Continental drift

Continental drift is the hypothesis that the Earth's continents have moved over geologic time
relative to each other, thus appearing to have "drifted" across the ocean bed.[1] The speculation
that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. The
concept was independently and more fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, but his
hypothesis was rejected by many for lack of any motive mechanism. Arthur Holmes later
proposed mantle convection for that mechanism. The idea of continental drift has since been
subsumed into the science of plate tectonics, which studies the movement of the continents as
they ride on plates of the Earth's lithosphere.[2]

History

Early history
Abraham Ortelius by Peter Paul Rubens, 1633

Abraham Ortelius (Ortelius 1596),[3] Theodor Christoph Lilienthal (1756),[4] Alexander von
Humboldt (1801 and 1845),[4] Antonio Snider-Pellegrini (Snider-Pellegrini 1858), and others had
noted earlier that the shapes of continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean (most
notably, Africa and South America) seem to fit together.[5] W. J. Kious described Ortelius'
thoughts in this way:[6]

Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geogr aphicus ... suggested

that the Americas were "torn awa y from Europe and Africa ... b y
earthquakes and floods" and w ent on to sa y: "The vestiges of the
rupture reveal themselves if someone brings forward a map of the
world and considers carefully the coasts of the three [continents]."

In 1889, Alfred Russel Wallace remarked, "It was formerly a very general belief, even amongst
geologists, that the great features of the earth's surface, no less than the smaller ones, were
subject to continual mutations, and that during the course of known geological time the
continents and great oceans had, again and again, changed places with each other."[7] He quotes
Charles Lyell as saying, "Continents, therefore, although permanent for whole geological epochs,
shift their positions entirely in the course of ages."[8] and claims that the first to throw doubt on
this was James Dwight Dana in 1849.
Antonio Snider-Pellegrini's Illustration of the closed and opened Atlantic Ocean (1858)[9]

In his Manual of Geology (1863), Dana wrote, "The continents and oceans had their general
outline or form defined in earliest time. This has been proved with regard to North America from
the position and distribution of the first beds of the Lower Silurian, – those of the Potsdam
epoch. The facts indicate that the continent of North America had its surface near tide-level, part
above and part below it (p.196); and this will probably be proved to be the condition in Primordial
time of the other continents also. And, if the outlines of the continents were marked out, it
follows that the outlines of the oceans were no less so".[10] Dana was enormously influential in
America—his Manual of Mineralogy is still in print in revised form—and the theory became known
as the Permanence theory.[11]

This appeared to be confirmed by the exploration of the deep sea beds conducted by the
Challenger expedition, 1872–1876, which showed that contrary to expectation, land debris
brought down by rivers to the ocean is deposited comparatively close to the shore on what is
now known as the continental shelf. This suggested that the oceans were a permanent feature
of the Earth's surface, rather than them having "changed places" with the continents.[7]

Eduard Suess had proposed a supercontinent Gondwana in 1885[12] and the Tethys Ocean in
1893,[13] assuming a land-bridge between the present continents submerged in the form of a
geosyncline, and John Perry had written an 1895 paper proposing that the earth's interior was
fluid, and disagreeing with Lord Kelvin on the age of the earth.[14]

Wegener and his predecessors

Alfred Wegener

Apart from the earlier speculations mentioned above, the idea that the American continents had
once formed a single landmass with Eurasia and Africa was postulated by several scientists
before Alfred Wegener's 1912 paper.[15] Although Wegener's theory was formed independently
and was more complete than those of his predecessors, Wegener later credited a number of
past authors with similar ideas:[16][17] Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890),[18] Roberto
Mantovani (between 1889 and 1909), William Henry Pickering (1907)[19] and Frank Bursley
Taylor (1908).[20]

The similarity of southern continent geological formations had led Roberto Mantovani to
conjecture in 1889 and 1909 that all the continents had once been joined into a supercontinent;
Wegener noted the similarity of Mantovani's and his own maps of the former positions of the
southern continents. In Mantovani's conjecture, this continent broke due to volcanic activity
caused by thermal expansion, and the new continents drifted away from each other because of
further expansion of the rip-zones, where the oceans now lie. This led Mantovani to propose a
now-discredited Expanding Earth theory.[21][22][23]

Continental drift without expansion was proposed by Frank Bursley Taylor,[24] who suggested in
1908 (published in 1910) that the continents were moved into their present positions by a
process of "continental creep",[25][26] later proposing a mechanism of increased tidal forces
during the Cretaceous dragging the crust towards the equator. He was the first to realize that
one of the effects of continental motion would be the formation of mountains, attributing the
formation of the Himalayas to the collision between the Indian subcontinent with Asia.[27]
Wegener said that of all those theories, Taylor's had the most similarities to his own. For a time
in the mid-20th century, the theory of continental drift was referred to as the "Taylor-Wegener
hypothesis"[24][27][28][29]

Alfred Wegener first presented his hypothesis to the German Geological Society on 6 January
1912.[15] His hypothesis was that the continents had once formed a single landmass, called
Pangaea, before breaking apart and drifting to their present locations.[30]

Wegener was the first to use the phrase "continental drift" (1912, 1915)[15][16] (in German "die
Verschiebung der Kontinente" – translated into English in 1922) and formally publish the
hypothesis that the continents had somehow "drifted" apart. Although he presented much
evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the physical
processes which might have caused this drift. He suggested that the continents had been pulled
apart by the centrifugal pseudoforce (Polflucht) of the Earth's rotation or by a small component
of astronomical precession, but calculations showed that the force was not sufficient.[31] The
Polflucht hypothesis was also studied by Paul Sophus Epstein in 1920 and found to be
implausible.

