THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ACTIVATED CARBON FROM COCOS NUCIFERA

CHEMICALLY ACTIVATED BY LEMON JUICE AND SODIUM CHLORIDE FOR

WATER PURIFICATION

A RESEARCH PAPER

PRESENTED TO THE CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION DIVISION

PHILIPPINE SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL—CENTRAL VISAYAS CAMPUS
TALAYTAY, ARGAO, CEBU

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS IN STEMR 2

BY
LOURDES SOFIA M. APARECE
RAPHAELA J. REYES

NOVEMBER 2021
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Water filtration pertains to the method of eliminating or significantly minimizing the

concentration of contaminants and impurities in the water to yield a safe and unpolluted water

that could effectively function to its wide variety of applications in the likes of drinking or

industrial purposes and ensure general health by diminishing the amount of contaminated

water and water pollutants discharged into the waterways and other surrounding bodies of

water. Access to safe and clean water consumption has clearly been a concern, particularly in

communities situated within the breadth of remote and rural areas (Saurabh & Siddiquie,

2019). Across the globe, a total number of about 884 million people are deprived of access to

clean water (Abulencia et al., 2010). Currently, in the Philippines, there has been a significant

number of water contamination which consequently caused a number of 139 000 deaths

related to water contaminant-related diseases, specifically acute watery diarrhea (Bugarin,

2020). One-third of the illnesses in the Philippines, such as diarrhea, cholera, and skin

infections, are invoked by exposure to waterborne contaminants (Andrews, 2018).

With increasing water demands and swelling cases of water pollution, there is a dire

need for an effective solution to allow recuperation of wastewater and combat the

consumption of unsafe water through water purification or filtration. Solutions for

contaminated water are realized through various water treatment systems, some backed up by

advanced technologies such as water treatment plants. Another solution is formulated through

the use of activated carbon. Activated carbons are proven to have high specific porosity and

enhanced surface area thanks to their versatile adsorbent property, as stated by Aparna and

Aryasree (2019). The adsorption process involves the binding of contaminant particles to the
adsorbent particle's surface through physical or chemical attraction (Khulbe & Matsuura,

2018).

In well-developed zones, refined technologies are commonly utilized to bring forth

the process of water filtration. However, this much technological approach on water filtration

also poses a few threats to environmental health considering the health-threatening exhausts

coming from these plants and can be quite a hassle in terms of maintenance and operation

costs. Furthermore, the installation of water treatment plants in less developed areas cannot

be entirely viable because of its high initial capital and investment cost, as studied by Crini

and Lichtfouse (2019). On the other hand, activated carbon can also be expensive in terms of

generation (Kalu et al., 2019; Berg, 2017; Nsami & Mbadcam, 2013). Commercialized

activated carbon derived from precursors such as coal, petroleum, peat, wood, and peat are

known to be costly and exhaustible (Ozdemir et al., 2014). Misihairabgwi et al. (2014)

conveyed the worldwide use of activated carbon in removing chemical and biological

contaminants. However, the import usually costs high.

To abate these problems, low-budget and environmentally-friendly water purification

that mainly uses organic-based solutions from carbonaceous source materials to produce

activated carbon is proposed as an alternative solution. This organic-based solution taken

from a renewable source pertains to agricultural wastes in the likes of coconut husks and

shells. In the Philippines, Pogosa et al. (2018) reported a total of 14.69 billion nuts of husk

production annually. Matured coconuts contain water that can be processed to produce

activated carbon or charcoal from hard shells. Furthermore, coconut shells have a first-rate

natural structure and low-ash content, suitable enough to produce microporous activated

carbon (Bharadwaj et al., 2016). They are also proven to be widely used in terms of their

abundance, renewability, cheapness, and high mechanical strength (Tadda et al., 2016).
 Concerning the types of activated carbon (AC), generation of AC is mainly carried

out through physical activation using carbon dioxide or steam and chemical activation using

acids, bases, and other chemicals (Efeovbokhan et al., 2019). Chemical activation is generally

favored over physical activation considering its inexpensive cost and low energy

consumption in the production of an AC with well-developed micropores and high surface

areas. The most common industrially used chemical reagents are H3PO4, ZnCl2, and KOH

(Molina & Reinoso, 2004). However, the potential and utilization of common and more

accessible chemicals— NaCl and lemon juice—and a comparative study as to which of the

chemicals would yield a better AC quality derived from Cocos nucifera for water purification

are yet to be explored.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

This study's main objective is to compare the effectiveness of the two types of

activated carbon from Cocos nucifera chemically activated by lemon juice and sodium

chloride for water purification. The specific objective of this study is:

