UCSP

WEEK 1
Definitions of Sociology and Anthropology

Sociology “is a scientific study of human society, its origin, structure, function and direction.”

Anthropology “is a social science that is concerned with human culture as well as the physical and social
characteristics that create that culture. Often it will compare one group of humans to another or even compare
humans with animals.”

History of Sociology and Anthropology

In Anthropology, the behavior of others had been observed and recorded by men since the birth of civilization.
Examples of these great men who did the observations and recordings are Herodotus and Tacitus. However, it was
only in the 18th century that a codified study of cultures began. The study of culture of other people has been done
by Westerners that brought forth to the racist theories about the overall advancement of different groups.

Sociology has been practiced by the Greeks also, when they studied their surrounding society. It was in the 19th
century when sociology was recognized as an academic discipline and became a part of the university curriculum.

The word Sociology was taken from two foreign words:

 Socius, a Latin term which means companion or associate

 Logos, a Greek term for study

Nature of Sociology

The nature of sociology is identified by the following characteristics as enlisted by Robert Bierstadt in his book
“Social Order.”

1. Sociology is a social science not a physical science. It concentrates on man, his social behavior, social
activities and social life.
2. Sociology is categorical not a normative discipline. As a categorical discipline, it is a body of knowledge
about human society, and not a system of ideas and values.
3. It is a pure science. It aims to provide knowledge about human society, not the utilization of that knowledge
4. Sociology is the generalizing and not a particularizing or individualizing science. Sociology tries to find out
general laws or principles about human interaction and association, about the nature, form, content and
structure of human groups and societies.
5. Sociology is a general science not a special science. It is concerned with human interaction and human life
in general. It only studies human activities in a general way.
6. Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science. There are two broad ways of approach to scientific
knowledge. Empiricism is the approach that emphasizes experience and the facts that result from
observation and experimentation. is a stressed reason and the theories that result from logical inference.

Nature of Anthropology

1. Anthropology is the study of humankind in all times and places.

2. It involves the careful and systematic study of humankind using facts, hypothesis, and theories.
3. It is concerned with other culture’s languages, values, and achievements in the arts and literature.
4. Anthropology is committed to experiencing other cultures.

Focus of Anthropology and Sociology

 Anthropology “is interested in the overall culture of a group of people. This includes social institutions, art,
history, mythology, and common mores, among other traits. Anthropologies now study societies all over the
world, but look for overarching themes that are reinforced through case studies. It also includes archeology,
and due to a great amount of substantive speculation is thought to be a softer science than sociology.”
  Sociology “is a quantitative social science. Most theories are based on polls, statistical analysis, sampling,
and large collections of life histories. Sociologists strive to be as impartial and scientific as possible as they
gather data. The data analyzed by sociologists is often used by government officials and market researchers
alike.”

Anthropologists are interested in all human beings – whether living or dead.

No place or time is too remote to escape the notice of anthropologists.

No dimension of humankind from skin color to dress customs falls outside the anthropologist’s interest.

Summary:

1. Anthropology and sociology are both fields of social science that study the behavior of humans within their
societies.
2. Traditionally anthropology dealt with the study of cultures of other people, while sociology was used to
understand own society.
3. Today, anthropology tends to look at the big picture of human culture while sociology spends more time
analyzing data from a specific study.

Anthropology is considered to be a softer science than sociology as its conclusions are based on case studies than
hard data.

Introduction to Sociology

Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human social life. Sociologists study people as they form groups
and interact with one another. The groups they study may be small, such as married couples, or large, such as a
subculture of suburban teenagers. Sociology places special emphasis on studying societies, both as individual entities
and as elements of a global perspective.

 Sociology as a Social Science

Sociology “is a scientific study of human society, its origin, structure, function and direction.” It studies the
influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior. It also seeks to understand the ways in which
people interact and shape society.

The Origins of Sociology

Sociology is a relatively young science, beginning in late nineteenth-century Europe during a time of great
social upheaval. Intellectuals such as Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, Emile Durkheim, and others began
to explore ideas for regaining a sense of community and restoring order. After World War II, however, the
greatest development of sociology has taken place in the United States. Two early contributors were
activists Jane Addams and W.E.B. DuBois, who helped focus people's attention on social issues.

Pioneers in the Study of Sociology

The early scholars who contributed significantly for the development of Sociology as a young science are
listed below:

 Auguste Comte (1778 - 1857)

- He was born after the French revolution of 1789
- He proposed the Philosophical position of Positivism. He theorized that the methods of
physical science are regarded as the accurate means of obtaining knowledge and therefore,
social science should adhere to the same.
- He developed the idea and coined the term “sociology”
- He was the founder of Sociology.
  Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876)
- She translated Comte’s work in English
- She spoke out in favor of the rights of women, the emancipation of the slaves, and religious
tolerance.
- Her book, “Society in America” examines religion, politics, child rearing, and immigration in
the young nation.
- She emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, and population could have on the
social problems of contemporary society.
- She said that intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of social
conditions, but they should act upon their conditions in a manner that will benefit society.
 Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)
- He is considered as one of the thinkers of the modern times
- He was a native German and later exiled in England
- He said that the sociologist’s task is to explain conflict
- That conflict is shaped by the means of production
- He said that industrialization resulted in two classes: owners and laborers
 Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903)
- He grew up in England
- He proposed that there is the parallelism between how society evolves in the same manner
as animal species do
- This principle is attributed to “Darwin’s Theory of Evolution”
- Through Spencer’s theory, it could be further said that, man as a member of society is in a
never ending competition and the name of the game is to win.
 Emile Durkheim (1858 - 1917)
- He was the only person who studied the discipline in the school of higher learning
thoroughly
- He provided insights into the social forces that contributed to the rise of the global village
- He proposed four types of suicide, based on the degrees of imbalance of two social forces:
social integration and moral regulation
- He concluded that suicide is not an ordinary phenomenon
 Max Weber (1864 – 1920)
- He focused on how industrial revolution changed thoughts and action and how it brought
about a process called rationalization
- Rationalization refers to the way daily life is organized so as to accommodate large groups of
people.

Other sociologists:

 Albion Small
- founder of the department of sociology at the University of Chicago
- he established the American Journal of Sociology W.E.B Du Bois
- a black American who conducted research on race relations in the U.S.
 W.E.B Du Bois (William Edward Burghardt Du Bois)
- a black American who conducted research on race relations in the U.S.
 Wright Mills
- urged sociologists to get back to social reform
 Robert K. Merton
- he stressed that sociologists need to develop middle-range theories as explanations of
human behavior that go beyond the particular observation or research but avoid sweeping
generalizations that attempt to account for everything

The Development of Sociology in the Philippines

 Serfin M. Macaraig
 - the first Filipino to acquire a doctorate degree in Sociology and published a book entitled
“An Introduction to Sociology” in 1938.
 Fr. Valentin Marin
- he introduced Sociology in the Philippines with the opening of criminology program at
University of Santo Tomas in 1950
 Conrado Benitez and Luis Rivers
- among the first teachers of sociology in the Philippines

In 1952, Filipino pioneers in Sociology organized the Philippine Sociological Society which main trust is to
collect, interpret and proposed possible solutions to different Philippine sociological phenomena.