Rejection of Wegener's theory, 1910s–1950s

Although now accepted, the theory of continental drift was rejected for many years, with
evidence in its favor considered insufficient. One problem was that a plausible driving force was
missing.[1] A second problem was that Wegener's estimate of the speed of continental motion,
250 cm/year, was implausibly high.[32] (The currently accepted rate for the separation of the
Americas from Europe and Africa is about 2.5 cm/year).[33] Furthermore, Wegener was treated
less seriously because he was not a geologist. Even today, the details of the forces propelling
the plates are poorly understood.[1]

The British geologist Arthur Holmes championed the theory of continental drift at a time when it
was deeply unfashionable. He proposed in 1931 that the Earth's mantle contained convection
cells which dissipated heat produced by radioactive decay and moved the crust at the
surface.[34] His Principles of Physical Geology, ending with a chapter on continental drift, was
published in 1944.[35]

Geological maps of the time showed huge land bridges spanning the Atlantic and Indian oceans
to account for the similarities of fauna and flora and the divisions of the Asian continent in the
Permian period but failing to account for glaciation in India, Australia and South Africa.[36]

The fixists
Hans Stille and Leopold Kober opposed the idea of continental drift and worked on a "fixist"[37]
geosyncline model with Earth contraction playing a key role in the formation of orogens.[38][39]
Other geologists who opposed continental drift were Bailey Willis, Charles Schuchert, Rollin
Chamberlin, Walther Bucher and Walther Penck.[40][41] In 1939 an international geological
conference was held in Frankfurt.[42] This conference came to be dominated by the fixists,
especially as those geologists specializing in tectonics were all fixists except Willem van der
Gracht.[42] Criticism of continental drift and mobilism was abundant at the conference not only
from tectonicists but also from sedimentological (Nölke), paleontological (Nölke), mechanical
(Lehmann) and oceanographic (Troll, Wüst) perspectives.[42][43] Hans Cloos, the organizer of the
conference, was also a fixist[42] who together with Troll held the view that excepting the Pacific
Ocean continents were not radically different from oceans in their behaviour.[43] The mobilist
theory of Émile Argand for the Alpine orogeny was criticized by Kurt Leuchs.[42] The few drifters
and mobilists at the conference appealed to biogeography (Kirsch, Wittmann), paleoclimatology
(Wegener, K), paleontology (Gerth) and geodetic measurements (Wegener, K).[44] F. Bernauer
correctly equated Reykjanes in south-west Iceland with the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, arguing with this
that the floor of the Atlantic Ocean was undergoing extension just like Reykjanes. Bernauer
thought this extension had drifted the continents only 100–200 km apart, the approximate width
of the volcanic zone in Iceland.[45]

David Attenborough, who attended university in the second half of the 1940s, recounted an
incident illustrating its lack of acceptance then: "I once asked one of my lecturers why he was
not talking to us about continental drift and I was told, sneeringly, that if I could prove there was
a force that could move continents, then he might think about it. The idea was moonshine, I was
informed."[46]

As late as 1953—just five years before Carey[47] introduced the theory of plate tectonics—the
theory of continental drift was rejected by the physicist Scheidegger on the following
grounds.[48]

First, it had been shown that floating masses on a rotating geoid would collect at the equator,
and stay there. This would explain one, but only one, mountain building episode between any
pair of continents; it failed to account for earlier orogenic episodes.

Second, masses floating freely in a fluid substratum, like icebergs in the ocean, should be in
isostatic equilibrium (in which the forces of gravity and buoyancy are in balance). But
gravitational measurements showed that many areas are not in isostatic equilibrium.

Third, there was the problem of why some parts of the Earth's surface (crust) should have
solidified while other parts were still fluid. Various attempts to explain this foundered on other
 difficulties.

Road to acceptance

From the 1930s to the late 1950s, works by Vening-Meinesz, Holmes, Umbgrove, and numerous
others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In
particular, the English geologist Arthur Holmes proposed in 1920 that plate junctions might lie
beneath the sea, and in 1928 that convection currents within the mantle might be the driving
force.[49] Holmes' views were particularly influential: in his bestselling textbook, Principles of
Physical Geology, he included a chapter on continental drift, proposing that Earth's mantle
contained convection cells which dissipated radioactive heat and moved the crust at the
surface.[50][51]  Holmes' proposal resolved the phase disequilibrium objection (the underlying
fluid was kept from solidifying by radioactive heating from the core). However, scientific
communication in the '30 and '40s was inhibited by the war, and the theory still required work to
avoid foundering on the orogeny and isostasy objections. Worse, the most viable forms of the
theory predicted the existence of convection cell boundaries reaching deep into the earth, that
had yet to be observed.