1. Determine the average pH levels, turbidity, and coliform count of the water samples

before and after treatment using the following:

a. Lemon-activated carbon

b. Salt-activated carbon

c. Lemon-activated carbon and salt-activated carbon

2. Compare the average pH levels, turbidity and coliform count of the water samples

before and after treatment using the following:

a. Lemon-activated carbon

b. Salt-activated carbon

c. Lemon-activated carbon and salt-activated carbon

1.3 Significance of Study

Many advances in technology have been created to resolve the current problem

associated with the dearth of clean and safe potable water. But although there are several

advances in technology to purify water for consumption, these devices are not available to all

communities, particularly the ones in rural and remote areas. The results of this study are of

great importance and pose benefits to students, researchers, families and households, and

communities. This study could spike the students' interest in exploring more alternative

solutions for water purification and allow the idea of eco-friendly solutions to be pushed

through. The results of this study regarding the efficacy of activated carbon from coconut

husks and shells as a water purifier and its chemical activators could be of use to other

students to exploit some of their aspects that require further exploration in order to establish

more discovery about the proposed solution's properties relative to its application as a water

filter. Future researchers may utilize the methods and ideas discussed in this study for data

reference in conducting new research and may serve as a guide and overview of other topics

related to this study. This study may allow future researchers to delve as well into the subjects

of water pollution and the evaluation of water potability. Furthermore, this study would give

opportunities to future researchers by providing a basis in establishing other applications of

activated carbon other than being utilized as a water filter. This study will benefit many

households by reducing the expenses spent on expensive artificial water filters, introducing a

more economical and natural solution to resolve the problem of water contamination, and

providing a new way to recycle water and prevent water waste. The formulated organic-based

solution is derived from agricultural wastes biomass through inexpensive

methods—attainable by the beneficiaries. It also costs less in comparison to synthetic

solutions. This study empowers disadvantaged and less developed societies, allowing them to

access a safe and clean water supply by providing a sustainable and more affordable method
with cheap materials for water filtration. Moreover, this study could serve well to promote

and uphold eco-friendly solutions to control and regulate water pollution and prevent

overexploitation of resources. This is achieved by employing organic and renewable

resources to solve water pollution. The contributions of this study will introduce a cheaper,

eco-friendly, and more affordable solution to safer water consumption through the use of

organic and natural methods, which could serve convenience to the general public.

1.4 Scope and Limitations

The general scope of the study focuses on comparing the effectiveness of the two

types of activated carbon from Cocos nucifera activated by lemon juice and sodium chloride

in purifying the impurities from the water samples. The collection of water samples shall be

done through the technique of grab sampling and shall be taken from a single geographical

area source—in Sapangdaku River in Toledo, Cebu. The study shall cover the span of 4-5

months to be polished and reaped of results. The study shall utilize a pretest and posttest

experimental design wherein, the water quality of

One experiment with two different treatments is to be employed in this study. The

variation in the treatments shall be the type of chemical activator to yield activated carbon.

The water samples from both groups shall be observed and inspected in a water testing

laboratory before and after treatment to assess the changes in their impurities and

contaminants. The water parameters to be tested shall be limited to the pH, turbidity, and

coliform count of the water samples. The efficiency of the solutions will be reflected in the

aforementioned parameters of the water samples after treatment.

The study shall only cover the utilization of the parts of Cocos nucifera, such as its

shells and husks as a precursor of activated carbon. The analysis of this study does not

include any discussion related to the size of the contaminants that the proposed solution can
purify or filter. The study shall not encompass comparing the treatments' efficiency to the

other organic based solutions and water purifiers. This study shall not assess the

characteristics of the activated carbon after its subjection to its chemical activators. Lastly,

this study shall not encompass the use of other chemical activators other than NaCl and

lemon juice.

The potential limitation of this study is the sample size used to conduct this study.

This study is constrained to a small sample size, which may introduce bias and increase the

margin of error by causing Type II errors in the results.

 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This review of related literature focuses on generating activated carbon from coconut

husks and shells and the activators that induce the transformation of the carbonized

precursors into activated carbon. Cocos Nucifera as a source of activated carbon and its

production from biomass waste is tackled in this literature review. Furthermore, the standard

activation processes of activated carbon, including lemon and NaCl, are also discussed.

