AAU - Strength of Materials - Lecture Notes - 09-04-21
AAU - Strength of Materials - Lecture Notes - 09-04-21
AAU - Strength of Materials - Lecture Notes - 09-04-21
Strength of Materials
ceng1002
Course Outline
1 Stress – Axial Loads
Normal Stress, Shearing Stress, Transformation of Stress, Concept of Design
2 Strain – Axial Loads
Strain, Stress-Strain Diagram, Hooke’s Law, Deflection under Axial Load, Material Properties
3 Bending of Beams
Stress due to pure Bending, Moment of Inertia, Stress Distribution, Design of Beams
4 Shear in Beams
Shearing Stress in members due to Bending
5 Torsion
Moment of Torsion, Shearing Stresses and Deformations of Circular Shafts
6 Analysis of plane Stress
Compound Stresses, Combined Stresses, Transformation of Stress, Mohr’s Circle
7 Deflection of Beams
Deflection of members due to Bending
8 Stability of Compression Members
Euler Formula, Buckling Load, Buckling Analysis
Assessment / Requirements
Attendance is compulsory during lecture hours, tutorials and practical work sessions (except for
unpredicted mishaps).
Quota of Total Course Credit: 40% mid-semester examination
60% final-semester examination
Index
3 Bending of Beams 22
Stress due to pure Bending, Moment of Inertia, Stress Distribution,
Design of Beams
4 Shear in Beams 31
Shearing Stress in members due to Bending
5 Torsion 38
Moment of Torsion, Shearing Stresses and Deformations of Circular
Shafts
1 Stress
By setting up the equilibrium conditions, the inner forces of a member subjected to an
external load situation can be determined. So far neither the material nor the type of
cross section applied for the member are being taken into account. But both material
and type of cross section obviously have an impact on the behaviour of the member
subjected to load.
To design the member therefore a closer look on how the internal forces act along its
cross section needs to be taken.
Within this part of the chapter the internal forces are limited to only axial forces
(normal forces) acting along the centroidal axis of a member.
F
ΔF ΔA
σ
plane of cut
A
A A
F F F
a) b) c) d)
fig 1.11: axially loaded rod
A suspended rod is subjected to an axial load. The free body diagram in external
equilibrium is shown in fig. 1.11a.
The rod is cut perpendicular to its axis at any arbitrary distance from its ends and the
equations of equilibrium are applied on the part. Thus the internal force found acting
normal to the cut surface (area A) is of equal amount but opposite direction of the
applied external force (fig. 1.11b).
Consider the normal force to equally act on any particle ΔA of the cut surface A (fig.
1.11c).
F ΔF
=
A ΔA
F
σ= and F = ∫ σ ⋅ dA (1.1), (1.2)
A A
conclusion: the normal stress acting along a section of a member only depends on
the external load applied (e.g. a normal force F) and the geometry of its
cross section A (true for statically determinant systems).
Fig 1.12 shows a typical specimen used for uniaxial tensile testing for materials like
timber or plastic.
question: At which position will the specimen break if the applied force F is
increased up to failure?
F F
σ1 = ; σ2 = A2 < A1, hence σ2 > σ1 linear correlation!
A1 Α2
answer: the specimen breaks at the maximum normal stress σ2 along the plane
with the minimum cross sectional area A2.
F F
A2 A1
So far the discussion focussed on normal stress, oriented perpendicular to the cutting
plane or in direction of the main axis of the member.
Stress can also act in the cutting plane thus perpendicular to the main axis of the
member. This occurs if the member is subjected to a situation of transverse loads (fig.
1.21).
F
A situation like this is very common in a bolt or rivet connection (fig 1.22). Here the
forces acting in the direction of the steel plates are transmitted by the bolt.
In fig 1.23 the bolt is cut along the upper two connecting surfaces of the steel plates.
To meet the equilibrium conditions, the force being transported along the cutting
plane through the bolt is equal to the force being applied on the upper steel plate (F).
2F F F
F
F
Deviding the force by the cut area of the bolt, the stress in the plane of cut is
determined (fig. 1.24). Assuming the stress is uniformly distributed, the stress is
defined as the average shearing stress, denoted by the Greek letter τ:
F
τ=
A
fig 1.24: shearing stress
in the plane of cut -
cross section through bolt
Every material has its individual properties. It can be ductile, flexible or brittle. It
deforms under the influence of a temperature change. It may plastically deform at a
certain stress (load) and break at another. Its properties according to perpendicular
directions may be equal (isotropic) or different (orthotropic).
To ensure a safe design, these specific material properties have to be taken into
account. The essential information is collected by conducting different tests in a
material testing laboratory.
At the failure of the material its ultimate stress is reached. The point of plastic
deformation of the material is indicated as the yield point, corresponding to the yield
stress. Taking this into account, an allowable stress can be defined for each
individual material to be used within the design analysis. These stresses such as
further indications concerning the maximum allowable deformation (serviceability of a
structure) can be found in the respective national codes.
A secure design requires a certain safety clearance towards the failure of the
employed material. This is ensured by applying a safety factor (in national codes
usually denoted by the Greek letter γ). In the design analysis the existing stress due
to the existing load increased by the factor of safety (the design stress) has to be
proofed less or equal to the allowable stress.
ultimate load
ratio of safety:
allowable load
Fd
τd = design average shear stress
Α
The lattice girder displayed in fig 1.3 is subjected to a vertical load of 100 kN at its
lower chord.
material steel: S3
allowable stress σallow = 22 kN/cm2 A 100 kN B
6.0 m 6.0 m
a) external equilibrium: fig 1.31: lattice girder
6.0m
∑M = 0 A ⇒ FB =
12.0m
100 kN = 50kN
∑V = 0 ⇒ FA = FB = 50kN
⇒ S 2 = 70.71kN
6.0
b) S 2,d = S 2 ⋅ γ = 70.71kN ⋅ 1.5 = 106.06kN
S 2,d 106.06kN
σd = = 2 2
= 18.41kN/cm 2 ≤ σ allow = 22 kN/cm 2 OK
Α (2.4) cm
A hinge steel connection consisting of three butt straps and a bolt (fig. 1.32) is
subjected to a tensile force Fd = 100 kN (design load).
