TIDAL ENERGY

Tides are periodic rises and falls of

large bodies of water. Gravity is one
major force that creates tides. Ocean
tides result from the gravitational
attraction of the sun and moon on
the oceans of the earth.

Spring tides are especially strong

tides that occur when the earth, the
sun, and the moon are in a line. The
gravitational forces of the moon and
the sun both contribute to the tides.
Spring tides occur during the full
moon and the new moon.
Neap tides are especially
weak tides. They occur
when the gravitational
forces of the moon and the
sun are perpendicular to
one another with respect to
the earth. Neap tides occur
during quarter moons.
Working
• The arrangement
of this system is
shown in figure.

• The ocean tides

rise and fall and
water can be
stored during the
rise period and it
A dam is constructed separating the tidal
can be
basin from the sea and a difference in
discharged
water level is obtained between the basin
during fall.
and sea.
• During high tide period,
water flows from the sea
into the tidal basin
through the water turbine.

• The height of tide is

above that of tidal basin.

• Hence the turbine unit

operates and generates
power, as it is directly
coupled to a generator.
• During low tide period,
water flows from tidal
basin to sea, as the water
level in the basin is more
than that of the tide in the
sea.
• During this period also, the
flowing water rotates the
turbine and generator
power.
 SINGLE-BASIN SYSTEM
This is the simplest way of power
generation and the simplest
scheme for developing tidal
power is the single-basin
arrangement as shown in Figure
5.2 . in the dam.

Single water reservoir is closed off by constructing dam or barrage. Sluice

(gate), large enough to admit the water during tide so that the loss of head is
small, is provided

The single-basin system has two configurations, namely:

1. One-way single-basin system:
The basin is filled by seawater passing
through the sluice gate during the high
tide period. When the water level in the
basin is higher than the sea level at low
tide period, then power is generated by
emptying the basin water through
turbine generators. This type of systems
can allow power generation only for
about 5h and is followed by the refilling
of the basin. Power is generated till the
level of falling tides coincides with the Fig. 5.2. Single basin System
level of the next rising tide.
2. Two-way single basin: This system allows power generation from the water moving from the
sea to the basin, and then, at low tide, moving back to the sea. This process requires bigger and
more expensive turbine.
 TWO-BASIN SYSTEMS

An improvement over the single-basin

system is the two-basin system. In this
system, a constant and continuous output is
maintained by suitable adjustment of the
turbine valves to suit the head under which
these turbines are operating.

A two-basin system regulates power output of an individual tide, but it cannot

take care of the great difference in outputs between spring and neap tides.
Therefore, this system provides a partial solution to the problem of getting a
steady output of power from a tidal scheme.
This disadvantage can be overcome by
the joint operation of tidal power and
pumped storage plant. During the period,
when the tidal power plant is producing
more energy than required, the pumped
storage plant utilizes the surplus power
for pumping water to the upper reservoir.
When the output of the tidal power plant
is low, the pumped storage plant
generates electric power and feeds it to
the system. This arrangement, even
though technically feasible, is much more
expensive, as it calls for high installed
capacity for meeting a particular load.

This basic principle of joint operation of tidal power with steam plant is also possible when it
is connected to a grid. In this case, whenever tidal power is available, the output of the steam
Advantages of tidal power plants.

1. It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.

2. It is superior to hydro-power plant as it is totally independent of rain.
3. It improves the possibility of fish farming in the tidal basins and it can
provide recreation to visitors and holiday makers.

Disadvantages

1. Tidal power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available
on the bay.
2. As the sites are available on the bays which are always far away from
load centres, the power generated has to be transmitted to long distances.
This increases the transmission cost and transmission losses.
WAVE ENERGY

• Wave energy, also known as ocean energy or sea wave energy, is a

form of energy harnessed from the ocean or sea waves.

• The rigorous vertical motion of surface ocean waves contains a lot of

kinetic (motion) energy that is captured by wave energy technologies
to do useful tasks.

