2022 Blue Economy Comp

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Global Blue Economy
The blue economy is an economic arena that depends on the benefits and values realized from the
coastal and marine environments. This book explains the ‘sustainable blue economy’ as a marine-
based economy that provides social and economic benefits for current and future generations. It
restores, protects, and maintains the diversity, productivity, and resilience of marine ecosystems, and
is based on clean technologies, renewable energy, and circular material flows.
Features
• Illustrates the fundamental concepts, tools, techniques, and details of a global blue economy
• Describes the scale and scope of the global blue economy and the role that observations,
measurements, and forecasts play in supporting the safe and effective use of the ocean and its
resources
• Includes many case studies from different countries and explores energy demands with
emphasis on offshore oil and gas exploration methods and techniques
• Stimulates the political will and actions of governments and other partners for activities that
effectively shape the framework of blue economy developments in many countries
• Clarifies the links among blue economy, sustainable development, and economic growth,
and recognizes the importance of sustainable development goals for enhancing the economic
benefits from the sustainable uses of marine resources
• Investigates the problems that threaten marine ecosystems and presents a set of management
toolboxes and models for solving the issues of the blue economy in selected countries
This book provides a survey of the current state of understanding, activities, and policies related
to the blue economy as it is being pursued in different industries and countries. A comprehensive
resource for anyone interested.
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Applied Ecology and Environmental Management –A Series

Series Editor: Steven M. Bartell, Oak Ridge Associated Universities;
Sven E. Jorgensen, Copenhagen University, Denmark
Global Blue Economy: Analysis, Developments, and Challenges

Md. Nazrul Islam and Steven M. Bartell
Managing Environmental Data: Principles, Techniques, and Best Practices

Gerald A. Burnette
Environmental Management Handbook, Second Edition – Six Volume Set, Second Edition
Edited by Brian D. Fath, Sven Erik Jorgensen
Sustainable Development Indicators: An Exergy-Based Approach

Søren Nors Nielsen
Environmental Management of Marine Ecosystems

Edited by Md. Nazrul Islam, Sven Erik Jorgensen
Ecotoxicology and Chemistry Applications in Environmental Management

Sven Erik Jorgensen
Ecological Forest Management Handbook

Edited by Guy R. Larocque
Integrated Environmental Management: A Transdisciplinary Approach

Sven Erik Jørgensen, Joao Carlos Marques, Søren Nors Nielsen
Ecological Processes Handbook

Luca Palmeri, Alberto Barausse, Sven Erik Jorgensen
Handbook of Inland Aquatic Ecosystem Management

Sven Erik Jorgensen, Jose Galizia Tundisi, Takako Matsumura Tundisi
Eco-Cities: A Planning Guide

Edited by Zhifeng Yang
For more information on this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Applied-Ecology-and-

Environmental-Management/book-series/CRCAPPECOENV?pd=published,forthcoming&pg=
2&pp=12&so=pub&view=list
iii
Global Blue Economy

Analysis, Developments, and Challenges
Edited by
Md. Nazrul Islam and Steven M. Bartell
iv
First edition published 2023

by CRC Press
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ISBN: 9781032012728 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032026251 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003184287 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287
Typeset in Times
by Newgen Publishing UK
v
Dedication
To
SAHANAJ TAMANNA
(Wife of Prof. Dr. Md. Nazrul Islam)
&
SABABA MOBASHIRA ISLAM
(Daughter of Prof. Dr. Md. Nazrul Islam)
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Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................................xvii
About the Editors.............................................................................................................................xix
List of Contributors..........................................................................................................................xxi
Chapter 1 Concepts, Tools, and Pillars of the Blue Economy: A Synthesis and
Critical Review.............................................................................................................. 1
Md. Nazrul Islam
Chapter 2 Realizing Blue Economy Potential in Malaysia, Opportunities and

Challenges................................................................................................................... 35
Hanizah Idris
Chapter 3 Optimizing the Connectivity of Salmon Farms: Role of Exposure to

Wind, Tides, and Isolation........................................................................................... 61
Dmitry Aleynik, Thomas Adams, and Keith Davidson
Chapter 4 Offshore Fish Farming: Challenges and Developments in Fish Pen Designs............. 87
Chien Ming Wang, Yunil Chu, Joerg Baumeister, Hong Zhang,
Dong-Sheng Jeng, and Nagi Abdussamie
Chapter 5 Risk Finance for Natural Disaster in Lakes and Coastal Seas Using
Modeling Techniques................................................................................................ 129
Jinxin Zhou, Kentaro Kikuchi, Hideya Kubo, Takero Yoshida,
Md. Nazrul Islam, and Daisuke Kitazawa
Chapter 6 Blue Economy Prospects, Opportunities, Challenges, Risks, and Sustainable

Development Pathways in Bangladesh...................................................................... 147
Md. Simul Bhuyan, Md. Nazrul Islam, Mir Mohammad Ali,
Md. Rashed-Un-Nabi, Md. Wahidul Alam, Monika Das,
Ranjan Roy, Mohan Kumar Das, Istiak Ahamed Mojumder,
and Sobnom Mustary
Chapter 7 Application of Blue Economy for Polymetallic Nodules from the Central
Indian Ocean Basin................................................................................................... 195
Ankeeta A. Amonkar, Niyati Gopinath Kalangutkar, and Sridhar D. Iyer
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Chapter 8 Development and Challenges of Indian Ocean Blue Economy and

Opportunities for Sri Lanka....................................................................................... 221
Nawalage S. Cooray, Upul Premarathna, Keerthi Sri Senarathna Atapaththu,
and Tilak Priyadarshana
Chapter 9 Marine Ecosystem Services: SDGs Targets, Achievement and Linkages

with a Blue Economy Perception.............................................................................. 259
Md. Nazrul Islam, Sahanaj Tamanna, S. M. Rashedul Islam,
and Md. Shahriar Islam
Chapter 10 The Blue Economy Paradigm and Seafloor Massive Sulfides along the
Indian Ocean Ridge Systems..................................................................................... 285
Niyati Gopinath Kalangutkar, Ankeeta A. Amonkar, and Sridhar D. Iyer
Chapter 11 Global Scenarios of Seaweed Cultivation: Science-Policy Nexus for

Enhancing the Seaweeds and Algae Farming............................................................ 309
Md. Nazrul Islam, Sahanaj Tamanna, Md. Shahriar Islam,
and Md. Noman
Chapter 12 Deep-Sea Mining and Potential Risks, Opportunities, and Challenges.................... 341
Nezha Mejjad and Marzia Rovere
Chapter 13 Modern Seafood Production to Enhance the Blue Economy:

A Proposed Sustainable Model for Bangladesh........................................................ 361
Md. Nazrul Islam, Sahanaj Tamanna, and Khaled Mahamud Khan
Chapter 14 New Challenges for Sustainable Plastic Recycling in Japan..................................... 395

Jeongsoo Yu, Shiori Osanai, Kosuke Toshiki, Xiaoyue Liu,
Tadao Tanabe, Gaku Manago, Shuoyao Wang,
Kevin Roy B. Serrona, Kazuaki Okubo, and Ryo Ikeda
Chapter 15 Marine Pollution and Ecosystem Health: Challenges for Developing

Sustainable Blue Economy........................................................................................ 413
Md. Nazrul Islam, Sahanaj Tamanna, and Al Rabby Siemens
Chapter 16 Seaweed Farming Potential in India: An Assessment and Review........................... 449

Muthuswamy Jaikumar, Ramadoss Dineshram, Temjensangba Imchen,
Sourav Mandal, and Kannan Rangesh
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Contents ix
Chapter 17 Modeling of Marine Policy Regime Creation for Enhancing Blue

Economy in Global to Regional Aspects................................................................... 471
Md. Nazrul Islam
Index�� 501
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Preface
Key components of international cooperation for the blue economy approach is innovative research
and application. A science technology policy and nexus-based approach is essential for the develop-
ment of the global blue economy, commencing with an initial assessment, and critically, the evalu-
ation of the blue capital at our disposal. This book provides a basis for informed decision-making
and adaptive management. This major undertaking must be addressed and continually refined
and upgraded in line with changing circumstances, evolving technologies, and our increasing
understanding, otherwise the blue economy approach will flounder. This underlines the import-
ance of technical assistance, technology transfer, and capacity building in the pursuit of sustainable
development of a blue economy.
This book has elaborated on the existing economic importance of maritime economic activ-
ities that establish the scope, aims, technology, and policy integration for a future blue economy.
It also looks at the current state of research and technology development in these economic activ-
ities based on an extensive patent and publication analysis on global blue economy sectors and
their future directions. This book will provide a suite of opportunities for sustainable and equitable
blue growth in both traditional and emerging sectors including shipping and port facilities, fish-
eries, aquaculture, tourism, energy, and biotechnology. Oceans are critical to satisfying Earth’s life
support systems and the billions of people who are reliant on oceans for livelihoods, food security,
and economic development. Some of the chapters of this book will discuss the marine-based eco-
nomic development that leads to enhanced human well-being and social equity, while explicitly
reducing environmental risks and ecological insufficiencies. The concept of a blue economy is a
topic open to several interpretations based on the geographical locations and sectors discussed in the
available literature. Representative sectors and the activities are described and discussed in Global
Blue Economy: Analysis, Developments, and Challenges.
The book focuses on fundamental concepts, tools, and pillars of the blue economy, the gener-
ation of new resources to supplement a blue economy, and offers several case studies that investigate
selected global scenarios and the technology-policy nexus of a global blue economy. The book gives
an indication of how to manage complex and dynamic blue economy sectors in an ecological and
sustainable manner within the domain of international maritime negotiations. It also investigates the
problems that threaten marine ecosystems and presents a set of management toolboxes and models
for solving the issues that challenge a sustainable blue economy. Global Blue Economy: Analysis,
Developments, and Challenges consists of 17 chapters emphasizing the fundamental concepts,
tools, and pillars of the blue economy, including marine ecosystem services, the prevailing blue
economy and SDG linkages, sustainable fisheries management, aquaculture engineering, effective
and modern seafood cultivation techniques to increase global food security, and exploration tech-
nologies for deep sea mining and drilling. The book will explore the energy demands, off-shore oil
and gas exploration methods and techniques, identify the opportunities of off-shore wind power,
wave, and tide energy, ship building, submarine, and underwater robotics vehicles, and examine the
productivity of hydrocarbons of blue-green algae, seaweed, and biofuels, and address ocean health
and pollution.
The blue economy emphasizes conservation and sustainable management, which are funda-
mental to managing the ocean in a sustainable manner. The concept seeks to promote economic
growth, social inclusion, and preservation or improvement of livelihoods, while ensuring envir-
onmental sustainability. Realizing the importance of the blue economy globally, Chapter 2 aims
to analyze the potential for a blue economy in Malaysia in various sectors related to the ocean,
namely, ports and shipping, offshore oil and gas, fisheries, coastal tourism, and maritime transport.
The chapter also identifies the opportunities and challenges drawn from the blue economy concept,
in general. Finally, the chapter concludes by highlighting future plans in Malaysia for adapting the
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blue economy concept in the maritime sector, which will contribute to the sustainable social and
economic growth of the country.
An interesting case study on salmon farm operators seeks to meet this need either by the estab-
lishment of new locations, or by the expansion of existing sites. Finding space for new sites can
be challenging, due to interactions between them and the surrounding environment. As a result,
operators are looking toward more physically exposed areas in which to place sites. Parasitic sea
lice pose a particular environmental challenge and public concern. The enhanced availability of host
fish in farms can allow lice to reach much greater numbers than they would in the absence of farms.
Operationally, threshold abundances are used to define when management action should be taken,
but there is no consensus approach to determining whether a particular proposed development will
present an unacceptable risk in terms of heightened sea lice infestation levels and consequent risk
to wild fish. We demonstrate the use of biophysical models in assessing physical suitability and
parasite risk for two hypothetical farm sites. In a broader context, we demonstrate how infestation
pressure is likely to decrease with farm isolation, and to a lesser extent with wave exposure.
Fish farming operators are seeking suitable offshore sites as an inevitable choice for sustainable
and high-quality fish production. However, offshore fish farming has its challenges due to a rela-
tively high energy environment with poor accessibility in the more remote sites. Nevertheless, com-
binations of fish farming with other marine activities are desirable from an economic viewpoint. The
overall infrastructure and operational procedure will no doubt be more complex, and the increased
functionalities will bring more risks and require more rigorous assessments for warrants and insur-
ance coverage than solely fish farming activity. More research and developments are needed in
this area.
One of our goals with this book was for it to have broad application to fundamentals concepts,
pillars, and approaches of the blue economy. Sustainable blue economy approaches will change
current methodologies used for resource assessment and future regulation of marine resources.
Conventional fishery economic theory focuses on single species, hence neglecting externalities from
the fisheries on marine ecosystems, for example, the food web and bottom structures. It is expected
to realize environmental risk finance for raising this huge cost. We report a practical theory that
utilizes statistical, ecological, and financial models to allow projection onto challenges to water
environment preservation under anthropogenic pressure. The key component of our theory is the
physical-biogeochemistry model that elaborates the mechanism of water environment adaptation,
no matter whether it be estuarine, inland sea, or lacustrine environment, to aggressive biotic and abi-
otic stresses in a deterministic fashion. Numerical simulations, which are based on future scenarios
of meteorological variables generated by the stochastic time series model, allow us to calculate the
likelihood that environmental risks materialize. Risk quantification enables environmental risks to
be tradable in the financial markets; thus, we can cover any costs associated with them through a
risk finance framework. Our approach is to propose ecosystem-based adaptations to such potential
disasters within the scope of risk finance. A case study of Biwa Lake shows how such a cutting-
edge theory has advanced the understanding of resilience to water environment challenges and
contributed to more informed decision-making about the blue economy.
The Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) is one of the largest and richest polymetallic nodule-
bearing areas in the world’s oceans. The basin has varied morpho-structures, sediments, and rocks
and other materials that are ‘seeds’ for growth of nodules through hydorgenetic and diagenetic
processes. The abundance of 5 kg/m2 of nodules on the seafloor, metal grade of 2% (copper, nickel,
and cobalt), and areas of low slope angles collectively make the CIOB a potential target for nodule
mining. For more than four decades, India has been carrying out a nodule programme that largely
encompassed exploration and collection of baseline data for environmental impact assessment
studies. As a contractor with the International Seabed Authority, India has certain obligations to
fulfil prior to the mining of the nodules. In Chapter 7, we provide a gist of the different investigations
conducted by India in the CIOB and this is followed by processes developed for metal beneficiation
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Preface xiii
from the nodules, technological progress that is underway to mine the nodules, and the economic
viability of mining the nodules. There exist a number of reports that pertain to the geological and
geophysical characteristics of the CIOB, but the implementation of a blue economy has never been
discussed with all the seriousness that it deserves. Hence, we address this important concern and the
ways in which India could move the different sectors of the blue economy toward a profitable and
sustainable mining of the nodules.
The major seaweed culturing methods that are followed by farmers in the coastal regions of Tamil
Nadu and other parts of India are (i) the single rope floating raft method, (ii) the fixed bottom long
line/monoline method, (iii) the bamboo raft method, and (iv) the net bag method. In India, there is
a strong need to expand coastal seaweed cultivation to offshore large-scale farming. Currently, the
major problems associated with the seaweed industry are overexploitation of raw materials, low
quality of stocks, and lack of labor. Besides, most seaweeds are prone to epiphytism, and they are
colonized by epibionts such as bacteria, protists, algae, and invertebrates. High-resolution hydro-
dynamic modelling should be carried out before and after constructing farming structures for higher
productivity. Furthermore, surveys need to be conducted to identify the seaweed cultivation zones to
promote livelihood activities in coastal areas, with advanced seaweed mechanized vehicles within
large spatial scales to identify proper localities for large-scale seaweed culture.
Take, for example, our ability to assess the fact that the increasing world population cannot
be supported without new infrastructures based on the utilization of the oceans, which store
almost all water, carbon, and energy resources on Earth. It is important, however, to assess the
associated technologies and systems from the viewpoint of sustainability since the goal is to
develop a sustainable blue economy. It is a way of deriving the economic growth of a nation
through its contribution from the ocean and coastal-based activities while assuring environmental
sustainability and livelihood development. Sri Lanka is an island nation of the Indian Ocean with
an EEZ of approximately eight times its terrestrial extent together with a continuous coastline,
where the concept of the blue economy is vital for the development of the country. Therefore,
Chapter 8 discusses the development and challenges of the Indian Ocean Blue Economy and
opportunities for Sri Lanka and its relationship with the other nations of the region. In relation
to its geographical significance through the connectivity of the island to the east-west maritime
route, where half of the world’s trade is taking place through this region, the country has had a
history in international maritime trading since ancient times. As reflected by the Linear Shipping
Index, Sri Lanka shows its importance by being ranked fifth among the other Indian Ocean Rim
Countries. Coastal waters of the island are rich in marine biological resources, indicated by more
than six hundred species, while this diversity, together with natural beaches and tropical climates
are of service to the blue economy through tourism. The coastal, offshore, and deep-sea fisheries
of the country play a significant role in economic terms via value addition to national income,
employment, and foreign exchange through exports. The world’s capture fisheries and aquacul-
ture production have reached its peak in Sri Lanka though the policymakers doesn’t create too
much space for enhancing blue economy. But Sri Lanka has still great potential to expand its
aquaculture and fisheries.
The Indian Ocean with its four major ridge systems collectively forms the Indian Ocean Ridge
System (IORS). The hydrothermal fields along these ridges, namely the Carlsberg Ridge (CR), the
Central Indian Ridge (CIR), the South West Indian Ridge (SWIR), and the South East Indian Ridge
(SEIR) are slow to ultra-slow spreading ridges. The IORS are geologically, tectonically, and petro-
logically different among themselves and from the global mid-ocean ridges. Unlike the other slow
spreading and well-studied Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the number of hydrothermal vent sites that host
seafloor massive sulfide (SMS) deposits is few and far between along the IORS. Yet, in the future it
may be viable to mine the SMS deposits because of their economic potential and the need for them
in hi-tech industries. We present an overview of the hydrothermal sites and associated SMS that
occur along the IORS as reported by several researchers. The inception of and investigations of the
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IORS by India are detailed. This is followed by the importance of applying the paradigm of the blue
economy and its various facets by India in the exploration, exploitation, and allied activities for the
SMS resources. In the long run it is perhaps feasible to profitably recover the SMS with minimal
harm to the environment by having various mitigation measures in place.
The deep- sea mining of mineral resources is moving toward reality. This blue economy
sector has attracted attention because of the discovery of deposits presenting significant amounts
of metals of economic interest, such as nickel, copper- cobalt, and rare earth elements. The
global transition to clean energy with a low-carbon economy increased the demand for such
metals, which serve as raw materials for renewable energy infrastructure and novel technology.
However, knowledge gaps about life in the deep-sea, uncertainty, and doubt about the methods
and techniques of deep-sea mining and their potential risks and impacts on marine ecosystems
are the main challenges facing commercial activities of these minerals. Chapter 12 analyses the
main opportunities and challenges facing deep-sea mining. For this reason, in this chapter, we
used a political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental (PESTLE) analysis tool
combined with a SWOT analysis (the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) powered
by a literature review of available data and information related to deep-sea mining.
Within the last few decades, the industry of seafood production/harvesting has seen a massive
uplift. Farm-based seafood production is increasing day by day to meet the high consumption
numbers as it is becoming popular among consumers. Numerous aquaculture methods are avail-
able according to the condition of the harvesting area and harvested species. These methods have
their own pros and cons. In enhancing the blue economy these methods play a vital role. Seafood
imports from developing countries are also increasing. Countries like Bangladesh are playing vital
roles in exporting seafood to the global market and making sure that the demand is fulfilled. After
the maritime boundary dispute settlement on the Bay of Bengal, more doors of opportunity in this
sector have opened. However, this is still lacking in sustainable management and the production of
seafood. Seafood for sustainable development will help Bangladesh to achieve a sustainable produc-
tion and import hub for the whole world.
In recent years, the ocean plastic waste problem has become a worldwide concern, especially
after many saw pictures of straws stabbed in sea turtles’ noses or dead whales with massive amounts
of plastic packaging in their stomachs. The US and Japan consume massive amounts of disposable
plastic products every year, and most of the waste plastic products are exported to China instead of
being recycled domestically. From January 2018, affected by China’s ban on waste plastic import-
ation, the US and Japan had to learn how to deal with waste plastic products domestically. During
the G7 summit meeting held in Canada in 2018, participants adopted the ‘Blueprint for Healthy
Oceans, Seas and Resilient Communities’ that outlines commitments related to resilient coasts and
coastal communities to solve ocean plastic waste problems. Moreover, England, France, Germany,
Italy, Canada, and the EU also signed the ‘Ocean Plastic Charter’ to further strengthen plastic man-
agement. Meanwhile, it is noticeable that neither the US nor Japan signed the charter.
Scientific research upholds the notion that the world is rapidly recognizing the value of the
blue economy. Concerns about the ocean and the coastal regions have encouraged policymakers
and academic institutions throughout the world to seek more and better understanding of the blue
economy and ocean-based activity. Every nation makes significant decisions in terms of manage-
ment operations, data mining, data analysis, monitoring, and product creation. In one chapter, these
judgments are taken and carried out based on the current situation and future goals. Because there are
some inconsistencies in perception, additional dialogue and discourse, including this case study of
the ocean-based economy, is required. Another chapter also covers global marine pollution scenarios,
blue economy and ocean health perceptions, pollution and their impact on marine ecosystems and
blue economies, and marine pollution management approaches for guiding nations in their future
planning, leading the world to a sustainable future and strengthening the global blue economy.
There are several management ideas and alternative management options for the growth of the blue
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Preface xv
economy which include identifying and stopping pollution, enhancing global interaction, evaluating
and promoting developmental accomplishments, and promoting ocean health development and the
blue economy. Furthermore, in terms of the scope and richness of research and assessment, there
remains a long way to go. The chapters of this book have been compiled and analyzed and contain
contrasting scenarios in the Indian Ocean region including India, Malaysia, Japan, Sri Lanka, and
Bangladesh. This book explores case study research methods and models to help readers categorize
the problem, identifies global marine regime creation challenges for a blue economy, and presents
both conceptual and simulation models to predict the future technology-policy nexus of the global
blue economy.
Each chapter of this book brings fresh ideas to this new, emerging scientific frontier of Global Blue
Economy: Analysis, Developments, and Challenges. The book presents viewpoints of the authors
on the challenges involved in the design and implementation of sound environmental management
of marine ecosystems and is valuable to both academics and practitioners wishing to deepen their
knowledge in the field of marine ecosystems and approaches to their management. We offer a formal
and heartfelt thank you to all the authors for providing their collaborative insights and for putting up
with us during the editorial phase of producing this book. We greatly appreciate the superb editorial
work and patience of Irma Britton and others.
This book would not have been written without decades of collegial interactions and com-
munity engagement with our peers, students, and mentors and our forward-thinking community,
stakeholders and researchers who have advanced the concepts of environmental management of
marine ecosystems for marine science, the environment, and society.
Md. Nazrul Islam