Water pollution pertains to the contamination of water bodies with pollutants or other

foreign substances that alter the chemical, biological, and physical properties of water, thus

decreasing water quality (Tadda et al., 2016). This poses a detrimental impact on human,

plant, or animal health and causes various diseases on humans in the likes of diarrhea and

cholera. Among the factors that led to the emergence of water pollution include urban

development and agricultural and industrial waste (Gupta, 2016). It has been a long-time

concern for many authorities as this environmental issue dramatically affects individuals'

health by drinking unsafe and polluted water. With this, different proposed solutions to treat

contaminated water came up. However, most of them have a few environmental health threats

and require a large amount of money for the initial capital and maintenance (Crini &

Lichtfouse, 2019).

One particular solution to filter contaminated water is the utilization of activated

carbon. The applications of activated carbon encompass the purification of liquids and gases

alike from contaminations. Activated carbon comes from various carbon-rich sources and

agro-wastes like sugar cane husks, corncobs, mango peelings, rice husks, nutshells, wood,

coal, and coconut (Song et al., 2013). There are ways to generate activated carbon, such as

through physical and chemical activation. Chemical activation is highly preferred to physical
activation, taking into account the potential of producing an effective, low-tech, and low-cost

activated carbon. Chemical reagents such as HPO4, ZnCl2, and KOH are generally used to

activate carbon products. While they are acknowledged as potent and constructive, these

chemical activators can be inaccessible and leave a trace of toxicity on the product after the

activation stage.

2.1 Literature Goals and Methods

This literature review aims to search and gather adequate scientific literature and

knowledge on Cocos nucifera as a water purifier. The researchers' study requires examining

different literature works to collect information on the different approaches and methods in

converting Cocos nucifera into activated carbon so it could act as a water filter. The

researchers studied the chosen works of literature to determine their precision to the research

problem, which seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of organic-based water filters in purifying

contaminated water of its chemical and microbiological impurities after being activated by

chemical activators. Moreover, this literature review tackles further information that can

potentially contribute to the study's findings and formulate new and accurate knowledge on

the potentiality of lemon juice extract and NaCl to induce the activation of the carbonized

precursor. Lastly, the application of methods in carrying out the research objectives had been

discussed thoroughly and discerned.

The researchers gathered the articles that may be relevant to the entirety of the study

and research problem. After that, the researchers deduced the sources of items to validate the

articles' credibility and accuracy and evaluated the papers' relevance and precision to the

purpose of the research problem. Next, the researchers performed an in-depth analysis of the

studies to find potential methods and alternatives to the research. Additionally, the

researchers assessed the sources to verify the article sources' reliability and integrity, which
shall be utilized in the researchers' study. The information was extracted from the articles,

with proper analysis and configuration of the concepts most related to the research of interest

to have a unique approach to the researchers' study. All of these methods are carried out to

identify the breaches of the previous studies.

2.2 Discussions on Related Literature

Although numerous studies elaborated on organic-based solutions or activated

carbons as a filter, more profound details focusing on Cocos nucifera as the sole subject of

research regarding its reliability as a source of activated carbon to specifically filter water

needs more exploration. Delving more into the notion of activated carbon infused with local

material, which is coconut, will contribute to the underdeveloped area of study that especially

tackles inexpensive organic-based solutions and might as well serve as a verification to

support existing studies. It will also provide an advantageous solution to water pollution in

underdeveloped communities considering its abundance and low need for generation energy.

2.2.1 Cocos nucifera as Reliable Source of Activated Carbon

What makes Cocos nucifera a reliable source of activated carbon is its carbonaceous

constituents, mainly hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin (Contescu et al., 2018). Among these

three major components of lignocellulosic biomass, lignin serves as the forerunner in

producing higher quality activated carbon. Moreover, a study conducted by Nor et al. (2013)

ascertained lignin as the primary component found in lignocellulose biomass responsible for

the adsorption process. Due to its high adsorption capacity, activated carbon derived from

lignocellulose biomass is rampantly used for pollutant removal. AC derived from coconut

husks and shells possess the highest hardness compared to other activated carbon sources.

Adding into account its outstanding microporous structure, AC from coconut husks and shells
is idyllic for water purification and favorable enough for organic chemicals' adsorptions.

More importantly, the abundance of coconuts in the Philippines, with an annual production of

14.69 billion nuts (Pogosa et al., 2018), would have to count as a dependable and renewable

source of local materials converted into activated carbon.