In 1957, the Community Development Research Council was created to conduct and support social science
researchers.

In 1960, Fr. Frank Lynch, SJ, founded the Institute of the Philippines Culture at the Ateneo de Manila
University

In 1972, Xavier University was given credit as the first school, which opens a program in PhD in sociology.

It was the University of the Philippines that offered a bachelor degree in sociology.

 Three Major Perspectives in Sociology

Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from different perspectives. Sociologists today
employ three primary theoretical perspectives: the symbolic interactionist perspective, the functionalist
perspective, and the conflict perspective. These perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for
explaining how society influences people, and vice versa. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society,
social forces, and human behavior.

Sociological Perspectives

• Sociological Perspective enables you to gain a new vision of social life.

• It provides a different way of looking at life, and provides an understanding of why people are the
way they are.

Sociological Perspective Level of Analysis Focus

1. Symbolic Interactionism Micro(small social patterns) Use of symbols; Face-to-face
Interactions
2. Functionalism Macro(large patterns) Relationship between the parts of
society; How aspects of society are
functional (adaptive)
3. Conflict Theory Macro Competition for scarce resources;
How the elite control the poor and
weak.

 Symbolic Interaction

The founding father is Mead (1863-1931), an American philosopher.

The theoretical perspective supports that:

 People attach meaning to symbols, then they act according to the subject interpretations
 Individual, social groups meaning to experience of life: we negotiate meaning
 Meanings can change or be modified through interaction and through time.
 Structure Functionalism

Two words can give an idea of this approach: structure and function. The founding fathers of this perspective
are Comte, Spencer and Durkheim.
 This theoretical perspective says that society is stable, ordered system of interrelated part of the structures.
Each structure has a function that contributes to the continued stability or equilibrium of the whole.

 Structures are explained as social institutions like the family, the educational system, politics,
religion, mass media systems, and the economy
 Structures meet the need of society by performing different functions:
 What would be the functions of above mentioned social institutions? (in terms of manifest* vs.
latent** functions, Robert Merton, b. 1910)
 Dysfunction: a disturbance to or undesirable consequence of some aspect of the social system
 Harmony & stability
o Manifest : the obvious intended functions of a social institution (or social system)
o Latent: the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a social structure
 Cultural Theory

The founding father is Karl Marx.

The principles embodied in this theory are:

 A materialistic view of society (focused on labor practices and economic reality, we play by the rules
(roles and functions) of these social systems
 Unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agenda causing them to compete against one
another.
 This constant competition between groups forms the basis of the ever changing nature of society.

SEEING THE BROADER SOCIAL CONTEXT

a. The social location of people—their culture, social class, gender, religion, age and education
b. The relationship of one group to another.
c. The external influences (people’s experiences) that are internalized and have become part of ones
thinking and motivations.
 Sociological Imagination

Sociological imagination is a new concept to social sciences introduced by C. Wright Mills in 1959 in his book
titled ‘Sociological Imagination’. This coined phrase is used throughout sociology today.

This ‘sociological imagination’ is the concept of being able to “think ourselves away” from the familiar
routines of our daily lives in order to look at them anew. Mills defined sociological imagination as “the vivid
awareness of the relationship between experience and wider society.” It is the ability to see things socially
and how they interact and influence each other. To have a sociological imagination, a person must be able to
pull away from the situation and think from an alternative point of view. It is also the willingness to view the
social world from the perspective of others. It involves moving away from thinking in terms of you and your
problems (private issues), but focusing rather on the social circumstances that produce social problems
(public issues).

In short, sociological imagination is all about determining the relationship between your ordinary lives and
the wider social forces. It is turning your private troubles into ‘public issues”.

We tend to experience whatever happens in our own lives as unique and private, and also to interpret what
happens to other people as unique and private to them.

These are seen as “private troubles‟.

The discipline of Sociology encourages you to look for the social processes and structures that give a
generalised pattern to those private troubles and thus turn them into “public issues‟.

Example of Sociological Imagination

We will see a common example. Suppose, there is a boy who is unable to find employment and he is worried
about a loan that he needs to pay back. He tries very hard to get a job, but he fails. Now, he joins a group
 and engages in illegal and criminal activities. If you analyze this case individually, then you may say that this
boy did not try hard enough to get a job and resorted to illegal activities to gain easy money.

We analyze the issue:

Issue – Unemployment

Private Trouble – When one person is unemployed that is a private trouble

Public Issue – When 5 million people are unemployed, that is a public issue

If you see this case in the social imagination perspective, then you would see that the larger forces such as
economic meltdown, unemployment, the lack of regulation in the subprime mortgage industry, etc., had a
direct impact on the life of this guy. We could have blamed the personal character of the individual if very
few guys went through the similar situation. But when there is a significant number of youth facing the same
problem, then it becomes a social or public problem where government policies about employment and
banking needs to be looked at.

In the above example, you can analyze the problem by tracing the root cause of the problem in society and
find how this particular issue developed. It is clear from the example of sociological imagination that this
concept tries to study how large social forces influence individual behavior and actions of people living in
that society.

So, the next time you are confronted with a personal problem or situation, you know how to connect it to
the wider social happenings.

This process would help you find out long-term, permanent solutions to some of the grave individual
problems.

The Thinking of The Sociological Imagination

Seldom are aware of the intricate connection between the patterns of their own lives and the course of
world history. Ordinary men do not usually know what this connection means for the kind of men they are
becoming and for the kinds of history making in which they might take part.

What they need is a quality of mind that will help them see what is going on in the world and what may be
happening within themselves.

It is this quality that may be called the ‘Sociological Imagination’.

WEEK 2
Definition of Culture

Culture is everything that is made, learned, or shared by the members of a society, including values, beliefs,
behaviors, and material objects.

Two parts of Culture

1. Material culture is the visible part. It may be the food we eat, your cars, your houses or anything that
members of society make, use and share.
2. Non-material culture is intangible but this influences our behavior like our language, beliefs, values,
rules of behavior, family patterns and political system

Five Components of Culture

1. Technology is one component that makes our life easier. We can have volume production of goods that
can be used by us through this component.
 2. Symbols are cultural representations of reality. They give meanings to events and things like a statue,
handshake, college ring, flag etc.
3. Language is the most powerful of all human symbols as it allows us to communicate with one another. It
also conveys our beliefs and culture.
4. Values are ideas. They determine our character. They are the standards by which we assess goodness,
acceptability, beauty or desirability.
5. The fifth component is norm. Norm is a rule that guides ourbehavior. It gives concrete terms how we
should behave – whatwe should do and what we should not do.

Classification of Norms:

1. Mores distinguish right from wrong

2. Folkways distinguish between right and rude. They are referred as customs. They are
measurements of behavior but not approved by society.
3. Laws are written rules of conduct enacted and enforced by government
4. Taboo is an activity that is forbidden or sacred based on religious beliefs or morals. Breaking
a taboo is extremely objectionable in society as a whole. Around the world, an act may be
taboo in one culture and not in another.