WAVE ENERGY USES

• The wave energy captured is used for all different kinds of useful work,
including electricity generation, desalinization of water, and pumping of
water into reservoirs.
WAVE ENERGY WORKING:

• Wave power is produced by the up and down motion of floating

devices placed on the surface of the ocean.

• In other words, wind produces waves, and then waves produce

energy.

• As the waves travel across the ocean, high-tech devices capture

the natural movements of ocean currents and the flow of swells to
generate power.
WAVE ENERGY CONVERTER

• Wave energy converters (WECs) are devices that convert the

kinetic and potential energy associated with a moving ocean wave
into useful mechanical or electrical energy. This energy is the
largest estimated global resource form of ocean energy
Overtopping/terminator device
• Overtopping devices capture
water as waves break into a
storage reservoir.

• The water is then returned to the

sea passing through a
conventional low-head turbine
which generates power.

• An overtopping device may use

‘collectors’ to concentrate the
wave energy.
• These devices generally have power ratings of 500 kW to 2 MW, depending on
the wave parameters and the device dimensions.
ATTENUATORS
• An attenuator is a
floating device that
operates parallel to
the wave direction
and effectively
rides the waves.
• These devices
capture energy
from the relative
motion of the two
arms as the wave
passes them.
Point Absorbers
A point absorber is a floating
structure that absorbs energy
from all directions through
its movements at/near the
water surface. It converts the
motion of the buoyant top
relative to the base into
electrical power. The power
take-off system may take
several forms, depending on
the configuration of
displacers/reactors.
Oscillation water column

• An oscillating water
column is a partially
submerged, hollow
structure.

• It is open to the sea

below the waterline,
enclosing a column of
air on top of a column of
water column.
• Waves cause the water column to rise and fall, which in turn
compresses and decompresses the air
• This trapped air is
allowed to flow to
and from the
atmosphere via a
turbine, which
usually can rotate
regardless of the
direction of the
airflow.
• The rotation of the
turbine is used to
generate
electricity.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WAVE POWER
Advantages:
1.Sea waves have high energy densities and provide a consistent stream of
electricity generation capacity.
2.Wave energy is clean source of renewable energy with limited negative
environmental impacts.
3.It has no greenhouse gas emissions or water pollutants.
4.Operating cost is low and operating efficiency is optimal.
5.Damage to ocean shoreline is reduced.
Disadvantages
1.High construction costs.
2.Marine life is disrupted and displaced.
3.Damage to the devices from strong storms and corrosion create problems.
4.Wave energy devices could have an effect on marine and recreation
environment.
 BIOMASS RESOURCES
Biomass resources for energy production encompass a wide spectrum of
materials ranging from silviculture (forest), agriculture (field), aquaculture
(fresh and sea water) and industrial and social activities that produce organic
wastes residues (food processing, urban refuse, etc.). When plants are
cultivated especially for the purpose of energy, it is known as energy farming.

1. Forests Forests: natural as well as cultivated, serve as a source

of fuel wood, charcoal and producer gas. Forest waste and
residues from forest processing industries can be utilized at the
mill itself. Forest resource is consumed, not just for firewood but
also for sawn timber, papermaking and other industrial purposes.
Some fast growing energy intensive trees such as eucalyptus,
poplar, pine are specially cultivated for the purpose of energy.
2. Agricultural Residues
Crop residues such as straw, rice husk, coconut shell, groundnut shell,
sugarcane bagasse etc., are gasified to obtain producer gas. Alternatively, these
are converted to fuel pellets or briquettes and used as solid fuel.