2.2.2. The Process of AC Production from Biomass Waste

An account from a research study conducted by Saputro et al. (2020) entails three

stages of manufacturing activated carbon from raw biomass: dehydration, carbonization, and

activation. During the dehydration process, the raw material will be heated at 170 °C to

eliminate the water. Nor et al. (2013) enunciated that high char yield, which is necessary to

produce activated carbon, and low volatilization require low heating rates of about 10–15 °C

/min to be obtained. At lower heating rates, dehydration increases as the polymeric

components exceedingly stabilize.

The organic materials are broken down into carbon under temperature subjection of

above 170°C to produce carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide upon carbonization process. At

around 400-600°C, carbon formation occurs. Alternatively, cooking the husks and shells at

300-500 °C for 3-5 hours inside a burning drum or sink would also make charcoal. Nor et al.

(2013) specified that ash and fixed carbon content will escalate at higher temperatures while

the amount of volatile matter will decrease, thus resulting in better char quality. However,

higher temperatures relatively cause a reduction in the yield due to the primary and secondary

decomposition of biomass and char residue, respectively. Therefore, higher heating rates

correspond to a decreased carbon yield.

Conversely, at lower heating rates, the yield of carbon is relatively higher. However,

their study further added that char microporosity does not depend on the antecedent structure

or carbonization's heating rate.

 The carbonization process can also be done by undergoing the pyrolysis process.

Tadda et al. (2016) stated that the pyrolysis process often occurs to materials subjected to

high temperatures, resulting in an irreversible change in the material's physical and chemical

composition. This is where organic biomasses are thermochemically converted into liquid or

gaseous fuels in the nonexistence of halogen. Research findings from Contescu et al. (2018)

reveal that the by-products of charred carbons produced by the process of fast pyrolysis can

be easily converted into activated carbon. The most influential factors in the carbonization

process are ranked respectively from temperature, retention time, heating rate, and nitrogen

flow rate.

The last stage in the process of carbon activation is the application of activating

processes. After undergoing pyrolysis, the pore structure of the carbonized biomass is not

sufficient for a considerable adsorption capacity, so it needs the intervention of activating

processes for pore development. There are three main activating methods of carbon, namely

physical activation, chemical activation, and the combination of physical and chemical

activation.

2.2.3 Common Activating Processes

2.2.3.1 Physical Activation

The physical activation process embroils carbon's subjection to a temperature set

between 800-1000 degrees Celsius, leading to the breakdown of carbon chains present in

organic compounds through steam, heat, and carbon dioxide (Leimkuehler, 2013). Subjecting

the carbon under oxidation with air at lower temperatures is challenging to control, according

to Saputro et al. (2020), considering the reaction is exothermic. Putting this into

consideration, using steam or carbon dioxide to heat carbon is much preferable as it is an

endothermic reaction and much easier to control. But in comparison to using CO2, using
steam generates activated carbon of higher surface area and is, therefore, more employable.

This notion is contrary to the reports of Ioannidou and Zabaniotou (2007) and Tadda et al.

(2016), stating that the application of steam pyrolysis is generally less operative except those

that utilize biomasses such as apricot, cherry stones, and almond shell.

2.2.3.2 Chemical Impregnation

Another activating process is the chemical impregnation, whereby carbon chains in

organic compounds are broken down just like in the physical activation process. However,

this time, it is through carbon impregnation with chemicals such as carbonate salts,

phosphates, inorganic acids, phosphoric acid, sulfates, zinc chloride, sodium chloride, and

potassium chloride. One advantage of chemical impregnation over physical activation is its

capability of producing a higher surface area on activated carbon (Gratuito, 2008). However,

Tadda et al. (2016) inferred that the choice of chemicals to activate carbon must be

calculatingly thought out as using zinc chloride or phosphoric acid, for instance, can leave

impurities such as zinc or phosphorous in the AC product that may, in turn, raise the

operation cost of the whole process.

2.2.3.3 Lemon and NaCl

Specifically, citric acid from lemon and NaCl are the most common and accessible

chemical activators that could potentially generate an efficient activated carbon. Cobb et al.

(2012) stated that it was discovered that coconut shell-based charcoal could be successfully

activated using sodium chloride (common table salt). Likewise, according to Efeovbokhan et

al. (2019), lemon juice extract could also activate carbon implicitly for water purification due

to its component—citric acid.

2.2.3.4 Physical-Chemical Activation

Lastly is the physical-chemical activation, which is just a combination of the two

activating processes. It entails the ignition of carbon at a specific temperature before

saturating it in a chemical solution to generate activated carbon.