Examples are:

1. Mores laws: child abuse, rape, carnapping, etc.

2. Folkway laws: jaywalking, counterflowing, etc.
3. Law: Driving while drunk, theft, murder, and trespassing areall examples of laws. If violated,
the person violating the lawcould get reprimanded, pay a fine, or go to jail.
4. Taboos: abortion, addiction, cannibalism, offensive language,slavery, etc.

Difference between Culture and Society

Society – consists of people who interact to share a common culture

Culture – consists of beliefs, behaviors, objects and other characteristics common to a particular group or society.

Where did culture originate? Biological or Societal? Nature or nurture?

Nature refers to your innate qualities or nativism while nurture is your personal experiences. Nature is your genes,
the physical and personality traits determined by your genes which stays with you wherever you were born or
raised.

Nurture refers to your childhood, or how you were brought up.

Nature is built from your biological and family factors while nurture from your societal or environmental factor.

Cultural Change

We can say that culture is learned – from our families, peers, institutions and media. As we absorb other’s culture,
we change ours.

It is shared as we share it with our group members.

It is based on symbols because these symbols give meaning to people either to agree or not on their use.

Culture is integrated because if we learn culture, we should be ready to relate all of the aspects, not only a part or a
few.

It is also dynamic because of interaction and change. These changes may be in the form of discoveries, inventions or
cultural borrowings.

However, cultural diversity is also present in society. Because of the existence of multiple cultures, it creates
differences within the society.
  Sub-cultures

You must also be informed about subcultures. Subcultures exist in small cultural groups but differ in
some way. Examples of subcultures include: “heavy metal” music devotees, tattoo enthusiasts, gangs,
skinheads, etc.

When you oppose to the norms and values of a dominant culture, you possess a counterculture.
Examples of this are: protest groups, hippies, etc.

When your culture is dominant, and it absorbs subcultural and countercultural groups, the process is
called assimilation.

If culture respects cultural variations, we call this multiculturalism.

To end this session, we add ethnocentrism which involves judging other cultures against the standards
of one’s culture; and cultural relativism which says that a culture should be sociologically evaluated
according to its standards, and not those of any other culture.

Cultural diffusion is the spreading of standards across cultures through travel, trade, conquests, etc.

This lesson might have presented you with important concepts to improve your behavior and ways of
dealing with other people like your parents, siblings, peers and play groups.

Social Groups and Organization

This lesson deals with how man needs other members of society to survive and to enjoy life. The issue here is how to
organize ourselves to for alliance into groups and organizations.

 Classification of People

“No man is an island” goes the saying. Man can not thrive without the presence of other men. There is a natural
tendency for man to live with others in a group, to look for a companion or group of companions in order to fulfill
the need to belong and to experience some form of comfort.

People are usually classified based on the group he or she is an aggregate of. This group may be something he
consciously chose for himself or something he was born into.

 GROUP

A group serves many functions like giving an individual a sense of identity as well as emotional intimacy.

It consists of two or more people who are distinct in the following three ways:

a. Interact overtime
b. Have a sense of identity or belonging
c. Have norms that non-members don’t have.

For example: A class of students is a group who meet a few times in a week for an entire semester and identify
themselves on the basis of what classes they are taking. Students in a class must follow their professor’s class and
test schedule, as well as rules for behavior and contribution in class.

 AGGREGATE

An aggregate is a collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same time but who have no other
connection to one another.

An example: the people in a restaurant on a particular evening are an example of an aggregate, not a group. Those
people do not know one another, and they will likely never see again in the same place and the same time.

 CATEGORY
Third classification is category, which is a collection of people who share a particular characteristic. They do not
necessarily interact with one another and have nothing else in common.

Examples of categories may include people who have green eyes, or people who were born in the Philippines, or
women who gave birth to twins.

One important characteristic of a group is for group members interact on a regular basis through communication.

 Social Group

Those who interact with one another and share similar characteristics and a sense of unity is called a social group.
These groups may be families, companies, circles of friends, fraternities and sororities and local religious
congregations

 Nature of Social Group

o The group provides specific form as to the nature of interaction in the society.
o Members should develop a structure where each member assumes a specific status and adopts a
particular role.
o Certain orderly procedures and values are agreed upon.
o The members of the group feel a sense of identity.
 Types of Social Group

1. Social Group according to Ties (This is considered a primary group)

o It is the most fundamental unit of human society

o A long-lasting group characterized by strong ties of love and affection
o Do’s and don’ts of behavior are learned in this group

Examples: families, gangs, cliques, play groups, friendship groups

2. Social Group according to Ties (A Secondary Group)

o Group with which the individual comes in contact late in life

o Characterized by impersonal business-like, contractual, formal and casual relationship.
o Usually large in size, not very enduring and limited relationships.
o People needed other people for the satisfaction of their complex needs.

Examples: Industrial Workers, business associates. Faculty staff, Company employees

3. Social Group to Form of Organization (Informal Group)

o Arises spontaneously out of the interactions of two or more persons

o It is unplanned
o Has no explicit rules for membership and does not have specific objectives to be attained
o Members are bound by emotion and sentiments

4. Social Group according to Form of Organization (Formal Group)

o Social organization
o Deliberately formed and their purpose and objectives are explicitly defined.
o Their goals are clearly stated and the division of labor is based on member’s ability or merit

5. Social Group according to Self identification (In-Group)

It is a social unit in which individuals feel at home and with which they identify themselves

6. Social Group according to Self identification (Out-Group)

 It is a social unit to which individuals do not belong due to differences in social categories and with which
they do not identify.

7. Social Group according to Purpose (Special Interest Group)

A group which is organized to meet the special interest of the members

8. Social Group according to Purpose (Task Force/Group)

A group is assigned to accomplish jobs which cannot be done by one person.

9. Social Group according to Geographical Location and Degree of Relationship (Gemeinschaft)

o A social system in which most relationships are personal and traditional

o It is a community of intimate, private and exclusive living and familism
o Culture is homogeneous and traditional-bound

10. Social Group according to Geographical Location and Degree of Relationship (Gesselschaft)

o A social system in which most relationships are impersonal, formal, contractual or bargain-like
o Relationship is individualistic, business-like, secondary and rationalized
o Culture is heterogeneous and more advanced

 Social Organization

Social organization

The type of collectivity established for the pursuit of specific aims or goods

Characterized by a formal structure of rules, authority relations, a division of labor and limited membership
or admission

Organization is an orderly relationship or arrangement of parts.

It is used to refer the interdependence and inter-related of parts in groups

Examples of social organization: Family, church, college, factory, a play group, a political party, a community

Types of Social Organization

1. Political Organization: State (Government)

2. Economic Organization: Factory
3. Religious Organization: Church
4. Financial organization: Bank
5. Educational organization: School and Colleges

Goal of Social organization

That members of an organization are inter-related to each other for the pursuit of a common goal

Preparedness to accept one’s role and status:

 Organization is an arrangement of persons and parts

 By arrangement, it is meant that every member of the organization has an assigned role, a positon
and a status

Norms and Mores of Social Organization:

Every organization has its norms and mores which control its members, as a result, an organization can
function smoothly if its members follow the organization norms.

Sanctions:
 If a member does not follow the norms he is compelled to follow them through sanctions (conditions) which
may range from warning to physical punishment. For example; a member may be expelled, or dismissed.

