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VIKASH GROUPS OF CBSE SCHOOLS

Bargarh, Sambalpur, Bhubaneswar, Bhawanipatna

LABORATORY MANUAL
PHYSICS
CBSE CLASS XII
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INSTRUCTIONS:

1. ALL THE EXPERIMENTS SHOULD BE WRITTEN SEQUENTIALLY AS

MENTIONED IN THE PDF IN PHYSICS PRACTICAL RECORD.
2. AIM, APPARATUS
REQUIRED,THEORY,PROCEDURE,OBSERVATION,TABULATION,CALCULATION
,
CONCLUSION, PRECAUTION WILL BE WRITTEN SEQUENTIALLY IN SINGLE
LINE PAGE OF RECORD AND DIAGRAM SHOULD BE IN THE WHITE PAGE.
3. BLUE PEN OR BLACK PEN CAN BE USED FOR WRITING AND DIAGRAMS
SHOULD BE IN PENCIL.
4. READINGS ARE MENTIONED IN THE PDF. WRITE THE READINGS
5. AFTER THE COMPLETION OF ONE EXPERIMENT IN ONE PAGE , START THE
NEXT EXPERIMENT FROM NEXT PAGE. AFTER COMPLETION OF EACH
EXPERIMENT WRITE YOUR NAME, CLASS AND ROLLNUMBER

CONTENTS

1. To determine resistivity of a given wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.
2. To determine the resistance of a given wire using meter bridge
3. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
4. To verify the laws of combination of resistance(series) using a meter bridge
5. To determine the refractive index of a glass slab ,using a travelling microscope.
6. To determine the refractive index of a liquid by plane mirror and convex lens.
7. To draw the I-V characteristic of a p-n junction diode in forward- bias reverse-bias
8. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graphs between u and v or
between 1/u and 1/v .
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EXPERIMENT -1

Aim of the Experiment -To determine resistivity of a given wires by

plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.
APPARATUS REQUIRED- A resistance wire, a voltmeter ,an ammeter ,a battery eliminator , a
rheostat , a meter scale, one way key,a screw gauge connecting wires sand paper.
THEORY- According to Ohm’s law “at constant temperature the current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends. If I be the current
flowing through a conductor & V be the potential difference across its ends ,then according to
Ohm’s law,
IαV
V αI
OR V = RI
Where R is a constant called as resistance of the conductor .
𝑉𝑉
So R =
𝐼𝐼
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑟𝑟 2
Specific resistance is given by , ₰ = =
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿

Where A = area of cross section , r= radius of the cross sectional area L=length
of the wire

PROCEDURE- 1) A circuit diagram was drawn & the apparatus were arranged according to the
diagram by the connecting wires.
2) The connections were made clean & tight . The +ve end of the voltmeter & ammeter were
connected to the +ve terminal of the battery.
3) The L.C & Zero error of the voltmeter & ammeter were calculated
4)The key was inserted & rheostat was slided to know that ammeter & voltmeter are working or
not .
5)Theslidding contact of the rheostat was adjusted such that a measurable current passed through
the resistance wire.
6) The value of potential difference V from voltmeter & current I from ammeter was noted.
7) The rheostat was shifted slightly so that both ammeter & voltmeter were deflected.
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8) The readings of voltmeter & ammeter were recorded.

For specific resistance The length & diameter of the wire were measured and the specific
resistance was determined.

