some fruits are used as medicines. Example- Amla, Datura, Poppy
Biological significance of fruits:
1. Fruits protect the immature seeds against climatic condition.
2.The green colour of young fruits provides a good cover to the developing seeds.
3. In mature state, fruits become sweet, colour and flavoured to attract animals and human
beings for eating and dispersal their seeds.

Seed
Seed is the means by which the new individual is dispersed.
-A true seed may be defined as-a mature ovule that contains an embryo or miniature plant,
stored food material and protective coverings.
-The seed represents neither the beginning nor the end of plant growth but a stage in
between the two.
-After fertilization ovules develops into seeds. A seed is made up of a seed coat and an
embryo.
-The embryo is made of a radicle, an embryonal axis and one or two cotyledons.
Structure of a dicotyledonous seed
-The outermost covering of a seed is the seed coat. The seed coat has two layers, the outer
testa and the inner tegman.
-The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through which the developing seeds were attached to
the fruit.
-Above the hilum is a small pore called the micropyle.
-Within the seed coat is the embryo consisting of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
-The cotyledons are of an fleshy and full of reserve food materials.
-At the two ends of the embryonal axis are present the radicle and the plumule.
-In some seeds such as castor the endosperm formed as a result of double fertilization is a
food storing tissue.
-In plants such as bean, gram and pea the endosperm is not present in mature seeds and
such seeds are called non- endospermous.
Structure of monocotyledonous seed
-Generally, monocotyledonous seeds are endospermic but some as in orchids are non-
endospermic.

-In the seeds of cereals such as maize the seed coat is membranous and generally fused
with the fruit wall.
-The endosperm is bulky and store food.The outer covering of endosperm separates the
embryo by a proteinaceous layer called a aleurone layer.
-Embryo is small and situated in a groove at one end of the endosperm.
-It consists of one large and shield shaped cotyledon known as scutellum and a short axis
with a plumule and a radicle.
-The plumule and radicle are enclosed in sheaths which are called coleoptile and coleorhiza
respectively.

Semi- technical description of a typical flowering plant:

-The description has to be brief, in a simple and scientific language and presented in a
proper sequence.
-The plant is described beginning with its habit, vegetative characters- root, stem and leaves
and floral inflorescence and flower parts.
-After describing various parts of plant, a floral diagram and floral formula are presented.
-Floral formula is represented by some symbols.
-In floral formula,
-Fusion is indicated by enclosing the figure within bracket.
-Adhesion by a line drawn above the symbols of the floral parts.
Structure of floral diagram
-A floral diagram provides information about the member of parts of a flower,their
arrangement and the relation they have with one another.
-The position of the mother axis with respect to the flower is represented by a dot on the top
of the floral diagram.
-Calyx, Corolla, androecium and gynoecium are drawn in successive whorls, calyx being the
outermost and gynoecium being in the centre.
Description of selected families:
Note: See from the textbook.