2.2.4 Factors Affecting Physical Property and Performance of Activated Carbon

Rich in carbon content, organic substances are prospective raw materials where

activated carbon could be derived from. Tadda et al. (2016) furtherly added that

lignocellulosic substances comprise 45% of the raw materials in AC production. This claim is

supported by Contescu et al. (2018), that lignocellulosic substances are rich in carbon

content, specifically lignin, which serves as the precursor in producing high-quality activated

carbon. Purely organic substances contain low inorganic content and are necessary to

manufacture a better class of activated carbon with low ash content. Activating carbon

necessitates temperately high volatility to have full control in the production process. Other

characterizations of raw materials suitable for activated carbon production include substances

with more resistance to abrasion, low degradation upon storage, and high density.

According to Grauito et al. (2008), the ratio of chemical agents to the dry precursor

significantly affects the activated carbon quality. In addition, there is an optimum

concentration for the chemical agents, although the general trend suggests that as the

concentration of the chemical treatment increases, so does the surface area of the dry

precursor. With the aid of a chemical agent, its dehydrating properties help penetrate the

surface of the dry precursor so that small pores could develop. The effects of the developing

small pores result in an increase in the biomass precursor's surface area. However, too much

concentration of acids could also lead to larger pores that reduce the surface area. In the

review of Grauito et al. (2008) concerning the optimization of activated carbon, the pore
development trends in response to the various chemical ratios vary depending on the dry

precursor used. Generally, increasing acid concentrations cause a progressive development of

pores until it reaches a limit. Structural weakness arises due to too much dilation of the pore

volume, consequently reducing the surface area.

Other factors that affect the performance of activated carbon are its activation

duration and temperature (Efeovbokhan, 2019; Gawande, 2017). These factors specifically

apply when the process of physical activation is chosen. These factors considerably affect the

pore structures and networks of carbon. The time required to activate carbon should be

sufficient enough to vaporize moisture and eliminate the volatile components. Generally, a

shorter duration is much desired due to a lower need for energy consumption as longer

duration, on the contrary, causes the pores to enlarge (Efeovbokhan, 2019; Gratuito, 2008).

Moreover, a time duration that exceeds the optimum point of activation time only

leads to a decrease in the surface area and yield. Lower activation time brings about

incomplete burn offs but higher yield. On the other hand, activation temperature for a

selection of raw materials, regardless of the activation time, ranges from 400-500 °C. Higher

activation temperature produces higher yields of AC and higher volumes of volatility

released.

2.2.5 Applications of Activated Carbon Derived from Coconut Husks and Shells

In the review of Aparna and Aryasree (2019), activated carbon from coconut

precursors proved to have eliminated heavy metals such as zinc, copper, and lead from water.

The chemical agent utilized in activating the carbon is phosphoric acid. Bernard et al. (2013)

manufactured activated carbon out of the coconut shells using the activating agent zinc

chloride and inspected the removal of zinc, iron, and copper from the water via adsorption.

By utilizing the chemical activating process, using the chemical agent, potassium hydroxide,
Song et al. (2013) observed the removal of lead ions from the water. Aparna and Aryasree

(2019) studied the utilization of commercial charcoal from coconut shells undergoing acid

activation and monitored the removal of 70% copper in the water.

2.2.6 Water Quality Parameters – Turbidity, pH, and Total Coliform

Turbidity and pH are some of the physical and chemical parameters of water quality.

Turbidity, by definition, is the measurement of light scattered by or passing through the water

as caused by suspended particles such as silt, clay, and many other organic and particulate

materials (Alley, 2007). These suspended particles can serve as an adsorption media for

contaminants such as heavy metals and other organic pollutants (Nayla, 2020). The unit of

turbidity is expressed in NTU or nephelometric turbidity unit. To the average person,

turbidity exceeding 5 NTU is already visible. In drinking water, turbidity is appealingly

unacceptable as it makes the water look unpalatable (American Public Health Association,

2005).

On the other hand, pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen or

hydronium ion concentrations in water or an aqueous solution, indicating how acidic or basic

the water is (Spellman, 2017). The range of pH is dimensionless and varies from 0 to 14, with

7 being neutral. A pH greater than 7 indicates an acidic solution, whereas a pH less than 7 is

considered basic (Alley, 2007). The possibility of heavy metal dissolution in highly acidic

water is specifically high (Nayla, 2020). The acceptable range of pH suitable for drinkability

and domestic use typically varies between the intervals 6.5 to 8.5. A unit change of one in the

pH scale brings about a ten-fold change in the water pH (American Public Health

Association, 2005).