To end our discussion on Social Groups and Organization, remember that a group is a major source of
solidarity and cohesion in society.

WEEK 3
Definition of Society

Society is a group of people living together in a particular place or at a particular time and having many things in
common.

Sociologists say society is a group of people with common territory, interaction and culture.

What does society look like?

 Society looks like an object itself (sui generis or unique)

 Then, if society is an object, we can examine it closely and analyze it like any other subject (We break it into
pieces and explore each piece carefully)
 What a biologist does to a living organism, or a geologist does to a rock, so as a sociologist does to a society.
 Society becomes something scientifically weighted, measured and dissected

If we analyze society, we determine what it is made up. It is composed of culture, working class and ethnicity. These
components appear on their own but they can be broken down into pieces that makes the study of society more
challenging and confusing.

Visions of Society that account for Social Change and Societal Evolution

Four Diverse Perspectives:

1. Karl Marx
- He looked at society that is in conflict (social conflict). This is a struggle between segments of society
over valued resources.
 The capitalists are the people who own and operate factories and other businesses in
pursuit of profits
 Proletariat are people who sell their productive labor for wages
 Social institutions include all the major spheres of social life, or societal subsystems
organized to meet human needs
o Infrastructure – society’s economic system
o Superstructure – other social institutions: family, religion, political institution
 Marx rejected false consciousness or explanation of social problems as the shortcomings of
individuals rather than the flaws of society
- He believed that the history of all existing society is the history of class struggle (or class conflict) –
conflict between entire classes over the distribution of a society’s wealth and power
- Marx believed that worker must replace false consciousness with class consciousness – workers’
recognition of themselves as a class unified in opposition to capitalists and, ultimately, to capitalism
itself. Workers would then rise up and destroy capitalism in a socialist revolution.

Marx’s Model of Society

 Alienation – the experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness

 Capitalism alienates workers in four specific ways:
1. Form the act of working

Workers have no say in production, work is tedious and repetitive

 2. Form the products of work

Workers have no ownership in the product that is merely sold for profit

3. Form other workers

Work has become competitive rather than cooperative

4. From human potential

Workers deny, not fulfill themselves in their work

2. Max Weber
- Rationalization of Society. This is the historical change from tradition – sentiments and beliefs passed
from one generation to another to rationality – deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the cost
effective means to accomplish a task as a dominant mode of human thought.
- Weber also believes in predestination and God’s favor, religious ethic and transformed to work
ethic.

Weber’s Rational Social Organization. It has seven characteristics:

 Distinctive social institutions

 Large scale organization
 Specialized tasks
 Personal discipline
 Awareness of time
 Technical competence
 Impersonality

They are expressed in bureaucracy and capitalism

3. Emile Durkheim
- He describes society as more than individuals. Society has a life of its own – beyond our personal
experiences
- He also said that social facts, any patterns rooted in society rather than the experience of individuals.
o Society has an “objective reality” beyond our own subjective perceptions of the world.
Examples are norms, values, religious beliefs, and rituals
o Society has the power to guide our thoughts and actions
- Warned that modern society creates anomie - a condition in which society provides little moral
guidance to individuals
o He said that change is from mechanical solidarity. Social bonds are based on common
sentiment and shared moral value that are strong among members of industrial societies
o To Organic solidarity, social bonds are based on specialization and interdependence that are
strong among members of industrial societies.
o He said that key to change is an expanding division of labor – a specialization of economic
activity.
4. Gerhard Lenski
- He said that sociocultural evolution is the change that occurs as a society acquires new technology
- Societies range from simple to the technologically complex
- Societies that are simple in technology tend to resemble one another
- More complex societies reveal striking cultural diversity.

Socio-cultural evolution

 It is the change that occurs as a society acquires new technology

 Technology shapes other cultural patterns and that simple technology can only support small numbers of
people who live simple lives
 The greater amount of technology a society has within its grasp, the faster cultural change will take place
  High-tech societies are capable of sustaining large numbers of people who are engaged in a diverse division
of labor.

Types of Society

The society we live in did not spring up overnight. Human societies have evolved slowly over millions of years.
However, throughout history, technological developments have sometimes brought about dramatic change that has
boosted human society into its next age.

Hunting and Gathering stage

 During this stage, man used simple tools to hunt animals and vegetation. The hunting and gathering
societies characteristics are:
a. The primary institution is the family, which decides how food is to be shared and how children
are to be socialized, and which provides for the protection of its members.
b. Number of families in this society tend to be small with fewer than fifty members
c. They were nomadic in search of food
d. Society members have very high level of interdependence
e. Division of labor is based on sex: men hunt, women gather

Horticultural and Pastoral Societies

 Horticultural societies use hand tools to raise crops. People started to stay in one place and grow
their own food.
 Pastoral societies started the domestication and breeding of animals for food.

Agricultural Societies

The invention of the plow led to the establishment of agricultural societies. Members of these societies tend
crops with an animal harnessed to a plow. The use of animals to pull a plow eventually led to the creation of
cities and formed the basic structure of modern societies.

The development of agricultural societies followed this general sequence.

a. Animals are used to pull plow

b. Lager areas of land can then be cultivated
c. More crops were yielded for longer periods of time
d. Productivity increased and people did not move to another place with abundant supply of food
for them
e. Towns form and then cities
f. When yields increased, members engaged in some other forms of farming, thus developing
other skills. Job specialization increased
g. When fewer people are directly involved with production of food, the economy became more
complex

Industrial Societies

Use advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run large machinery. Industrialization
started in the mid-1700s, when the steam engine was first used in Great Britain as a means of running other
machines. In the 20th century, industrialized societies had changed dramatically.

 People and goods traversed much longer distances because of innovations in transportation such as
train and steamship
 Rural areas lost population because people move to the cities as factory workers
 Societies became urbanized, which means that the majority of population lived within commuting
distance of a major city
 Suburbs grew up around cities to provide city-dwellers with alternative places to live
 Postindustrial Societies

This type of society that has developed over the past few decades, features an economy based on services
and technology, not production. There are three major characteristics of postindustrial economy:

 These societies focus on ideas as tangible goods no longer drive the economy
 There has been a need for higher education for the postindustrial societies because the new focus
on information and technology means that people must pursue higher education
 There was a shift in working place from cities to homes because new communications technology
allows work to be performed from a variety of locations.

WEEK 4
Socialization
Socialization is the process by which children and adults learn from others skills, knowledge, norms, and values of
their society.

It exposes the person to the culture of society and eventually acquiring them. It is also a mode of social control.

Socialization is continuing. As we interact and be with other people, we grow and we change in age, physical
characteristics as well as our values, behaviors, dreams as we gather new things and roles from those whom we
come in contact with.

The socialization that we have with our parents, our caregivers, and immediate relatives who have been there for us
to provide our needs –food, clothing, shelter, love, peace and security is called primary socialization.

The better and stronger base we have for our primary socialization, the bigger the chance that we don’t fail in our
adult life.

Secondary socialization happens when we start schooling, then working for the job that we end up to. Our
interaction with classmates, co-employees or play friends effect changes in our way of thinking, dealing with people,
growing as a mature individual.