Steven M. Bartell
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Acknowledgments
The editors would like to acknowledge the help of all the people involved in this book project and,
more specifically, to the authors and reviewers that took part in the review process. Without their
support, this book would not have become a reality. The editors are grateful to express their gratitude
to the many people who provided support, offered comments, allowed them to quote their remarks,
data, and information, and assisted in the editing, proofreading, and design.
First, the editors would like to thank each one of the authors for their contributions. Our sincere
gratitude goes to all chapter authors who contributed their time and expertise to this book. Second,
the editors wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions of the reviewers regarding the improve-
ment of quality, coherence, and content presentation of chapters. Most of the authors also served
as referees and we highly appreciate their twofold task. The late Prof. Sven Eric Jorgensen was the
higher-ranking mentor of the first editor of this book and deserves much more credit than he gen-
erally receives. His creative and supportive influence was felt strongly and was hugely useful to
encourage us to write this book series.
I would like to thank Irma Britton, Senior Editor, Environmental and Engineering, CRC Press/
Taylor & Francis Group for enabling me to publish this book. I would like to thank Michele Dimont,
Project Editor, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group for helping me in the process of selection,
editing, and production.
My father had a dream that I could cross the border of Bangladesh and contribute to the world
through my research and scientific writing. Today my father would have been very happy to see
the publication of this excellent book. Unfortunately, I lost him a few years ago. In this beautiful
moment today, I pray to the Almighty Allah (SW) that He might provide my father a heavenly place.
My mother is very happy to know about the publication of this book. She has prayed for my good
health so that in the future I can do many more significant research projects and write more high-
quality academic books for the welfare of future generations.
Above all, I would like to thank my beloved wife, Sahanaj Tamman, my loving daughter, Sababa
Mobashira Islam, and the rest of my family, who supported and encouraged me despite the time it
took me away from them. Especially my beloved wife and adorable daughter, their genuine support
and love helped me to work so hard. I couldn't give them the precious time and love they deserve in
many cases because I was busy writing this book. I remain eternally grateful to them as it was a long
and difficult journey for them.
Last and not least, I beg forgiveness to all those who have been with me over the course of the
years and whose names I have failed to mention.
I hope you like what we have done.
Md. Nazrul Islam

Dhaka, Bangladesh
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About the Editors

Md. Nazrul Islam is a permanent professor in the Department of Geography
and Environment at Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Prof. Islam earned his PhD from the University of Tokyo, Japan. In addition,
he has completed a two-year standard JSPS postdoctoral research fellowship
from the University of Tokyo, Japan. Prof. Islam’s fields of interest are:
environmental systems modeling, climate change and risk modeling, mod-
eling of phytoplankton transition, harmful algae, and marine ecosystems
with regard to dealing with hydrodynamic ecosystems coupled models on
coastal seas, bays and estuaries, application of computer-based program-
ming for numerical simulation modeling, and more. Prof. Islam is an expert
on scientific research techniques and methods to develop the models for environmental systems
analysis research. Prof. Islam has also visited as an invited speaker in several foreign universities in
Japan, US, Australia, UK, Canada, China, South Korea, Germany, France, the Netherlands, Taiwan,
and Vietnam. Prof. Islam has been awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by the International
Society of Ecological Modeling (ISEM) for his outstanding contribution to the ecological modeling
fields, 2013, Toulouse, France. Prof. Islam has made more than 40 scholarly presentations in more
than 20 countries around the world, authored more than 150 peer-reviewed articles, and authored
15 books and research volumes. Currently, Prof. Islam has jointly published an excellent textbook
entitled, Environmental Management of Marine Ecosystems with the late Prof. Sven Erik Jorgensen
by CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. He has also currently published some excellent series of books
entitled, Climate Change Impacts, Mitigation and Adaptation in Developing Countries (case studies
on Bangladesh I, Bangladesh II, India I, India II and India III, Springer Publication, the Netherlands,
Germany, and USA). Prof. Islam is currently serving as Executive Editor-in-Chief of the journal,
Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, Springer International Publications.
Steven M. Bartell has extensive experience and technical skills in quantita-

tive ecosystem analysis, ecological modeling, and ecological risk assessment.
He contributed extensively to the development of the USEPA Framework
and Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment. Dr. Bartell has applied his
modeling skills in assessing ecological risks posed by eutrophication, ion-
izing radiation, chemical contaminants, invasive species, habitat degrad-
ation, and altered hydrology. Dr. Bartell has professional working knowledge
on the use of toxicity data for assessing human and ecological risks. He has
developed quantitative methods for extrapolating toxicity benchmarks for use
in forecasting ecological risks to populations, communities, and ecosystems.
Dr. Bartell has also developed complex aquatic ecosystem models in support of coastal marine eco-
system management and restoration.
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Contributors
Nagi Abdussamie Monika Das
University of Tasmania Matshya Bhaban, Dhaka,
Australia Bangladesh
Thomas Adams Keith Davidson

Scottish Sea Farms Limited, South Shian Scottish Marine Institute,
Argyll, UK Oban, UK
Md. Wahidul Alam Ramadoss Dineshram

University of Chittagong, Chittagong, CSIR -National Institute of Oceanography
Bangladesh Goa, India
Dmitry Aleynik Hanizah Idris

Scottish Marine Institute, University of Malaya
Oban, UK Malaysia
Mir Mohammad Ali Ryo Ikeda

Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Tohoku University
Dhaka, Bangladesh Japan
Ankeeta A. Amonkar Temjensangba Imchen

Dnyanprassarak Mandal’s College and CSIR -National Institute of
Research Centre, Oceanography
Mapusa, India Goa, India
Keerthi Sri Senarathna Atapaththu Md. Nazrul Islam

University of Ruhuna, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka,
Matara, Sri Lanka Bangladesh
Joerg Baumeister Md. Shahriar Islam

Griffith University Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka,
Australia Bangladesh
Md. Simul Bhuyan S. M. Rashedul Islam

Bangladesh Oceanographic Research Institute, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka,
Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh Bangladesh
Yunil Chu Sridhar D. Iyer

University of Queensland St Lucia, CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography,
Queensland, Australia Dona Paula, Goa, India
Nawalage S. Cooray Muthuswamy Jaikumar

International University of Japan, Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology
Japan Gujarat, India
Mohan Kumar Das Dong-Sheng Jeng

National Oceanographic And Maritime Griffith University
Institute, Dhaka, Bangladesh Australia
xxi
xxi
xxii Contributors
Niyati Gopinath Kalangutkar Kazuaki Okubo

Goa University, Tohoku University
Taleigao Plateau, India Japan
Khaled Mahamud Khan Shiori Osanai

Jahangirnagar University Tohoku University
Dhaka, Bangladesh Japan
Kentaro Kikuchi Upul Premarathna

Faculty of Economics, Shiga University University of Ruhuna, Wellamadama,
Japan Matara, Sri Lanka
Daisuke Kitazawa Tilak Priyadarshana

Institute of Industrial Science (IIS) University of Ruhuna
The University of Tokyo, Japan Matara, Sri Lanka
Hideya Kubo Kannan Rangesh

The Organising Committee of the World Madurai Kamaraj University,
Masters Games Kansai, Tamil Nadu, India
Japan
Md. Rashed-Un-Nabi
Xiaoyue Liu University of Chittagong, Chittagong,
Tohoku University Bangladesh
Japan
Marzia Rovere
Gaku Manago National Research Council,
Tohoku University Bologna, Italy
Japan
Ranjan Roy
Sourav Mandal Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University,
CSIR -National Institute of Oceanography Dhaka, Bangladesh
Goa, India
Kevin Roy B. Serrona
Nezha Mejjad Prince George’s County Government
Faculty of Sciences, Ben M’sik, University USA
Hassan II
Casablanca, Morocco Al Rabby Siemens
Jahangirnagar University
Istiak Ahamed Mojumder Dhaka, Bangladesh
University of Chittagong, Chittagong,
Bangladesh Sahanaj Tamanna
Bangladesh Environmental Modeling Alliance
Sobnom Mustary (BEMA), Mirpur, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Birkbeck, University of London, UK
Tadao Tanabe
Md. Noman Shibaura Institute of Technology
Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka, Japan
Bangladesh
newgenprepdf
xxi
Contributors xxiii
Kosuke Toshiki Jeongsoo Yu

University of Miyazaki Tohoku University
Japan Japan
Chien Ming Wang Hong Zhang

University of Queensland St Lucia, Griffith University
Queensland, Australia Australia
Shuoyao Wang Jinxin Zhou