Design the steel bolt by choosing the appropriate diameter considering an allowable
shearing stress of τallow = 33.6 kN/cm2 (steel 8.8).
F F
F/2
condition from design analysis:
F
τ average, d = d ≤ τ allow
2⋅A
Fd 100 kN
⇒A≥ = = 1.49 kN / cm 2
2 ⋅ τ allow 2 ⋅ 33.6kN / cm 2
π ⋅d2
A= ⇒ d ≥ 1.38cm
4
⇒ chosen : d = 14 mm
Carry out the design stress analysis for the timber beam (bottom element). Consider
all relevant stresses and the load safety factor.
F
given:
resolution of force F:
design analysis:
σ⊥,d = F┴,d / A1 = 375.0 N / 600 mm2 = 0.625 N/mm² < σ⊥ allow = 2.0 N/mm² OK
σ ||,d = F║,d / A2 = 652.5 N / 300 mm2 = 2.175 N/mm² < σ || allow = 6.0 N/mm² OK
τd = F║,d / A3 = 652.5 N / 900 mm2 = 0.725 N/mm² < τallow = 0.9 N/mm² OK
Normal and shearing stresses, thus stress acting perpendicular and parallel to the
axis of symmetry of the member have been analysed in the previous parts of this
chapter.
The plane of cut being used to isolate a part of the member was perpendicularly
oriented in all the situations regarded so far. How about the situation of stress on an
oblique plane of cut?
Fig. 1.41 shows a member subjected to an axial load. A part of the member is
isolated by a plane of cut, inclined by the angle φ towards the axis of the member.
Setting up the free body diagram and the conditions of equilibrium the stress
components acting normal to or within the plane of cut are determined.
plane of cut
F A F
x
φ
a)
N σN
F
F
φ τ
V
b) c)
F
σx = initial situation, normal stress
A
A
Aϕ = area of oblique plane
cosϕ
N F
σN = = cos 2ϕ
Aϕ A
V F
τ= = sinϕ ⋅ cosϕ = σ x sinϕ ⋅ cosϕ
Aϕ A
conclusion:
max σ N = σ x ϕ = 0o
σx
max τ = ϕ = 45 o [π 4]
2
2 Strain
Any object being subjected to load is deformed, changing its initial shape. This is true
for any load and any material. It is easily visualised on objects consisting of soft and
flexible materials like rubber or foam but also applies for hard materials like steel or
rock.
Within a certain load limit the object will return to its initial shape again after the load
is released. This is called the elastic behaviour of a material.
Exceeding the load above a certain limit, the object will not fully return to its initial
shape. Some residual deformation is left, being called the plastic behaviour of a
material.
A further increase of load leads to the break of the object at a certain point. This is
also indicated as the rupture or the failure of the material.
A A 2A
ΔL/2
ΔL
2·ΔL
F F
F
F 2F
a) b) c)
2F
fig. 2.11: axially loaded rod
The rod of cross section A is subjected to an axial load F, fig. 2.11 a). Due to the load,
the rod is extended by ΔL in its axial direction.
Increasing the load F by factor 2, the elongation of the rod amounts to 2·ΔL, fig.
2.11 b).
Fig. 2.11 c) shows a situation of a rod of twice the cross section of system a) and b),
being equal to two rods of cross section A. The rod again is subjected to the axial
load F. The elongation due to the load found on this system amounts to ΔL/2.
situation a) b) c)
load F 2·F F
cross section A A 2·A
stress σa) * 2·σa) σa)/2 F
*
σ a) =
elongation ΔL 2·ΔL ΔL/2 A
tab. 2.11
Like the stress for a member of a certain cross section subjected to a certain load
also the elongation of the member can be expressed as a generalised term.
The strain is equal to the amount of elongation ΔL under the applied load divided by
the initial length L of the member. It is denoted by the Greek letter ε.
ΔL (2.11)
strain: ε= = deformation of member per unit length
L [unitless]
The results of the stress and strain analysis are plotted in a coordinate system of
abscissa strain and ordinate stress, the so called stress-strain diagram (fig. 2.12).
The graph connecting the origin and the points of results is a straight line. The
correlation between stress and strain is linear within the elastic limit of the material.
σ
b)
σa) a)
c)
0 εa) ε
= ΔL/L
fig. 2.12: stress-strain diagram,
Hooke’s Law
σ ⎡ kN ⎤ (2.12)
Elastic Modulus: E= ⎢ cm 2 ⎥
ε ⎣ ⎦
A high Modulus of Elasticity therefore represents a hard, rigid material like steel, a
low Modulus of Elasticity a soft, deformable material like rubber.
σ F
σ = E⋅ε or ε= =
E AE
Hooke’s Law is not only applicable for members consisting of a constant cross
section. Fig. 2.13 is showing a general situation of a member consisting of a variable
cross section.
Generalized equations for Hooke’s Law (see finite element fig 2.13):
δx
ε= strain, factor of elongation of finite element
dx
x x x
σx F
ΔL = ∫ ε x ⋅ dx = ∫ ⋅ dx = ∫ x ⋅ dx
0 0
Ex 0
AxEx
Fi ⋅ L i
ΔL = ∑ total elongation of a member consisting
Ai ⋅ Ei of multiple constant sections
F F
dx
x dx
a) b)
L dx+δx
ε(x)
c)
x
fig 2.13: specimen for tensile test subjected to axial load
100 cm
200 cm 200 cm
fig. 2.14
NI = 20 kN for part I
Fi ⋅ L i
ΔL total = ∑
Ai ⋅ Ei
100kN ⋅ 200cm
ΔL III = = 0.286cm
10cm 2 ⋅ 7000kN / cm 2
80kN ⋅ 100cm
ΔL II = = 0.057cm
20cm 2 ⋅ 7000kN / cm 2
20kN ⋅ 100cm
ΔL III = = 0.014cm
20cm 2 ⋅ 7000kN / cm 2
Fig. 2.21shows a typical stress-strain curve of mild steel, being a ductile material. A
ductile material shows considerably large deformation before it fails.
Up to the yield point the correlation between stress and strain is proportional, the
curve is represented by a straight line. It is the linear elastic range of the material.