3. Energy Crops
Certain cultivated plants produce raw material for bio-fuels. The greatest
potential for energy farming occurs in tropical countries, especially those with
adequate rainfall and soil condition.
(a)Sugar Plants Sugarcane is a major raw material source for bio-
ethanol. Various products from sugarcane are shown in Fig. Alcohol
represents only 30 per cent of the total sugar cane energy. About 35
per cent is available in bagasse and another 35 per cent in leaves and
tops of the sugarcane plant.
Sweet sorghum also supplies raw material for ethanol production,
especially during off-season supply for the sugar mills. Sugar beet supplies
raw material for ethanol production.
(b)Starch Plants Jerusalem artichoke provides raw material for bio-
ethanol. It is a tubular plant and can be grown on marginal lands and
relatively poor soil. It is able to withstand adverse conditions such as
cold and draught conditions. Cassava is also a tubular plant. It is seen as
complementary to sugarcane as it can be cultivated in areas with acidic
infertile soils, whereas cane requires more amenable soil. It also
provides raw material (starch) for bio-ethanol. Potato, sweet potato, etc.
also fall in the same category. Grains, such as maize, barley, rice and
wheat provide starch, which can be converted to ethanol.

(c)Oil Producing Plants In a short-term diesel engine test, over 40

different plant derived oils have been evaluated including sunflower,
rapeseed, palm oil, castor oil, soybean, groundnut and cottonseed
4. Aquatic Plants Some water plants grow faster than land based plants
and provide raw materials for producing biogas or ethanol. These are
water hyacinth, kelp, seaweed and algae, etc.

5. Urban Waste Urban waste is of two types: (a) Municipal Solid

Waste (MSW or garbage) (b) sewage (liquid waste) Energy from MSW
can be obtained from direct combustion (incineration) or as and fill gas.
Sewage can be used to produce biogas after some processing.
BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES
• There are many different ways of extracting energy from
biomass.
• These energy-conversion technologies may be grouped into
four basic types:
(i)physical method,

(ii)incineration (direct combustion),

(iii)thermochemical method,

(iv)biochemical method.
1.Physical Method:
The simplest form of physical conversion of biomass is through
compression of combustible material. Its density is increased by reducing the
volume by compression through the processes called briquetting and
pelletization.

(i) Pelletizaton
Pelletization is a process in which waste wood is
pulverized, dried and forced under pressure through an extrusion device.
The extracted mass is in the form of pellets (rod; 5 to 10 mm dia and 12
mm long), facilitating its use in steam power plants and gasification
system. Pelletization reduces the moisture to about 7 to 10 per cent and
increases the heat value of the biomass.
(ii) Briquetting
Biomass briquettes are made from woody matter (eg,
agricultural waste and saw dust), are a replacement for fossil fuels such as oil
or coal and can be used to heat boilers in manufacturing plants.

• Burning a wood briquette is far more efficient than burning firewood.

• The moisture content of a briquette can be as low as 4%, whereas for green
firewood, it may be as high as 65%.
(iii) Expelling Agro Products
Concentrated vegetable oils may be obtained
from certain agro products and may be used as fuel in diesel engines.

 However, difficulties arise with direct use of plant oil due to high
viscosity and combustion deposits.

 Therefore, these oils are upgraded by a chemical method known as

trans- teration to overcome theses difficulties.
Categories of certain materials with examples are as follows:
• Seeds Sunflower, rapeseed, soya beans
• Nut Oil palm, coconut copra, jojoba nuts
• Fruits Olive
• Leaves Eucalyptus
(iv) Fuel Extraction
Occasionally, milky latex is obtained from freshly cut plants.

• The material is called exudates and is obtained by cutting (tapping) the stems
or trunks of living plants (a technique similar to that used in rubber
production).

• Some plants are not amenable to tapping and in such cases, the whole plant
(usually a shrub) is crushed to obtain the product.

• For example, the Euphorbia lathyris plant is crushed to extract hydrocarbons

of less molecular weight than rubber, which may be used as a petroleum
substitute.
INCINERATION
Incineration
Incineration means direct combustion of biomass for
immediate useful heat.
• The heat and/or steam produced are either used to generate
electricity or provide the heat for industrial process, space heating,
cooking or district heating
• Furnaces and boilers have been developed for large-scale burning
of various types of biomass such as wood, waste wood, black liquid
from pulp industry, food industry waste, and MSW.
• The moisture content in the biomass and wide range of
composition tends to decrease the efficiency of conversion. However,
the economic advantage of cogeneration makes it attractive for
adoption.
• Biomass pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of
biomass occurring in the absence of oxygen.

