Chapter 3 – Meeting Life Challenges

Q. Explain the concept of stress. (1- 4)

1. Stress can be described as the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus event that
disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope. (1)
2. Stress is our responses to events that disrupt or threaten to disrupt our physical and
psychological functioning.
3. The word stress comes from the Latin words ‘strictus’ meaning tight or narrow and ‘stringere’
the verb meaning to tighten.
4. Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive state. It is a disruption in homeostasis or an imbalance
that gives rise to a requirement for resolution of that imbalance or restoration of homeostasis.

Q. Differentiate between eustress and distress. (2)

1. Eustress is the term used to describe the level of stress that is good for us and is helpful for
achieving peak performance and managing minor crisis.
2. Distress is the manifestation of stress that causes our bodies wear and tear.

Q. What are stressors? (1)

 Stressors are events that cause our body to give the stress response.
Q. What is strain? (1)
 The reaction to external stressors is called strain.

Q. What are the two types of appraisal? (2)

An individual’s response to a stressful situation largely depends upon the perceived events and
how they are interpreted or appraised. According to Lazarus, there are two types of appraisal.
They are :
1. Primary appraisal : primary appraisal refers to the perception of a new or changing
environment as positive, negative or neutral in its consequences. Negative events are
appraised for their possible harm, threat or challenge.
2. Secondary appraisal is the assessment of one’s coping abilities and resources and whether
they will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat or challenge of the event. These resources
may be mental, physical, personal or social.
Q. What are the different types of stress reactions? (6)
1. Stressors, very often, result in a variety of different stress reactions. These reactions may be
physiological, behavioural, emotional and cognitive.
2. At the physiological level, arousal plays a key role in stress related behaviour. The
hypothalamus initiates action along two pathways.
3. The first pathway involves the autonomic nervous system. The adrenal gland releases large
amounts of epinephrine and nonepinephrine into the bloodstream. This leads to the physiological
changes seen in fight - or - flight response. The second pathway involves the pituitary gland,
which secretes cortisol which provides energy.
4. The emotional reactions to the experience of stress include negative emotions such as fear,
anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression or even denial.
5. The behavioural responses are limitless depending on the nature of the stressful event.
Confrontative action against the stressor (fight) or withdrawal from the threatening event (flight)
are two general categories of behavioural responses.
6. Cognitive responses include beliefs about the harm or threat an event poses and beliefs about
its causes or controllability. These include responses such as inability to concentrate and
intrusive, repetitive or morbid thoughts.

Q. What are the types of stress? (4)

1. There are three major types of stress : physical and environmental, psychological and
social. They are described below.
2. Physical and environmental stress :
I) physical stresses are demands that change the state of our bodies e.g. physical over
exertion, lack of sleep, injuries etc. We feel strained when we overexert ourselves
physically, lack a healthy diet, suffer an injury or don’t get enough sleep.
II) environmental stresses are aspects of our surroundings that are often unavoidable
such as air pollution, crowding, noise, heat etc. Another group of environmental
stressors are catastrophic events such as fire, earthquakes, floods etc.
3. Psychological stress : psychological stresses are stresses we generate in our minds. They are
personal and unique to the person experiencing them and are internal sources of stress.
Sources of psychological stress are frustration, conflicts, social pressures and internal
pressures.
4. Social stress : Social stress are induced externally and result from our interaction with other
people. Examples of social stresses are social events such as death or illness in family,
trouble with neighbours and so on.
Q. What are some sources of psychological stress? (4)
Some sources of psychological stress are :
1. Frustration : frustration results from the blocking of needs and motives by something or
someone that hinders us from achieving a desired goal.
2. Conflicts : conflicts may occur between two or more incompatible needs or motives.
3. Internal pressures : internal pressures come from beliefs based upon expectations from
inside us to ourselves.
4. Social pressures : social pressures may be brought about from people who make
excessive demands on us.
Q. What is the difference between social pressure and social stress?
1. Social pressures are bought about by people who make excessive demands on us which can
cause even greater pressure when we work with them.
2. Social stresses come externally and are a result of our interaction with other people. Social
events such as death and illnesses in the family are examples of social stress.