At the yield point, the proportional limit is reached and plastic deformation occurs.
Without an increase of stress, a certain amount of deflection takes places (the curve
developes parallel to the abscissa).
The ultimate stress (highest stress) lies beyond the yield point, correlating to
relatively large deflections. Finally the material breaks at the point of rupture.
σ yield rupture
σ rupture
point 0.2%
ultimate offset
stress
yield
point
0 ε 0 ε
linear elastic plastic range
range
Fig. 2.22 shows a typical stress-strain curve of a brittle material. Relatively small
deformation takes place up to its point of rupture. Also it does not possess a well
defined yield point indicating the proportional limit. Here the offset method is used to
determine an artificial yield point, thus the linear elastic range for the material.
A rod with fixed ends and no external loads, fig 2.31, is subjected to a thermal
increase of ΔT.
question: Determine the compressive stress in the rod caused by that impact.
answer: ΔL
PL
ΔL P = − compression of rod caused by a negative support force
AE
ΔLT = ΔLP
PA (-) PB (-)
PL
αT · ΔT · L =
AE
P = - αT · ΔT·AE
σ = - αT · ΔT·E
example 2.3
10.0 m
fig. 2.32
a) Li + ΔL = 10.0 m
PL i
ΔL =
AE
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ 10000N ⎞
⇒ L i ⎜1 + ⎟ = 10.0m ⇒ L i ⎜1 + ⎟ = 10000mm
⎝ 45mm ⋅ 170000 N / mm
2 2
⎝ AE ⎠ ⎠
An object being subjected to an axial force not only deforms in axial direction. It also
deforms in its lateral direction, the directions acting perpendicular to the applied load
(fig. 2.41).
lateral strain
ν = axial strain (ratio)
F F
σy
σz
σx σy σ y
εx = −ν −ν z
E E E σx σx
σ σy σ x
ε y = −ν x + −ν z z
E E E
σ σy σz σz
ε z = −ν x − ν + σy
E E E
fig. 2.42: orientation of stress on a 3D element
example 2.4
A solid rectangular steel block is subjected to uniform pressure acting along its
surface. If edge AB is expanded by 1.2 · 10-2 mm determine
y
a) the deformation of all other edges
40 mm
b) the pressure p acting on the block
20 mm
C D
given: 2
steel: E = 210 000 N/mm ; ν = 0.29 z A
30 mm x
B
fig. 2.43: rectangular steel block
answer:
a) σx = σy = σz = – p uniform pressure
p p p p
εx = ε y = ε z = −+ ν + ν = − (1 − 2ν ) uniform strain
E E E E
Δx 1.2 ⋅ 10 mm
-2
εx = − =− = −3 ⋅ 10 − 4 = εy = εz strain in x-, y- and z-direction
AB 40mm
p
b) εx = − (1 − 2ν )
E
ε ⋅E (−3 ⋅ 10 −4 ) ⋅ 210000 N / mm 2
⇒ p=− x =−
1 − 2ν 1 − 2 ⋅ 0.29
To analyse the strain caused by shearing stress, a closer look is to be taken at the
general situation for shearing stress first.
Fig. 2.51 shows the shearing stresses and their directions acting on mutually
perpendicular planes. Equal assumptions can be made for the xz- and yz- directions.
τyx dy
dz
y
τxy
τxy
x
z τyx dx
Equations of equilibrium: ∑F = 0 : τ xy = τ xy
∑M 0 =0 : τ xy = τ yx
τ xy (dy ⋅ dz ) ⋅ dx = τ yx (dx ⋅ dz ) ⋅ dy
area · lever
τ γ/2
τ τ
0 γ/2
τ
fig. 2.52: element in pure shear
Fig. 2.52 shows an element being distorted by pure shear stress acting along its
edges. As shearing stresses on mutually perpendicular planes are equal, the
indication of the shearing stresses is simplified to τ.
The total angle of distortion of the element is denoted by the Greek letter γ.
Like stress and strain, σ and ε, also shearing stress and shearing strain, τ and γ, are
in linear relationship (proportional correlation). This can be proven experimentally.
Hence the same rules can be applied and another material property, the Shearing
Modulus is found, denoted by G.
τ ⎡ kN ⎤ (2.52)
Elastic Modulus: G= ⎢ cm 2 ⎥
γ ⎣ ⎦
The material properties E, G and ν are not independent. At this stage the correlation
shall be given without derivation as:
E
G=
2(1 + ν ) (2.53)
Lets take into account the statical correlation of the shear force function along a
beam being a derivation function of the bending moment. Hence it is concluded that
a part of a beam showing a linear constant moment diagram (horizontal line) is free
of shearing forces. This internal load situation is called pure bending (M = constant, V
= N = 0). Fig. 3.11 a) is illustrating such a situation.
Fig. 3.11 a) shows a beam subjected to pure bending. To investigate the stresses
being caused along the plane of cut by the internal moment, a closer look is to be
taken at an isolated element, shown in fig. 3.11 b).
All possible stresses acting along the plane of cut are indicated in the figure since so
far there is no evidence of the plane being totally free of shearing stresses.
y
τxy·dA
-
+ σx·dA
Mz
τxz·dA
Mz Mz
x
τxy·dA
z
σx·dA
τxz·dA +
a)
b)
fig 3.11: beam subjected to pure bending
To find the isolated element of fig. 3.11 b) in equilibrium, the stresses acting along
the plane of cut on the right face have to equal the internal moment Mz on the left
face.
∑F = 0
x : ∫ σ ⋅ dA = 0
x
∑M = 0 y : ∫ z ⋅ σ ⋅ dA = 0
x
∑M = 0 z : ∫ - y ⋅ σ ⋅ dA = M
x z (3.11)
The following geometric derivations are based on the assumption that any cross
section of a beam remains plane after being subjected to bending. This is known as
the theory of elasticity for slender members undergoing small deflections established
by Jacob Bernoulli (1645-1705).
Fig 3.21 b) shows the situation on an isolated element. ρ represents the radius of
curvature of the neutral axis. dx is the original length of the free upper and lower
edges. Both decrease and increase in length of the upper and the lower edge are
denoted by δx. Since the member is considered to undertake small deflections only,
the curvature of the upper and lower edge is neglected. Furthermore the inclined left
and right edges of the deformed element are considered to remain original in length.