Observation
Length of the given wire = ----- cm

In screw gauge 10 psd = ---- cm

1 psd = ---- cm

So, pitch = -----cm

Lc = pitch/100 = 0.1/100 = 0.001cm

Range of voltmeter =………......volt

Range of ammeter =……….......amp

In voltmeter 10 div.=……........volt
1 div = ……….....volt
SoLcof voltmeter = ……….....volt

In ammeter 10 div =………...............A

1 div = ……………............A
So Lc of ammeter = ………..................A

Tabulation for R

SlNo Ammeter reading in Voltmeter 𝑉𝑉

R= in ohm Mean R
𝐼𝐼
Ampere reading in volt In ohm
(I) (V)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Tabulation for diameter

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slno Pitch L.C ICSR NCR FCSR Diff. P.S.R C.S.R Total Mean
in in (I) (N) (F) (D) (PxN) (LCxD) (P.S.R+C.S.R)
cm cm in cm In cm in cm Diameter
(D) in
cm
1
2
3
4
5

Calculation

Radius =Diameter/2 = …… =……cm

𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑟𝑟 2
Specific resistance is given of the wire , ₰ = = =
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿

Conclusion

The Specific resistance is given of the wire =

The graph between V and I is a straight line..

PRECAUTIONS
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insula tions near
their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
5. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of resis tance
(otherwise its resistance will increase).
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EXPERIMENT -2

Aim-To determine the resistance of a given wire using meter bridge

APPARATUS REQUIRED-a meter bridge , a battery eliminator , a galvanometer ,aresistance
box, a resistance wire , a jockey one way key, connecting wires sand paper etc.

Theory- The unknown resistance of the wire is given by the formula

(100−𝑙𝑙)
X= .R
𝑙𝑙

Where R= known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in right gap of
meter bridge, 𝑙𝑙 is the length of the meter bridge wire from zero end upto Balancing point .

Procedure -1) The circuit diagram was drawn & the apparatus was arranged.

2) The resistance wire whose resistance was measured was connected in the right gap.

3) Resistance box of low resistance was connected in the left gap.

4) some resistance was taken from the resistance box and the jockey touched first at left side &
then at right side of the meter bridge & the deflection of the galvanometer was noted which was
opposite to each other. So the connections were correct.

5) The jockey was touched left to right along the wire till galvanometer shows no deflection.
This point called as null point. An approaches value of R was choosen from the resistance box
such that there was no deflection in the galvanopmeter. This length was taken as AB=𝑙𝑙 .

6) 4 sets of observation were taken in the same way by changing the value of R.
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Tabulation for unknown resistance (X)

Sl no Ristance from Length in cm Length in Unknown resistance Mean X

the resistance cm X=
(100−𝑙𝑙)
. 𝑅𝑅 in ohm
box R AB , (𝑙𝑙) BC ,(100-𝑙𝑙) 𝑙𝑙
in ohm
In ohm

1
2
3
4
5

Conclusion—

The value of unknown resistance X = .

PRECAUTIONS

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.
8. The wire should not make a loop.
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EXPERIMENT-3

Aim of the exp- To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half

deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus required-

A Galvanometer, a battery eliminator, two resistance boxes,two one way key,a meter scale,
connecting wire, sand paper.
𝑹𝑹.𝑺𝑺
Theory – The resistance of a galvanometer is given by half deflection method isG=
𝑹𝑹−𝑺𝑺

Where R= resistance is the connected in series with the galvanometer

S = shunt resistance
𝐸𝐸
The figure of merit , k =
(𝑅𝑅+𝐺𝐺)𝜃𝜃

E= emf of the cell, θ = deflection of the galvanometer.

Procedure:-

(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

1. Draw the circuit diagram as shown in fig 5.05 and make the connections accordingly.

2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.

3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R and insert the key K₁
only.

4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale.
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5. Note the deflection. Let it be θ.

6. Insert the key K₂ also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S, such that
deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step 5 i.e, θ/2.

7. Note the value of resistance S.

8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting S every
time.

(b) Figure of merit

9. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F by a voltmeter by
connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and –ve of voltmeter with –ve of the cell.
Let it be E.

10. Make connections as in circuit diagram (fig. 5.06).

11. Adjust the value of R to be obtain a certain deflection θ (say 30 division) when the
circuit is closed.

12. Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.

13. Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.

14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with different voltage like
2,4,6,8, volts from battery eliminator.