Importance of Socialization

 It molds the individual into social being

 Socialization is responsible for the continuity of culture
 For an individual to have a proper integration into the society

The Socialization Process

 Humans learn the expectations of society through socialization.

 Socialization is different based on race, gender and class.

Agents of Socialization

Socialization is effected by these agents:

- The family
- Media
- Peers
- Religion

The family introduces us to the expectations of society. Our family members orient us with the necessary
experiences so that we develop our self-sense. Some families emphasize educational achievement; some may be
more permissive, whereas others emphasize strict obedience and discipline.
The media, print and broadcast, the television, and computers are dominant tools for socialization. They may only be
virtual means of socialization but children are so hooked with their gadgets today so that they acquire, new
language, values, and behaviors from what they read, see and hear. Analysts estimate that by age 18, the average
child will have witnessed at least 18,000 simulated murders on television.

Polling Question

Which media source do you think has the strongest impact on attitudes and behaviors of your generation?

A. Advertising
B. Television
C. Music and music videos
D. The Internet
E. Magazines

Peers

 For children, peer culture is an important source of identity.

 Through interaction with peers, children learn concepts of self, gain social skills, and form values and attitudes.
 Girls’ peer groups tend to be closely knit and egalitarian.
 Boys’ peer groups tend to be more hierarchical, with evident status distinctions between members.

Your religion as an agent of socialization also influences your beliefs about sexuality, including the likelihood of
tolerance for gay and lesbian sexuality. Children tend to develop the same religious beliefs as their parents. Sports
for men and women teaches them to be competitive and to develop bodily competence. Through sports, men and
women learn concepts of self. Men learn that being competitive in sports is considered a part of “manhood”.
Women in sports develop a strong sense of bodily competence, which is typically denied to them by the prevailing
cultural images of women’s bodies.

Schools are also agents of socialization because through the teachers and our schoolmates, we are encouraged to
think and behave appropriately to the situations or occasions that we are in.

Now, which of the following agents is the most responsible for gender differences in how males and females are
socialized?

a. The family
b. Religion
c. The peer group
d. Education
e. Mass media

Results of Socialization

1. Establishes self identity

2. Individual is ready for role taking
3. People learn to act in socially acceptable ways
4. People acquires culture

The results of socialization are great because they establish our identity. They prepare us for the roles that we take
in life; we are guided how to act in socially acceptable ways and because of socialization we acquire culture that may
improve us as individuals.

Socialization and Self-Esteem

 How much value one sees in oneself is greatly affected by socialization how you are seen by society.
 A national study of 9th and 12th graders examined the eating behaviors:
o 57% of the girls and 31% of the boys are reported to be having eating disorders.
o Fear about one’s appearance to others is associated with this risky behavior
Socialization is also a form of social control. It may be in the form of coercion: like punishment, economy. It may
also be in the form of language which we use as cultural symbols; Socialization also avoids to be ridiculed from peers,
to have a good relationship with our family members and to our own selves.

Sociologists’ view on Socialization

There are some theories that we need to deal with, too.

Sigmund Freud, in his Psychoanalytic Theory, states that the unconscious mind shapes the behavior of a person. The
formation of the self occurs between the id and the superego. The influence of society happens in the superego.

Jean Piaget also said in his Cognitive Development theory that socialization happens in different stages of our mind’s
development –from infancy to adolescence or adulthood.

Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensory Motor stage – (infancy)

2. Pre-operational stage – (toddler and early childhood)
3. Concrete Operational Stage – (Elementary and early adolescence)
4. Formal Operational Stage – (Adolescence and adulthood)

Lawrence Kohlberg in his Moral Development Theory stated that moral development is a continual process that
occurs throughout our lifespan.

Moral Development has three levels

1. Preconventional Morality
2. Conventional Morality
3. Postconventional Morality

Carol Giligan theory of Gender Differences

 It is based on Kohlberg’s moral development

 It's a theory of moral development that claims women tend to think and speak in a different way than men,
particularly when they are confronted with ethical dilemmas
 Whereas men seek separateness

George Herbert Mead’s theory of the social self states that the self emerges from social interactions. For example,
when we observe and interact with others, respond to the opinions of others we internalize outside opinions and
keep them inside us.

Charles Cooley’s Theory of Looking-Glass Self also tells us that we learn to take the role of others. The expectation of
others forms the venue for acquiring social roles. Emerges as the creative self interacts with social expectations of
others

To further explain the looking glass self, it is how we appear to other people; how we think others judge us and how
these make us feel proud, embarrassed or something else.

Mead: Taking the Role of the Other

1. Imitation stage - children imitate behavior of those around them.

2. Play stage - children take on the role of significant others.
3. Game stage - children internalize an abstract understanding of how society sees them.

Socialization happens along with our life cycle: from our childhood when our identities and values are established, to
our adolescence when we form a consistent identity and to our adulthood and old age when we acquire new roles
and expectations in adult life.

Now, socialization happens when existing social roles are changed or replaced. It also happens in organizations that
maintain social control like in the military, prison, cults, fraternities and sororities.
The learning of new norms and values which occurs later in life, when life circumstances change or when people join
a new group is called resocialization. This is socialization that happens in the workplace.

Deviance, Crimes, Social Control

The word deviance connotes odd or unacceptable behavior, but in the sociological sense of the word, deviance is
simply any violation of society’s norms. Deviance can range from something minor, such as a traffic violation, to
something major, such as murder. This is what we are going to discuss in this lesson, including crimes and social
control.

Deviance is a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or codified law
(William Graham Sumner, 1906)

Whether an act is labeled deviant or not depends on many factors, including location, audience, and the individual
committing the act (Becker 1963)

Examples of Deviant Behavior

 A driver caught speeding

 A student wearing a bathrobe to class
 An adult belching loudly

Meaning of Deviance

Deviance is defined as a violation of the standards of behavior of a society.

Each society defines what is deviant and what is not, and definitions of deviance differ widely between societies.

For example, in the Philippines, when a man cries in public in the 1950s, it would have been considered deviant.
Today, men who cry in response to extreme emotional situations are acting within society’s norms.

Male politicians cry when announcing defeat, male athletes cry after winning a championship, and male actors cry
after winning an award.

By today’s standards, none of these men is committing a deviant act.

To sum up deviance:

• Deviance is a violation of norms.

• Whether or not something is deviant depends on contextual definitions, the situation, and people’s response
to the behavior.
• Society seeks to limit deviance through the use of sanctions that help maintain a system of social control.