A initial shape B
M M
v ρ
A1 B1
deflected shape
a) b)
initial shape
fig 3.21: deflection of beam subjected to pure bending
neutral axis x
y y
c
deflected shape
δx c
By geometry: ε x, max = = (similar triangles) dx
dx ρ
dx+δx
y y
ε x = = ε x,max (3.12)
ρ c
y σ max
∑F x =0: ∫ σ x ⋅ dA = ∫c σ max ⋅ dA =
c ∫
y ⋅ dA =0
σ max 2
∑M z = 0: ∫ y⋅σ x ⋅ dA = ∫
c
y ⋅ dA = M z
σ max
c ∫ y 2 ⋅ dA = M z (3.14)
M zc
Transformation of (3.14): σ max = (3.15)
Iz flexual stress (linear elastic)
M y elastic flecture formulas (3.16)
(3.13) in (3.15): σx = z
Iz
I
Introducing: S= elastic section modulus
c
Mz
(3.15) becomes: σ max = (3.17)
Sz
M⋅y M⋅y
since σ = E ⋅ε = → ε= (3.18)
I E⋅I
y
recalling (3.12): ε=
ρ
1 M curvature of neutral axis
in (3.18): = =κ EI = bending or flexual (3.19)
ρ E⋅I
stiffness
(continued in chapter 7, deflection of beams)
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY Department of
Faculty of Technology material by Karsten Schlesier Civil Engineering
25
Strength of Materials 3 Pure Bending of Beams
4/9
example 3.1
Discuss the maximum stresses σ and deflections y that will occur on beams
subjected to an equal bending moment consisting of the cross sections given in the
table below.
note: all cross sections have an equal consumption of material (almost equal areas)
tab. 3.31
example 3.2
y -σmax
R
M
h z z a
R
y +σmax
b
2
a = (2 ⋅ 2 3 ⋅ 1 2 ⋅ h ) = h
3
1⎛h ⎞ bh
R = ⎜ b σ max ⎟ = σ max
2⎝ 2 ⎠ 4
bh 2
∑M = 0 : R ⋅a =
6
σ max = M
M M
σ max = 2
= flexure formula, linear elastic
bh S
6
σ max ⋅ γ safety ≤ σ allow e.g. design of beam
F ± Mz ⋅ y ± My ⋅ z
σx = ± − + σ max ≤ σ allow
A Iz Iy
example 3.3
A beam is being subjected to a load situation of two concentrated loads (see below).
Given loads are design loads. Determine the maximum and minimum internal forces.
Carry out the design analysis for
a) A rectangular timber cross section 100 x 200 mm, σ║,allow = 0.85 kN/cm2
b) A standard T100 steel section (oriented flange down), A = 20.0 cm2, Iz = 179
cm4, position of centroidal axis see sketch below
5 kN
10 kN
2.0m 1.0m
10.0
5
-5.0
-2.5
M
N
- σM -0.7
A = 20.9 cm2
I z = 179 cm 4 72.6
100
z z
27.4
N y
σ x, N = = 0.48 kN cm 2
A 50
Mzy - 500 kNcm
σ x,M, top = =− 3
7.26 cm = 20.27 kN cm 2 (see sign convention)
Iz 179 cm
Mzy - 500 kNcm
σ x,M, bottom = − =− 3
- 2.74 cm = -7.65 kN cm 2
Iz 179 cm
Superposition:
In the construction industry many structural members consist of more than only one
material. Due to their properties some materials cope better with tensile stress
whereas others deal well with compression (or are more cost effective). The most
commonly composite material being implemented in the construction sector is steel
reinforced concrete.
A cross section consisting of two different materials is shown in fig. 3.41a). Both of
the applied materials have different elastic moduli (E1 and E2). At their surface of
contact both materials are tightly fixed to one another, thus along this surface both
materials develop an equal strain under the given load (ε1 = ε2), see fig. 3.41c).
Since the elastic moduli are different, a break along the stress distribution is found at
the surface of contact (σ = ε E), see fig. 3.41d).
y y σ 1
mat. 1
σ2
z z
z z
mat. 2
ε1 (E1) σ2
y y σ2 = n σ1
bI bII = bI n
n = E2/E1
fig 3.41a) – d): determination of stress for composite cross sections
To determine the stresses existing in both materials a virtual cross section of one
homogenous material is being constructed. For this the ratio n = E2/E1 is determined.
The transformed cross section consist of an equal area of material 1 (unchanged).
The area of material 2 is extruded parallel to the neutral axis by factor n, see fig.
3.41b).
On the next step the centroidal axis of the transformed cross section is computed
and the moment of inertia is determined. Now the stresses occurring along the cross
section of the homogenous material (material 1) are calculated (e.g. σ1 = ε1 E1 = M/S).
To determine the stresses existing along material 2, the respective results for
material one are multiplied by factor n (σ2 = ε2 E2 = σ1 n).
The same procedure can be used to determine the curvature of a composite cross
section. In equation (3.19) the moment of inertia of the transformed cross section is
applied.
example 3.4
A beam consists of a composite cross section of timber and steel. Determine the
maximum stresses that develop in each of the materials under the given internal
bending moment.
