Final Article JAS
Final Article JAS
ISSN 2166-0379
2018, Vol. 6, No. 4
Invasion
Abstract
Invasive plant species have been commonly implicated to cause loss in plant species
diversity. Attention had however not been paid to the effects of these species loss on the soil
microbiome. A study was conducted in 18 farmers’ fields within three states in southwestern
Nigeria to examine the effect of Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) invasion on native plant
diversity as well as on the rhizosphere microbial population using randomized complete
block design. Results indicated significant losses in plant species diversity and reduction in
density per square meter compared with adjacent non infested fields. Results further showed
C. odorata invasion exerted diverse influence on soil microbial population. Relationships
were subsequently established among plant density, species diversity; and soil microbial
population. Further studies were also recommended to accommodate more microbiological
indices.
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Journal of Agricultural Studies
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2018, Vol. 6, No. 4
Keywords: Chromolaena odorata, invasive species, soil microbiome, species diversity, weed
density
1. Introduction
Soil microorganisms derive energy from organic or inorganic substrates, or from the products
of biochemical processes; yet, many of these processes are mediated by the roots of plants
(Tabatabai, 1994). Therefore, the health of the soil partly depends on plants. Furthermore, the
soil microbial population is altered by the significant alteration in soil physical and chemical
properties caused by the constant interactions between plant roots, soil, and microbes
(Nihorimbere et al., 2011). In addition, exudates from the roots in the rhizosphere drive the
interactions between plant roots and microbial community (Badri et al., 2009, 2013a;
Chaparro et al., 2013). Up to 21% of carbon fixed through photosynthesis are released by the
roots of plants as soluble sugars, amino acids, or secondary metabolites (Badri & Vivanco
2009; Badri et al., 2013b; Chaparro et al., 2013), and these form the substrates that support
microbial activities at the root zone of plants in the soil. Since these rhizo-deposits are a
major driving force in the regulation of microbial diversity and activity in the soil (Mendes et
al., 2013), it will be expedient to postulate that any process or activity capable of altering
plant species diversity or density will have a direct bearing on soil microbial composition and
population.
Invasive species have been commonly implicated to cause loss in plant species diversity.
They are non-native, exotic plant species occurring outside their natural adapted ranges. They
may become invasive when introduced into a new area, where they tend to establish because
of the absence of their natural enemies (Sax & Brown, 2000). They also possess features that
help them to out-compete native species (Raghubanshi et al., 2005). Changes in hydrology
and ecosystem functioning as a result of loss of biodiversity and even species annihilation
have been identified with invasive species (Raghubanshi et al., 2005).
Chromolaena odorata is among the world most important invaders and has been ranked as
the second most noxious plant that requires urgent attention in some parts of Africa
(Robertson et al., 2003). It negatively affects biodiversity by suppressing indigenous
grassland and savanna vegetation through physical smothering and allelopathy (Zachariades
& Goodall, 2002). Although they are known to have severe negative consequences for
biodiversity, the effects of invasive alien plants species on soil microbial population are not
well documented. The soil harbors the largest volume and mass of microorganisms, and it is
the richest in microbial species diversity compared to any other habitat on earth owing to its
heterogeneous and complex multi-substrate nature. The vast majority of these microscopic
soil organisms are highly beneficial in terms of nutrient cycling, soil tilth, and soil health.
These organisms are very critical to soil fertility and plant nutrition owing to their interaction
with plants. The present study seeks to find out the response of soil microbial population to
the vastly reported trim in plant species richness and density caused by C. odorata invasion
(Goodall & Zacharias, 2002). The experiment takes cognizance of the fact that the stage of
infestation with respect to time may play a key role on its influence on biodiversity, therefore
the age of C.odorata at the sampling sites were taken into consideration.
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2018, Vol. 6, No. 4
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peptone 5 g, meat extract 3 g, agar 15 g and 1000 mL distilled water. For bacterial count 0.1
ml aliquot of the dilution to 10-8 was spread and plated on nutrient agar medium Petri plates
in triplicates. Then the plates were incubated in an inverted position at 28˚C for 2 days. The
constituents of the Potato Dextrose Agar (gL-1) were Peptone 5.0, potato extract 5.0, dextrose
10.0, Agar 20.0, and distilled water 1000.0 ml at pH 6.5. A mixture of 1g soil and 10mL of
saline solution was shaken on a mechanical shaker for 10 minutes to dislodge fungal
propagules into the solution. This was followed by serial dilutions to the concentrations of 10-
5
. 0.5 mL of the aliquot was spread on Potato dextrose extract agar to isolate fungal spores
and this was incubated at 280C for 4 days. Dilution factors of 8 and 5 were used to determine
the bacterial colony and fungal spore forming units, respectively.