• It is the fundamental chemical reaction that is the

precursor of both the combustion and gasification
processes and occurs naturally in the first two seconds.

• The products of biomass pyrolysis include biochar, bio-

oil and gases including methane, hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, and carbon dioxide.
• High temperature pyrolysis (~1000°C maximizes the gaseous product.
The process is known as gasification.

• Low temperature pyrolysis (up to 600 °C) maximizes the char output.
The process has been used for centuries for production of charcoal. The
process is known as carbonization.

• A liquid product is obtained through catalytic liquefaction process.

• Liquefaction is a relatively low temperature (250-450°C), high-pressure

(270 atm) thermochemical conversion of wet biomass, usually with high
hydrogen partial pressure and also a catalyst to enhance the rate of
reaction and/or to improve the selectivity of the process.
Biochemical:
The process makes use of metabolic action of microbial organisms
on biomass to produce liquid and gaseous fuel.
Two major biochemical processes are explained below:
ETHANOL FERMENTATION
 Production of Biogas - The biogas plants

There are two types of biogas plants in usage for

the production of biogas. These are:
• The fixed- dome type of biogas plant
• The floating gas holder type of biogas plant
Fixed dome type of
Biogas Plant
Raw materials required
• Forms of biomass listed below may be used
along with water.
• Animal dung
• Poultry wastes
• Plant wastes ( Husk, grass, weeds etc.)
• Human excreta
• Industrial wastes(Saw dust, wastes from food
processing industries)
• Domestic wastes (Vegetable peels, waste food
materials)
Construction
The biogas plant is a brick and cement structure having the following
five sections:
• Mixing tank present above the ground level.
• Inlet tank: The mixing tank opens underground into a sloping inlet
chamber.
• Digester: The inlet chamber opens from below into the digester
which is a huge tank with a dome like ceiling. The ceiling of the
digester has an outlet with a valve for the supply of biogas.
• Outlet tank: The digester opens from below into an outlet chamber.
• Overflow tank: The outlet chamber opens from the top into a small
over flow tank.
 Working of Fixed Dome type Biogas Plant
• The various forms of biomass are mixed with an equal quantity of
water in the mixing tank. This forms the slurry.
• The slurry is fed into the digester through the inlet chamber.
• When the digester is partially filled with the slurry, the introduction
of slurry is stopped and the plant is left unused for about two
months.
• During these two months, anaerobic bacteria present in the slurry
decomposes or ferments the biomass in the presence of water.
• As a result of anaerobic fermentation, biogas is formed, which
starts collecting in the dome of the digester.
• As more and more biogas starts collecting, the pressure
exerted by the biogas forces the spent slurry into the outlet
chamber.
• From the outlet chamber, the spent slurry overflows into the
overflow tank.
• The spent slurry is manually removed from the overflow
tank and used as manure for plants.
• The gas valve connected to a system of pipelines is opened
when a supply of biogas is required.
• To obtain a continuous supply of biogas, a functioning plant
can be fed continuously with the prepared slurry.
Advantages of fixed dome type of biogas plant