given:
timber 250
Mz = 30 kNm
ET║ = 10000 N/mm2; ES = 200000 N/mm2 steel 10
150
72 77
new centroidal axis (from top): 10
y=
∑A ⋅y i i
: y=
(15 ⋅ 25)12.5 + (1 ⋅ 300)25.5
= 18.3 cm
3000
∑A i 15 ⋅ 25 + 1 ⋅ 300
moment of inertia:
15 ⋅ 25 3 300 ⋅ 13
I = ∑ (I i + A i ⋅ y i2 ) : I z = + (15 ⋅ 25)5.8 2 + + (1 ⋅ 300 )7.2 2
12 12
I z = 47723 cm 4
stress timber:
M c 30000 kNcm ⋅ 18.3 cm
σ t,max = = 4
= 1.15 kN/cm 2
I 47723 cm
stress steel:
30000 kNcm ⋅ 7.7 cm
σ s, max = n ⋅ σ I = 20 4
= 9.68 kN/cm 2
47723 cm
Situation: 3 vertically allocated beams, not fixed along the joint surfaces
M M
σ
M
+M
V
0
M
Mmax=Pl²/4
V +P/2
-P/2
Shear Flow
(along the horizontal plane y in the direction of x)
equilibrium at particle
p(x)
σA σB
= MA VA VB = MB
ΔH
My
∑Fx = 0 : ΔH + ∫ (σ
ΔA
A − σB) ⋅ dA = 0 σ=
I
MB−MC y ⋅dA
ΔH =
I ∫ Q= ∫ y ⋅dA = ΔA ⋅ y
Statical Moment
ΔM Q
ΔH = [kN]
I
ΔH ΔM Q dM = V
q = = [kN/cm]
dx Δx I dx
VQ
lim Δx→0 q = [kN/cm] Shear Flow per unit length
I
example 4.1
A beam consists of 3 wooden planks being fixed by nails. Determine the shear force
per nail.
at particle
t τ
ΔH
Δx
VQ q
τ = = [kN/cm²] Shear Stress per area
It t
τyx
τxy
y
ΔA
z y1
h
V ⎡⎛ h ⎞ ⎤
h/2 h/2 2
VQ V V V y²
τ (y1) =
It
= ∫
Ib ΔA
y ⋅ dA =
Ib ∫y1 yb ⋅ dy = I 2 y1
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − y1² ⎥
2I ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
V
∫ τ ⋅ dA = V
A
→ τave =
A
τmax
min τ at y1 = h/2 → τmin = 0 h
3V
max τ at y1 = 0 → τmax = Vh ² =
8I 2A
t y y
q = Q⋅ V q
τ=
I t
V
approximation: τave =
Aweb
y
ΔA
z ¯y
VQ
∑Fx = 0 : q = [kN/cm] Shear Flow per unit length
I
conclusion: shear flow along the vertical plane z will be derived equivalently to the
shear flow along the horizontal plane x
at particle
VQ q
τ = = [kN/cm²] Shear Stress per area
It t
τxz
τzx
example 4.2
Determine the shear stress along the z-plane of the welding seams in the edges of
the rectangular cross section.
given: h = 120 mm y
b = 60 mm
t = 5 mm
Vd = 10.0 kN
z
h
t
6 ⋅ 12³ 5 ⋅ 11³
Iz = − = 309.4cm 4
12 12
1 q 1 0.465 kN / cm
τ = = = 0.465 kN / cm ²
2 t 2 0.5cm
V V V
q q q
Shear Center
solution: applying the vertical force V at a certain distance to web center axis of
the member, the shear center
equilibrium: ∑ Fz = H − H = 0
∑ Fy = V − V = 0
H⋅h
∑ Mx = H ⋅ h − V ⋅ e = 0 ⇒e=
V
external load (action) = internal load (reaction)
b
s H
y e
=
z V q V
h
b
H h
VQ
q= H = ∫ q ⋅ds V = ∫ q ⋅ds
I 0 0
VQ h V ⋅s ⋅ t ⋅h
q= Q = A⋅y = s⋅t⋅ ⇒q=
I 2 2⋅I
b b b
V ⋅s ⋅ t ⋅h V⋅t⋅h 1 V ⋅ t ⋅ h ⋅ b²
H = ∫ q ⋅ds = ∫ ⋅ds = s² =
0 0
2⋅I 2⋅I 2 0 4⋅I
t ⋅ h³ ⎛ b ⋅ t³ ⎛ h ⎞
2
⎞
I = ∑ (Ii + Ai ⋅ yi ² ) = + 2⎜ + b⋅ t ⋅⎜ ⎟ ⎟ t³ is very small, will be neglected
12 ⎜ 12
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟⎠
t ⋅ h³ 1 t ⋅ h²
I= + b ⋅ t ⋅ h² = (h + 6b )
12 2 12
H ⋅ h V ⋅ t ⋅ h ² ⋅ b² V ⋅ t ⋅ h ² ⋅ b ² ⋅ 12 3b ²
⇒e= = = =
V 4⋅I⋅V 4 ⋅ V ⋅ t ⋅ h ² ⋅ (h + 6b ) h + 6b
5 Torsion
5.1 Torsion of Circular Shafts
geometric assumptions for the derivation of the shear formula on a circular shaft
member with a torque applied:
• within the elastic limit, Hooke’s Law is applied thus shear stress and strain
(corresponding to the angle of twist Φ) are in proportional correlation
• shearing strains (thus shearing stress) vary linearly from the central axis
x
Mx=T
ρ
τ= τ max
c
Φ c τmax
L dA
ρ
T ⋅c
τ max = maximum shear stress
Ip
T ⋅ρ ρ
τ= = τ max general shear stress
Ip c
c
ρ4 π 4
b
c
Ip = ∫ ρ² ⋅ dA = ∫ 2πρ³ ⋅ dρ = 2π
4
=
2
(c − b4 ) c τmax
A b t
b
Ip ≈ 2πc³t (for b ≈ c)
example 5.1
M2,d=20 kNm
5 15
T ⋅ c 1500 kNcm ⋅ 6cm
τ max = = = 12.85kN / cm ²
Ip 700 .1cm 4
Angle of Twist
τ = γ ⋅G c
ΔΦ
T⋅c
τ max =
Ip Δx γ
τ max T ⋅ c
γ max = =
G Ip ⋅ G
by geometry:
T⋅c
⋅ Δx = ΔΦ ⋅ c
Ip ⋅ G
T ⋅ Δx
ΔΦ =
Ip ⋅ G
T⋅L 360
Φ= Φ [rad ] ⋅ = Φ [°]
Ip ⋅ G 2π
example 5.2
Determine the rotation at the free end of the cantilever element of example 5.1.