15. Find the figure of merit K using the formula.

Tabulation for resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method

Sl Resistance Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanometer Mean

No (R ) the resistance deflection resistance in (G)
in ohm galvanometer , ( S )in ohm 𝜃𝜃 ohm in ohms
(θ) 2 G=
𝑅𝑅.𝑆𝑆
𝑅𝑅−𝑆𝑆

1
2
3
4
5

Tabulation for figure of merit (k)-

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Sl Emf of the cell Resistance Deflection Figure of merit Mean k

No or battery in from 𝜃𝜃 in division k=
𝐸𝐸 (amp/div)
(𝑅𝑅+𝐺𝐺)𝜃𝜃
volt Resistance Box
(V) R in ohm (amp/div)
1
2
3
4
5
Calculation-

Mean G = G1+G2+G3+G4+G5/5=

Mean K =K1+K2+K3+K4+K5/5=

Conclusion-

The resistance of a given galvanometer =

The figure of merit of a given galvanometer =

PRECAUTIONS

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.
8. The wire should not make a loop.
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EXPERIMENT-4

Procedure -1) The circuit diagram was drawn & the apparatus was arranged.

2) The resistance wire whose resistance was measured was connected in the right gap.

3) Resistance box of low resistance was connected in the left gap.

4) some resistance was taken from the resistance box and the jockey touched first at left side &
then at right side of the meter bridge & the deflection of the galvanometer was noted which was
opposite to each other. So the connections were correct.

5) The jockey was touched left to right along the wire till galvanometer shows no deflection.
This point called as null point. An approaches value of R was choosen from the resistance box
such that there was no deflection in the galvanopmeter. This length was taken as AB=𝑙𝑙 .
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6) 4 sets of observation were taken in the same way by changing the value of R.

Tabulation for length (I) and unknown resistance (X)

Resistance SI No. Resistance Length Length Resistances Mean

coil from the AB-I BC=100-I (100-1) r In ohms
resistance box R
cm cm
R in ohms In ohms
1
r only 2 r 1=.......
3

r only 1 r 2=....

2
3
1
r and r 2 Rs=........
in series 3

Calculation-

(i) In series

Experimental value of Rs =. .............................................................................. ohm

Theoretical value of Rs = r1+r2 = .......................................................................... ohm.

Conclusion- With limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical value of Rs are
same . Hence law of resistances in series is verified
PRECAUTIONS

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.
8. The wire should not make a loop.
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EXPERIMENT-5

Aim-To determine the refractive index of a glass slab ,using a travelling microscope.

APPARATUS REQUIRED–
Three glass slabs of different thickness, a travelling microscope, lycopodium powder sand
paper.

Theory-
The refractive index of a glass slab is given by the formula
𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
μ=
𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
Real thickness = (R3- R1)
Apparent thickness = (R3- R2)

Procedure –
1) The travelling microscope was placed on the table near a window.
2) The leveling screws were adjusted so that the base of the microscope became horizontal.
3) The position of the eye piece was adjusted so that the cross wires were clearly visible.
4) The vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope was observed.
5) A black ink cross mark was marked on the base of the microscope which served as point
P.
6) The microscope was made vertical & focused on the cross at P , so that there was no
parallax between the cross wire & the image of the mark P.
7) Then the main scale reading &vernier scale reading (R1) were observed on the vertical
scale.
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8) The glass slab of least thickness was placed on the point P.

9) The microscope was raised upwards & focused on the image P1 of the cross mark.
10) Again the vertical reading (R2) was noted .
11) A few particles of lycopodium powder was sprinkled on the surface of the
12) The microscope was raised further upwards and focused on the particle near S.
13) Then the reading (R3) was noted on the vertical scale.
14) Above steps from 6 to 13 were repeated with the other glass slab of different
Thickness.