• Requires only locally and easily available

materials for construction.
• Inexpensive.
• Easy to construct.
Floating gas holder
type of biogas plant
 Construction
The floating gas holder type of biogas plant has the following chambers/
sections:
• Mixing Tank - present above the ground level.
• Digester tank - Deep underground well-like structure. It is divided into
two chambers by a partition wall in between.
• It has two long cement pipes
i) Inlet pipe opening into the inlet chamber for introduction of slurry.
ii) Outlet pipe opening into the overflow tank for removal of spent slurry.
• Gas holder - an inverted steel drum resting above the digester. The
drum can move up and down i.e., float over the digester. The gas holder
has an outlet at the top which could be connected to gas stoves.
• Over flow tank - Present above the ground level.
Working
• Slurry (mixture of equal quantities of biomass and water) is
prepared in the mixing tank.
• The prepared slurry is fed into the inlet chamber of the
digester through the inlet pipe.
• The plant is left unused for about two months and introduction
of more slurry is stopped.
• During this period, anaerobic fermentation of biomass takes
place in the presence of water and produces biogas in the
digester.
• Biogas being lighter rises up and starts collecting in the gas
holder. The gas holder now starts moving up.
• The gas holder cannot rise up beyond a certain level. As more and
more gas starts collecting, more pressure begins to be exerted on the
slurry.
• The spent slurry is now forced into the outlet chamber from the top
of the inlet chamber.
• When the outlet chamber gets filled with the spent slurry, the excess
is forced out through the outlet pipe into the overflow tank. This is
later used as manure for plants.
• The gas valve of the gas outlet is opened to get a supply of biogas.
• Once the production of biogas begins, a continuous supply of gas can
be ensured by regular removal of spent slurry and introduction of
fresh slurry.
Disadvantages of floating gas holder type
biogas plant

• Expensive
• Steel drum may rust
• Requires regular maintenance
Advantages of biogas as a fuel

• High calorific value

• Clean fuel
• No residue produced
• No smoke produced
• Non polluting
• Economical
• Can be supplied through pipe lines
• Burns readily - has a convenient ignition temperature
Uses of biogas

•Domestic fuel
•For street lighting
•Generation of electricity
•If compressed, it can
replace compressed natural gas for
use in vehicles
 Applications

A biogas bus, Sweden The Biogas Train “Amanda”

Sweden
Advantages of biogas plants

• Reduces burden on forests and fossil fuels

• Produces a clean fuel - helps in controlling air
pollution
• Provides nutrient rich (N & P) manure for plants
• Controls water pollution by decomposing
sewage, animal dung and human excreta.
Limitations of biogas plants

• Initial cost of installation of the plant is high.

• Number of cattle owned by an average family of
farmers is inadequate to feed a biogas plant.
SITE SELECTION FOR BIOMASS PLANTS
1.There should be minimum distance from gas production plant
to gas consumers.
2.For operation and maintenance, sufficient land shall be
available.
3.For formation of biomass, slurry water is required. Therefore,
sufficient water shall be available near site.
4.To avoid slippage of fermented slurry, the site should be at
least 10 to 15 meters away from water supply tanks, storage or
wells.
5.Sun radiations are required, the space shall be open to receive
sun rays.
Fuel Cell
Fuel cells require a continuous input of fuel and
an oxidizing agent (generally oxygen) in order to
sustain the reactions that generate the electricity.
Therefore, these cells can constantly generate electricity
until the supply of fuel and oxygen is cut off.
A fuel cell is similar to electrochemical cells, which
consists of a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte. In
these cells, the electrolyte enables the movement of the
protons.
Working of Fuel Cell
The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen
can be used to generate electricity via a fuel
cell.

The working of this fuel cell involved the

passing of hydrogen and oxygen into a
concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide via
carbon electrodes.

The cell reaction can be written as follows:

Cathode Reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–

Anode Reaction: 2H2 + 4OH– → 4H2O + 4e–

Net Cell Reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

• However the reaction rate of this electrochemical
reaction is quite low.

• This issue is overcome with the help of a catalyst

such as platinum or palladium.

• In order to increase the effective surface area, the

catalyst is finely divided before being incorporated
into the electrodes

• The efficiency of the fuel cell described above in

the generation of electricity generally approximates
to 70% whereas thermal power plants have an
efficiency of 40%.