2.6 Data Analysis
Data collected from the experiment were submitted to an analysis of variance using Minitab
17, while treatment means were compared using the Tukey Test. Plant count data were
normalized using Square root transformation before being subjected to ANOVA. Simple
linear correlation and regression analysis was performed between increasing time of C.
odorata infestation (X) and plant density, plant species diversity, or soil microbial population
(Y) with a scientific calculator (Casio fx-7400G PLUS POWER GRAPHIC Model). Multiple
correlations was also done with Minitab 17 and results were indicated by a Matrixplot.
Graphs were prepared using Microsoft Excel ® (2016 version) and error bars were
determined using the standard error.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Plant Species Enumeration Under C. Odorata Infestation
The species of plants collected under varying age of C. odorata infestation are presented in
Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4. Plant species such as Tridax procumbens, Biden pilosa, A. Coyzoides and
Synedrella odiflora, belonging to the family Asteraceae, which were observed in the control
plots were completely absent in the C. odorata infested fields irrespective of the stage of
infestation. Similarly, plants belonging to the families Boraginaceae, Nactaginaceae,
Rubiaceae and Aizoaceae were all missing from fields infested with C. odorata, but they
appeared in the control plots. Other classes of plants such as Solanaceae, Poaceae,
loganinaceae and Portulaceae were present at the early stages of C. odorata infestation, but
were not found as C. odorata infestation advanced. This confirms the ability of C. odorata to
reduce plant diversity in infested areas (Zachariades & Goodall, 2002). The classes of plant
species observed to be missing probably belong to those highly vulnerable to competition by
C. odorata, which can either be allelospolic or ellelopathic competition, or both.
Choromolaena odorata has been found to suppress indigenous grassland and savannah
vegetation through physical smothering (Zachariades & Goodall, 2002). There have also been
many findings showing that substances released by C. odorata and aqueous extracts of the
plant remarkably influence the seed germination and growth of neighboring plants (Hu &
Zhang, 2013; Suwal et al., 2010).
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3.2 Effects of Stage of C. Odorata Infestation on Plant Species Richness and Density.
Effects of infestation stage of C. odorata on plant density and plant species diversity shown
in figure 1 indicate that plant density appeared to decrease with age of C. odorata, and the
decrease became significant (P < 0.05) after three years of invasion. Plant species was
significantly (P < 0.05) more diverse in fields with no C. odorata infestation than in invaded
fields regardless of the stage of infestation. Previous studies have shown that C. odorata
produces a variety of allelochemicals, including flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids
(Ambika and Jayachandra, 1980). Production of these compounds is most likely to vary in
concentration and proportion with age of C odorata as is the case with certain other plant
species. Chaparro et al. (2013) have shown that Arabidopsis roots release more phenolic-
related compounds at later stages of life. This phenomenon has been suggested to be
correlated to defense strategies against pathogens as secondary metabolites are involved in
plant immunity against bacterial and fungal pathogens (Rogers et al., 1996; Clay et al., 2009;
Millet et al., 2010; An and Mou, 2011; Bednarek, 2012).
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5 years of continuous occupation by the invasive species (figure 2). Fungal population on the
other hand was observed to be higher in the Siam weed infested plots than in the control, and
this was also characterized by a drop in population density with time. The dynamics of yeast
colonization of the rhizosphere in the sampled fields was similar to that of bacteria. Invasion
of C. odorata at all times reduced yeast population relative to the control plot, and these
reductions were by 39.6, 46.5 and 75.2%, respectively for invasion of 1-2 years, 3-4 years,
and 5 years and above. Regressing stage of C. odorata infestation (x) against weed density,
species diversity; or bacterial, fungal or yeast population (y) indicated negative relationships
with prediction equation shown in Table 5.
The reduced bacteria population and increase in fungal count associated with C. odorata
infestation suggested that C. odorata infestation exerted diverse influences on soil microbial
activity in the soil. The rhizo-deposits (e.g. exudates, border cells, mucilage) have been
identified as a major driving force in the regulation of microbial diversity and activity
(Mendes et al., 2013).
Table 5. Linear correlation and regression analysis between increasing year of C. odorata
infestation (x) and weed and soil microbial parameters (y)
Parameters Correlation coefficient (r) Regression equation
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Figure 3. Matrix plot of bacteria, fungi, yeast Vs weed density, weed species
The relationships between weed density or species diversity and microbial population
indicate positive correlation between weed density or species diversity and bacteria or yeast
population (figure 3). Fungal population on the other hand was inversely related to the plant
parameters of density and diversity.
4. Conclusions
There are empirical evidences to corroborate the widely reported suppressive influences of
the Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) on neighbouring plant species. Results showed that
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the suppression caused by this allelopathic plant species is species selective. The findings
further revealed that the trim in species diversity and density also have a downward bearing
on the populations of the rhizosphere colonizing microorganisms. C. odorata is therefore
labeled as a threat to biodiversity whose management demands urgent attention.
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