Q. What are the sources of stress? (4)

1. A wide range of events and conditions can generate stress. Some important sources of stress
are :
2. Life events : Changes, both big and small, affect our lives. We learn to cope with small
everyday changes but major life events are stressful because they disturb our routine and cause
upheaval.
3. Hassles : Hassles are the personal stresses we endure as individuals due to happenings in our
daily lives. E.g. noisy surroundings, quarrelsome neighbours, traffic snarls etc. The more stress
people report as a result of hassles, the poorer their psychological well-being.
4. Traumatic events : traumatic events include being involved in a variety of extreme events such
as a fire, train or road, robbery, earthquake or tsunami. The effects of these may occur after some
time and persist as symptoms of anxiety.

Q. Explain the effects of stress. (4 – 6)

There are four major effects associated with a stressed state. They are emotional, physiological,
cognitive and behavioural effects.
 I. Emotional effects : Stressful individuals are more likely to experience mood swings and
show erratic behaviour alienating them from loved ones. It can start a vicious circle of
decreasing confidence, leading to serious problems such as feelings of anxiety and
depression, increased physical tension and psychological tension.

II. Physiological Effects : When the human body is placed under stress, it increases the
production of hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol which changes heart rate, blood
pressure levels, metabolism and physical activity. This helps us function more effectively
under pressure for short periods of time, but can be extremely damaging to the body in
the long-term. Examples of physiological effects are slowing down of the digestive
system, expansion of air passages in the lungs, increased heart rate, and constriction of
blood vessels.

III. Cognitive Effects : Those who have high levels of stress can lose their ability to make
sound decisions. Faulty decisions made at home or workplace may lead to arguments,
failure, financial loss or even loss of job. Cognitive effects of stress are poor
concentration and reduced short-term memory capacity.

IV. Behavioural Effects : Stress affects our behaviour in the form of eating less nutritional
food, increasing intake of caffeine, cigarettes, alcohol and drugs. Some behavioural
effects of stress are disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism, and reduced work
performance.

Q. How does stress affect health? (4)

1) Prolonged stress affects physical health and impairs psychological functioning. People
experience exhaustion and attitudinal problems when stress due to demands from the
environment and constraints are too high and little support available from family and friends.
2) Physical exhaustion is seen in signs of chronic fatigue, weakness and low energy. Mental
exhaustion appears in the form of irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness.
This state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion is known as burnout. (1)
3) Stress can produce changes in the immune system and increase the chances of becoming ill.
Stress has been implicated in the development of cardiovascular disorders, high blood pressure,
as well as psychosomatic disorders including ulcers, asthma, allergies and headaches.
4) Researchers estimate that stress plays an important role in fifty to seventy per cent of all
physical illnesses. Studies also reveal that sixty per cent of medical visits are primarily for stress-
related symptoms.

Q. Describe the GAS model. (4 – 6)

Hans Selye studied the long term effects of prolonged stress by subjecting animals to a variety of
stressors and observed patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals. Selye noticed a
similar pattern of bodily responses. He called this pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome
(GAS). According to him, GAS involves three stages.
1. Alarm reaction stage : The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to activation of the
adrenal-pituitary-cortex system. This triggers the release of hormones producing the stress
response. Now the individual is ready for fight or flight.
2. Resistance stage : If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The para-sympathetic
nervous system calls for more cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes efforts
to cope with the threat, as through confrontation.
3. Exhaustion stage : Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains the
body of its resources and leads to the third stage of exhaustion. The physiological systems
involved in alarm reaction and resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related
diseases such as high blood pressure becomes more likely.

