Available online at www.sciencedirect.

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Current Opinion in
ScienceDirect Environmental Science &

Rainwater treatment technologies: Research needs, recent

advances and effective monitoring strategies
Brandon Reyneke1, Monique Waso1, Sehaam Khan2 and Wesaal Khan1

Abstract central government water supplies are lacking, particu-

Numerous microbial contaminants persist after the imple- larly in sub-Saharan Africa, where a high proportion of
mentation of rainwater treatment strategies, which necessi- tates the population reside in urban informal settlements
the investigation of combination treatment methods. As the (densely populated areas) and rural areas, with limited
development of cost-effective combination treatment methods may access to a safe water supply [1]. However, studies have
aid in increasing global access to safe water, this study aimed to indicated that the microbial quality of harvested rain-
highlight the innovative ways in which existing treatment water is substandard and does not always comply with
technologies, such as solar disinfection, may easily be adapted and drinking water standards [2,3]. In addition, the presence
improved for use in specifically developing countries. In addition, of various opportunistic and pathogenic
as biological treatment approaches (application of bacteriophages microorganisms such as Klebsiella spp., Legionella spp.,
and predatory bacteria) have recently been investigated for Pseudomonas spp., Cryptosporidium spp. and
rainwater treatment, the ad- vantages and disadvantages associated Campylobacter spp. have been confirmed in this water
with the use of these techniques as well as future research needs source [3]. These microbial contaminants may pose a
were reviewed. Finally, the assessment of water treatment systems significant health risk to the end-users and thus the
using molecular-based viability assays was highlighted, as recent development of effective rain- water treatment systems
studies have reported that these assays may provide a more is required. Although various treatment technologies
accurate indication of treatment efficiency (as compared to have been investigated, the research and development
traditional culture-based analysis), and the data generated can be of efficient, affordable and easy-to-use treatment
used in quantitative microbial risk assessment. technologies for application in developing countries has
been limited. The aim of the review was thus to
Addresses highlight novel ways in which established treatment
1
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch Uni-
technologies may easily be adapted and improved for
versity, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa
2
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box use in developing countries, with solar disinfection
17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa (SODIS) serving as an example of an established
treatment method. In addition, because of the
Corresponding author: Khan, Wesaal ([email protected]) increased research interest in the use of biological
water treatment strategies, recent advances in the use of
biological rainwater treatment methods and future
Current Opinion in Environmental Science
Keywords & Health research needs were discussed. Finally, the review aims
2020, Treatment, Biocontrol, Viability assays.
Rainwater,
16:28–33
to highlight the need for the effective monitoring of
rainwater treatment systems using molecular-based
This review comes from a themed issue on Occupational safety and
health: Emerging Microbial Contaminants and Human Health
viability assays.
Introduction
effects
Rainwater can be used for various domestic purposes
Edited by Warish Ahmed and Kerry Hamilton Selection criteria for reviewed treatment
such as cleaning, toilet flushing, irrigating the garden,
For a complete technologies
laundry etc. overview
The usesee the
ofIssue and the Editorial
rainwater as an alternative
Articles that specifically focus on rainwater treatment
water source could thus improve access for populations
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2020.02.010
systems, which could be used cost-effectively with
where
minimal operational maintenance, were reviewed. This
is crucial for developing countries where resources are
limited. In addition, literature outlining biological
treatment strategies that have recently (2018e2019)
been proposed and investigated for rainwater
treatment were briefly reviewed.

Rainwater treatment technologies used in

developing countries
Harvested rainwater treatment strategies may include
chlorination [4,5], metal/chemical additives [6], ozone

www.sciencedirect.co Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2020, 16:28–

 Rainwater treatment technologies Reyneke et al.

as microorganisms may survive conventional rainwater

[7], filtration [8e15], UV treatment [9], SODIS [16e treatment strategies [18,19], because of their ability to
19] and solar pasteurization [18,20e24]. Although undergo an adaptive response and build-up
varying degrees of treatment efficiency were obtained
using these individual technologies (outlined in
Hamil- ton et al. [3]), the successful implementation
of these technologies will be dependent on cost, ease
of man- agement and water access (physical distance or
socio- economic and cultural acceptability), amongst
others [25]. It is thus crucial that these water
supply de- terminants of good health be considered
when devel- oping efficient rainwater treatment
strategies for developing countries [25]. SODIS is
considered an inexpensive and simple treatment
system, which is used daily by approximately five
million people in Africa, Asia and South America [17]. In
its simplest form, transparent bottles (2 L) are filled
with contaminated water and are exposed to natural
sunlight for 6e48 h (overcast condi- tions). The
ultraviolet radiation inactivates microbial
contaminants by reacting directly with the microbial
cellular components or indirectly through the
generation of reactive oxygen species (free radicals)
within the water, which also damages cellular
components [26]. In addition, the water temperature
will increase as water
molecules absorb the UV radiation, with the increase in
temperature (above 45 ◦C) contributing to the
disinfec- tion process by leading to cell membrane
damage [17].