On a microbiological aspect of water parameters, ideally, drinking water should not

contain any pathogenic microorganisms as these pathogens may indicate the presence of fecal
bacteria that may pose a risk to diseases acquired from contaminated water (WHO, 2011).

Bacteriological analysis of water, such as total coliform test, is often performed to test fecal

bacteria in the likes of E. coli in the water. According to WHO's safe drinking water

guidelines, E. coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteria must not be noticeable in any 100 ml

of the water sample.

2.3 Conclusions of Literary Review

Previous studies and explorations of constructing an organic-based water filter

involve the general usage of agricultural wastes and biomasses to be converted into activated

carbon to address water pollution. Common activating processes are physical activation,

which subjects the carbon from a specific heat temperature, chemical activation, which treats

the carbon with dehydrating agents, and a combination of physical and chemical activation.

The properties of lignocellulosic biomass, such as its richness in carbon content, make it an

efficient source of activated carbon. However, most of these studies entail the conversion of

the precursors to activated carbon through certain processes that are mostly costly and

involve chemical activators that are uncommon and toxic during the activation stage. Besides

that, other options of chemicals to activate carbon should extend to the usage of inexpensive

chemical agents, such as lemon juice extract and NaCl, to fulfill the current study's aim,

which is to introduce a water filtering solution that is more environmentally friendly and

utilizes more common and accessible materials. More research and testing are required to

verify the effectiveness of NaCl and lemon juice extract in transforming precursors to AC for

water filtration.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

This study aims to determine the effectiveness of activated carbon from Cocos

Nucifera chemically activated by lemon juice and sodium chloride for water purification.

This will be done through the collection of polluted water samples in a specific interval of

time and in controlled measurements. The treatment will then be processed following a

number of steps; namely the carbonization of coconut husks and shells, the titration of lemon

juice extract, the activation of carbon using the said extract and sodium chloride solution

separately, the assembly of the structure of activated carbon filter, and the execution of the

the water treatment using activated carbon. From this, the water pH, turbidity and coliform

count will be collected to which the researchers will analyze using the statistical software

PSPP.

3.2 Study Area

The study will be conducted at the Sapangdaku River in Toledo City, Cebu. The river

is on the west-central side of Cebu Island near the Atlas Copper Mining Area. Due to its

location, the body of water has been affected by both industrial and domestic discharges. It is

reported to be polluted with heavy metals, as indicated by its water parameters' poor quality

(Sanchez et al., 2020). This freshwater river in Toledo, Cebu, meets the criteria for this

study's water samples source.

3.3 Sampling Method

To examine the effectiveness of activated carbon from Cocos nucifera activated by

lemon juice and sodium chloride, the researchers are to take water samples from the
Sapangdaku river. The treatment's efficiency is determined by the improvement of the

samples' water quality after the execution of the treatment. Briefly, 12 water samples will be

collected in 500 ml plastic bottles in the Sapangdaku river of Toledo, Cebu. The sampling

bottles will each be labeled with its unique sampling number. All water samples shall be

collected starting from 9 to 10 o'clock in the morning. The researchers shall collect each

sample beneath the river's surface by placing the sample container underwater. Each sample

should contain 500 ml of filthy river water and are then to be kept safely. These 12 water

samples shall be equally distributed among the two treatment groups. A pretest on the

qualities of the water samples before treatment shall be done first.

Figure 3.1 Diagram of Sampling Site

3.4 Preparation of Treatment

3.4.1 Carbonization of Coconut Husks and Shells

Coconut husks and shells harvested from matured coconuts shall be separated,

washed, and sundried for 48 hours. After the removal of moisture, the coconut shells will be

cut into small pieces, each retaining a diameter of no longer than 6-8 centimeters. The

carbonization process starts by subjecting both the coconut husks and shells to a temperature

of about 400 °C for 5 hours in a closed lidded pot on an open fire to yield charcoal. The
post-carbonization process entails the pulverization of the carbonized husks and shells into

fine powder. The entire process of coconut carbonization shall be repeated until 1200 grams

of powdered coal is acquired. Six hundred grams of pulverized carbon will be allotted for the

lemon extract activation, while the other remaining 600 grams will be apportioned for the salt

activation.