Q. How does stress affect the immune system?

1. Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system. The immune system
guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside. Psychoneuroimmunology
focuses on the links between the mind, brain and the immune system. It studies the effects stress
on the immune system. (1)
2. White blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune system identify and destroy foreign bodies
(antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to the production of antibodies. There are several kinds of
white blood cells or leucocytes within the immune system, including T cells, B cells and natural
killer cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T helper cells increase immunological activity.
3. Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in the defence
against various infections and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer cell cytotoxicity have been
found in people who are highly stressed.
4. Studies reveal that immune functioning is better in individuals receiving social support. Also,
changes in the immune system will have more effect on health among those whose immune
systems are already weakened.

Q. What are the effects of psychological stress on health? (4)

1. Psychological stress is accompanied by negative emotions and associated behaviours,
including depression, hostility, anger and aggression. Negative emotion states are of particular
concern to the study of effects of stress on health.
2. The incidence of psychological disorders, such as panic attacks and obsessive behaviour
increases with the build up of long-term stress. Worries can reach such a level that they surface
as a frightening, painful physical sensation, which can be mistaken for a heart attack.
3. People under prolonged stress are more prone to irrational fears, mood swings and phobias,
and may experience fits of depression, anger and irritability. These negative emotions appear to
be related to the function of the immune system.
4. Our ability to interpret our world and to invest that interpretation with personal meaning and
emotion have a powerful and direct effect on the body. Negative moods have been associated
with poorer health outcomes. Feelings of hopelessness are related to worsening of disease,
increased risk of injury and death due to various causes.

Q. Explain the relationship between lifestyle and stress. (4)

1. Lifestyle is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s health
and quality of life. Stress can lead to unhealthy lifestyle or health damaging behaviour.
2. Stressed individuals may be more likely to expose themselves to pathogens, which are agents
causing physical illness. People who are stressed have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and are
likely to engage in other health risking behaviours like smoking and alcohol abuse.
3. Health impairing behaviours develop gradually and are accompanied by pleasant experiences
temporarily. However, they tend to have long-term damaging effects and pose a risk to our lives.
4. Studies have revealed that health promoting behaviour like balanced diet, regular exercise,
family support, etc. play an important role in good health. Adhering to a lifestyle that includes
balanced low fat diet, regular exercise and continued activity along with positive thinking
enhances health and longevity.
Q. What is coping?
1. Coping is a dynamic situation specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses
to stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress.
The way we cope with stress often depends rigid deep seated beliefs, based on
experience.
2. In recent years the conviction has grown that, how we cope with stress and not the stress
itself that influences our psychological well-being, social functioning and health. People
who cope poorly with stress have an already impaired immune response and diminished
activity of natural killer cells.
Q. Enumerate the different ways of coping with stress. (4 - 6)
Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to
stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress. The three
coping strategies given by Endler and Parker are:
1. Task-oriented Strategy : This involves obtaining information about the stressful situation and
about alternative courses of action and their probable outcome; it also involves deciding
priorities and acting so as to deal directly with the stressful situation.
2. Emotion-oriented Strategy : This can involve efforts to maintain hope and to control one’s
emotions; it can also involve venting feelings of anger and frustration, or deciding that nothing
can be done to change things.
3. Avoidance-oriented Strategy : This involves denying or minimising the seriousness of the
situation; it also involves conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by
self protective thoughts.
Lazarus and Folkman has conceptualised coping as a dynamic process rather than an individual
trait. According to them coping responses can be divided into two types of responses :
1. Problem-focused strategies : Theses strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviours
designed to gain information, alter the event, and alter beliefs and commitments. They increase
the person’s awareness, knowledge, and range of behavioural and cognitive coping options. They
can act to reduce the threat value of the event.
2. Emotion-focused strategies : These strategies call for psychological changes designed
primarily to limit the degree of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to
alter the event itself.