Shanghai SUS Environment Co. Ltd, The University of Tokyo
China Japan
Takero Yoshida
Tokyo University of Marine Science and
Technology
Japan
xxvi
newgenprepdf
1 Concepts, Tools, and Pillars

of the Blue Economy
A Synthesis and Critical Review
Md. Nazrul Islam
Department of Geography and Environment, Jahangirnagar University,
Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh
E-mail: nazrul_[email protected]
CONTENTS
1.1 Conceptual Paradigm of the Blue Economy............................................................................. 2
1.2 United Nations (UN) Concept of the Blue Economy................................................................ 4
1.3 How can Building a Blue Economy Help Us Achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs)?.................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Scope and Economic Opportunities of the Blue Economy....................................................... 7
1.4.1 Fundamentals of Blue Economy and So-called Lenses................................................ 9
1.4.2 Differentiate between Green and Blue Economy........................................................ 10
1.4.3 EU’s Blue Growth Strategy and Blue Economy Innovation Plan............................... 10
1.5 Major Pillars of the Global Blue Economy............................................................................. 11
1.6 Challenges of Sustainable or Blue Economy Growth............................................................. 14
1.6.1 Challenges and Opportunities of Global Blue Economy............................................ 15
1.6.2 Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles........................................................... 15
1.6.3 Economic Sustainability of the Blue Economy........................................................... 15
1.6.4 Environmental Sustainability of the Blue Economy................................................... 17
1.6.5 Social Sustainability of the Blue Economy................................................................. 18
1.6.6 Linking SDGs and Policies to the Global Blue Economy.......................................... 18
1.6.7 Blue Economy and Marine Pollution Issues............................................................... 19
1.6.8 Tools and Opportunities for a Blue Economy............................................................. 19
1.6.8.1 Fisheries, Aquaculture and Seafood Production........................................... 20
1.6.8.2 Oil and Gas, Deep-sea Mining and the Blue Economy................................ 20
1.6.8.3 Offshore Wind, Wave and Tide Energy Production...................................... 20
1.6.8.4 Offshore Wind Energy.................................................................................. 21
1.6.8.5 Offshore Tidal Energy and the Blue Economy............................................. 21
1.6.8.6 Shipping, Port and Maritime Logistics with the Blue Economy.................. 21
1.6.8.7 Marine Manufacturing and Ship-building..................................................... 22
1.6.8.8 Enhancing Marine Commerce, Tourism and Leisure................................... 22
1.6.9 Implementation of Science-Policy Nexus for Developing Blue Economy................. 22
1.7 Conclusions............................................................................................................................. 23
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................. 24
References......................................................................................................................................... 24
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-1 1
2
2 Global Blue Economy: Analysis, Developments, and Challenges
1.1 CONCEPTUAL PARADIGM OF THE BLUE ECONOMY

The term ‘blue economy’ denotes a new idea about the better management of marine ecosystem
services, also called ‘blue’ resources (Kathijotes, 2013; Islam et al. 2018; Keen et al. 2018; Bir
et al. 2020; Martínez-Vázquez et al. 2021). The International Maritime Organization (IMO) said
that it was essential to properly utilize water resources, specifically marine water, as a sustainable
resource for future generations (Bigg et al. 2003; Karani and Failler, 2020; Kabil et al. 2021; Kabil
et al. 2021). The blue economy aspires to promote better well-being and radical egalitarianism while
simultaneously lowering environmental risks and environmental inadequacies in ocean biodiversity.
As with the ‘green economy’, the blue economy aspires to consider human and social development
in the context of the environmental and ecological degradation of the ocean (Behnam, 2012; IFFO,
2013; Ebarvia, 2016; Voyer, 2018; Garland et al. 2019; Lee et al. 2020). The economic activities of
coastal dwellers, such as fishing, shipbuilding, maritime transportation, coastal tourism, and so on,
are directly and indirectly included in the blue economy. The term ‘blue economy’ is a relatively
more modern concept than the idea of water resources and water awareness (Raakjaer et al. 2014;
Hussain et al. 2017; Sarker et al. 2018; Lee et al. 2020).
The blue economy sector is currently an emerging initiative led by Small Island Developing
States (SIDS), but it applies to all coastline states or countries with an interest in waters beyond their
borders (Pinto et al. 2015; Hadjimichael, 2018; Bennett et al. 2019; Lu et al. 2019). The SIDS are
a distinct group of 38 UN Member States and 20 Non-UN Members/Associate Members of United
Nations regional commissions that face unique social, economic, and environmental vulnerabilities.
However, the SIDS have traditionally relied on maritime resources for growth. The blue economy,
although including the notion of ocean-based economies, encompasses much more (World Bank,
2017; Kabil et al. 2021). Oceans are treated as ‘Dynamic Spaces’ in the blue economy, with spatial
planning incorporating resource usage, conservation, and long-term use, as well as oil and mineral
extraction, nanoparticle production, renewable energy generation, and maritime transit (IGBP, 2013;
Bennett et al. 2019; Nagy and Nene, 2021). In economic modeling and decision-making processes,
the blue economy currently covers accountancy, appraisals, and solutions for coastal resources (Lu
et al. 2019; Kabil et al. 2021). The blue economy is a model for poor nations to achieve long-term
progress by addressing fairness in entrance to, expansion of, and sharing of wealth from ocean bio-
diversity (Behnam, 2012; Ebarvia, 2016; Martnez-Vázquez et al. 2021).
The blue economy is gaining popularity in many nations throughout the world, with some even
putting it on their national agendas to strengthen their marine policy (Behnam, 2012; Kathijotes,
2013; Silver et al. 2015; Keen et al. 2018). Many nations have taken steps to strengthen their action
plans by focusing on the sustainable exploitation of aquaculture resources, global warming, and pro-
tection of the environment. In addition, national policies have been updated to increase awareness
of, and to take some steps towards reducing poverty among the people by creating alternative
jobs that employ marine habitats (Ebarvia, 2016; Bennett et al. 2019; Nagy and Nene, 2021). To
support the blue economy, several governments have produced national policies and action plans.
Many poor nations, on the other hand, are still disregarding the blue economy sectors in order to
benefit from these new marine resources (Islam et al. 2018; Nagy and Nene, 2021). Several nations
have developed national strategies and initiatives to promote the blue economy. However, many
developing nations are still ignoring the blue economy industries in order to make use of these new
marine riches (Islam et al. 2018; Nagy and Nene, 2021).
By connecting vendors and buyers, seas are becoming increasingly crucial in promoting global
trade (Brodie et al. 2020) (Figure 1.1). As the significance and relevance of the relationship between
land and water grows, the patterns of behavior of such trade organizations on the waters are gaining
greater regulatory and commercial attention (Bigg et al. 2003; Karani and Failler, 2020; Kabil et al.
2021). The notion of the blue economy was formed against this backdrop. The term ‘ocean economy’
or ‘blue economy (BE)’ is indeed a novel idea born out of the 2012 United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro (Martinez-Vázquez et al. 2021). The blue economy
3
Concepts, Tools, and Pillars of the Blue Economy 3
FIGURE 1.1 The blue economy is promoted with the goal of improving human well-being and social equality
to achieve long-term prosperity.
FIGURE 1.2 Fundamentals of blue economy (OECD, 2016; the Ocean Economy in 2030).
is gaining popularity as a strategy for safeguarding the world’s oceans and water resources (Bigg
et al. 2003; Karani and Failler, 2020; Kabil et al. 2021). Whenever economic growth is aligned with
the long-term ability of marine ecosystems to maintain the activity, blue economy considerations
may well emerge (Smith-Godfrey, 2016). More particularly, the notion of blue economy suggests
inherent contradictions between two narratives: the development, growth and preservation of ocean
resources (Sarker et al. 2018), and the protection of ocean resources (Sarker et al. 2018).
The notion of the blue economy is currently associated with business and economic actions, and
it stems from the necessity to incorporate restoration and endurance into the calculations in maritime
administrator’s accounts (Ebarvia, 2016; Voyer and Leeuwen, 2019). The ecosystem or biodiversity
of the water could also be expanded (Kathijotes, 2013; Keen et al. 2018; Brodie et al. 2020).
The environmental sustainability plugin enables the incorporation of consumption and refilling,
whilst providing low or no greenhouse gas (GHG) outcomes, which is critical to the process of
engaging in various activities (Smith-Godfrey, 2016; Kathijotes and Sekhniashvili, 2017; Sarker
et al. 2018). Another component of durability also refers to the long-term viability of the sea as a
food source for both humans and animals (Zhang et al. 2004; Lu et al. 2019).
As per the World Bank’s Refinement in Island Emerging States concept document (Patil, 2016),
‘Blue Economy is an undersea economic boom that results in improved people happiness and social
fairness while minimizing overall implications and ecological resource scarcity’ (Kathijotes, 2013;
Keen et al. 2018) (see Figure 1.2).
4
In 2009, Maria Cantwell, United States Senator of Washington State, pointed out in the opening
statement of the hearing on “The Blue Economy: The Role of the Oceans in our Nation’s Economic
Future” that “The “Blue Economy” –the jobs and economic opportunities that emerge from our
oceans, Great Lakes, and coastal resources –is one of the main tools to rebuilding the United States
economy.”: The Participation of the Ocean waters in our Nation’s Financial Future’ (World Bank,
2017; Wenhai et al. 2019; Martnez-Vázquez et al. 2021). Similar international organizations, such
as the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), distinguish between blue-green economy
(Johnson et al. 2018). They encourage reduced-carbon, asset transportation, fisheries, marine
tourism, and marine energy firms as a method for addressing climate change (UNEP et al. 2012;
Ebarvia, 2016; Johnson et al. 2018).
Whenever reference is made to the ocean economy, it is commonly believed that it is a fluid con-
cept that is implemented in various settings and by various players. Silver et al. (2015) looked at why
the word was utilized during the Rio+20 World Conference, noting how well the ‘financial sector’
was a concept employed by several parties throughout the negotiations to promote certain concepts
and initiatives (Voyer et al. 2018).
There were four dominating discourses identified:
• Ocean as Environmental Equity: a concept used by quasi ecological groups to recommend

that the essential services supplied by aquatic habitats be acknowledged and receive greater
appreciation.
• Oceans as Good Business: marine industries such as fishing and transportation, as well as
development banks, lobbied for widespread awareness of ocean-based enterprises and their
global benefits (Martinez-Vázquez et al. 2021).
• Oceans as a Critical Part of Western Growth: Pacific SIDS have been deeply involved in
developing the economic base to meet their particular lives and quality objectives.
• Seas as Comparatively Tiny Fisheries’ Future Prosperity: this topic focused on poverty
reduction and the importance of small scale fisheries (SSFs) in providing protein and eco-
nomic chances for the world’s poor. Its promotion was greatly supported by SSF groups and
supporters, including institutions worldwide.
The blue economy, in a nutshell, is the concept of ‘achieving maximum natural oceanic resources
and increase within ecological restrictions’ and ‘bifurcation of monetary success from environ-
mental contamination’ (Wenhai et al. 2019; Martnez-Vázquez et al. 2021). The blue economy, as
shown in Table 1.1, is made up of a variety of interconnected industries that use the richness of the
waters to stimulate economic growth via environmental sustainability.
1.2 UNITED NATIONS (UN) CONCEPT OF THE BLUE ECONOMY

The blue economy, as per a UN spokesperson, ‘ “A blue economy is a long-term strategy aimed
at supporting sustainable economic growth through oceans-related sectors and activities, while
improving human well-being and social equity and preserving the environment,” (World Bank,
2017; Heidkamp et al. 2021). There are a number of obstacles and challenges that must be resolved
in order to strengthen the global blue economy. Defining and effectively managing the multiple
components of maritime sustainability, from commercial fishing to organism integrity and pollution
avoidance, is a big challenge for the blue economy (World Bank, 2017; Lee et al. 2020). Furthermore,
we must understand that long-term ocean capacity planning will be implemented jointly with local
ecosystem based management approach (Sharafuddin and Madhavan, 2020). This is a massive
challenge, especially given the limited resources of SIDS and least developed countries (LDCs).’
According to the UN, the blue economy will help the UN’s future developments, one of which is
‘Life Below Water’ (Kathijotes, 2013; Keen et al. 2018; Bennett et al. 2019). The United Nations
5
TABLE 1.1
The Blue Economy Is Made Up of Interrelated Industries That Use the Resources of the
Waters to Drive Economic Progress via Sustainability
Service to the
Activity Type Sea Factory Growth Drivers References
Living resource Seafood Fisheries Food Security (demand for food, Sarker et al. (2018)
harvesting nutrition and protein)
Trade of seafood Food demand, nutrition and Wessells and
products protein Wallström (2019)
Trade of non- Cosmetics, pet food, and Ferdouse et al. (2018)
edible seafood pharmaceuticals products are
products in high demand.
Aquaculture Demand for food, nutrition and Frankic and Hershner
protein (2003)
Ocean Pharmaceuticals Necessary resources for Rasmussen and
biotechnology and chemicals healthcare and industry Morrissey (2007)
Extraction of Minerals Mining on the Mineral demand Mitra et al. (2021)
nonliving resources seafloor
and creation of fresh Energy Gas and oil Alternative energy sources are in Galván et al. (2016)
resources are two Renewables high demand. Mitra et al. (2021)
different things. Pure water Desalination Fresh water demand Holland et al. (2015)
Recurrent and quasi Renewable Renewables Demand for alternative energy Chu et al. (2015)
natural energies energy sources
generation
(off-shore)
Economic activities Transport and Shipping Growth in seaborne trade; Ebarvia (2016)
and trade in and trade Port infrastructure International regulations Ebarvia (2016)
around the oceans and services
Tourism and Tourism Growth of global tourism Lenzen et al. (2018)
recreation Coastal Coastal urbanization Martins et al. (2012)
Development Domestic regulations Ebarvia (2016)
Indirect contribution to Ocean Technology, Resources and development in Voyer and Leeuwen,
economic activities governance Resources and ocean technologies (2019)
and environments and protocol Development
Carbon control Blue Carbon Increased coastal marine Baral and Guha (2004)
preservation and conservation
efforts
Coastal Habitat protection Conserve and prevent the Blumm (2017)
Protection and restoration marine species extinction,
fragmentation, or reduction
Waste Assimilation of The process of nutrients being Gichana et al. (2018)
arrangement nutrients and absorbed by each cell of the
wastes body in the form of energy
Source: Modified and adopted from Keen et al. 2018; Islam et al. 2018; Lee et al. 2020.
6
FIGURE 1.3 Ecosystems services and assets of blue economy visions (modified from the concept and
definitions of Lange et al. (2018) and Brown et al. (2016)).
hosted its first conference on environmental stewardship in Stockholm in 1972, with the purpose of
strengthening city planners (Lu et al. 2019; Lee at al. 2020). The next UN Convention, held in Rio
in 1992 and focusing on the competitive advantage for the resilient company, was followed in 2002
by the Johannesburg symposium, which concentrated on the social aspect of sustainable develop-
ment (Lee at al. 2020).
In the last decade, a range of stakeholders have widely pushed the blue economy or ‘ocean/
marine economics’ as a notion or approach for safeguarding the nearby seas and coastal organisms
(Pauli, 2010; Lee at al. 2020). The concept of the blue economy was born in Rio de Janeiro in 2012
as part of the concept of environmental sustainability (UNCTAD, 2014; Voyer et al. 2018). In the
absence of precise definitions, words such as ‘ocean economy’ or ‘marine economy’ are being used
(Johnson et al. 2018) (see Figure 1.3). The ‘blue economy,’ as defined by the United Nations, is an
ocean economic model that aims to ‘improve human well-being and radical equality while drastic-
ally decreasing environmental risks and natural resource shortages’ (UN Report 2014, p. 2; Silver
et al. 2015; Voyer et al. 2018).
The World Bank describes the blue economy as ‘the responsible use of ocean diversity for eco-
nomic progress, improved livelihoods, and creating jobs whilst maintaining the health of the oceanic
ecosphere’ (World Bank, 2017, p. 6; Lee at al. 2020). The definition provided by the global bank
encompasses a wide variety of characteristics of marine resilience, from fishery resources to envir-
onmental quality and pollution avoidance (World Bank, 2017; Johnson et al. 2018; Lu et al. 2019).
Importantly, the notion itself necessitates cross-sector and inter-sector collaboration across a wide
range of stakeholders and associations. Therefore, tailored to their needs, different stakeholders will
support different goals or concepts. It indicates that certain potential conflicts or challenges may
arise from diverse participants’ decisions or desires.
1.3 HOW CAN BUILDING A BLUE ECONOMY HELP US ACHIEVE THE