• Fuel cells, however, offer a platform for the direct

conversion of chemical energy into electrical
energy.
Types of Fuel Cells
Despite working similarly, there exist many varieties of
fuel cells. Some of these types of fuel cells are discussed
in this subsection.

• The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell

• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
• Solid Acid Fuel Cell
• Alkaline Fuel Cell
• Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM)
Fuel Cell
•These cells are also known as proton exchange
membrane fuel cells (or PEMFCs).
•The temperature range that these cells operate
in is between 50oC to 100oC
•The electrolyte used in PEMFCs is
a polymer which has the ability to conduct
protons.
•A typical PEM fuel cell consists of bipolar
plates, a catalyst, electrodes, and the polymer
membrane.
•Despite having eco-friendly applications in
transportation, PEMFCs can also be used for the
stationary and portable generation of power.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
•These fuel cells involve the use of
phosphoric acid as an electrolyte in
order to channel the H+
•The working temperatures of these
cells lie in the range of 150oC – 200oC
•Electrons are forced to travel to the
cathode via an external circuit because
of the non-conductive nature
of phosphoric acid.
•Due to the acidic nature of the
electrolyte, the components of these
cells tend to corrode or oxidize over
time.
Solid Acid Fuel Cell
•A solid acid material is used as the electrolyte in these
fuel cells.
•The molecular structures of these solid acids are ordered
at low temperatures.
•At higher temperatures, a phase transition can occur
which leads to a huge increase in conductivity.
•Examples of solid acids include CsHSO4 and
CsH2PO4 (cesium hydrogen sulfate and cesium
dihydrogen phosphate respectively)
Alkaline Fuel Cell
•This was the fuel cell which was used as the primary
source of electricity in the Apollo space program.
•In these cells, an aqueous alkaline solution is used to
saturate a porous matrix, which is in turn used to
separate the electrodes.
•The operating temperatures of these cells are quite low
(approximately 90oC).
•These cells are highly efficient. They also produce heat
and water along with electricity.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
•These cells involve the use of a solid oxide or a ceramic
electrolyte (such as yttria-stabilized zirconia).
•These fuel cells are highly efficient and have a relatively
low cost (theoretical efficiency can even approach 85%).
•The operating temperatures of these cells are very high
(lower limit of 600oC, standard operating temperatures lie
between 800 and 1000oC).
•Solid oxide fuel cells are limited to stationary
applications due to their high operating temperatures.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
•The electrolyte used in these cells is lithium potassium
carbonate salt. This salt becomes liquid at high
temperatures, enabling the movement of carbonate ions.
•Similar to SOFCs, these fuel cells also have a
relatively high operating temperature of 650oC
•The anode and the cathode of this cell are vulnerable to
corrosion due to the high operating temperature and the
presence of the carbonate electrolyte.
•These cells can be powered by carbon-based fuels such
as natural gas and biogas.
 Applications of fuel cell
• Fuel cell electric vehicles, or FCEVs, use clean fuels and are
therefore more eco-friendly than internal combustion engine-based
vehicles.
• They have been used to power many space expeditions including the
Appolo space program.
• Generally, the byproducts produced from these cells are heat and
water.
• The portability of some fuel cells is extremely useful in some
military applications.
• These electrochemical cells can also be used to power several
electronic devices.
• Fuel cells are also used as primary or backup sources of electricity in
many remote areas.
Advantages
• Zero Emissions: a fuel cell vehicle only emits water
vapour. Therefore, no air pollution occurs.

• High efficiency: Fuel cells convert chemical energy directly

into electricity without the combustion process. As a result,
Fuel cells can achieve high efficiencies in energy
conversion.

• High power density: A high power density allows fuel

cells to be relatively compact source of electric power,
beneficial in application with space constraints.
• Quiet operation: Fuel cells can be used in residential or
built-up areas where the noise pollution can be avoided.

• No recharge: Fuel cell systems do not require recharging.

Disadvantages

• It is difficult to manufacture and stores a high pure hydrogen

• It is very expense as compared to battery