Recent research efforts have focused on increasing the

treatment volume of traditional SODIS using solar
mirrors/compound parabolic collectors (CPCs), larger
reactor tubes or the addition of heterogeneous photo-
catalysts (e.g. titanium dioxide) to facilitate the disin-
fection process. In addition, natural plant-based
compounds, which may be readily available within the
target communities in developing countries, could be
added to the water to increase SODIS treatment effi-
ciency. For example, Harding and Schwab [27] reported
that the addition of lime juice/pulp increased the
treatment efficiency of SODIS, as a 6-log reduction in
Escherichia coli (E. coli) was obtained using the citrus-
based additives. In comparison, only a 1.5-log reduc-
tion in E. coli was obtained using traditional SODIS.
Recently, Keogh et al. [28] investigated the use of
Moringa oleifera as a coagulant pretreatment of SODIS.
Results from the study indicated that the coagulant
pretreatment reduced E. coli by 2.1 log before SODIS
treatment and that microbial regrowth was not
observed in these samples. In comparison, microbial
regrowth occurred in the SODIS-only treated
samples. Although it is acknowledged that the use of
plant-based materials/ coagulants have been
recommended for the household treatment of
contaminated water in developing coun- tries [29],
limited research has been conducted on the efficiency
and acceptability of such combination treat- ments in
field-trials within the target communities. Moreover,

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 30 Occupational safety and health: Emerging Microbial Contaminants and Human Health
Bacteriophages are
viruses that infect and lyse bacteria
resistance to conventional disinfection [30], alterna- and have been investigated for the targeted removal of
tive treatment strategies are required. These strategies
may include the enhancement of these individual
treatments (as mentioned above) or the combination of
two or more conventional treatment strategies (e.g.
filtration followed by SODIS) [14,31e33]. However,
alternative rainwater treatment strategies, including
biological treatment, have also recently been
proposed.

Potential biological treatment strategies

Biological treatment methods that allow for the
targeted removal of persistent organisms may include
the use of predatory bacteria and bacteriophages,
whereas biofilter systems display promise for the
nonselective removal of microbial contaminants. In
addition, the use of microbially produced
secondary metabolites
(e.g. biosurfactants) display promise for
rainwater treatment. Contributing to the appeal of
biological treatment is the ease with which these
strategies may be combined with physical and chemical
disinfection methods to treat rainwater.

Bdellovibrio-and-like organisms are a group of Gram-

negative bacteria that are small, highly motile predators
of predominantly other Gram-negative bacteria [34].
These organisms have been investigated as biocontrol
agents in a variety of fields, including agriculture [35],
aquaculture [36], water and wastewater treatment [37e
41], and they have been proposed as living antimicro-
bial agents in the medical field [42,43]. Kim et al.
[37]
and O¨ zkan et al. [41] investigated the application
of
Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus (B. bacteriovorus) as a pretreat-
ment to filtration during potable and wastewater treat-
ment, respectively. Results from both studies indicated
that the application of B. bacteriovorus as a
pretreatment to the feed water could significantly
reduce membrane fouling in water treatment plants as
the initial microbial load in the water was reduced.
Waso et al. [44] applied
B. bacteriovorus as a pretreatment to SODIS and solar
photocatalysis (immobilised titanium-dioxide reduced
graphene oxide) for the treatment of synthetic
rainwater spiked with Klebsiella pneumoniae (K.
pneumoniae) and Enterococcus faecium (E. faecium).
Although the pretreat- ment with the predatory bacteria
enhanced the disin- fection of K. pneumoniae, SODIS or
solar photocatalytic treatment without B. bacteriovorus
pretreatment was the most effective for E. faecium. It
was concluded that
B. bacteriovorus could be used to enhance the disinfection
of particularly Gram-negative bacteria. Future research
should, however, investigate the efficiency of predatory
bacteria to disinfect rainwater samples, which contain
mixed bacterial communities. In addition, the combina-
tion of the predatory bacteria with physical treatment
methods should be analysed in large-scale systems.

Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2020, 16:28–33 www.sciencedirect.com

 Rainwater treatment technologies Reyneke et al.