Observation-
Travelling microscope
In main scale
20M.S.D = 1cm
1 M.S.D = 0.05cm
LC of main scale= 0.05 cm

Tabulation for microscope reading

SlN Reading on vertical scale when Real thickness Apparent Refractive

o microscope is focussed on (R3- R1) in cm thickness index
𝑹𝑹𝟑𝟑−𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏
(R3- R2) µ=
𝑹𝑹𝟑𝟑−𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐

Cross mark Cross Lycopodi

with out mark with um
glass glass powder
slab(R1) slab(R2)c (R3)
cm m cm
1
2
3
4

Calculation
Mean µ = µ1+ µ2+ µ3+ µ4/4 =
Conclusion-
𝑹𝑹𝟑𝟑−𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏
The ratio is constant.
𝑹𝑹𝟑𝟑−𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐
It gives refractive index of the material of the glass slab .

PRECAUTIONS -
1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed.
2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid back lash error.
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EXPERIMENT-6

Aim of the Exp-Todetermine the refractive index of a liquid by plane mirror and convex
lens.
Apparatus required-
convex lens, plane mirror, a transparent liquid,an optical needle,iron stand,plumb line,
spherometer,meter scale sand paper.
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:-Tabulation for height of a convex surface ( h )

Sl. Pitch in LC in ICSR NCR FCSR Difference PSR CSR Total Mean
No (cm) (cm) (I) (N) (F) (D) (P×N) (LC×D) h=PSR h (cm)
(cm) (cm) + CSR
(cm)

1
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CALCULATION :- d2 h
R= + Where d=distance between any two legs of the spherometer.
6h 2
d = d1+d2+d3 / 3 = 3.1+3.1+3.1/3=

d2 h =
R= +
6h 2

𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= - =
𝐟𝐟𝟐𝟐 𝑭𝑭 𝐟𝐟𝟏𝟏

Conclusion -: The refractive index of a liquid is

EXPERIMENT-7

AIM-To draw the I-V characteristic of a p-n junction diode in forward- bias reverse-bias .

Apparatus required-

A p-n junction diode, battery eliminiter, volt meter, mA ammeter, µA ammeter,a high resistance
rheostat, one way key, patch cord , graph paper sand paper .

Theory-

P-N junction diode- The region that is formed by adjoining a p-type semiconductor to an
n-type semiconductor is called p-n junction diode.

Forward bias characteristic -A junctiom diode is said to be forward biased if the p side is
connected to the +ve terminal and n-side is connected to the negative terminal of a battery is call
as forward bias characteristic.
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Reverse bias characteristic - A junctiom diode is said to be reversed biased if the p-side is
connected to the -ve terminal and n-side is connected to the +ve terminal of a battery is call as
reverse bias characteristic.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM-

Forward bias Reverse bias

PROCEDURE -

(a) For forward-bias

1. Make circuit diagram as shown in Fig.

2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
3. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA).
4. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end and insert the key K.
Voltmeter V and milli-ammeter mA will give zero reading.
5. Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward-bias voltage (VF) of
0.1 V. Current remains zero.
6. Increase the forward-bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current remains zero. (It is due to
junction potential barrier of 0.3 V).
7. Increase VF to 0.4 V. Milli-ammeter records a small current.
8. Increase VF in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current. Current increases first
slowly and then rapidly, till VF becomes 0.7 V.
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9. Make VF = 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “forward break down”
stage.
10. If the VF increases beyond “forward breakdown” stage, the forward current does not change
much. Now take out the key at once.
11. Record your observations as given ahead.
( For reverse-bias-
12. Make circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 10.05.
13. Make all connections neat, clean arid tight.
14. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (pA).
15. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near positive end and insert the key K. Voltmeter
V and micro-ammeter mA will give zero reading.