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGs)?
The blue economy is a melting pot of development opportunities, as well as sensitive and fragile
ecosystems that require conservation (Kathijotes, 2013; Keen et al. 2018; Lee at al. 2020). Because
of the inherent inconsistencies between these two ideas, solutions must embrace the benefits of the
ocean economy while simultaneously recognizing and reducing its drawbacks (Jones et al. 2020).
According to the UN Development Strategy, income growth in the blue economy is both egalitarian
and environmentally responsible, and it emphasizes the significance of balancing the commercial,
7
social, and physical components of sustainable development in connection to the ocean (Griggs
et al. 2013; Bennett et al. 2019). The UN has designated the years 2021 to 2030 as the ‘Decade of
Ocean Studies for Sustainability Goals,’ for the purpose of encouraging measures to reverse the
deterioration of aquatic biota and gathering ocean specialists from around the world under one roof
(World Bank, 2017; Potgieter, 2018). This framework is designed to guarantee that marine science
can adequately help developing nations in their long-term efforts to expand the ocean. In respect to
oceans, the World Bank highlights ‘managing the triple bottom lines of environmental protection’
as a critical component of the BE (World Bank, 2017, p.4). In reality, however, achieving a balance
is challenging due to the fact that ocean conditions have worsened significantly with the addition of
industrial and human activities, with frequently conflicting aims such as contamination, unsuitable
fishing, and biological degradation (United Nations, 2016).
The UN defines the blue economy as an ocean enterprise that aspires to ‘increase human well-
being and social fairness while considerably minimizing environmental hazards and ecological scar-
city,’ as articulated by the UN in 2014. UNCTAD (2014), p. 3. As per ‘Resources Are taken for
Nature’ (2015), the blue industry is a saltwater economy that:
• Addresses poverty, livelihood possibilities, revenue, job prospects, health, safety, equality, and
good governance for present and future generations through promoting food security, social
equality, welfare, revenue, employment creation, wellness, protection, fairness, and demo-
cratic reform (Potgieter, 2018).
• Aims to ensure that marine ecosystems, which are the economy’s natural capital, are repaired,
protected, and appreciated for their variety, productivity, resilience, crucial services, and
intrinsic value.
• Is based on green technology, sustainable sources, and cyclical material flows to assure long-
term macroeconomic stability while staying within the natural limits of One Earth (Baltic Sea
Action Plan (2013) Baltic Eco-region Programme, 2015, p. 1).
It is observed that development concepts span ecological and planetary borders, with turning points
generating a fresh concern for re-evaluating the economy and revaluing the maritime economic link
globally (Voyer and Leeuwen, 2019; Lee at al. 2020). Attempting to relate the blue economy to
the UN’s development interests is very problematic, especially when household or manufacturing
goals such as lowering fossil-fuel-based carbon emissions, or supplying power, begin to compete
or fight (World Bank, 2017; Lee et al. 2020; Lewis et al. 2021). The SDGs, together with 17 goals,
169 objectives, and 232 targets, are the product of a multi-stakeholder agreement among countries
to minimize unsustainability and foster sustained growth (Sarker et al. 2018; Bebbington, 2018;
Alexander and Delabre, 2019). However, establishing the size and scope of the blue economy in
conformity with the UN’s sustainable development goals is difficult, if not impossible. Furthermore,
the relevant players in the ocean economy, as well as their respective interests and functions, are
unclear (World Bank, 2017; Potgieter, 2018).
1.4 SCOPE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES OF THE BLUE ECONOMY

Governments all over the world have been very much engaged in efforts to achieve self-determination
over marine domains since the signing of the UN International Maritime Law Treaty in 1982
(Kildow and McIlgorm, 2010; Brodie Rudolph et al. 2020). Those maritime domains are some-
times vast, perhaps larger than the total area of a country, and they include a varied spectrum of
biological and non-living elements (Nagy and Nene, 2021). The stagnation of traditional dry land
industries, along with the depletion of earth resources, has sparked an interest in the economic
prospects that exist beneath the ocean (OECD, 2016; Voyer et al. 2018). While maritime commerce
and business is not new, recent developments point to a trend towards a more organize marine sector,
8
one that combines conflicting uses, allocates ‘property,’ and provides procedures and management
systems to maintain national assets under state control (Winder and Le Heron, 2017). In places out-
side national authority, including the open seas, UN-led negotiations are taking place to establish
how deep marine resources should be used and controlled to safeguard species and to provide new
prospects (Warner, 2009). As a result, the oceans have grown into development zones, creating new
opportunities for coastal people and governments with maritime holdings to build and enhance their
businesses (United Nations, 2014).
The blue economy is increasing in popularity as a new governance tool for addressing optimal
ocean usage at the global, provincial, and national levels. Apart from the lack of a universally
agreed definition, there is much uncertainty over the scope of governance of a blue economy
(Behnam, 2012; Voyer et al. 2018). Based on the industries analyzed, the magnitude of the blue
economy/blue development varies. Industries such as fisheries, aquaculture, ecotourism, trans-
port, bioengineering, maritime security, quarrying, oil and gas, and sustainable sources use the
seas and inland waters (Schutter and Hicks, 2019). These numerous sectors, and the flora and
fauna that they support, have a direct influence on the marine environment and the flora and
fauna that it supports. The purpose of an overall blue economy plan is to assess solutions for
reducing the combined impact of diverse economic sectors on live water resources, biodiversity,
and natural ecosystems (Cervigni and Scandizzo, 2017). Blue economy strategies have elevated
food security, aquaculture, eco-system assistance, marine and coastal tourism, and respectable
livelihood opportunities in a number of coastal developing countries, together with the SIDS,
with the goal of progressively incorporating other key sectors based on their circumstances
(Voyer and Leeuwen, 2019).
The blue economy idea is built on the separation of socioeconomic success and environmental
degradation (Behnam, 2012; Sarker et al. 2018). The blue economy method is based on evaluating
and integrating the true quality of natural (blue) equity into all areas of economic action (worldview,
making plans, infrastructural facilities, trade, travel, renewable energy resource exploitation, and
power supply) to achieve this (Table 1.2). While environmental and ecological standards must be
TABLE 1.2
Scope and Economic Opportunities of Marine Resources which Contribute to the Ocean
Economy
Non-living Resource Conservation and

Extraction or Resource Exploitation of Live Trade and Commerce on and Management of
Creation Resources Near the Seas Ecosystems
Mining on the seafloor/deep Fish stocks Shipping (marine Blue carbon

seafloor Aquaculture transportation) Surveillance and marine
Petroleum and natural gas Construction and maintenance security are two crucial
of ships features of marine safety
Water (desalinization) Marine biotechnology designing a jetty Habitat protection/restoration
Dredging Recreational fishing and Port infrastructure and Hazard protection
boating services Ecological/ecosystem research
Tidal/wave energy; coastal/ Seafood processing Ocean-related services and Waste treatment and disposal
offshore wind) are on seas, research and
examples of sustainable development, and teaching
energy sources. coastline development
Oceans and terrestrial tourism
are being defended.
Source: After modified from the Economist, 2015; Voyer et al. 2018; Voyer and van Leeuwen, 2019.
9
respected, performance and resource optimization are critical (Voyer and Leeuwen, 2019). This
means using local materials wherever feasible, as well as blue, low-energy solutions to provide
utilization and advantages rather than the brown, high fuel, underemployment, and industrialized
development models (Schutter and Hicks, 2019). Equity mainstreaming at the regional and inter-
national level allows developing nations to generate more money from their assets, enabling them to
support their people, improve the environment, decrease budget deficit, and assist with the abolition
of hunger and poverty.
1.4.1 Fundamentals of Blue Economy and So-called Lenses

In 2012, during in the UN Convention on Sustainability, often known as Rio+20, the phrase
‘blue economy’ was coined. The goal is to build on territories’ green energy principles by
stressing the development that is possible with appropriate ocean biodiversity management
(Kathijotes, 2013; Ebarvia, 2016; Keen et al. 2018). Whereas the blue economy is mostly based
on ecological sustainability principles, there is no commonly agreed definition of it yet. In prac-
tice, a wide range of players have utilized the term for a wide range of objectives. Voyer et al.
(2018) confirmed four common perceptions of the maritime sector in current conversations,
drawing on previous research by Silver et al. (2015). These four ‘lenses’ (Table 1.3) are as
follows: (Voyer and van Leeuwen, 2019).
TABLE 1.3
Fundamentals of Blue Economy and So-Called Lenses
Fundamentals of Blue Economy Lenses

Lens-01: Ocean as Natural Capital Lens-02: Ocean as Drivers of Innovation
1) Attention on marine ecosystem services 1) Focus on technological and technical fixes

2) Environmental NGOs and marine economy 2) Underwater vehicles and surveying
3) Eco-tourism, shipping and MPAs 3) Including innovation hubs and others
4) Marine services valuations and utilization 4) Companies, ministries, and favored by several research
5) Industries that use a lot of carbon (like oil and gas) organizations
6) Shoreline and coastal resources 5) New sectors, such as renewable energy
7) Significant source of animal protein 6) Bioscience and deep ocean mining
7) Systematic investigation of marine resources
Lens-03: Ocean as Livelihoods Lens-04: Ocean as Trade and Commerce
1) Alternative food security and poverty alleviation 1) Focus on economic growth and environment
2) Poor and underdeveloped states, proponents for 2) Favored by industries and large global economies (EU,
small-scale fishing, and favored by development OECD etc.)
organizations 3) Foreign businesses, shipping, and petroleum and gas
3) Oceanography, aquaculture, and environmentalist on a 4) Sustainable energy and deep sea miners
small scale 5) Helping to achieve sustainable development
4) From the production of seafood through freight 6) Focus on petroleum dominates commerce
transportation 7) Offshore mining and power generation
5) Precautionary approach to deep sea mining
6) Influences our weather and climate
7) Biochemical and medicinal plants and animals
Source: (After modification from Voyer et al. 2018; Voyer and van Leeuwen, 2019).
10
1.4.2 Differentiate between Green and Blue Economy

The UN Assemblies on Environmental Sustainability ‘Rio +20,’ which took place in Rio de Janeiro
from June 20 to 22, 2012, focused on two primary themes: expanding the concept of green economy
and building and upgrading the organizational system for nature conservation (Pretorius and
Henwood, 2019; Nagy and Nene, 2021). The incorporation of the idea of maritime sector, which is
gleaned from green economy, provided the impetus for ‘sustainable’. Sustainable is taken in the con-
text of the stability of both behavior (institutional, trade, legislative, and compliance), the revitalized
dedication (ecosystem surroundings), and the cultures that rely on it (livelihood opportunities and
food) (Danovaro et al. 2017). For selecting the optimal balance, this equilibrium may be analyzed
and translated into an efficacy metric.
Throughout the Rio+20 planning process, several coastal nations questioned the green economy’s
emphasis and applicability to them. Strong arguments were made for a more prominent blue
economy plan to be addressed during the Rio +20 preparation phase (Kathijotes, 2013; Keen et al.
2018; Sharafuddin and Madhavan, 2020). This approach is crucial since the oceans, particularly the
shared heritage of the high seas, represent in many ways the last frontier for humanity’s ambition for
long-term progress. Efforts were undertaken at the institutional level to increase the blue component
of the sustainable future, as mentioned in the paper ‘Sustainable Future in a Blue World,’ but global
momentum has accelerated much faster (Garlock et al. 2020). Throughout the Rio +20 process, it
became clear that the world’s major oceans and seas demand more in-depth attention and concerted
effort (Colgan, 2018). The Associations’ expert panel symposium on oceans, seas, and sustain-
ability, the Global Water Council’s efforts, the Worldwide Coalition for Ocean waters, and the UN’s
five Strategic Agendas 2012–2016, which set a major priority on seas and oceans, all highlight this.
In 2012 and 2018, the European Union announced its ‘Blue Growth Project’ for the gradual
development of the marine and maritime sectors, with the objective of advancing the Europe 2020
vision of smart, sustainable, and equitable growth (Guerreiro, 2021). The blue economy has been
illustrated by APEC, the East Asia Summit (EAS), the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC), and the Indian Ocean Edge Association (IORA), all of which have inspired
intergovernmental approaches, developed cooperative strategies and action plans, and progressed
toward fish farming exploitation of resources (UNEP, 2013; Lu et al. 2019).
1.4.3 EU’s Blue Growth Strategy and Blue Economy Innovation Plan

The European Commission will unveil its new plan for a sustainable blue economy in May 2021.
Because both the European Green Deal and the SDG agenda demand the transformation of the EU’s
economy, the SBE Strategy takes a comprehensive approach to the EU’s blue economy (Gureva,
2018). In 2012, the European Union unveiled the ‘Blue Growth Plan’, stating that blue growth will
be at the heart of all maritime policy and pinpointing important development areas and particular
initiatives for the future (Pretorius and Henwood, 2019; Voyer et al. 2018; Garlock et al. 2020).
The Blue Business Strategy has launched initiatives in a wide range of policy areas relating to
Europe’s oceans, seas, and coasts, enabling cross-border and cross-sector cooperation among sea-
faring businesses, government bodies, and stakeholders to ensure the marine environment’s long-
term viability. The Blue Economy Development Plan was released in 2014, with the plan stating that
it will be executed in three ways. As an example:
• Develop sectors with a high potential for long-term job creation and growth
• Essential components will give knowledge, legal clarity, and security in the blue economy
• Sea basin plans will ensure tailor-made measures and encourage international collaboration.
In 2017, the European Union issued their study on the Blue Growth Agenda for More Responsible
Growth and Jobs inside the Blue Economy. This study examines what has been learned and achieved
11
since 2012, as well as what is taking place currently, but also what is missing (Mulazzani and
Malorgio, 2017; Potgieter, 2018). The study covers five topics: (i) promoting growth in five focus
areas, including blue energy, aquaculture, coastal areas and seafaring tourism, blue biotech, and
seafloor mineral resources; (ii) the advantages of ocean data, road networks, and seagoing sur-
veillance to facilitate blue growth of the economy; (iii) trying to promote a partnership approach;
(iv) growing incentive to invest; and (v) having to adapt blue business strategy to new challenges.
As per the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the commercial fishing sectors employ
almost 60 million individuals worldwide, the highest numbers of workers are in Asia (85 percent),
followed by Africa (9 percent), the Americas (4 percent), and Europe and Oceania (1 percent each)
(FAO, 2020). Over 350 million people are employed in fishing, aquaculture, seashore and marine
tourism (Chan et al. 2021). There were also 5 million people working in the blue economy sector
in 2018, representing a significant increase of 11.6% compared to the year before (Dinati et al.
2021). Although sectors such as coastal and marine tourism, as well as fisheries and aquaculture are
severely affected by the coronavirus pandemic, the blue economy as a whole presents a huge poten-
tial in terms of its contribution to a green recovery. (The Blue Economy Report, 2020; FAO (2020),
Donati (2021)).
1.5 MAJOR PILLARS OF THE GLOBAL BLUE ECONOMY

The blue economy encompasses not just economic viability, but also the conservation and augmen-
tation of intangible blue resources such as local traditions, carbon capture, and coastal resiliency
to help vulnerable governments mitigate the impacts of global warming (Attri, 2016; Wenhai et al.
2019). The blue economy concept highlights the significance of norms in reducing poverty, guaran-
teeing food security and nutrition, reducing the problem of global warming, and building equitable
and resilient employment (Voyer and Leeuwen, 2019).
As a consequence, the blue economy mixes economic expansion and long-term preservation. As
a result, the blue economy aims to inspire economic development, connectedness, and the retention
or development of livelihood strategies while also preserving the sustainability goals of the seas
and coastlines (World Bank Group, 2017; Schutter and Hicks, 2019), a concept known as ‘sustain-
able usage.’ Many forward-thinking firms, industry associations, scientists, government officials,
and marine activists are looking for ways to make the oceans economy a reality. As depicted in
Figure 1.4, the fundamental pillars of the blue economy are: a) government accountability, b) vision
FIGURE 1.4 Major pillars of a sustainably blue economy and economic growth possibilities to foster economic
growth, social inclusion, and the conservation or enhancement of livelihoods (Adapted from Attri, 2016).
12
and mission, c) technologies, d) blue administration, e) inspection, and f) legal and governance
reforms. (Attri, 2016)
The sea is a rich form of renewable energy and non-renewable environmental assets that have
provided different economic, societal, and cultural benefits throughout history and which have huge
future potential (Voyer and Leeuwen, 2019). These benefits are typically obtained through sectors
of the economy that have increased in number and activity during the previous 50 years (Attri, 2016;
Nagy and Nene, 2021). Improved access to, usage of, and efficiency from marine environmental
assets has resulted in growth in the sea’s economic sectors (Klinger et al. 2018). Simultaneously,
disagreements over marine resources have emerged across sectors (for example, tourism vs. off-
shore hydrocarbon production), at a corporate level (for example, people, groups, and governments),
over geographical areas (for example, local rivers, regional seas, and the global oceans), and time
periods (for example, between current and future uses). Continued economic expansion in the use
of the seas is projected to create cross-sector conflicts, as well as the possibility of environmental
degradation, wasteful natural resource usage, and other morally reprehensible outcomes (Klinger
et al. 2018). The ocean’s dynamic character, which varies over a wide range of geographical and
temporal dimensions, complicates cross-sector administration (Klinger et al. 2018). Due to global
warming and natural variability, the ocean is experiencing rising heat transfer, increased acidity,
and changes in other physiochemical oceanographic features (Harley et al. 2006). Melting sea ice,
increasing sea levels, and changing organisms (for example, changes in abundance, diversity, and
variety) are all consequences of these changes, all of which have various implications for the ability
of mankind to benefit from the ocean. Table 1.4 depicts the connections between significant sectors,
TABLE 1.4
Linkages Between Major Sectors Their Characteristics and Management Frameworks to
Respond to Developing a Global Blue Economy
S. L. Sectors Characteristics References