Sociologists’ view on Deviance

Several sociologists have their views on deviance like

A. Functionalist’s View on Deviance

1. Viewing deviance as a key component of a functioning society

 Merton said in his strain theory that “in order to access goals that are accepted by society, deviance plays a
very important in determining whether a person is conforming or not”.
 He mentioned 5 types of deviance in terms of the acceptance or rejection of social goals and the
institutionalized means of achieving them
 There are the conformists who choose to conform and NOT deviate.
 Then, the innovators who accept approved goals but disregard institutional means to achieve them.
This is practiced by people who are low-wage earners who resort to graft or corruption to achieve
higher standard of living.
 Third type is the ritualist who gives up cultural goals but follows the prescribed norms. Example is a
religious fanatic or an employee who goes to work but does not do anything.
  The fourth type is the retreatist who abandons both the cultural goals and the prescribed means to
achieve them. Examples: drug addicts, hippies, alcoholics.
 The fifth is the rebel who rejects both the societal goals and prescribed means to achieve them, but
tries to set up new norms or goals. Examples: rebel soldiers, New People’s Army

Merton's Typology of Adaptation to Strain

Mode of Adaption Culture’s Goals Institutionalized Means

Conformity Accept Accept
Innovation Accept Reject
Ritualism Reject Accept
Retreatism Reject Reject
Rebellion Reject Reject
Replace with Alternative Replace with Alternative

2. The second theory is social disorganization which says that deviant behavior is caused by the breakdown of
norms, laws, mores, and other important values of society. Solutions: Modification or rehabilitation in the part of
the system which suffers from disorganization.
3. The third theory to consider is the cultural deviance theory by Shaw and McKay (Clifford Shaw & Henry McKay).
They concluded that socioeconomic status correlated to race and ethnicity resulted in a higher crime rate. The
mix of cultures and values created a smaller society with different ideas of deviance, and those values and ideas
were transferred from generation to generation. That conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class
society causes crime. High rates of poverty and single-parent homes correlated with high rates of juvenile
violence.
B. Conflict theories

The next is conflict theory which says that social and economic factors are the causes of crime. Deviance and
inequality exist in this system.

The unequal system by Karl Marx asserts that deviance and crime cross with wealth and power.

Power Elite Theory of Wright Mills says that the rules of society are stacked in favor of a privileged few who
manipulate them to stay on top. It is these people who decide what is criminal and what is not, and the effects are
often felt most by those who have little power

C. Symbolic Interactionism’s View on Deviance

A theoretical approach that can be used to explain how societies and/or social groups come to view behaviors as
deviant or conventional.

Labeling theory, differential association, social disorganization theory, and control theory fall within the realm of
symbolic interactionism.

 Labeling Theory states that behaviors are tagged or labelled as proper or improper, moral or immoral, good or
bad. Society’s labeling on behaviors as deviant causes deviant behavior. Behaviors which transgress the social
norms and values are labeled or socially defined deviant; they are, in turn, sanctioned by ostracism or
punishment.
 The Differential Association theory by Edwin Sutherland tells us that individuals learn deviant behavior from
those who are close to them who provide them models of and opportunities for deviance. According to
Sutherland, deviance is less a personal choice and more a result of differential socialization processes.
 Control Theory (Travis Hirschi)
 Stated that social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a
feeling of disconnection from society.
 Individuals who believe they are a part of society are less likely to commit crimes against it.
 Travis Hirschi’s 4 types of social bonds that connect people to society

1. Attachment measures our connections to others. When we are closely attached to people, we worry
about their opinions of us.
2. Commitment refers to the investments we make in the community. When you are committed to the
community, you have less chance to commit crime.
3. Involvement or participation in socially legitimate activities, lessen a person’s likelihood of deviance.
4. Beliefs is an agreement on common values in society. If a person views social values as beliefs, he or she
will conform to them.

Social Control and Sanctions

Social control

Social control is the regulation and enforcement of norms to maintain social order - an arrangement of
practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives

Rules are enforced to those who violate guidelines.

The way to enforce these guidelines is called sanctions which would either be positive or negative.

Positive sanctions are rewards to those who conform to the norms like an employee who is promoted in his
work for working hard.

Negative sanctions are punishments for violating norms like arresting a person for shoplifting.

Sanctions are also classified as informal or formal.

Informal sanctions happen in face-to-face interactions. When people frown at a lady burping loudly in the
party; or a pat on the back when they see you help an old woman carry a large grocery bag across the street.

Formal sanctions are officially recognizing and enforcing norm violations. For example, a student who
violates her college’s code of conduct may be expelled; or an employee who speaks inappropriately to the
boss may be fired. On the other hand, a soldier who saves life may receive a commendation.

Relationship between types of sanction

Informal Formal

Positive An expression of A promotion of work

thanks

Negative An angry comment A parking fine

CRIME

Crime is a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions

Crime is classified into the following:

1. White collar crime which is committed by people occupying high position. This crime does not
involve violence and the person who committed the crime ends up in hearings, not labeled as
criminal. He also has a 50/50 chance of going to jail and would only be asked to pay fines.
 2. Victimless Crime is a crime committed by the person towards himself. Examples of this are
prostitution, gambling, drug addiction, etc.
3. Corporate crime is committed by a company or corporation or people acting on its behalf. Example
of this crime is violating environmental laws. The focus is on the corporation not the individual.
4. Street crime is an offense committed by ordinary people against other people or organizations,
usually in public spaces
5. Status crime is illegal because of age like you who are still young, when you engage in drinking liquor
or wine

Civil disobedience is violating a law because the violator wants to make a statement. People see this as
unjust or immoral. For Kohlberg, it is post-conventional morality.

Republic Act No. 9165 of June 7, 2002 otherwise known as the “Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of
2002”

The law is a form of social control to a deviant behavior of those who use the dangerous drugs.

Policy

 The State to safeguard the integrity of its territory and the well-being of its citizenry particularly the
youth, from the harmful effects of dangerous drugs on their physical and mental well-being, and to
defend the same against acts or omissions detrimental to their development and preservation.
 The State provides effective mechanisms or measures to re-integrate into society individuals who
have fallen victims to drug abuse or dangerous drug dependence through sustainable programs of
treatment and rehabilitation.

Unlawful Acts and Penalty

 Penalty is imposed for those who dispense, deliver, distribute and transport dangerous drugs which
ranges from life imprisonment to death. Fine could be from P500,000.00 to P10,000,000.00
regardless of quantity and purity involved.

WEEK 6
Social organization is defined as the system of relationships between persons and among groups with regard to the
division of activity and the functional arrangement of mutual obligations within society. Knowing what social
organization can help us understand the importance of each organization’s role to the development of the entire
society.

Social Organization

In sociology, the term social organization is used to refer to the interdependence of parts in groups within our
society today. These groups may vary in size and nature. Workers, professionals, and businessmen – the society is
divided into these organizations, which are inevitably interrelated.

Nowadays, the term is commonly used in sociological studies and researches, especially when sociologists want to
stress the relevance of the arrangement of part of the society and how they are related to each other.

It is hard to imagine how we can develop without being affected by the social organizations. Humans can be a part of
more than one social organization; an individual can be a member of a family, and belong to the group of workers at
the same time. The actions and behavior of both of these organizations will affect the individual, and can even affect
each other.
Kinship, Marriage, and the household

The family is defined by sociologists Ernest Burgess and Harvey Lock as a group of persons united by ties of marriage,
blood or adoption constituting a single household interacting with each other in their respective social role of
husband and wife, mother and father, brother and sister creating a common culture.

The family serves as an important universal social institution –if not the most important. It is the basic unit of social
organization that is commonly seen everywhere, and it is such an essential part of human society that it is hard to
imagine how we can function without it.