3.4.2 Titration of Lemon Juice Extract

Lemon juice of 310 ml shall be extracted by squeezing the lemons. A 10 ml sample of

this extract shall then be diluted to 20 ml and allocated for titration to determine the

concentration of citric acid in the lemon. On the other hand, sodium hydroxide shall be used

as a titrant along with phenolphthalein indicator as an acid-base indicator. The initial volume

of NaOH will be 10 ml with a solution molarity of 10 M. After the NaOH is set up inside the

burette, six drops of phenolphthalein indicator shall be added to the diluted lemon inside a

flask, where it will be placed under the top of the burette. The NaOH solution shall be run

from the burette and into the flask until a pink or red color will appear on the solution inside

the flask for roughly 15 seconds after its contact with the drop of the NaOH solution. The

final volume of the NaOH in the burette shall be recorded afterward.

The titrated volume of NaOH shall be calculated using the formula:

Titrated Volume NaOH (L) = Final Volume NaOH – Initial Volume NaOH (Eq. 1)

From the results of the calculation, the amount of NaOH used shall be calculated

using the formula:

Amount of NaOH (mol) = Titrated Volume NaOH * Molarity NaOH (Eq. 2)

The amount of citric acid in the lemon is three times the amount of NaOH that reacted

in the flask. The concentration of citric acid in the lemon is determined by the equation:

Concentration Citric Acid (mol L-1 ) = Amount of Citric Acid (mol) /

 Undiluted Lemon Juice Volume (L) (Eq. 3)

3.4.3. Activation of Carbon Using Lemon Juice Extract

Now that the concentration of citric acid in the lemon juice is known, the activation of

carbon using lemon juice shall be performed next by saturating the 600- gram powdered coal

into the remaining 300 ml lemon juice extract for chemical activation. The carbon and lemon

juice mixture must be agitated until a consistent slurry mixture is formed. The mixture shall

then be subjected to a temperature of 100°C in the oven for six hours. After being left to

stand for the whole duration of its activation time, the activated carbon shall be weighed on a

weighing scale. The activated carbon product will be divided equally into six samples of

equal masses in separate bowls. Afterward, the mixtures will be organized in their respective

containers for the preparation of water treatment. Each bowl of carbon and lemon juice

mixture shall be assigned for the filtration of a half-liter water sample.

3.4.4. Activation of Carbon Using Sodium Chloride Solution

In preparation for the other chemical activator, a mass of sodium chloride will be

dissolved in 300 ml water to form a salt solution with the same concentration as the citric

acid in lemon juice. The remaining 600 grams of inactivated carbon shall be mixed with the

solution until a paste-like texture of the mixture is obtained. Like the process of lemon

activation, the carbon and salt mixture must be maintained at a temperature of 100°C for six

hours. After the activation time duration, the activated carbon will be distributed equally into

six samples of equal masses in different bowls. The activated carbon will then be retained in

their respective container in preparation for the water treatment. Each bowl of the

salt-activated carbon shall be in charge of filtering a half-liter of water.

3.4.5. Assembly of the Structure of Activated Carbon Filter

The two types of activated carbon will be relocated from the bowls to each of their

respective containers—a 1.5-liter plastic bottle. The plastic bottles must be methodically

washed first to ensure the removal of their contaminants. The other end adjacent to the mouth

shall be cut open for the water specimens' entryway during the filtration process. Cotton of

three centimeters in thickness will be used as a pre-filter to eliminate large soil particles that

might clog the activated carbon, thus reducing its adsorption capacity and efficiency. Thinner

cotton will be installed near the plastic bottle's mouth to prevent the discharge of activated

carbon.

Figure 3.2 Activated Carbon Filter Prototype

3.4.6 Execution of the Water Treatment using Activated Carbon

The collected water samples in their containers with specified labels must be

randomly assigned with the type of activated carbon treatment (either lemon or salt-activated

carbon). Randomization of treatment applications following the completely randomized

design (CRD) shall be observed. Each treatment will have six replications in total. Each water

sample will be poured at the opening of the 1.5-liter plastic bottle that houses the activated

carbon, where it will undergo the process of filtration. New and clean water containers under
the mouth of the filter prototype shall accommodate the filtered water samples. After the

treatment, an analysis of the water qualities of the treated water samples shall be performed

and compared to their pretreatment conditions.