Q. Enumerate the different stress management techniques. (4-6)

Stress management is of the utmost importance because stress is on the rise due to lifestyle
changes. Some of these techniques are
1. Relaxation Techniques : It is an active skill that reduces symptoms of stress and decreases the
incidence of illnesses such as high blood pressure and heart disease. Usually relaxation starts
from the lower part of the body and progresses up to the facial muscles so that the whole body is
relaxed. Deep breathing is used along with muscle relaxation to calm the mind and relax the
body.
2. Meditation Procedures : Meditation consists of sequence of techniques for refocusing of
attention bringing about an altered state of consciousness. It involves such a thorough
concentration that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a
different state of consciousness.
3. Biofeedback : It is a procedure to monitor and reduce the physiological aspects of stress by
providing feedback about current physiological activity. Biofeedback training involves three
stages : developing an awareness of the particular physiological response, learning ways of
controlling that physiological response in quiet conditions; and transferring that control into the
conditions of everyday life.
4. Creative Visualisation : It is an effective technique for dealing with stress. Creative
visualisation is a subjective experience that uses imagery and imagination. It is easier to visualise
if one’s mind is quiet, body relaxed and eyes are closed. This reduces the risk of interference
from thoughts and provides the creative energy needed for turning an imagined scene into
reality.
5. Cognitive Behavioural Techniques : These techniques aim to inoculate people against stress.
Stress inoculation training is one effective method developed by Meichenbaum. The essence of
this approach is to replace negative and irrational thoughts with positive and rational ones. There
are three main phases in this : assessment, stress reduction techniques, and application and
follow- through. Stress reduction involves learning the techniques of reducing stress such as
relaxation and self-instruction.
6. Exercise : Exercise can provide an active outlet for the physiological arousal experienced in
response to stress. Regular exercise improves the efficiency of the heart, enhances the function of
the lungs, maintains good circulation, lowers blood pressure, reduces fat in the blood and
improves the body’s immune system. Swimming, walking, running, cycling, skipping, etc. help
to reduce stress. One must practice these exercises at least four times a week for 30 minutes at a
time. Each session must have a warm-up, exercise and cool down phases.
Q. State the characteristics of stress resistant personality. (4)
1. Recent studies by Kobasa have shown that people with high levels of stress but low
levels of illness share three characteristics, which are referred to as the personality traits
of hardiness.
2. Hardiness consists of ‘the three Cs’, i.e. commitment, control, and challenge. Hardiness is
a set of beliefs about oneself, the world, and how they interact.
3. It takes shape as a sense of personal commitment to what you are doing, a sense of
control over your life, and a feeling of challenge.
4. Stress resistant personalities have control which is a sense of purpose and direction in
life; commitment to work, family, hobbies and social life; and challenge, that is, they see
changes in life as normal and positive rather than as a threat.

Q. What are life skills? Give some examples of life skills.

Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal
effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Our ability to cope depends on
how well we are prepared to deal with and counterbalance everyday demands, and keep
equilibrium in our lives. These life skills can be learned and even improved upon. Some life
skills are described below.
Assertiveness : Assertiveness is a behaviour or skill that helps to communicate, clearly and
confidently, our feelings, needs, wants, and thoughts. It is the ability to say no to a request, to
state an opinion without being self-conscious, or to express emotions such as love, anger, etc.
openly. Assertive individuals feel confident, have high self-esteem and a solid sense of identity.
Time Management : The way we spend our time determines the quality of our life. Learning how
to plan time and delegate time can help to relieve pressure. The central principle of time
management is to spend our time doing the things that we value, or that helps to achieve our
goals. It depends on being realistic about what we know and that we must do within a certain
time period, knowing what to do, and organising our life to achieve a balance between the two.
Rational Thinking : Many stress-related problems occur as a result of distorted thinking. The
way we think and the way we feel are closely connected. When we are stressed, we have an
inbuilt selective bias to attend to negative thoughts and images from the past, which affect our
perception of the present and the future. Some of the principles of rational thinking are:
challenging distorted thinking and irrational beliefs, driving out potentially intrusive negative
anxiety-provoking thoughts, and making positive statements.
Improving Relationships : The key to a sound lasting relationship is communication. This
consists of three essential skills: listening to what the other person is saying, expressing how we
feel and what we think, and accepting the other person’s opinions and feelings, even if they are
different from our own. It also requires us to avoid misplaced jealousy and sulking behaviour.
Self-care : If we keep ourselves healthy, fit and relaxed, we are better prepared physically and
emotionally to tackle the stresses of everyday life. Environmental stresses like noise, pollution,
space, light, colour, etc. can all exert an influence on our mood. These have a noticeable effect
on our ability to cope with stress, and well-being. Therefore it is important to take time out to
take care of ourselves.
Overcoming Unhelpful Habits : Unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, avoidance,
procrastination, etc. are strategies that help to cope in the short-term but which make one more
vulnerable to stress. Perfectionists are persons who have to get everything just right. They are
more likely to feel tense and find it difficult to relax, are critical of self and others, and may
become inclined to avoid challenges. Avoidance is to put the issue under the carpet and refuse to
accept or face it. Procrastination means putting off what we know we need to do. People who
procrastinate are deliberately avoiding confronting their fears of failure or rejection.