Sociologists recognize the significance of families in providing their members with valuable resources, both economic
and noneconomic, which are all necessary for their development. It is also involved in creating and shaping self and
collective identities, and in the rearing and socialization of children. Moreover, family relationships and processes
affect individual well-being in profound ways.

Families, just like other parts of organization, is never isolated; it can also interact with other social institutions and
contribute to social stability and change.

There are several kinds of families: nuclear, extended, and reconstituted families. Nuclear families are families that
consist of parents and children. Extended families, on the other hand, are composed of the nuclear family plus other
relatives such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. And then the Reconstituted families refer to families
composed of spouses and their children from a previous marriage.

Man is does not live alone in society. He is surrounded by a number of people, some which are his relatives, while
others are mere strangers to him. He is inevitably bound to all the people who are related to him by blood or
marriage.

Aside from being a relevant part of the human society, the family is the basis of kinship. Kinship is a system of social
organization which is based on real or recognized family ties. It is a universal human phenomenon that takes various
cultural forms.

Kinship is of three types: Consanguineous Kinship that is also known as kinship by blood or descent, the Affinal
Kinship which is also known as kinship by marriage, and the Kinship by Ritual.

 Consanguineous Kinship refers one’s relationship with other people through blood. An example of this
would be the bond between parents and their children. Another example would be the bond between
siblings.

Thus, son, brother, sister, uncle, nephew, and cousin are consanguineous kin, as they are all related by
blood.

Kinship ties based on descent can be matrilineal, partrilineal, or bilineal. Matrilineal kinship is descent based
on the female line. Patrilineal kinship, on the other hand, is based on the male line. Lastly, Bilineal kinship is
a descent system that consists of both male and female lines.

 Affinal kinship, on the other hand, refers to the bond that is formed through marriage. When a person
marries, a man establishes a relationship not just with the woman he marries but also with a number of
people in the woman’s family. This is what we would refer to as kinship by marriage.

After marriage, the man will not just be a husband to his wife; he will also be a son-in-law to the wife’s
parents, a brother-in-law to her siblings, and so on. The same goes with the wife with the husband’s family.
Simply put, marriage creates various relationships which are called affinal kin.

Marriages can be monogamous or polygamous. Monogamy means that a person is married to one person
only. Polygamy, on the other hand, means that a person has more than one spouse at a time. This is
common among Islamic societies.
 Polygamy is divided into two types. The type of polygamy among Muslims is called polygyny, or a husband
can take many wives. Another type of polygamy is polyandry, where a wife can have many husbands. This
was a common practice in Ancient India.

 Aside from Consanguineous and Affinal kinship, there is also the kinship by ritual, which refers to privileged
social relationship established by a ritual. An example of kinship by ritual is compadrazgo, or a person’s
relationship with their godparents. Another example of ritual kinship would be the relationship among
members of fraternal orders.

Descent

Descent is the system of acknowledged social parentage, which varies from society to society. This system limits
one’s claim of kinship ties with another. If there is no limitation on the recognition of kinship, everybody would be
kin to everyone else; but in most societies some limitation is imposed on the perception of common ancestry.

This system is practically used as a means for people to assert rights, duties, privileges, or status in relation to
another person, who may be related to them either because one is ancestor to the other or because the two
acknowledge a common ancestor. Succession, inheritance, or residence are often influenced by the system of
descent.

Politics of Kinship

Kinship plays a huge role in the kind of society that we are living today. Its influence reaches other organizations,
affecting even our politics and economy.

One apparent example would be the existence of political dynasties up to the present time. A dynasty refers to a
succession of rulers from the same family or lineage. Nowadays it is more commonly used to refer to a family or
group that maintains power for several generations.

Political dynasties had been existing throughout mankind’s history. North Korean leader Kim Jong-un followed the
footsteps of his father Kim Jong-il. Meanwhile, South Korea has President Park Geun-hye, can be considered as part
of a political dynasty as she is the daughter of the controversial authoritarian leader Park Chung-hee. In France,
Marine Le Pen, the current leader of the French far-right political party National Front is the daughter of the
organization’s founder Jean-Mari Le Pen.

In the Philippines, political dynasties can be seen in almost every branch of the government. Most of these families
began to establish their dynasties in a province before they begin to aim for national government. The most notable
political dynasties in the country include the following: the Ampatuans, who are known for their political control
over the Maguindanao region since 2001; the Aquinos, hailing from Tarlac, whose dynasty goes way back during the
Philippine Revolution; the Estrada political dynasty, which began with former president Joseph “Erap” Ejercito
Estrada; and the Marcos family, whose patriarch Ferdinand Marcos became one of the most controversial figures in
the history of the Philippines.

The existence of political dynasties continues to cause arguments, particularly when it comes to its effects in the
country. In a written article about political dynasties in the Philippines, journalist Jose V. Abueva expressed how
political dynasties give certain people the advantage to monopolize political power. The politicians that gain
connections and alliances with the help of their families are more likely to win the election compared to those who
are not linked to political dynasties.

The 1987 Constitution established a provision to maintain a fair political competition. According to Article II, Section
26: “The State shall guarantee equal access to opportunities for public service and prohibit political dynasties as may
as be defined by law.”

Despite this, no law has been passed regarding the prohibition of political dynasties in the country. Several bills have
been filed in relation to the prohibition of political dynasties, and are pending to be approved by the Congress. Many
have called for the Congress to pass the Anti-Dynasty Law, but the bill has been passed from one Congress to
another since 1987. The most likely reason for this is the fact that many of the Congress members are from political
dynasties themselves.
WEEK 7
Political Organization
A political organization refers to any organization that is involved in the political process. This includes political
parties, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), advocacy groups, and special interest groups.

Nowadays, political organizations are known for their involvement with activities related to politics.

Types of Political Organization

Political organizations exist in every country, as they are essential in managing public affairs, maintaining social
order, and resolving conflict. But as there are varying societies, different political systems have been developed to
suit their needs.

 Bands

Bands are the smallest of the four types of political organizations. It is usually a small group connected by family
ties and is politically independent. They are most often found in foraging societies or groups of hunter-gatherers.

As they are often small and are often a nomadic group, bands usually have little or lack formal leadership. Their
decisions are often based on group consensus rather than the command of a central governing official. For this,
they are often referred to as egalitarian societies, or societies which all persons of the same age and gender are
seen as equals.

 Tribes

Tribes are larger compared to band societies. It is often described as a combination of smaller kin or non-kin
groups which are united by a common culture.

While tribal organizations are larger compared to bands, they too are egalitarian by nature. They lack centralized
political leadership. Tribe elders are often assigned to manage clan affairs such as settling disputes and
negotiation with other clans, but they do not hold political offices.

 Chiefdom

Unlike the first two political organizations, the chiefdom is governed by a governing body, aptly called a chief.
The chief and his family holds political power over the rest of the society, which now consists of more than one
community.

Chiefdom is not egalitarian, but have social rank, where the chief and his family are the highest. It is a political
organization that involves a more formal and permanent political structure compared to tribal and band
organizations.

 State

According to the German sociologist Max Weber, a state is a compulsory political organization with a centralized
government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain territory.