1 Maritime Tourism Nautical tourism includes sea-based activities such as rowing, Ecorys (2013)
windsurfing, cruises, and marine sports, as well as the land-
based social infrastructure that support them.
2 Beach Tourism Beach tourism utilizes the aesthetic and environmental values of Matthews et al. (2021)
the beach.
3 Cruise Ships The cruise business is one of the fastest-growing segments of a Wood (2007)
tourist industry that is already rising at a rapid pace.
4 Yachting Yachting is the use of sailing boats for sporting purposes; yacht Philpott (2005)
races.
5 Aquaculture and Marine aquaculture and fisheries present an opportunity for Gentry (2017)
Fisheries increasing seafood production
6 Recreational / Marine recreational and semi-subsistence activities have a high Gomez et al. (2021)
subsistence economic value
7 Marine Sport fishing Sport or offshore fishing, as well as large game fishing, are terms Cox et al. (2002)
used to describe this type of fishing.
8 Trade and Maritime shipping is the fundamental part of world trade. Ojala and Tenold (2017)
Commercial
9 Mariculture Seaweeds, mussels, oysters, shrimp, prawns, salmon, and Neori et al. (2004)
other fish species are all part of the mariculture industry.
Mariculture provides opportunities for long-term protein-rich
food production as well as community economic growth.
13
TABLE 1.4 (Continued)

Linkages Between Major Sectors Their Characteristics and Management Frameworks to
Respond to Developing a Global Blue Economy
S. L. Sectors Characteristics References
10 Marine Biodiversity As a result, marine biodiversity refers to the diversity and Cheung et al. (2009)
quantity of organisms found in the world’s oceans and seas.
11 Marine protected A marine protected area (MPA) is a portion of the ocean where De Santo (2013)
areas human activity is restricted by the government.
12 Goods and services Ecological goods and services are the economic benefits (goods Dias (2011)
and services) arising from the ecological functions of marine
ecosystems.
13 Amenity values Marine users’ perceptions of a location’s aspects that provide a Frampton (2010)
good, delightful benefit are referred to as amenity.
14 Maritime transport Maritime transport is a mode of transportation in which products Maiola et al. (2009)
and ports (or persons) are carried by sea.
15 Maritime industry Since the dawn of recorded history, the marine industry has been Czachorowski et al.
the focal point for global goods transportation. (2019)
16 International marine International maritime shipping is a well-known forwarder that Andrews (2015)
shipping specializes in roll-on/roll-off goods.
17 Port and Harbour A port is a seaside business district with infrastructure including Santos et al. (2019)
facilities cranes, warehouses, and docks that assist trade and transit.
A port is a spot on the coast where watercraft can be stored
or parked.
18 Offshore Petroleum Offshore oil and gas refer to operations in the oil and gas Nguyen et al. (2014)
business that take place along a coastline.
19 Marine Crude oil Microbes that utilise crude oil’s rich source of energy and McGenity et al. (2012)
carbon can be found in saltwater, sediments, and shorelines all
over the world, from the tropics to the poles.
20 Natural Gas The remains of sea algae and land plants have generated natural Staplin (1969)
gas and mineral oil, with substantial amounts collecting in
specific rock strata.
21 Dredging and Dredging in the sea has various advantages for transportation, Velegrakis et al. (2010)
aggregate extraction building, and other enterprises. Marine aggregates are sands
and gravels that occur naturally here on inner continental
shelves.
22 Sand Mining Sand mining is thus a lucrative business and fuels illegal Sonak et al. (2006)
extraction.
23 Sea Port dredging In the maritime sector, port dredging is a critical activity. It Grech et al. (2013)
has the following functions: It contributes to safer trips by
reducing underwater traffic and ensuring adequate bottom
clearance.
24 Marne Environmental The practice of individuals, organizations, and governments Christie et al. (2017)
protection protecting the natural environment is known as marine
environmental protection.
14
their characteristics, and frameworks for adapting to the developing global maritime economy.
Leadership must be flexible and adaptive, enabling single or multi-management frameworks to
adjust to changing socioeconomic and social conditions in real time.
1.6 CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABLE OR BLUE ECONOMY GROWTH

A healthy blue economy aims to boost economic growth, protect and improve livelihoods across a
variety of industries while also ensuring the long-term usage of ocean biodiversity (Alhaddi, 2014).
Cooperation, adaptability, possibility, and interconnection are all hallmarks of the circular economy
(Alhaddi, 2014; Garlock et al. 2020). Blue growth has a lot of promise in terms of ensuring long-
term ocean usage, but it also has several drawbacks. The lack of a single, agreed-upon blue growth
goal is one of the most evident impediments (Pretorius and Henwood, 2019). Some people define
blue as getting shared prosperity from aquatic and marine assets while preventing destruction of
blue natural capital, while others define it as obtaining maximum economic growth from aquatic
and marine resources whilst avoiding deterioration of blue capital assets (Colgan, 2018). This lack
of shared understanding might explain the lack of comprehensive blue growth plans and of more
precise and equitable goals and objectives that cut across industries.
Another issue is transdisciplinary learning and training to ‘speak the same language’ (Eikeset
et al. 2018; Eikeset et al. 2018). Not only do scientists need to interact across professions, but they
also need to engage with policy experts and other stakeholders who might have even more diverse
perceptions of blue development and other essential terms (Eikeset et al. 2018). To guarantee that
study educates and promotes viable, integrated, and complete solutions and their implementation,
close engagement with stakeholders is required. This appears to be achievable in theory, assuming
that the data are being collected and that the results are unambiguous and conveyed to policymakers
and regulators.
To address stakeholder conflicts, Figure 1.5: a theoretical model for establishing a sustainable
blue economy, is complex and requires a holistic approach to governance. Another challenge lies
in addressing potential conflicts, which mainly arise from tradeoffs between different uses of ocean
territory but also commonly include who decides what should be open to public debate (Alhaddi,
2014; Pretorius and Henwood, 2019). Salmon farming, for example, has become an important part
of Norway’s economy, and the industry has set the standard for feeding practices, economization,
FIGURE 1.5 Conceptual framework for developing sustainable blue economy to resolve the conflicts between
stakeholders is difficult and requires holistic approach to governance.
15
and sustainability practices per unit of output. Alternatively, fish farming can have significant envir-
onmental and biological effects in the ocean, influencing other users of ocean space. Comprehensive
examination of tradeoffs between various ocean uses necessitates collaboration and coordination
across a wide range of scientific disciplines and stakeholders. Stakeholder conflict resolution is dif-
ficult and demands a holistic approach to governance.
1.6.1 Challenges and Opportunities of Global Blue Economy

Despite several problems and opportunities, the global blue economy sectors have the potential
to enhance collaboration and communication among scientists, industry, and politics, resulting in
a coordinated effort to battle climate change (Exner-Pirot, 2012). To overcome these concerns,
more research is needed, and collaboration with stakeholders would be advantageous. Before
tackling these challenges, it’s necessary to grasp the major strengths, limitations, opportunities,
and threats facing the current global blue economy scenarios (Beveridge et al. 2020). It is crit-
ical to develop policies at the global, regional, and local levels as soon as possible to address the
difficulties.
1.6.2 Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles

Every marine business investment is based on the Principles of Responsible Blue Economy Finance.
These were introduced in 2018 as the world’s largest first global guiding framework for bankers,
insurers, and financiers to establish a sustainable blue economy. They advocate the attainment of
SDG 14 (Life Below Waters) and the adoption of sea regulations, which will allow the financial
world to incorporate sustainability into the ocean-based economy (Table 1.5) (Sumaila et al. 2021).
1.6.3 Economic Sustainability of the Blue Economy

Many countries employ the economy as a policy instrument or method to boost economic growth
and employment creation (Wenhai et al. 2019). The blue economy must adhere to SDG 14, which
stresses the responsible protection and use of oceans, seas, and coastal habitats (Spalding, 2016). The
objective is to accomplish social and economic growth while also maintaining a dynamic resource
and environmental balance. In their second planning section the UN Commission on Sustainable
Development’s Preliminary Committee underlined methods to embrace the blue economy, believing
it to be congruent with the Rio+20 Summit’s basic elements (Ioc-Unesco, 2011. As outlined in the
Rio+20 debates, the green economy represents a paradigm change in economic development. In
the development and administration of ocean and coastal zones, international society frequently
refers to the blue economy as the green economy or the green development model (Rio+20 Pacific
Preparatory Meeting, 2011).
We should maintain a healthy coastal and agricultural ecosystem based on an assessment of
maritime industrialization and the integrity of the aquatic organisms (Spalding, 2016; Hasan
et al. 2018). The combating of pollution problems, such as marine transportation wastes, plastic
litter, and microplastics, reducing the effects of global warming, and developing a blue economy
based on a sustainable model centered on supporting a healthy environment, is needed (Thushari
and Senevirathna, 2020). Fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, shipping, seafloor mining, oil and
natural gas, renewables, and transport are all profitable frontiers for so many governments
and businesses aspects (Hassan et al. 2014). Several policies have been established by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to assist in the protection of beaches, the limitation
of pollution from ships, the reduction of marine debris, and the prohibition of ocean dumping.
Off-shore drilling can be reduced by depending on renewable energy sources such as wind and
solar power (Madara and Perera, 2020).
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TABLE 1.5
The Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles
S. L. Principles Major Initiatives and Ideas References
1 Protective Marine ecosystem variety, productivity, resilience, value, and general Binet et al. (2015)
health, as well as the livelihoods and communities that rely on them, EIB (2018)
must be protected or maintained.
2 Compliant To comply to applicable legal and regulatory frameworks at the Bennett et al. (2019)
international, regional, national, and other levels that support EIB (2018)
development and ocean health.
3 Risk-aware To assess the risks and systemic implications so that decision-making UNDP (2012)
processes and actions can be adjusted.
4 Systemic To determine the overall and cumulative effects of our investments, Shiiba et al. (2021)
operations, and initiatives throughout value chains. EIB (2018)
5 Inclusive To improve local lives and effectively interact with key stakeholders. Uy and Tapnio (2021)
6 Cooperative To spread ocean knowledge, best practices for a sustainable blue Bennett (2020)
economy, lessons gained, viewpoints, and ideas in order to promote EIB (2018)
and apply these principles. Uy and Tapnio (2021)
7 Transparent With due regard for confidentiality, assure the social, environmental, Bovino and Niesten
and economic repercussions (both positive and negative). (2021); EIB (2018)
8 Purposeful Making a direct role in the achievement of Sustainable Development Sumaila et al.(2021)
Goals Goal 14: Preserve and use oceans, oceans, and coastal habitats EIB (2018)
in a sustainable manner for slow gestation.
9 Impactful To provide funds and help so that current and future generations can Shiiba et al. (2021)
benefit from our ocean’s social, environmental, and economic EIB (2018)
advantages.
10 Precautionary The principle will take precedence when scientific data are unavailable. Child and Hicks (2019)
11 Diversified To reach a larger range of sustainable infrastructure projects, including Huwyler et al. (2014)
those in conventional and non-traditional marine industries, as well as Uy and Tapnio (2021)
smaller and big efforts.
12 Solution-driven Identifying and promoting the economic case for such programs, as well Ram and Kaidou-Jeffrey
as encouraging the dissemination of best practices produced in this (2020)
manner.
13 Partnering To accelerate the change for a better blue economy, particularly via the EIB (2018)
establishment and operation of coastal and marine spatial planning Uy and Tapnio (2021)
ideas.
14 Science-led To promote the Blue Economy’s long-term financial prospects and Fenichel et al. (2020)
to disseminate scientific data and information about the marine EIB (2018)
environment.
15 Reporting Publicly report (annually) on how the institution is working to EIB (2018)
implement the Principles
Source: Founders of the Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles. The European Commission (EC) and the European
Investment Bank (EIB) as well as by the Swedish Government via the UN Environment Programme Sustainable
Blue Economy Initiatives on oceans and seas, 2018.
The effective utilization of marine resources in order to promote long-term economic growth has
received a lot of attention in recent years all around the world (Voyer et al. 2018). The blue economy,
according to the World Wildlife Fund (2015), is a marine-based economy that:
• Contributes significantly to food security, poverty eradication, income, jobs, medicine, safety,
fairness, and stability for the present generation, as well as providing social and economic
advantages.
17
• Ensures that the diversity, productivity, resilience, essential functions, and the inherent worth
of marine ecosystems, the ecological integrity on which the world’s economy is founded, will
be restored, conserved, and sustained.
• Is based on clean technology, renewable energy, and cyclical material flows to assure long-
term financial stability while staying constrained by the restrictions of one planet (Voyer
et al. 2018).
Finally, the financial sector as an economic term embraces all sectors of the global economy.
Further, as a macroeconomic concept, the blue economy encompasses all aspects of national and
international governance, economic growth, environment protection and durability, and intercultural
understanding (Wenhai et al. 2019). The financial sector combines green growth and sustainable
development. It emphasizes the need for long-term management and cooperation between the eco-
nomic systems of the ocean and coastal zones, as well as the marine ecology (Okafor-Yarwood et al.
2020). Taking account of the above features, we describe the blue economy as sustainable services,
and all other related activities that utilize and conserve coastal and marine resources (Kadagi et al.
2020). Several obstacles must be addressed, ranging from private industry to research and innov-
ation, to non-governmental organizations, and to governmental policies.
1.6.4 Environmental Sustainability of the Blue Economy

As per the World Bank, the blue economy is the ‘responsible use of marine biodiversity for income
progress, better lifestyles, and jobs while increasing the safety of the ocean ecosystem’ (Abhinav
et al. 2020). From the European Commission, ‘any commercial activity related to ports, oceans, and
coasts.’ The world’s seas and beaches, together known as the Blue World, are a veritable harvest for
humanity (Fang et al. 2020). Food, oxygen, and a means of subsistence are all provided by them.
The Earth is a blue planet, with oceans spanning 71% of its 510 million square kilometers surface
area and an average depth of four times that of land (Bennet et al. 2019). The marine biosphere is
thus the world’s largest ecosystem, despite the fact that it has a great diversity of species, ranging
from almost barren to fertile hotspots (Gamage, 2016; Blumm, 2017; Hossain, 2020). ‘Academics,
philosophers, corporate leaders, and governments alike are increasingly concerned about environ-
mental deterioration and the imbalance between man and nature’ (Zhongming et al. 2019). Many
people are concerned about the growing gap between affluent and poor people, as well as the
ongoing inability to provide the basic requirements of all (not just humans) (Gamage, 2016). The
mass extinction and our incapacity to overcome poverty appears to be the sole long-term trends of
our time (Kathijotes, 2013). Although we’re really looking reality in the face, it looks like we lack
that perspective and talent needed to make a contribution and steer our extravagant consumption
culture and aggressive business world towards sustainably.
The blue economy aims to restore, retain, and maintain the diversity, productivity, resili-
ence, vital functions, and inherent worth of marine ecosystems (Brears, 2021). Economic
activity should take place in the ocean, and ocean ecosystems should be able to support it in
the long run while staying robust and healthy (Kathijotes and Sekhniashvili, 2017). It is widely
seen as a long-term strategy aiming at promoting long-term economic growth through ocean-
related sectors and activities while also protecting the environment (UNCTAD, 2014). In this
context, ecosystem-based ocean management has been shown to maintain ocean productivity
through time while also ensuring long-term economic growth. The blue economy attempts to
restore, preserve, and protect marine ecosystems’ diversity, productivity, resilience, important
functions, and inherent value (Voyer, et al. 2018). It is usually regarded as a long-term strategy
aimed at encouraging long-term economic growth through ocean-related industries and activ-
ities while simultaneously safeguarding the environment (Winther, et al. 2020). In this context,
18
it has been demonstrated that ecosystem-based ocean management may preserve ocean prod-
uctivity throughout time while simultaneously ensuring long-term economic growth.
Ecosystem-based management outlines the decision-making process as well as the goals that must
be met, together with precise rules for economic and environmental preservation (O’Hagan, 2020).
It can assist in the coordination of numerous rules affecting the coastal zone and marine enterprises,
ranging from traditional ocean industries to emerging ocean health firms (Gamage, 2016; Blumm,
2017; Hossain, 2020). The goal of ecosystem-based management is to promote ‘ocean resource
protection and sustainable usage’ (Wenhai, et al. 2019). Ecosystem-based management protects not
just the ocean’s environmental features, but also the blue economy concept’s approach, goals, and
implementation.
1.6.5 Social Sustainability of the Blue Economy