Figure 3.3 Randomization and Replication of Treatment

3.5 Water Analysis

3.5.1 Water pH

The pH parameter of water is dependent on the hydrogen-ion concentration present in

the water. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen or hydronium ion

concentrations in water or an aqueous solution (Spellman, 2017). The pH range of water goes

from 0-14. The acceptable range of pH suitable for humans typically varies between the

intervals 6.5 to 8.5 (Alley, 2007). A pH below seven and a pH higher than seven are acidic

and basic, respectively. Acidic water hastens the corrosion of heavy metals, thus reducing its

potability. pH testing for the water specimens shall be conducted post-treatment of the

activated carbon. A pH meter shall be used to quantize the measure of pH in the water. The

glass pH probe in the pH meter will be submerged in the water, wherein such action shall

generate a voltage of electric flow. The electric flow will be measured by the pH meter and
converted into a pH value. The pH values for every water sample shall be recorded and stored

in Microsoft Excel.

3.5.2 Turbidity

Turbidity is the measure of the water's

clarity. Specifically, it is the quantitative

measure of the amount of light scattered by the

water when a light is shined through it (Alley,

2007). High measures of water turbidity often

indicate pollutants such as pathogenic bacteria

and residual and colloidal suspended particles

(Nayla, 2020; Alley, 2007). Measurements of

turbidity are written in NTU (Nephelometric

Turbidity Units). This study shall use a turbidity meter to quantize the turbidity of the water

samples. While transferring the water samples to transparent and colorless test tubes for

turbidity testing, there must be no mark of dirt or fingerprint on the tube's surface, which may

affect and cause errors in the results. The results of the turbidity tests, specifically the

turbidity values in NTU, will be recorded and transferred to Microsoft Excel.

3.4.3 Coliform Count

Coliform bacteria are defined as rod-shaped Gram-negative non-spore-forming

bacteria that can either be motile or nonmotile. Coliform bacteria can be responsible for the

fermentation of lactose that can produce acid and gas when incubated at 35–37°C (H.

Hulkman and A. Hulkman, 2014). To count the amount of coliform present in the water

sample, the methods of membrane filter technique will be conducted to isolate and enumerate
the microorganisms. The membrane filter technique is chosen in this aspect as it is a reliable

and widely used approach for detecting microbial contamination in fluid samples.

Furthermore, apart from the certainty that it requires less preparation than the traditional

procedures, it also possesses a consistent porosity of specified size that is typically 0.45 µm

which is adequate to trap microorganisms. Each sample will be dispensed into a sterile Petri

dish, evenly saturating the absorbent pad. The forceps will then be flamed, and the membrane

must be placed into the funnel assembly. The researchers will flame the pouring lip of the

sample container, and the sample should then be poured into the funnel. The vacuum must

then be turned on to allow the sample to draw entirely through the filter. The funnel should

then be rinsed with sterile buffered water and again allow the liquid to draw entirely through

the filter. The forceps will again be flamed to remove the membrane filter from the funnel

and then placed into the prepared petri dish. It shall then be incubated at 35EC + 0.5EC for 2

hr. The colonies will then be counted under 10 - 15 X magnification. It shall then be

confirmed, and results will be reported.

3.6 Statistical Analysis

After the experiment, all the data will be gathered and stored in Microsoft Excel. They

shall be organized by utilizing cross-tabulation to better draw inferences between the

different data sets. The water samples' average pH levels, turbidity, and coliform count before

and after treatment shall be calculated. The data shall be inputted in Figure 3.4. table for data

recording. Data analysis then follows, initiated through the conduct of T-Test. Independent

T-Test is suitable for determining whether there is a significant difference between the means

of two unrelated groups. With this, the analysis of data in this study shall be confined within

the utilization of Independent Sample T-Test—a two-tailed one to be specific. The average

pH levels, turbidity, and coliform count between the two groups of water samples treated with
two types of activated carbon will be compared using the mentioned T-Test. The same

method will be used to determine if there is a significant difference in the mean pH levels,

turbidity, and coliform count between water samples before and after treatment of the

lemon-activated carbon. Likewise, the three water parameters shall also be compared

between the water samples before and after treatment of the salt-activated carbon. PSPP

software will be used to perform the T-Test. The p-value results in the three conducted

Independent T-Test shall be compared to a 5% significance level. P-values higher than the

significance level shall direct the entirety of data analysis to accept the null hypothesis.

Otherwise, p-values lower than or equal to the significance level will lead to the rejection of

the null hypothesis. In other words, a p-value higher than the level of significance indicates

that there is no significant difference in the mean values of the variables compared to the

study's objectives.

Noted by:
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