F1 = τ1 ⋅ t1 ⋅ dx F2 = τ2 ⋅ t 2 ⋅ dx
∑ Fx = 0 : F1 = F2
q = shear flow (shear force per meter
⇒ τ1 ⋅ t1 = τ2 ⋅ t 2 =q of the perimeter)
q = equal on all cutting planes of the
respective element
T = ∫ rq ⋅ ds = q ⋅ ∫ r ⋅ ds T = torque
) )
∫
r ds = 2 Atriangle ⇒ r ⋅ ds = 2 ⋅ A A = area to center line of perimeter
ds
T = 2⋅A ⋅q
T r )
q= ) A
2⋅A
T T
τ= ) τ max = ) shear stress
2⋅A⋅t 2 ⋅ A ⋅ t min
Φ=
T⋅L
Ip =
(2 ⋅ A)
) 2
angle of twist
G ⋅ Ip ds
∫t
example 5.3
The beam of a bridge structure consists of a hollow trapezium section. The structure
is subjected to an unsymmetrical load situation causing a torque.
Determinate the maximum shear stress due to torsion such as the maximum angle of
twist at the free end.
F
F 2b
2t
b
L t
t
) 1 3
A = (2b + b )b = b ²
2 2
tmin = t :
T b⋅F F
τ max = ) = = additional shear stress due to bending
2 ⋅ A ⋅ t 3 ⋅ b² ⋅ t 3 ⋅ b ⋅ t
is neglected in this example
2
⎛ 3 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⋅ b² ⎟
Ip =
() 2
2⋅A
=
) ⎝ 2 ⎠ =
9 ⋅ b³ ⋅ t
ds 2b b 1 b 2+ 5
∫t + + 2⋅
2t t 2
5
t
Φ=
T ⋅L b⋅F⋅L 2 + 5
=
( =
)
2 + 5 F⋅L
G ⋅ Ip G ⋅ 9 ⋅ b³ ⋅ t 9 G ⋅ b² ⋅ t
τmax
T ⋅ t max
τ max = shear stress formula
Ip
1
Ip ≈ ⋅ ∑ h i t 3i polar moment of inertia
3
wall thickness : t
L
L
example 5.4
Compare the torsional strength and stiffness of a thin-walled tube of circular cross
section with and without a longitudinal slot.
a) closed section:
t R
Ip ≈ 2πc³ t = 2πR ³t
T ⋅c T
τ max = =
Ip 2πR ² t
L = 2πR
1 2
Ip ≈ ⋅ ∑ h i t 3i = πRt ³
3 3
T ⋅ t max 3T
τ max = =
Ip 2πRt ²
3R
1 : (ratio of τ max )
t
ratio of stiffness a) to b)
3
1⎛ t ⎞
1 : ⎜ ⎟ (ratio of Ip )
3⎝ R ⎠
T⋅L
Φ=
G ⋅ Ip
Thin Walled Members (closed sections)
T
τ max = )
2 ⋅ A ⋅ t min Ip =
(2 ⋅ A)
) 2
ds
r ) τ=
T
) ∫ t
t A 2⋅A⋅t
T⋅L
Φ=
G ⋅ Ip
Non Circular Members (open sections)
T ⋅ t max
τ max = 1
Ip Ip ≈ ⋅ ∑ h i t 3i
T⋅t 3
τ =
h Ip
h
T⋅L
Φ=
wall thickness : t G ⋅ Ip
360
Φ [rad ] ⋅ = Φ [°]
2π
6 Stress Analysis
6.1 Compound Stresses, Superposition of Stresses
z(+)
σ(+)
z x
Superposition of stresses
• considering single, individual load situations for each internal load reaction
• summation of stresses due to the algebraic sign convention (±)
• maximum and minimum stresses are found at the respective positions of a
cross section
Limitation of superposition
F ± Mz ⋅ y ± My ⋅ z
σx = ± − + σ max ≤ σ allow
A Iz Iy
how to avoid tension (open gap) in a member with an eccentric load (e.g. dam,
masonry wall):
P
e
condition: σ=−
P M
+ =−
P
+
(P ⋅ e ) ⋅ 6 = 0
A S b⋅h b ⋅ h²
h
⇒e=
6
zone of applicable resultant
force to meet the condition
σ(-) b
h 3 b
+ σ(+)
σ(-) 3
=
σ(-) h
example 6.1
b = 50 mm y
h = 100 mm
L = 1000 mm b
φ = 30° M
M = 1 kNm φ
h
F = 10 kN z x
L
10 ⋅ 5 3 F
Iy = cm = 104 .17 cm
4 4
12
5 ⋅ 10 3
Iz = cm 4 = 416 .67 cm 4
12
1
M y = sin ϕ ⋅ M = M = 50 kNcm
2 y
h 1 A B
M z = −cosϕ ⋅ M − F = − 3 ⋅ M − F ⋅ 5cm = −136.6kNcm
2 2
z
F ± Mz ⋅ y ± My ⋅ z
σx = ± − +
A Iz Iy C D
A + B
-
-
C D
example 6.2
The beam of a bridge structure consists of a hollow trapezium section. The structure
is subjected to an unsymmetrical load by an applied vertical force F. Determinate the
maximum shear stress due to the applied load.
F
2b
F
2t
b
t
t
L
tmin = t :
T b⋅F F
τ T ,max = − ) =− =−
2⋅A⋅t 3 ⋅ b² ⋅ t 3⋅ b ⋅ t
superposition:
F F F
τ max = ± τ T ± τ V = + = ⋅ 0.78
3⋅ b ⋅ t 5 ⋅b⋅t b⋅t
shear flow due to torsion T(+) shear flow due to applied shear force V(+)
(q evenly distributed) (maximum q in the web)
τ max +
plane stress = stress components in all directions (σx, σy,τxy, τxy) of an isolated
element (dx, dy, t)
Unlike the vector of a force (F [kN]), a stress vector (σ,τ [kN/cm²]) is to be multiplied
by the respective area (dA) of a face to be applicable to mathematic operations
(addition, subtraction, multiplication).
+ y y
y
σy θ y'
τyx C
τxy τx'y'
σx σx σx
+ σx' x'
τxy τxy
θ
A B
x τyx x τyx x
σy σy
definition: area of the inclined plane BC = dA, area AB = sinθ dA, area AC = cosθ dA
applying the same procedure to an inclined plane at an angle of θ+π/2, the normal
stress σy' is derived.