Identifying and regulating the positive and negative impacts of companies on people is critical
to social sustainability. It is critical that a company’s stakeholder relationships and engage-
ment are of high quality (Cisneros-Montemayor et al. 2021). Employees, value chain workers,
customers, and local communities all have a direct or indirect impact on businesses, and it
is vital to handle these implications ahead of time. Social sustainability has gained signifi-
cantly less attention in public debate than economic and environmental sustainability (Voyer
and Leeuwen, 2019).
Environmental justice, human health, resource security, and education are only a few of the
important social factors that influence social sustainability (Manikarachchim, 2014). Efforts to
promote social sustainability should also aim to develop economic and environmental benefits,
according to the three pillars idea (Purvis et al. 2019). In the blue economy, measures to promote
social sustainability could include focusing corporate efforts on employee retention rather than eco-
nomic priorities (Wenhai et al. 2019). Employee happiness, for example, is likely to benefit the com-
pany financially by increasing employee motivation (Jamshidi and Jafari, 2021). Efforts to improve
social sustainability may also have a positive impact on the environment. People’s nutrition choices,
for example, can have a significant impact on both human and environmental health, therefore,
advocating healthy eating can also benefit the environment.
1.6.6 Linking SDGs and Policies to the Global Blue Economy

Sensible policy creation, funding, and execution at the municipal, regional, and international
levels are critical to society’s capacity to achieve a certain goal (SDGs) (Scharlemann et al.
2020). As a result, policymakers must now direct activities to advance the SDGs while minim-
izing negative repercussions (Novaglio et al. 2021). In order to attain the intended outcomes,
decision-makers must comprehend the feedbacks and interrelations between stakeholders in
the blue economy, the national economy, and environmental sustainability, prompting reviews
to better comprehend how blue economy sectors influence our capabilities to attain the 2030
agenda (McKinley et al. 2019; Nash et al. 2020). Although the increase in goal interaction
research is a great step forward, trade-offs and synergy are not a fundamental part of the SDG
review process. Good leadership is necessary for long-term stewardship of aquatic ecological
sustainability, as well as ensuring biodiversity and ecological resilience, all of which contribute
to human resilience in the face of a range of problems, including changing climate (Folke,
2016). By minimizing risks and providing incentives for innovation, effective governance will
also assist in the establishment of an enabling climate for responsible private sector investments
throughout the value chain (Gamage, 2016; Blumm, 2017; Hossain, 2020). Finally, improved
governance will increase the macroeconomic contribution of fisheries, aquaculture, and mari-
culture, raising the sector’s visibility and, as a result, resource allocation.
19
1.6.7 Blue Economy and Marine Pollution Issues

The chemical and biological factors that make up marine pollution include plastic waste, petroleum-
based pollutants, dangerous metals, synthetic compounds, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and a foul
stew of nitrogen, phosphorus, fertilizer, and sewage (Landrigan et al. 2020). Marine pollution is
becoming more of a problem in today’s world. Increased amounts of chemicals in coastal water,
such as nitrogen and phosphorus, enhance the growth of algal blooms, which can be harmful to
people and dangerous to other species (Wurtsbaugh et al. 2019). Algal blooms have major health and
environmental effects, as well as a negative impact on the fishing and tourism industries in the area
(Grattan et al. 2016). Marine waste includes a variety of plastic goods such as shopping bags and
beverage bottles, as well as cigarette butts, bottle caps, food wrappers, and fishing gear (Pasternak
et al. 2017). Plastic waste is a particularly harmful contaminant due to its long lifespan. Plastic items
could take hundreds of years to decompose.
Around 80% of ocean pollution originates on land, with the remaining 20% coming from
discharges from maritime ships, offshore industrial operations, and at-sea rubbish disposal (Daoji
and Daler, 2004). In-shore contamination is caused by wastewater discharges, industrial releases,
agricultural runoff, and riverine pollution along coastlines and in bays, ports, and estuaries
(Landrigan et al. 2020). Along the coasts of quickly developing countries, some of the world’s worst
ocean pollution can be found (Nellemann, et al, 2008). For this reason, cultivating aquaculture and
enhancing blue economy currently face difficulties.
Nonetheless, many nations are acting, however preventing marine pollution alone will not
be enough to boost developing countries’ blue economy sectors. More than sixty countries have
implemented legislation banning or forbidding the use of throwaway plastic goods, according to
United Nations research from 2018 (Schnurr, et al. 2018). Some key ways that governments can
combat marine pollution and promote a healthy, productive, and resilient sea are as follows:
• Reduce plastic use and implement litter control policy

• Reduce or recycle plastic
• Diminish discharge of untreated sewage
• Control chemical and industrial pollution
• Increase money for the prevention and treatment of water debris.
• Strengthen laws on marine litter
• Incorporate preventative and control programs into national policy
• Develop local competence and technological abilities
• Raise public awareness
• Create alliances to combat marine pollution
• Evaluate pollution problems in a systematic manner
• Assess the economic impacts
1.6.8 Tools and Opportunities for a Blue Economy

Diet and health security from the fisheries sector, social and economic development from the fish-
eries sector, aquatic and marine tourist industry, shipping, mining, and energy, as well as natural
ecosystems like sequestering carbon, water filtration, atmospheric and heat regulation, erosion
safeguards, and severe weather event protection are all provided by ocean and inland waters (Johnson
et al. 2018). Issues and difficulties bring both challenges and opportunities, and the blue economy
offers a wide range of solutions for sustainable, clean, and fair blue growth in both established
and emerging industries (Gamage, 2016; Blumm, 2017; Hossain, 2020). From bio-prospecting to
seabed mineral mining, technological advancements are paving the way for new horizons in marine
resource development (Behnam, 2012; Hossain et al. 2014; Chowdhury et al. 2015). Wind, wave,
20
and tide, as well as thermal and biomass sources, provide a lot of promise for renewable blue energy
generation at sea (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2015).
1.6.8.1 Fisheries, Aquaculture and Seafood Production

Around the world, capture fisheries continue to be in great demand. The importance of fisheries and
aquaculture in supplying food, nutrition, and jobs is demonstrated in this paper (Tacon et al. 2009; Belton
and Thilsted, 2014). The fisheries and aquaculture sectors have grown quickly in recent decades, with
worldwide output, trade, and consumption reaching new highs in 2018 (Shamsuzzaman, et al. 2020;
FAO, 2020). However, since the early 1990s, aquaculture has accounted for the largest share of growth in
the industry as a whole, while capture fisheries production has remained largely stable, with some growth
primarily relating to inland capture. Sustainable fishing may be an essential aspect of a successful blue
economy, with marine fisheries contributing more than US$270 billion to world GDP each year (World
Bank, 2017b. Marine fisheries provide a large source of animal protein, essential minerals, and omega-3
fatty acids to the 300 million inhabitants who work in the industry. They also help to address the nutri-
tional demands of the three billion people who rely on fish for protein, trace nutrients, and omega-3 fatty
acids (FAO, 2016). Fishing is important in many of the world’s poorest locations, where fish is a critical
source of nutrition and the industry functions as a social security net (Dulvy et al. 2011). The removal of
fishery subsidies that cause overexploitation, as well as the deployment of integrated, ecosystem-based
techniques based on the best available knowledge in a precautionary environment, offer the potential of
restoring critical stocks and increasing catches (Bunnefeld et al. 2011; Cohen et al. 2019). Implementing
solid management practices promises improved sustainable catches, reduced energy use, and lower
prices, securing livelihoods and improving food security.
Aquaculture, like catch fisheries, has the potential to expand in importance for the blue economy.
While small-scale aquaculture has a significant impact on food security and employment in under-
developed nations, high operating expenses and economies of scale necessitate a culture of high-
value commodities oriented towards local tourist and export markets (Chuenpagdee et al. 2008;
Farmery et al. 2021). Given the SIDS’ reputation as tourist destinations, it is vital to decrease the
environmental effect of aquaculture (Chuenpagdee et al. 2005). As a result, the sector plan will
detail the technologies and innovations necessary to sustain ocean health and guarantee that aqua-
culture products, namely, fish raised in a clean, well-managed environment, compete on a global
scale with the tourist business.
1.6.8.2 Oil and Gas, Deep-sea Mining and the Blue Economy

Mineral reserves on and under the seabed are being studied and exploited all over the world. The
technique of obtaining minerals from the seabed is known as seabed mining (Hunter and Taylor,
2014; Cuyvers et al. 2018). Deep-sea mining has become more economically viable due to growing
availability of metals and relatively unusual commodities, as well as technical advancements
(Biswas et al. 2015). Digging has been proposed on the aquila plains, at depths, and near hydro-
thermal systems. The bulk of seabed mining is now restricted to shallow water zones, but technology
is improving, and experimental deeper bottom dredging may be possible in the future (Frankic
and Hershner, 2003). Extrinsic advantages to the price of mined commodities are expected to
occur largely on the seafloor and at drill sites as a consequence of substrate surface water drainage
produced by both drilling and returning seawater (Montserrat et al. 2019). Environment impacts can
arise at any stage of the manufacturing process as a result of unforeseen events or natural disasters,
with possible ramifications including changes in kinesiology, biological modifications, and perhaps
exacerbating the transaction’s effects on natural environments (Klinger et al. 2018).
1.6.8.3 Offshore Wind, Wave and Tide Energy Production

Incoming solar heat sustains the bulk of renewable ocean energy forms, putting them indirectly
into the category of solar energy (Häyhä and Franzese, 2014; Bennett et al. 2019). The fluctuating
21
gravitational pulls of the moon and sun on the planet and its oceans produce tidal force (Butikov,
2002). This is sustainable due to its ability to fulfill the world’s energy needs while lowering carbon
emissions in the long run. While some renewable marine energy projects are still in the planning
phase, others have been in operation for a while with variable degrees of both technical and eco-
nomic success.
1.6.8.4 Offshore Wind Energy

Offshore wind power is the installation of wind turbines in large bodies of water (Byrne and
Houlsby, 2003). Winds are blowing more quickly and more uniformly at sea than on land,
implying less wear on engine components and more power generated by every rotor (Musial
et al. 2006). Wind potential energy is typically proportional to the cube of wind speed. As a
result, even a little increase in flow speed causes a huge increase in energy production (Pishgar-
Komleh et al. 2015). A turbine at a location with a wind speed of 25 km/h, for instance, could
produce around 50% more electricity than a turbine in a location with a mean wind speed of
23 km/h (Hoover et al. 2005).
Offshore wind is also the most established form of maritime renewable energy in terms of
technological progress, regulations, and generating capacity (Appiott et al. 2004). Research and
expertise with both territory power generation and offshore oil and gas production have greatly
aided offshore wind power designs and other project features (Afewerki, 2022). This is cur-
rently a viable sustainable material in many areas, and it is gaining global attention because of
its enormous resources, and is typically located near large electricity concentrations in coastal
towns (Creutzig et al. 2014). Based on these features, offshore wind energy appears to have
the most immediate potential for energy generation, grid integration, and combating climate
change (Stephens et al. 2009).
1.6.8.5 Offshore Tidal Energy and the Blue Economy

Wind and solar energy are less predictable than tides. Tide mills were originally used to crush
grain, but today they’re utilized to generate energy at tide power plants (Neill et al. 2018).
Traditional tidal power has had high prices and a limited number of locations with accept-
able tidal ranges or flowrate, limiting its total availability among alternative energy sources
(Rashid and Barua, 2016). New technological improvements, on the other hand, show that
marine power’s overall energy production might be higher than previously estimated, cutting
costs (Roberts et al. 2016). Only a few tidal power plants are still operational today, among of
which is the La Rance tidal power station in France, which has been in operation since 1966
(Hammons, 1993). To collect energy from tidal flows, the prospective energy generated when
two bodies of water isolated by a dam or inundation have different altitudes is used (Rourke
et al. 2010; Toupin, 2016). Immersed in water tidal turbines rely exclusively on the kinetics
of free water movement. Tidal turbines must be significantly more durable than wind turbines
because water is 800 percent denser and more destructive than air (Tong, 2019; Behera, 2022).
1.6.8.6 Shipping, Port and Maritime Logistics with the Blue Economy

Maritime shipping accounts for more than 80% of all global commodity trade in 2015, and this
ratio is substantially higher in most impoverished nations (Warren, 2007). In terms of value, some
researchers, such as Lloyd’s List Intelligence, claim that marine seaborne trade accounted for 55%
of all international trade in 2013, while others say it was closer to 70% (UNCTAD 2016). The
effects of climate change (such as rising sea levels, increased temperatures, and more frequent and/
or intense storms) pose significant threats to crucial transportation systems, services, and processes,
particularly in SIDS and coastal LDCs, requiring an insight into the underlying threats and hazards,
as well as the application of improved adaptation strategies (Smith-Godfrey, 2016; Kathijotes and
Sekhniashvili, 2017; Sarker et al. 2018).
22
Given the critical role of ports in the worldwide economic system, environmental and resilience
solutions for ports are an urgent need. The primary environmental implications of maritime traffic
include marine and air pollution, marine debris, underwater noise, and the introduction and spread
of exotic species (Gamage, 2016; Blumm, 2017; Hossain, 2020). New international rules compel
the shipping sector to spend heavily on environmental technology such as emissions control, waste
disposal, and bilge water purification. Some of the expenditure is not only beneficial to the environ-
ment, but could also save money in the long term, for example, by boosting fuel economy.
1.6.8.7 Marine Manufacturing and Ship-building

Marine shipping is an important part of global trade and commerce at present. It deals with nearly
90% of all goods transported in one form or another through shipping. The value of the worldwide
maritime product transportation business is in the trillions of dollars, and it is steadily expanding
(Pretorius and Henwood, 2019). Approximately 76% of all trade involves some type of maritime
transportation (Notteboom, 2004). Despite the fact that the shipping business has seen its fair share
of ups and downs due to economic crises and the industry’s financially fragile character, worldwide
demand appears to be growing at a steady pace (Sanusi, 2011). The ability of shipping to convey
goods and resources from their point of origin to their final destination is essential to modern life
(Lipton et al. 1990). For an economic region such as the European Union, shipping accounts for
80% of all exports and imports by volume and 50% by value Hoekman and Djankov, 1997).
Shipping, on the other hand, is reliant on the availability of ships and boats capable of delivering
a wide range of commodities across vast distances (Moutoukias, 1988; Jacks and Pendakur, 2010).
Shipbuilding is a lengthy process that might take up to 1.5 years for medium to large vessels. As a
result, regardless of how strong the maritime transport business is, the shipbuilding industry controls
and restricts commerce, based on the number of vessels built. The construction of cruise liners and
pleasure vessels is another prominent area where shipbuilding plays a significant role (Johnson
et al. 2018). Several countries throughout the world offer such facilities that are accessible to both
residents and visitors. It benefits the tourism and coastal sectors in various countries. For example,
to stimulate the economy, India, a country with no prior cruise or pleasure vessel history, has lately
established cruises along its coast. As a result, we can see that passenger shipbuilding is just as vital
as commercial cargo shipbuilding.
1.6.8.8 Enhancing Marine Commerce, Tourism and Leisure