In politics, a state refers to an organized political community that is living under a single system of government
which governs a large population, with a hierarchy of differing political positions and the power to enforce
decisions. They are the largest of the four political organizations. They are the most commonly seen political
organization nowadays.

Authority and Legitimacy

Political organizations have lasted because they follow certainguidelines or regulations to ensure that political
processes are going smoothly.
Authority is the concept of right to issue and, using coercive power, to enforce a command. It is not to be identified
with persuasion and influence. An example would be the state, which has the authority to make laws which are
obeyed by the citizens.

Authority is exercised not just within a political organization, but among other social organizations as well. There is
parental authority which is often exercised by families. The parents have the authority over their children, as they
are the ones to allocate economic and non-economic essentials, as well as implement rules within their home.

Legitimacy originated from the Latin word “legitimare”, meaning to “declare, lawful”. According to Weber, it is “the
basis of every system of authority, and correspondingly of every kind of willingness to obey, is a belief, a belief by
virtue of which persons exercising authority are lent prestige.”

Simply put, legitimacy refers to the popular acceptance of a government, or any system of authority.

Gaining legitimacy is considered a basic condition of rule among authorities. Without it, a governing regime is likely
to collapse.

Weber’s Theory of Authority

Weber classified three types of legitimate rule: traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal.

Traditional Authority is a type of authority that is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition or custom. An example of
this are monarchies and tribes, where authority is, by tradition, either patriarchal or matriarchal.

This type of legitimate rule tends not to change overtime. Moreover, it does not facilitate social change. In feudal
Europe, for example, kings gained authority simply because their fathers had been kings. And as it has been a
tradition to have a king as a ruler, subjects did not question this kind of authority.

Charismatic Authority, on the other hand, is authority made legitimate by a leader with a mission and vision that
inspires others. Weber defined a charismatic leader as an individual that has extraordinary characteristics. He or she
can be a head of a new social movement or someone instilled with supernatural powers, such as a religious prophet.
By this definition, we can say that religious organizations such as Christianism and Islam are established by
charismatic authority.

Lastly, the Legal-Rational Authority (also known as Rational Authority) refers to a form of leadership made
legitimate by legal rationality or legal legitimacy. Its legitimacy is derived from the power of the content of law or
natural law.

The best example of rational authority according to Weber would be bureaucracy (political and economic). This type
of authority is apparent in modern states and city governments, as well as in voluntary associations, private and
public corporations.

WEEM 8
Economic Organization
In his book Theory of Social and Economic Organization, the German sociologist Max Weber attributed the rise of
organizations to the following factors: the expansion of markets, the developments in the law, and the changes in
the nature of authority.

Economic Organization refers to the act of coordinating various factors of production – land, labor, and capital.

Kinds of Economic Organization

Economic organizations come in different forms. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.

 Sole Proprietorship
 The oldest form of business organization, sole proprietorship is something of a “one-man business”. Small-scale
businesses are an example of sole proprietorship.

 Partnership

This type of business organization is carried on by two or more men. Small-scale businesses that have expanded
to the point that it may be beyond control of one man develop partnerships to ensure better management.

One-man businesses often grow into partnership, but there are businesses which were established by
partnership from the beginning. Partnerships harbor benefits and harm to the businessman. Partnerships
enables the entrepreneur to handle half of the burden that a sole proprietor would have to carry. However,
there is the risk of being cheated, and there is unlimited liability especially when the business partner happens to
be inefficient.

 Joint Stock Company

A Joint Stock Company is an economic organization that consists of shareholders who subscribe to its capital,
which is divided up into a large number of shares.

One important feature of this organization is that the shareholders will provide the capital in varying amounts
and receive shares in the profits in proportion to the amount of money they have invested in the company. In
this way, it will be possible to raise large sums of capital which is essential for large-scale production. Joint Stock
Companies are the most important economic organization today.

 Cooperative Organization

Cooperative organization comes in a variety of forms. There are consumers’ cooperative, producers’
cooperatives, etc. This form of economic organization is similar with Joint Stock Company in a way that the
capital is supplied by a large number of persons who receive interest on other shares. However, the profits of a
cooperative society are distributed according to the value of the purchases. Moreover, unlike joint stock
companies, members of cooperative organizations are not allowed to sell their shares.

Reciprocity

Reciprocity refers to the mutual exchange of services or goods among social peers. It is a relationship wherein two
parties agree to do similar work for each other, or allow each other the same rights, and so on.

This occurs in both market and non-market economies, where goods and services are given away, purchased, sold or
traded for economic and social gain.

Items being exchanged are more than just food and manufactured objects.

Courtesies, entertainment, and assistance are some of the other things that are considered as important exchange
items in the markets today.

In anthropology, reciprocity is classified into three types: general, positive, and negative. These apply not only in
business, but in daily situations as well.

General reciprocity. It is a type of reciprocity in which one offers something without the expectation of immediate
return. Unselfish sharing is an example of this reciprocity.

Balanced reciprocity. This is a reciprocal relationship in which there is an immediate reward for giving. This occurs in
both business and daily situations, such as giving a gift at a birthday party. You give gifts in return for the meal and
social interaction.

Negative reciprocity. This is a relationship in which one side loses in the exchange. In business, instances such as
cheating, manipulation, and hard bargaining often leads to this reciprocity.

Market Transactions
Exchange of goods and services through a market is called market transaction. Knowing the market transactions that
take place in the economy is important especially in measuring the Gross Domestic Product or GDP.

Market transactions are needed for the basic data which can be used to measure economic production and estimate
the GDP.

 Open-Market Transactions

Open-market transaction refers to a transaction in which an order is placed by an insider, after filing all
appropriate documentation, to buy or sell restricted securities openly on an exchange.

 Close-Market Transactions

Close-market transactions take place when there is an order placed by a company’s insider to buy or sell
restricted securities from within the company’s own treasury. This also requires filing of appropriate
documentation to ensure the legality of the process.

Markets and State

The markets and the state are inevitably related to one another. The decisions made by either one of them will
definitely affect the other.

While the government does not have direct control over the markets today, they are capable of encouraging
economic growth and influence how the benefits of the growth are distributed. Redistributive exchanges are
made to properly distribute wealth and ensure distribution of wealth from the better off to the poor.

The state plays multiple roles in guiding the economy. These can be divided into essential roles, beneficial roles,
and politically generated roles.

Redistribution

Redistribution in economics refers to the theory, policy, or practice of lessening or reducing inequalities in
income.

There are some economic exchanges which are intended to distribute the wealth of a society in a different way
than what is commonly done today. This is a way to transfer wealth, supposedly from the better off to the poor.

Redistribution is not just about money; aside from income, the government can also distribute physical property
which can help improve the condition of the poor. Taxation, charity, welfare, public services, land reform, and
monetary policies are some of the measures taken as means of redistribution.

Transfers

Transfer payments or simply transfers are one-way payment of money for which no money, good, or service is
received in exchange.

Governments make use of transfers as a way of income redistribution. They do this by giving out money under
social welfare programs such as social security, pensions, student grants, unemployment compensations, and so
on. Subsidies paid to exporters, farmers, manufacturers, however, are not considered transfer payments.