1 1
Using the correlations τxy = τxy , cos ² θ = (1 + cos 2θ ) , sin ² θ = (1 − cos 2θ ) ,
2 2
2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ , cos ² θ − sin ² θ = cos 2θ
σx' =
1
(σ x + σ y ) + 1 (σ x − σ y )cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ (6.1)
2 2
σ y ' = (σ x + σ y ) − (σ x − σ y )cos 2θ − τ xy sin 2θ
1 1
(6.2)
2 2
τ x 'y ' = − (σ x − σ y )sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
1
(6.3)
2
y σy'
σy y'
τy'x'
τyx τx'y'
τxy σx’
σx
x'
θ
x
Principal Stresses
The plane of maximum and minimum normal stress is found by differentiating the
equations for transformation (6.1) with respect to θ and equalizing the derivative set
to zero:
σ x'
= − (σ x − σ y )2 sin 2θ + τ xy 2 cos 2θ = 0
1
(6.4) hence
dθ 2
2τ xy
tan 2θ1 = (6.5)
σx − σy
Both angels of incline, θ1 and θ1 + π/2, meeting above condition are denoted by the
principal directions indicating the principal planes.
2
σx + σy ⎛ σx − σy ⎞ (6.6)
σ1, 2 = ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ 2xy
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Equation (6.4) is equal to equation (6.3). Since the principal directions (θ1) are
obtained by equalizing equation (6.4) to zero it is concluded that:
τ x 'y '
= −(σ x − σ y )cos 2θ + τ xy 2 sin 2θ = 0 (6.7) hence
dθ
σx − σy
tan 2θ2 = − (6.8)
2τ xy
2
⎛ σx − σy ⎞ or with (6.6):
τ max = ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ 2xy
⎝ 2 ⎠
1
τ max = ± (σ1 − σ 2 )
2 (6.9)
σ' =
1
(σ x + σ y ) (6.10)
2
Thus maximum shearing stresses occur on planes that are not necessarily free of
normal stress, σ' = σx' = σy'.
1
tan 2θ2 = −
tan 2θ1
hence directions of 2θ2 and 2θ1 are perpendicular, or directions of maximum normal
(θ1) and maximum shearing stresses (θ2) are 45° apart.
example: a state of pure shear can be transformed in a state of equal but opposite
principle normal stresses under an incline of θ = 45°
τyx
σ2 = -τxy σ1 = τxy
τxy
Equations (6.1) or (6.2) and (6.3) can be represented graphically. Transforming the
equations:
σx' −
1
(σ x + σ y ) = + 1 (σ x − σ y )cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
= − (σ x − σ y )sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
1
τ x 'y '
2
squaring and adding both equations and simplifying:
2
⎛ σx − σy
2
⎞
⎢⎣σ x ' − 2 (σ x + σ y )⎥⎦ + τ x 'y ' = ⎜⎜
⎡ 1 ⎤ 2
⎟⎟ + τ 2xy (6.11)
⎝ 2 ⎠
since σx, σy and τxy are given constants in a problem they are summarised as:
2
⎛ σx − σy ⎞
r ² = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ 2xy
⎝ 2 ⎠
with (5.10), σ' = (σ x + σ y ), equation (5.11) is written as:
1
2
(σ x ' − σ')² + τ x 'y ' = r ²
2
(6.12)
Equation (5.12) is representing a circle or radius r in the σ,τ-plane, having its center
at (σ',0). The ordinate of a point on the circle is the shearing stress τx'y', the abscissa
is the normal stress σx'. The circle is called Mohr’s Circle of stress. The state of stress
under any arbitrary plane of incline is represented graphically.
Constructing Mohr’s Circle of Stress with σx, σy and τxy as given values:
The state of plane stress of an element is represented by the drawn circle. Any plane
of incline is represented by a point on the circle. The angle of incline of the respected
plane towards the initial x,y-system is equal to half of the value of the counter-
clockwise rotation (2θ) on the circle. τ
(+)
τxy
(+) σ' =
1
(σ x + σ y )
2θ σx 2
σy σ' σ
(-)
τxy
(+)
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY Department of
Faculty of Technology material by Karsten Schlesier Civil Engineering
54
Strength of Materials 6 Stress Analysis
9/10
a) τ
τmax
σ' = σ0/2
τmax = σ0/2
σy = 0 σ' σx = σ0 (=σ1) σ0
σ 45°
b) τ
τ0
τ0 σy= -τ0 σ x = τ0
c) τ
σ'
σ' σ'
σ' σ'
σ θ
For any member in an bi- or tri-axial state of stress determining its load capacity and
the parameter for a safe design is not that easy.
A material specimen in a tensile test might well break along its shearing plane (45°
incline, τmax = σ/2) and not along the plane of normal stress (perpendicular).
Materials that are weak in shearing strength are expected to fail along the shearing
planes (45° in pure tension or compression, 90° in pure torsion). Examples for
materials showing such behaviour: mild steel, concrete or loam (in compression).
Materials being weak in tensile strength will fail along the planes of normal stress
(90° in pure tension or compression, 45° in pure torsion). Examples for materials
showing such behaviour: sandstone, chalk.
Only the maximum distortion energy theory will be mentioned here without indicating
its derivation. It is denoted as the von Mises yield condition:
σ x2 + σ 2y − σ x σ y + 3τ 2xy ≤ σ allow
Principle stress trajectories and crack pattern for a rectangular beam subjected to
bending:
F F
compression
45°
tension
7 Deflection of Beams
7.1 Sequence of Equations for the Deflection of elastic Beams
Geometric relations, static and equilibrium conditions are taken into account to set up
a sequence of equations.