Maritime tourism is just one of several types of tourism that help countries along the coast (Moreno
and Amelung, 2009). Tourists and visitors participate in active and passive leisure and vacation
pursuits or excursions on (or in) coastal seas, shorelines, and their immediate environs in Maritime
tourism (Higham, 2017). Marine leisure refers to a wide range of activities or interests that locals,
tourists, and day visitors engage in when visiting various marine-related destinations (Smith-
Godfrey, 2016; Kathijotes and Sekhniashvili, 2017; Sarker et al. 2018). Because of its diversity,
tourism is one of the industries that might gain the most from the blue economy. The ocean environ-
ment has always been one of the most appealing tourist destinations (Mertha et al. 2017; Wiarti et al.
2017; Lapa et al. 2021). All beach activities, sea kayaking, excursions to fishing communities and
lighthouses, maritime museums, sailing and motor yachting, maritime festivals, Arctic and Antarctic
tourism, and many more activities are all covered (Sankrusme, 2017).
1.6.9 Implementation of Science-Policy Nexus for Developing Blue Economy

Healthy marine ecosystems offer a home for a wide variety of marine species while also supplying
essential human necessities such as food, medicine, and alternative energies, as well as climate regu-
lation, ecotourism, entertainment, coastal protection, and job generation (Potts et al. 2014; Smith-
Godfrey, 2016; Kathijotes and Sekhniashvili, 2017; Sarker et al. 2018). Despite the fact that oceans
23
encompass over 70% of our world and provide such vital services and goods, there is still a lot we
don’t know about them (Laffoley et al. 2019). Kenya hosted and supported the inaugural Worldwide
Construction Blue Economy Conference in November 2018, which again was founded by Canada
and Japan, in recognition of science’s critical role in leveraging the Economic Base and the reality
that humankind’s existence is strongly reliant on a functioning ocean (Farmery et al. 2021).
Many barriers to the sustainable economic perspective exist in developing countries, including
waterlogging, marine pollution, including acidification of the oceans and blue carbon, a shortage of
trained professionals, synchronizing sectoral initiatives, plans, and laws, poor seafloor stewardship,
and popular backing, to name a few (Kalam et al. 2018). The exploitation of maritime resources
whilst avoiding pollution, overuse, and mismanagement, is needed. For the above contexts the
following would be recommended for developing a sustainable blue economy for both developed
and developing nations:
• Ensuring education and awareness for all: all people in developing countries should get
proper education and awareness to enhance the blue economy sectors globally.
• Exchanging technological knowledge and research: the governments of both developed
and developing countries should invest more in new better technologies to achieve the sustain-
able blue economy that will help future generations.
• Strong environmental law and maritime policies: the policymakers and the stakeholders
both should implement more effective marine environmental law and ensure better law
enforcement. That will ensure less environmental damage to marine resources.
• Important to focus on blue economy: every developed country is focusing more on the blue
economy. This is the unlimited source of wealth which will help to improve people’s standard
of living. Similarly, it is important for the governments of developed countries to play a proper
role in supporting the blue economy sectors in developing countries.
• Stable political environment: a stable political situation allows a country to develop the blue
economy sectors more quickly. People will invest more for their benefit in this sector.
• Mostly in Energy sector: Most of the developed countries energy sectors are well organized.
They have many alternative energy production plants and systems. Electricity is the main
indicator for developing a country economy. No country will develop without energy sector
improvement. So, the ocean would be the best source of energy to resolve the future energy
crisis in developing nations.
• Better policy for the blue economy: policy makers should create effective policies to develop
the blue economy, including South Asian and African countries.
• Awareness in people: countries should inform their citizens about damage to the marine
environment and resources. They should use the natural resources properly and not cause
any damage to environment that cannot be reversed. They should also aim to use renewable
resources, which is environment friendly.
1.7 CONCLUSIONS
The oceans are a significant carbon sink, a critical home for millions of species, and an important
component in environmental and human health. The blue economy is a concept that highlights
how the seas serve as a crucial food supply and a worldwide commercial facilitator. The blue
economy refers to the long-term use of marine habitats for economic expansion, increased revenue,
and employment generation while conserving the sustainability of ocean ecosystems. However,
regular floods, maritime pollution such as ocean algal blooms and salinity, and blue carbon, as
well as a shortage of qualified personnel, interacting policy positions, plans, and regulations, poor
ocean leadership, and public influence, to name a few challenges, all present difficulties to the blue
economy standpoint. Furthermore, our human footprint is harming the health of the seas because
24
of continuous man-made stresses. To have clean seas, recover marine life, and create the long-term
conditions for resilient and functional oceans, we must drastically reduce these stresses. To do so,
we must make significant adjustments in policies, institutions, and practices that are not currently in
place to improve the global economy’s sustainability.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my appreciation to all of the writers and contributors whose work I reviewed
in order to compile the current chapter in this book. In order to examine the information relating
to this chapter, I also used several websites, free domains, blogs, and other sources. I would like to
express my respect and appreciation for the unnamed authors. In addition, I would like to express
my thanks to the SUMITOMO Foundation, Tokyo, Japan for providing financing assistance for this
study on the global blue economy and seafood production practices observed in Japanese tradition.
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2 Realizing Blue Economy

Potential in Malaysia,
Opportunities and Challenges
Hanizah Idris
Department of Southeast Asian Studies, Faculty of Arts and
Social Sciences, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
E-mail: [email protected]
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 35
2.2 Defining the Blue Economy.................................................................................................... 36
2.3 Priorities Areas for Blue Economy in Malaysia...................................................................... 38
2.3.1 Port Activities..............................................................................................................40
2.3.1.1 Development.................................................................................................40
2.3.1.2 Potential........................................................................................................44
2.3.2 Marine Non-living Resources: The Oil and Gas Industry........................................... 45
2.3.2.1 Development.................................................................................................45
2.3.2.2 Potential........................................................................................................46
2.3.3 Maritime Tourism........................................................................................................46
2.3.3.1 Development.................................................................................................46
2.3.3.2 Potential........................................................................................................47
2.3.4 Fisheries Sector........................................................................................................... 49
2.3.4.1 Development.................................................................................................49
2.3.4.2 Potential........................................................................................................51
2.3.5 Maritime Transport—Ship Building and Repair......................................................... 53
2.3.5.1 Development and Potential........................................................................... 53
2.4 Opportunities and Challenges................................................................................................. 53
2.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 56
References......................................................................................................................................... 57
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The fact that oceans and seas matter for sustainable development is undeniable. Oceans and seas
cover over two-thirds of the Earth’s surface and contribute to livelihoods, provide food and minerals,
decent work, generate oxygen, determine weather patterns and temperature and serve as highways for
seaborne international trade. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), the ocean may also
be a new economic frontier, driven by a growing population in search of new sources of growth, and
rapid technological advances, making new resources accessible (Economist Intelligence Unit 2015).
As the ocean is inherently fluid in nature, the compartmentalization of ocean, coastal and marine
industries from its operating environment of watersheds and ecosystems, to the harmonization of
traditional economic activities with sustainable economic values, becomes a challenging activity
(Smith-Godfrey 2016). Measuring the ocean economy gives a country a first order of understanding
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-2 35
36
of the economic importance of the sea (Economist Intelligence Unit 2015). Undoubtedly, ocean
resources generate numerous benefits to the world economy and offer essential opportunities for
transportation, food production, energy, mineral extraction, biotechnology, human settlement in
coastal areas, tourism and recreation, and scientific research (Kaczynski 2011, pp. 21–32).
A blue economy is a long-term strategy aimed at supporting sustainable economic growth through
ocean related sectors and activities, while improving human well-being and social equity and pre-
serving the environment (World Bank and UN DESA 2017). The blue economy is a relatively a new
term that has been used in various world studies to refer to a comprehensive set of economic activ-
ities concerning the seas and promoting the context of the sustainable development of a country or
a region (Nikcevic and Skuric 2021, p. 2). The established blue economy sector contributed 1.3 per-
cent to the European Union (EU) economy and 1.8 percent to EU employment in 2017 (European
Commission 2019). At the Mediterranean level ‘Blue Economy’ constitutes an advantage for the
development of the region. Amongst the uses with the highest importance for the Mediterranean
blue economy is maritime transport. The sector is an essential element of the economy and for job
creation across the Mediterranean, but it is also exposed to market fluctuation and international
crises. This makes it a relatively volatile source of growth and jobs in a world increasingly exposed
to shocks (Union for the Mediterranean 2021).
With increasing recognition of the importance of the world’s oceans and coasts, and realizing that
natural resources are declining, many countries, including Malaysia, are focusing on reassessing
the value of oceans and coasts and actively establishing strategies to develop a sustainable blue
economy. The need to balance the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable
development in relation to the oceans is a key component of the blue economy. Realizing the full
potential of the blue economy also requires the effective inclusion and active participation of all
societal groups. In this context, traditional knowledge and practices can also provide culturally
appropriate approaches for supporting improved governance (World Bank and UNDESA 2017).
For a country like Malaysia, the seas surrounding the country contain productive and diverse
habitats with the major ecosystems being mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrasses, amongst others.
These are productive natural ecosystems that contribute significantly to human, food, economic and
environment security. Malaysia is located in the Indo-Pacific region where its coastlines border the
Andaman Sea, the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, the Gulf of Thailand, and the South China
Sea, to name but a few. As seen in Figure 2.1 below, Malaysia’s territory consists of Peninsular
Malaysia which is part of the mainland of Southeast Asia and Sabah and Sarawak (East Malaysia),
separated by the South China Sea. The coast and seas are always part of nation’s social, economic,
security and culture and natural parameters, which are interlinked and influenced by internal as well
as external factors. These sectors are dynamic and continuously changing, providing goods and ser-
vices and in turn being affected by its utility (Kaur 2018).
2.2 DEFINING THE BLUE ECONOMY

How to stimulate economic growth in the ocean areas is widely understood, but it is not clear what the
sustainable ocean economy or blue economy should look like, and under what policies, conditions
and pathways is it most likely to develop (Patil et al 2016). The term ‘Blue Economy’ has been
used in different ways and similar terms such as ‘ocean economy’ or ‘marine economy’ are used
without clear definitions (Lee, Noh, and Khim 2020). The urgency of the ocean health challenge is
becoming more prominent in the global policy discourse. The importance of oceans for sustainable
development is widely recognized by the international community and was embodied in Chapter 7
of the Agenda 21, the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, the Rio+20 outcome document The
Future We Want, and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, where various actions taken
by global institutions on sustainable development are identified (Sustainable Development Goals
Report 2017).
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Blue Economy Potential in Malaysia 37
FIGURE 2.1 Map of Malaysia (nationonline.org).
38
The ‘Rio+20’ United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD), held in Rio
De Janeiro 2012, focused on two key themes: the further development and the refinement of the
Institutional Framework for Sustainable Development and the advancement of the ‘Green Economy’
(UNEP 2012). The 2012 Rio+20 first raised the notion of a blue economy and the need to stimulate
‘blue growth’, particularly for island nations and developing countries with significant coastlines
and/or maritime areas.
The concept of the blue economy serves to complement that of the green economy by rightly
highlighting the environmental challenges that are facing the world’s oceans which account for
two thirds of our blue planet. As a crucial provider of food, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and
energy, oceans are true global commons, whose degradation would have disastrous consequences
for all mankind. (Blue Economy Summit 20th January 2014)
The blue economy is thus part of the global dialogue on specific recommendations for achieving
the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14: ‘Life Below Water’ which seeks to conserve and
sustainably use the oceans, seas, marine, and aquatic resources. The emerging concept of the blue
economy has been embraced by many Small Island Developing States (SIDS) as a mechanism to
realize sustainable growth based around an ocean-based economy. The blue economy concepts seek
to improve economic growth, social inclusion, and the preservation or improvement of livelihoods
while at the same time ensuring environmental sustainability of the oceans and coastal areas (World
Bank and UNDESA 2017).
The blue economy has diverse components including established traditional ocean industries such
as fisheries, tourism, and maritime transport, but also new and emerging activities, such as offshore
renewable energy, aquaculture, seabed extractive activities, and marine biotechnology and biopros-
pecting (World Bank and UNDESA 2017). Larger industries like coastal development, shipping,
and port infrastructure and services also rely on the oceans, seas, and coasts. It is important to high-
light that the concept of the blue economy gives rise to two conflicts of interest: on one hand, those
linked to economic growth and development, and on the other hand, those linked to safeguarding
and protecting the oceans resources (Martinez, Garcia, Valenciano and Jamie 2021). A sustainable
blue economy allows society to extract value from the oceans and coastal regions. However, this
extraction needs to be in balance with the long-term capacity of the oceans to sustain such activities
through the implementation of sustainable practices that ensure the health of the oceans and where
productivity economy is safeguarded, so that the potential they offer can be realized and sustained
over time (European Commission 2019).
Each country will thus need to draft its vision for a sustainable ocean economy, including
how to balance growth and sustainability to enable optimal use of ocean resources with max-
imum benefit (or least minimal harm) to the environment (World Bank and UNDESA 2017).
According to the World Bank, the vision could be supported by development plans and policies,
sometimes referred to as blue economy plans, for the maritime zones of each country, which
will support the attainment of the agreed-upon vision. The vision must further be anchored
in the provisions of UNCLOS, which provides the necessary legal certainty with respect to
maritime rights and obligations of states, including in regards to maritime space and resources
(World Bank and UNDESA 2017).
2.3 PRIORITIES AREAS FOR BLUE ECONOMY IN MALAYSIA

The World Ocean Summit in 2015 described the blue ocean as a sustainable ocean economy that
emerges when economic activity is in balance with ocean ecosystems’ support to remain resilient
and healthy. For Malaysia the concept of the blue economy is relatively new although the country
has been engaging with sustainable development for more than a decade. Malaysia is among the
countries with the richest marine biodiversity in the world, and the marine resources provide essen-
tial contributions to the livelihood and sustenance of the people.
39
Various studies have been carried out on the concept of the blue economy and its importance
to Malaysia’s long term economic growth as well as ocean sustainability. For example, in cooper-
ation with the Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), an
assessment of the state of the country’s oceans and coasts was carried out by the Maritime Institute
of Malaysia (MIMA), an agency under the Ministry of Transport, Malaysia, between 2015 and 2017
to provide:
a) Better understanding of Malaysia’s coasts and seas, as well as the threats from human activ-
ities, and climate change, and the challenges of managing these areas.
b) Aid policymaking, planning and management of the coastal and marine areas of the country,
including the resources, environment, economic activities, and investment, and foster inter-
agency collaboration.
c) Contribute to the blue economy assessment, and to monitoring the implementation of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Sustainable Development Strategy for the Seas of
East Asia (SDS-EA), other international agreements, as well as national laws and policies
(Kaur 2020)
At the regional level, PEMSEA in its 2018 report identified the following eight key industries of
the blue economy:
• Fisheries and aquaculture

• Ports, shipping and marine transport
• Tourism, resorts and coastal development
• Oil and gas
• Coastal manufacturing
• Seabed mining
• Renewable energy
• Marine biotechnology, marine technology and environmental services.
The Regional Network of Local Governments Implementing Integrated Coastal Management