used for water

pathogens in water samples [45,46]. For example,
Zhang et al. [47] reported that bacteriophages were
able to reduce effluent Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P.
aeruginosa) concentrations by 50% and 99%, after
filtration through anthracite ≥ and granulated
activated carbon filters, respectively. However, bacteria
may develop resistance to bacteriophages, which is a
chal- lenge that needs to be addressed to ensure the
suc- cessful application of bacteriophage biocontrol
strategies [48,49]. To negate the activation of the
mechanisms used by bacteria to resist or evade bacte-
riophages, bacteriophage treatment strategies could be
combined with additional treatments (e.g. chlorination)
or bacteriophage cocktails (i.e. combination of different
bacteriophages) could be used [46]. This combination
approach would then increase treatment efficiency and
potentially limit the establishment of resistance in the
target bacterial population. Moreover, although
bacteria may become resistant to bacteriophages, this
resistance may be associated with a competitive cost,
as it has been reported that general bacterial stress
response mecha- nisms or virulence factors are down-
regulated in bacteria after exposure to bacteriophages,
that is, bacteriophage- resistant bacteria may become
more susceptible to secondary treatments (e.g. SODIS).
For example, Al- Jassim et al. [50] and Reyneke et al.
[51] combined bacteriophage treatment with SODIS for
the treatment of water sources. Results from the
studies indicated that bacteriophage treatment
sensitised the bacteria to the primary disinfection
strategy (SODIS), with gene expression analysis
indicating that the target bacteria exhibited a decreased
ability to initiate stress response mechanisms. In
addition, Reyneke et al. [51] reported that
bacteriophage treatment may have reduced
P. aeruginosa virulence, as decreased expression of the
P. aeruginosa phzM virulence gene was observed for the
bacteriophage pretreated sample. However, both
studies analysed the efficiency of the bacteriophages
for water treatment in small-scale trials and it is recom-
mended that the potential of bacteriophages to treat
rainwater be analysed in large-scale treatment systems.

Biosurfactants are a diverse group of surface-active

compounds synthesised by several microbial genera
and may display antimicrobial activity against a wide
range of pathogenic and opportunistic pathogenic mi-
croorganisms [52]. Although the antimicrobial proper-
ties of biosurfactants rely on different mechanisms to
destroy microbial cells, they primarily destroy bacterial
cells by disrupting the plasma membrane or cell wall
[53]. In addition, biosurfactants not only inhibit biofilm
formation on various surfaces [54], but some classes
also have the potential to disrupt preformed biofilms
[55]. As biofilm formation is one of the key survival
mecha- nisms used by opportunistic pathogens in water
distri- bution and treatment systems, biosurfactants
display promise for use in rainwater treatment
strategies. For example, polymeric surfaces (commonly
www.sciencedirect.co Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2020, 16:28–
 32 Occupational safety and health: Emerging Microbial Contaminants and Human
analysis Health and
approach successfully isolated
storage) may be coated with biosurfactants to
prevent biofilm formation, whereas biosurfactants
may also be imbedded in filtration devices to act as
an additional disinfectant during water treatment.

In comparison, a nonselective biological water

treatment strategy is the use of biofilters, which
consist of a bed of media (e.g. sand, activated carbon
etc.) that allow for the removal of microorganisms as
they are captured in the filter bed (biofilm
formation) [56]. These biofilms are then able to
capture and retain microorganisms, remove organic
pollutants and allow for predation of pathogens by
other microorganisms within the biofilm matrix [56].
Islam et al. [11] investigated the use of slow-sand
biofilters to treat rainwater. Various filter bed depths
were investigated, with results indicating a 0.15 log
(30 cm), 0.26 log (45 cm) and 0.40 log (60 cm) total
coliform removal for the respective filter bed sizes.
Biofilters can thus effectively reduce microbial con-
taminants in harvested rainwater and may also easily
be applied as a pretreatment to existing
technologies [10].

Monitoring water treatment systems—the

need for molecular-based viability assays
Discrepancies in treatment efficiencies have been re-
ported for studies monitoring similar rainwater
treatment techniques. It is hypothesised that these
differences may primarily be attributed to the
parameters monitored during the experimental
design [3], for example (1) culture- versus molecular-
based analysis to monitor the removal of microbial
pathogens, (2) treatment of sterile water samples
spiked with laboratory strains versus the treatment
of environmental samples (containing more resilient
microorganisms), (3) monitoring traditional in-
dicator organism removal versus pathogenic microor-
ganism removal or (4) pilot-scale laboratory studies
versus field-trials. It is generally accepted that an
over- estimation of a treatment systems’ efficiency is
ob- tained when only culture-based analyses are
used to monitor the removal of microorganisms. This
may be attributed to microorganisms entering a
viable but nonculturable state during unfavourable
conditions (such as those experienced during water
treatment), whereas other organisms may be difficult
to culture from environmental water samples. For
example, Strauss et al.
[18] investigated the treatment efficiency of a solar
pasteurization system in treating roof-harvested rain-
water. Traditional culture-based analysis indicated
that pasteurization temperatures 71 ◦C were
≥
sufficient to reduce the monitored traditional
indicator organisms to below the detection limit.
However, using the ethidium monoazide bromide
quantitative polymerase chain re- action (EMA-qPCR)
assay, intact and potentially viable Pseudomonas spp.
were detected at pasteurization tem- peratures 71 ◦C
≥
[18]. In a follow-up study, Clements et al. [23] used
a range of selective media in a culture- based
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2020, 16:28– www.sciencedirect.co
 Rainwater treatment technologies Reyneke et al.

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