Q. What is positive health? What are some factors responsible for positive health?
Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being, and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity. Positive health comprises the following constructs: “a healthy
body; high quality of personal relationships; a sense of purpose in life; self-regard, mastery of
life’s tasks; and resilience to stress, trauma, and change”. Various factors have been identified
which facilitate the development of positive health. Some of them are given below
Diet : A balanced diet can lift one’s mood, give more energy, feed muscles, improve circulation,
prevent illness, strengthen the immune system and make one feel better to cope with stresses of
life. The key to healthy living is to eat three main meals a day, and eat a varied well-balanced
diet.
Exercise : A large number of studies confirm a consistently positive relationship between
physical fitness and health. Regular exercise plays an important role in managing weight and
stress, and is shown to have a positive effect on reducing tension, anxiety and depression. The
health benefits of exercise work as a stress buffer. Studies suggest that fitness permits individuals
to maintain general mental and physical well- being even in the face of negative life events.
Positive Attitude : Positive health and well-being can be realised by having a positive attitude.
Some of the factors leading to a positive attitude are: having a fairly accurate perception of
reality; a sense of purpose in life and responsibility; acceptance and tolerance for different
viewpoints of others; and taking credit for success and accepting blame for failure. Finally, being
open to new ideas and having a sense of humour with the ability to laugh at oneself help us to
remain centred, and see things in a proper perspective.
Positive Thinking : The power of positive thinking has been increasingly recognised in reducing
and coping with stress. Optimism, which is the inclination to expect favourable life outcomes,
has been linked to psychological and physical well-being. People differ in the manner in which
they cope. For example, optimists tend to assume that adversity can be handled successfully
whereas pessimists anticipate disasters. Optimists use more problem-focused coping strategies,
and seek advice and help from others. Pessimists ignore the problem or source of stress, and use
strategies such as giving up the goal with which stress is interfering or denying that stress exists.
Social Support : Social support is defined as the existence and availability of people on whom we
can rely upon, people who let us know that they care about, value, and. love us. People with high
levels of social support from family and friends may experience less stress when they confront a
stressful experience, and cope with it more successfully. Research has demonstrated that social
support reduces psychological distress such as depression or anxiety, during times of stress.
There is growing evidence that social support is positively related to psychological well-being.
Q. What are the different types of social support?
Social support comes in different forms. Social support can be tangible, informational or
emotional. They are briefly described below.
Tangible support : Social support may be in the form of tangible support or assistance involving
material aid, such as money, goods, services, etc. For example, a child gives notes to her/his
friend, since s/he was absent from school due to sickness.
Informational support : Family and friends also provide informational support about stressful
events. For example, a student facing a stressful event such as a difficult board examination, if
provided information by a friend who has faced a similar one, would not only be able to identify
the exact procedures involved, but also it would help in determining what resources and coping
strategies could be useful to successfully pass the examination.
Emotional support : During times of stress, one may experience sadness, anxiety, and loss of
self-esteem. Supportive friends and family provide emotional support by reassuring the
individual that she/he is loved, valued, and cared for.