ρ
A initial shape B
M M
v
A1 B1
initial shape
deflected shape
neutral axis x
y y
c
δx c deflected shape
geometry: ε x, max = =
dx ρ dx
y dx+δx
εx = (7.1)
ρ
M⋅y M⋅y
since σ= = E⋅ε , ε = (7.2)
I E⋅I
1 M
(6.1)=(6.2): = =κ curvature
ρ E⋅I
1 v' '
= v' = θ = slope - since v' is very small:
ρ
[1 + (v') ]
3
2 2
M
v' ' = −
E⋅I initial shape
x
considering small deflections only:
v
v' = −θ deflected shape
v'
-θ
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY Department of
Faculty of Technology material by Karsten Schlesier Civil Engineering
57
Strength of Materials 7 Deflection of Beams
2/4
dM dV
M' = = V and V ' = = −q ( x )
dx dx
summery:
PL3 PL²
v max = v(L / 2) = θ(0) = −θ(L) =
L/2 L/2 48 ⋅ EI 16 ⋅ EI
Pb
v max = ⋅
6 ⋅ EIL
a b [(L² − b² )x − x ³]
L
q
5 ⋅ qL4 qL³
v max = v(L / 2) = θ(0) = −θ(L) =
384 ⋅ EI 24 ⋅ EI
L
PL³ PL²
v max = v(L) = θ(L) =
L 3 ⋅ EI 2 ⋅ EI
q
qL4 qL³
v max = v(L) = θ(L) =
8 ⋅ EI 6 ⋅ EI
L
example 7.1
a) Determine whether the maximum vertical deflection of the beam is within the
allowed range
b) Determine the vertical camber to be applied to the beam to achieve a plane
system due to pure self weight of the structure. Does the system now meet the
required criterion?
c) The camber of the beam is to be replaced by a suspension cable at the centre
of the system. Determine the pretension force in the cable.
gL ²
Mg = = 15.63kNm bending moment
8
5 ⋅ gL4 5 ⋅ 24 ⋅ 10 −2 kN / cm ⋅ (500 cm ) 4
v max,g = = = 1.62cm deflection
384 ⋅ EI 384 ⋅ 21000 kN / cm ² ⋅ 5740 cm 4
pL ²
Mp = = 25.0kNm
8
5 ⋅ pL4 5 ⋅ 15 ⋅ 10 −2 kN / cm ⋅ (500cm ) 4
v max, p = = = 1.01cm
384 ⋅ EI 384 ⋅ 21000 kN / cm ² ⋅ 5740 cm 4
v max = v max,g + v max, p = 2.63cm > v allow = 500 / 300 = 1.67 cm not sufficient!
PL3
c) v max, P = = 1.62cm = v max,g deflection due to force at L/2
48 ⋅ EI
48 ⋅ EI 48 ⋅ 21000 kN / cm ² ⋅ 5740 cm 4
P= v= 1.62cm
L3 (500 cm ) 3
P = 74.98kN pretension force
8 Buckling
Buckling is a sudden loss of stability that occurs to a member subjected to a
compressive load. The system failure is caused by infinitesimal small deflections due
to small imperfections being inherent in each structure. It relates to the geometry of
the system (dimensions, boundary conditions, type of cross section) and the material
applied (elastic modulus).
A vertical rigid bar (no bending) having a torsional spring of stiffness k at its support
is subjected to a vertical load P. The system is displaced by a small (infinitesimal)
amount.
A column with a flexural rigidity of EI with pinned supports, being free to rotate
around both ends is subjected to a vertical load P. An imperfection of the system
causes bending of the column (M) and horizontal deflection at its centre (v).
M P⋅v
v' ' = − = differential equation for the elastic curve
EI EI
P
λ² = applying λ, transforming the equation:
EI L v
v = A sin λx + B cos λx
π² EI
Pcr = Euler Formula, critical load for the pin-ended column
L²
The Euler Formula for the pin-ended column is the fundamental case for the buckling
analysis. Buckling will take place in direction of the least moment of inertia of the
respective cross section.
Due to the boundary conditions set for a member subjected to a compressive load,
the differential equation v'' = -M/(EI) has different solutions.
The solutions can be generalised and transformed to resemble the fundamental case
of the Euler Formula for pin-ended columns by introducing Le as the effective length.
In the analysis the effective length Le is used instead of the actual column length L.
π² EI
Le = KL K = effective length factor Pcr =
Le ²
1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P
L
Le = 0.7L Le = 0.5L
L = Le L L
Le = 2L
example 8.1
A pin-ended steel column consists of a hollow rectangular cross section. At its top
end the column is supported by horizontal bracings in y- and z-directions. At a height
of 6.0 m a horizontal bracing is attached in direction of the z-axis.
z
a) buckling plane x-y: L e = 1000cm
4m
y
π² EI z π² ⋅ 21000kN / cm ² ⋅ 1522.42cm 4
Pcr = = = 315.5kN
Le ² (1000cm)²
π² EI y π² ⋅ 21000kN / cm ² ⋅ 512.42cm 4
Pcr = = = 295.0kN
Le ² (600cm)²
min(Pcr) = 295.0 kN
π² EI z π² ⋅ 21000 kN / cm ² ⋅ 1522.42cm 4
Pcr = = = 644.0kN
Le ² (700cm)²
π² EI y π² ⋅ 21000kN / cm ² ⋅ 512.42cm 4
Pcr = = = 663.8kN
Le ² (400cm)²
π² EI y π² ⋅ 21000 kN / cm ² ⋅ 512.42cm 4
Pcr = = = 602.0kN
Le ² (420cm)²
min(Pcr) = 602.0 kN
The derivation of the Euler Formula is based on elastic material behaviour. Thus it is
only applicable within the linear-elastic range of the material.
A closer look is to be taken at the stress caused by the applied vertical load of the
column.
π² EI
Pcr = introducing a new definition:
Le ²
I = A ⋅ r2 hence:
I
r= radius of gyration, transforming Pcr:
A
π² EAr ²
Pcr =
Le ²
P π² E
σ cr = cr = critical stress
A (L e / r ) 2
Le / r slenderness ratio
Euler Hyperbola: critical stress versus slenderness ratio, applicable within the
linear-elastic range
The Euler Hyperbola provides a general solution to determine the critical stress for
any column according to its slenderness ratio.
For long columns (large ratio of slenderness), the Euler Hyperbola can generally be
applied. Exceeding the linear elastic range of the material, the proportional limit is
reached, hence the Euler Hyperbola can no longer be used. The graph representing
the critical stress therefore approaches the limit stress of the material (e.g. the yield
point). Thus short column failure is not a failure due to stability but due to the strength
of the applied material.
limit stress
yield point of material
e.g. σy.p., σult
proportional limit
π² E
unstable
design
stable
design