16. Move the contact towards negative end to apply a reverse-bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, a
feebly reverse current starts flowing.
17. Increase VR in steps of 0,2 V. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly till VR
becomes 20 V. Note the current.
18. Make VR = 25 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “reverse break down”
stage. Note the current and take out the key at once.
19. Record your observations as given ahead.
Observation-
(a) For forward bias-(b)For reverse bias
(b) For forward bias-(b)For reverse bias
Range of voltmeter = 0-1volt Range of voltmeter = 0-50volt
In voltmeter 10 div.=0.2volt In voltmeter 10 div.=10 volt
1 div = 0.02volt 1 div = 1volt
So Lc of voltmeter = 0.02volt So Lc of voltmeter = 1volt
Range of mili ammeter 0-10mA
Range of micro ammeter =0-100µA
In milli ammeter 10 div =2mA
In micro ammeter 10 div =20µA
1 div =0.2 mA
1 div = 2µA
So Lc of milli ammeter = 0.2mA
So Lc of micro ammeter = 2µA
 P a g e | 20

Tabulation for forward bias voltage and forward current

Sl No. Forward bias voltage Vf in volt Forward current If in mA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Tabulation for reverse bias voltage and reverse current

Sl No. Reverse bias voltage V in volt Reverse current Iin µA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Calculation-
 P a g e | 21

Conclusion-
Both forward bias and reverse bias graph were drawn.

PRECAUTIONS -
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

EXPERIMENT- 8

AIM OF THE EXP- To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graphs between
u and v or between 1/u and 1/v .

Apparatus Required-an optical bench with three uprights , a convex lens , a lens holder , two
optical needles, graph paper,sand paper etc.

Theory-
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
The relation between u, v and f for convex lens is = −
𝒇𝒇 𝒗𝒗 𝒖𝒖

𝟏𝟏 𝒖𝒖−𝒗𝒗
⟹ =
𝒇𝒇 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖

𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖
⟹f =
𝒖𝒖−𝒗𝒗

𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖
According to lens maker's formula f =
𝒖𝒖+𝒗𝒗

Where f= focal length of the convex lens

u= distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens

v= distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens

 P a g e | 22

PROCEDURE

To determine rough focal length

1. Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder.
2. Go out in the open and face the mirror towards distant tree or building.
3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move the
mirror forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall.
4. Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall (screen). This will be equal to the rough
focal length of the mirror.
To set the 1e (c U L
5. Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the upright at 50 cm mark.
6. Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the optical
bench.
7. Keep the upright fixed in this position throughout. To set the object needle
8. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (0). Mount it in outer laterally move- able upright
near zero end.
9. Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cms) nearly 1.5 times the
obtained rough focal length of the lens.
10. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line through the optical
centre of the lens.
11. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.
To set the image needle
12. With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench. An
inverted and enlarged image of the object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must lie in the
middle of the lens.
13. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in the fourth upright near the other end of the
optical bench.
14. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the image
when seen with right open eye.
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15. Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip and the image needle
tip have parallax.
16. Remove the parallax tip to tip as described.
17. Note the position of the index mark on base of the image needle upright.
18. Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright of the lens, the object needle
and the image needle in the table against observation 2.
To determine index correction
19. Find the index correction for distance between optical centre of lens and tip of the object
needle and also for distance between optical centre of lens and tip of the image needle as
described.
20. Move object needle upright towards mirror in steps of 1 cm to get observation 2 and 1.
Repeat the experiment.
21. Move object needle upright away from mirror (from position of observation 2) in steps of 1
cm to get observations 4, 5 and 6. Repeat the experiment.
22. Record all the observations as given ahead.
Observation-

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = …………………………………….. cm

Tabulation foru,v and 1/u ,1/v

Sl Position of Observed Corrected 1/u 1/v Focal

no distance distance cm-1 cm-1 Length
Object Lens Image OA=u OC=v u V F=uv/u+v
needle (O) Needle cm cm cm cm cm
(A) cm cm (C) cm
1
2
3
4
5

Calculation –

Mean focal length =

From graph f = OB+OC /4 =

 P a g e | 24

Conclusion-

The focal length of the given convex lens is 11.07cm and graphical value of .11.55 cm .

PRECAUTIONS -

1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.

2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away
from needle.

3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of it is
formed.

4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.