Fossil patterns across continents (Gondwanaland)

In 1947, a team of scientists led by Maurice Ewing confirmed the existence of a rise in the
central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the sediments was
chemically and physically different from continental crust.[52][53]  As oceanographers continued
to bathymeter the ocean basins, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected.  An important
conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the
concept of the "Great Global Rift".[54]

Meanwhile, scientists began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor using
devices developed during World War II to detect submarines.[55]  Over the next decade, it
became increasingly clear that the magnetization patterns were not anomalies, as had been
originally supposed. In a series of papers in 1959–1963, Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine,
Matthews, and Morley collectively realized that the magnetization of the ocean floor formed
extensive, zebra-like patterns: one stripe would exhibit normal polarity and the adjoining stripes
reversed polarity.[56][57][58]  The best explanation was the "conveyor belt" or Vine–Matthews–
Morley hypothesis.  New magma from deep within the Earth rises easily through these weak
zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust.  The new
crust is magnetized by the earth's magnetic field, which undergoes occasional reversals.
 Formation of new crust then displaces the magnetized crust apart, akin to a conveyor belt –
hence the name.[59]

Without workable alternatives to explain the stripes, geophysicists were forced to conclude that
Holmes had been right: ocean rifts were sites of perpetual orogeny at the boundaries of
convection cells.[60][61] By 1967, barely two decades after discovery of the mid-oceanic rifts, and
a decade after discovery of the striping, plate tectonics had become axiomatic to modern
geophysics.

In addition, Marie Tharp, in collaboration with Bruce Heezen, who initially ridiculed Tharp's
observations that her maps confirmed continental drift theory, provided essential corroboration,
using her skills in cartography and seismographic data, to confirm the theory.[62][63][64][65][66]

Modern evidence

Geophysicist Jack Oliver is credited with providing seismologic evidence supporting plate
tectonics which encompassed and superseded continental drift with the article "Seismology and
the New Global Tectonics", published in 1968, using data collected from seismologic stations,
including those he set up in the South Pacific.[67][68] The modern theory of plate tectonics,
refining Wegener, explains that there are two kinds of crust of different composition: continental
crust and oceanic crust, both floating above a much deeper "plastic" mantle. Continental crust is
inherently lighter. Oceanic crust is created at spreading centers, and this, along with subduction,
drives the system of plates in a chaotic manner, resulting in continuous orogeny and areas of
isostatic imbalance.

Evidence for the movement of continents on tectonic plates is now extensive. Similar plant and
animal fossils are found around the shores of different continents, suggesting that they were
once joined. The fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found
both in Brazil and South Africa, are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the land
reptile Lystrosaurus in rocks of the same age at locations in Africa, India, and Antarctica.[69]
There is also living evidence, with the same animals being found on two continents. Some
earthworm families (such as Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae) are found in South
America and Africa.

Mesosaurus skeleton, MacGregor, 1908

The complementary arrangement of the facing sides of South America and Africa is obvious but
a temporary coincidence. In millions of years, slab pull, ridge-push, and other forces of
tectonophysics will further separate and rotate those two continents. It was that temporary
feature that inspired Wegener to study what he defined as continental drift although he did not
live to see his hypothesis generally accepted.

The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa,

Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for
the theory of continental drift. The continuity of glaciers, inferred from oriented glacial striations
and deposits called tillites, suggested the existence of the supercontinent of Gondwana, which
became a central element of the concept of continental drift. Striations indicated glacial flow
away from the equator and toward the poles, based on continents' current positions and
orientations, and supported the idea that the southern continents had previously been in
dramatically different locations that were contiguous with one another.[16]

See also
Geological history of Earth – The sequence of major geological events in Earth's past

Israel C. White

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details/driftingcontinen00legr) , Cambridge University, ISBN 978-0-521-31105-2

Oreskes, Naomi (1999), The Rejection of Continental Drift (https://books.google.com/books?id

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External links

The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Continental drift

Benjamin Franklin (1782) and Ralph Waldo Emerson (1834) noted Continental Drift (http://ww
w.age-of-the-sage.org/tectonic_plates/boundaries_boundary_types.html#franklin_emerson_c
ontinental_drift)

A brief introduction to Plate Tectonics, based on the work of Alfred Wegener (http://www.ux1.
eiu.edu/~cfjps/1300/cont_drift.html)

Animation of continental drift for last 1 billion years (https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/06/s

cience/tectonic-plates-continental-drift.html)

Maps of continental drift, from the Precambrian to the future (http://www.scotese.com/earth.

htm)

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