(RNLG) was officially launched by the GEF/UNDP/IMO PEMSEA in March 2001 as a forum for
exchanging information and experiences in integrated coastal management (ICM) practices among
local governments in the region (PEMSEA Charter 2005). Following the Fourth Ministerial Forum
on the Sustainable Development Strategy for the Seas of East Asia in Changwon City, ROC Korea in
2012, the committee understood the blue economy to be the practical ocean-based economic model
using green infrastructure and technologies, innovative financing mechanisms and proactive institu-
tional arrangements for meeting the twin goals of protecting our oceans and coasts and enhancing
their potential contribution to sustainable development, including human well-being, and reducing
environmental risks and ecological scarcities (Ebarvia 2016). The declaration enables the develop-
ment of an ocean-based blue economy in the region through strengthened support for SDC-SEA
implementation and other relevant initiatives.
According to PEMSEA, the Malaysian ocean economy contributes 4 percent in terms of employ-
ment and is the second largest after Indonesia. In terms of value, the size of the ocean economy gross
value added for Malaysia was US$63 billion and US$17.7 billion in terms of the value of ecosystems
service in 2015. Table 2.1 shows the size of the ocean economy in East Asia and Southeast Asia in
2015. For Malaysia, the discourse on SDG14, which has been guided by conservation objectives and
large economic interests is shifting and greater emphasis has now been placed on the blue economy,
generating employment, eradicating poverty and hunger, encouraging entrepreneurship, and cre-
ating opportunities for men, women, youth and indigenous people.
40
TABLE 2.1
Size of Ocean Economy (Gross Value in US$ Billion in 2015)
Ocean Economy Gross Value (US$ billion)
Cambodia 2.39
China 1,041.92
Indonesia 182.54
Malaysia 63.00
Philippines 11.81
Korea (ROK) 43.53*
Singapore 20.78
Thailand 118.19
Timor-Leste 1.97
Vietnam 38.53
Total 1,512.85
* 2013 latest data available.
Source: Maria Corazon Ebarvia, Blue economy: initiative in the East Asian Seas. PEMSEA (2018) https://unescap.org/
sites/default/files/02_04_G_Blue_economy_PEMSEA_1-3Aug2018.pdf.
In the Tenth Malaysia Plan (2010), the government recognized the importance of sustainability
as part of a comprehensive socio-economic development plan (Tenth Malaysia Plan 2010). In 2009,
Malaysia set a voluntary target for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emission resulting from its GDP
by up to 40 percent, compared to 2005 levels, by 2020. In 2013, Malaysia had already achieved
a 33 percent reduction. The country continues developing green growth in the 11th Malaysia Plan
which will ensure that socio economic development is pursued more sustainably, beginning at the
planning stage, and continuing throughout the implementation and evaluation stages (Eleventh
Malaysia Plan 2016). The energy sector, which is a major contributor to national GHG emissions,
has undertaken steps to increase the use of clean and environmentally friendly sources.
Malaysia is well-endowed with natural and marine resources. In 2020, petroleum products and
liquefied natural gas (LNG) contributed 6.3 percent or RM61.9 billion and 2.0 percent or RM28.8
billion respectively to Malaysia’s total exports of RM981 billion (MIDA 2020). The maritime trade
and shipping industry have been the backbone of the country, and more than 90 percent of goods
are exported by sea. As the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has resulted in massive economic
consequences, it is perhaps timely for Malaysia to focus on its ports and shipping sector which form
its maritime industry. With the country’s growing population, demand for seafood will increase,
shipping traffic and tourism will continue to grow, and new ocean industries will expand. The mari-
time industry contributes about 40 percent of the country’s gross economic product. Over the last
ten years, before the pandemic, Malaysian ports have recorded an average trade growth of 3 percent
in compound cargo throughput. Table 2.2 shows the five potential maritime sectors and their sub-
sectors for the implementation of the blue economy in Malaysia.
2.3.1 Port Activities
2.3.1.1 Development
The rapid growth and development of the Malaysian economy over the past decades cannot be
viewed apart from the country’s location alongside the world’s most important trade routes, namely
the Straits of Malacca (Jeevan 2015, Idris and Ramli 2018). The Straits of Malacca has been a stra-
tegic waterway for centuries and still retains its importance today. The strategic location and good
41
TABLE 2.2
The Five Potential Maritime Sectors and Their Sub-sectors for the Implementation of the
Blue Economy in Malaysia
Sector Sub-sector
1. Port activities Warehousing and storage
Cargo handling Construction of projects
Service activities incidental to water transportation
2. Marine Non-living resources oil and gas Extraction of Crude petroleum
Extraction of natural gas
Extraction of marine aggregates
Supporting activities for petroleum and natural gas
Supporting activities for other mining
3. Marine Living resources Capture fishing
Aquaculture sector
Processing and distribution
4. Maritime Tourism Coastal and island Tourism Cruise tourism Accommodation
Transport
Other expenditure
5. Maritime transport shipbuilding and repairing Inland passenger water transport
Inland freight water transport
Marine machinery
Marine equipment
Repair and maintenance of ships and boats
Sea and coastal passenger water transport
Sea and coastal freight water transport
Source: Author’s observation.
connectivity make Malaysia one of the preferred countries to enter the Southeast Asian market.
Currently, Malaysia has a total of seven main federal ports, namely Port Klang, Penang Port, Johor
Port, Kemaman Port, Kuantan Port, Port of Tanjung Pelepas (PTP) and Bintulu Port. Figure 2.2
shows seaports in Malaysia including Kuching port in Sarawak, Labuan port and Kudat, Sandakan,
Lahad Datu, Kunak and Tawau ports in Sabah.
Meanwhile, all ports in Sabah and Sarawak (except Bintulu Port and Labuan Port) are under the
jurisdiction of the State Governments of Sabah and Sarawak respectively (Ministry of Transport
2021). The administration of ports was legislated under the respective port act. Port authorities were
established to govern the federal ports including Port Klang, Johor Port, Penang Port, Kuantan Port
and Bintulu Port (Jeevan 2015). The major ports in Malaysia had experienced a privatization process
since 1986 (Idris 2000). Following the Port Privatization Act in 1990, the port authorities have been
transferring the operation activities to private parties, whereby establishing their role as facilitators,
regulators and owners of their designated port area (Egide van der Heide 2020). The privatization
Master Plan (PMP) was introduced in 1991 to guide the implementation of the privatization pro-
gramme. The PMP contained, among others, a broad policy framework for privatization, procedures
for implementation, and assignment of priorities between projects to be prioritized (Mohd Rahim
2017). The privatization programme had five main objectives namely:
i. To facilitate economic growth

ii. Relieve the financial and administrative burden of the Government
iii. Improve efficiency and productivity
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42
42
FIGURE 2.2 Malaysian seaports (Jagaan Jeevan, Yeng, C. K. and Othman, M. R. (2021) Extension of the seaport life cycle (SLC) by
utilizing existing land capacity for current and future trade preparation, The Asian Journal and Shipping Logistics, 37: 45–60).
43
iv. Reduce the size and presence of the public sector in the economy
v. Help to meet the restrictive objectives of the National Development Policy.
Malaysia’s premier maritime hub, Port Klang (Wesports and Northport) became the first port
to be privatized, followed by other major ports in the country including Penang Port, Johor Port,
PTP, Kuantan Port, and Kemaman Port. In terms of types of cargo, about 70 percent of the cargo is
containerized. Supporting the growth are Malaysia’s premier Port Klang, the country’s national load
center and PTP, the second largest port in the country. Both Port Klang and PTP handled 64 percent
of total cargo throughput by Malaysian ports in 2018. PTP began its operation in 1999 and it is one
of the fastest growing container ports in Southeast Asia. PTP, a joint venture between the Malaysia
based MMC Group and the Netherlands based APM Terminals, registered a strong growth after
accomplishing a record-breaking 9.8 million TEUS total throughput in 2020 despite global eco-
nomic uncertainties and the health pandemic (PTP 2021). MMC Corporation Berhad handles port
operations in Malaysia namely PTP, Johor Port Berhad, Northport (Malaysia) Berhad, Penang Port
Sdn. Berhad, and Tanjung Bruas Port Sdn. Berhad. MMC Corporation Berhad is one of the 10th lar-
gest port operators in the world with a total container handling capacity across all ports in Malaysia
of 21.5 million TEUs (MMC Annual Report 2020).
Container trade development in Asia is faster in comparison to other countries in the world
(Jeevan et al 2019). In 2019, Asia contributed almost 65 percent of total world container traffic
(UNCTAD 2020). Since 2000, Malaysia has recorded a 400 percent growth in container throughput,
now taking almost a quarter of all containers handled in the region (Egide van der Heide 2020). In
2016 Port Klang managed to overtake Rotterdam as the eleventh leading port worldwide (UNCTAD
2017). With a total throughput of 24.9 million in 2018, Malaysian ports handled as many containers
as the ports of Rotterdam and Antwerp combined. According to the United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Malaysia is the world’s fifth best connected country in terms
of shipping and line connectivity as shown in Table 2.3.
Malaysian ports have invested heavily in the port infrastructure and port capacity expansion
projects (Jeevan 2015). In future planning, Port Klang intends to increase its capacity by
50 percent to 30 million twenty-equivalent units (TEUs) per annum by 2040. Similarly, PTP
is developing a new berth that will add 3.5 million TEUs to its current capacity by 2025 (Idris
and Ramli 2018).
TABLE 2.3
UNCTAD Maritime Connectivity Index
Best Connected Countries and/or Territories
1. China
2. Singapore
3. Korea (Rep)
4. Hong Kong (China)
5. Malaysia
6. Netherlands
7. Germany
8. United States
9. United Kingdom
10. Belgium
Source: Egide van der Heide (2020). Port Development in Malaysia, Report by the Embassy of the Kingdom of Netherland
in Malaysia.
44
Apart from trade and shipping, the ports are also important for cruise tourism. The cruise terminals
are located in Penang, Pulau Indah in Selangor, Kota Kinabalu in Sabah and Langkawi in Kedah.
2.3.1.2 Potential
2.3.1.2.1 Sustainable Maritime Ports and Shipping

According to analysis from the Malaysian Investment Development Authority (MIDA 2021) of
all the key industries listed, a promising prospect for Malaysia to focus on is ‘ports, shipping and
marine transport’ which form a maritime industry. The maritime industry needs to be more techno-
logically driven for better stewardship of the ocean, or ‘blue’ resources. The industry is continuously
under pressure to meet commercial marketplace needs and carbon emissions regulations set by the
International Maritime Organization (IMO).
Although global ocean-related risks such as illegal, unreported, unregulated (IUU) fishing, and
marine plastic pollution are difficult to control, opportunities in an area such as ocean renewable
energy are rapidly emerging (MIDA 2021). With Malaysia’s dependence on international trade,
staying aligned to global trends is important, with the shift to sustainability being one of the key
trends of the past decade. Malaysian exporters have taken steps to adopt the United Nations-
supported SDG through implementing environmental, social, and governance (ESG) standards that
meet the requirements for ethical impact and sustainability (MIDA 2020).
2.3.1.2.2 Green Port Policy and Environmental Initiatives

Malaysian ports have taken the initial steps towards the development of a Green Port Policy,
intended to guide port operators into becoming both environmentally-friendly and commercially
viable. The policy includes the study of the fuel quality of ships in ports, and environmental as
well as energy, electricity and fuel saving initiatives. Malaysia is committed to reducing its green-
house gas emission by up to 45 percent in terms of emissions resulting from its GDP, by 2030.
Under the National Automotive Policy 2014, Malaysia had determined to reduce energy consump-
tion and emissions of harmful gases by encouraging the use of energy-efficient vehicles (EEV)
(National Automotive Policy 2014). As the nation’s economy and trade grow, ports are required
to minimize their emissions and pollutions. Port Klang, the premier port in Malaysia aims to be
Malaysia’s premier maritime hub in terms of sustainable port development in line with the National
Transport Policy (NPC). In 2021, Port Klang received international recognition from the Asia Pacific
Economic Cooperation (APEC) Port Service Network (APSN) under the Green Port Award System
(GPAS) (Westports 2021).
The achievement was made possible through the efforts of the Port Klang Authority and both its
terminal operators Northport (Malaysia) and Westports Malaysia Berhad whereby various green ini-
tiative programs were initiated and implemented related to alternative energy via solar LED lighting,
investing in more energy efficient environmentally friendly cargo handling fleets, monitoring carbon
emissions from port equipment and vehicles, marine water quality monitoring and treatment before
being released to port waters, paperless transactions, establishing waste management standard oper-
ating procedures and other ongoing green initiatives (Westports 2021). PTP, the second major port
in Malaysia has stepped up measures to become a green port by offering an advanced vessel traffic
monitoring process by introducing the Marine Resource Management System (MRMS) and Vessel
Traffic Monitoring and Information System (VTMIS).
PTP, the country’s largest container terminal is the first port in Malaysia to attain the VTIMS in
2016 (PTP 2016). VTMIS is a service that primarily provides improvement in terms of the efficiency
of vessel traffic movement and navigation within port approaches or hazardous areas. Both the
latest systems have the ability to reduce the company’s carbon footprint, specifically paper usage. It
also further strengthened the safety and security of vessel navigation within the PTP terminal (PTP
2016). Other environmental initiatives taken by the port community included adopting a marine
45
sanctuary area, collaborating with the Malaysian Nature Society, beach cleaning activities, man-
grove planting and environmental monitoring and waste management. Malaysia and Singapore were
also involved in joint cooperation in tackling chemical oil spills: The Emergency Response Plan.
In recent years, environmental sustainability has become a major policy concern in global
maritime transport (UNCTAD 2019). Ports are increasingly expected to meet other performance
criteria by ensuring highest service reliability and standards relating to quality, security, safety,
financial sustainability, resource conservation, environmental protection, and social inclusion,
many of which are linked to key SDGs (UNCTAD 2017). Achieving environmental sustain-
ability, including in maritime transport, is an imperative of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. The new IMO 2020 regulation, bringing the sulfur cap in fuel oil ships down
from 3.50 percent to 0.50 percent, is expected to bring significant benefits for human health and
the environment (UNCTAD 2019).
More stringent environmental requirements continue to shape the maritime sector (UNCTAD
2020). Carriers need to maintain services levels, reduced costs, and at the same time ensure sustain-
ability in operations. Furthermore, by promoting liquid natural gas-powered ships, the industry can
reduce costs and use a cleaner source of energy, in line with energy and climate related targets under
SDG 7 (on energy) and 13 (on climate change) (UNCTAD 2017).
2.3.1.2.3 Port Interaction with Hinterland

Malaysian ports need to innovate and modernize their operating facilities through digitalization
and automation. As a large transshipment hub, Malaysia should benefit from technological innov-
ation at the port in terms of cargo handling and terminal design intended to increase efficiency
and capacity in a sustainable way. The future port is a smart port, fully automated with a single
integrated port community system but there is a concern about the impact on the jobs of port workers
if full scale automation were to be implemented. Digitalization and automation are transforming
the shipping sector and requiring new skills. The latest technologies provide new opportunities to
achieve greater sustainability in shipping and ports, as well as enhanced performance and efficiency
(UNCTAD 2019).
Ports activities also provide basic infrastructure for many other sectors including fishing, trans-
port, marine extraction of minerals, oil and gas, maritime tourism and marine renewable energy.
In this case, ports act as facilitators of economic and trade development for their hinterland. On
the other hand, there will be a competition in terms of land use with respect to other developments
such as coastal tourism and aquaculture. As an attraction for coastal and marine tourism, cruise
tourism has become one of the sectors identified in the national key economic areas. The Cruise
and Integrated Seaport Infrastructure Blueprint for Malaysia has been prepared as an outline for the
cruise industry in Malaysia to achieve international standards.
2.3.2 Marine Non-living Resources: The Oil and Gas Industry

2.3.2.1 Development
Malaysia is the second largest oil exporter and natural gas producer in Southeast Asia and is the
fifth largest exporter of liquified natural gas (LNG) in the world in 2019. Malaysia’s energy industry
is an important sector of growth of the economy (U.S. Energy Information Administration 2021).
Malaysia’s national oil and natural gas company Petroliam Nasional Berhad (PETRONAS) holds
exclusive ownership rights to all oil and natural gas exploration and production projects in Malaysia.
PETRONAS has an upstream presence that extends across 20 countries globally, with 245 produ-
cing fields, 429 offshore platforms and 30 floating facilities (PETRONAS Annual Report 2019).
Malaysia exported 276,000 b/d of crude oil in 2019 and shipped almost all its crude oil exports to
Asia Pacific countries including Australia, India, Thailand and Singapore. PETRONAS is also a
dominant player in the natural gas sector.
46
Malaysia’s marketed dry natural gas production has risen during the past decade reaching 2.5
trillion cubic feet (Tcf) in 2018. The increase since 2016 has been a result of projects that have come
online in the past few years. Besides natural gas, Malaysia has shipped about 1.2 Tcf of LNG, and
this accounted for 7 percent of LNG exports worldwide in 2019. Major importers of Malaysia’s
LNG in 2019 were all in the Asia Pacific region, namely Japan, China, and South Korea. The world’s
first floating LNG facility, the PFNG SATU successful loaded 10 LNG cargoes in 2019, after its
relocation from the Kanowit gas field in Sarawak to the Kebabangan gas field in Sabah. These
facilities which have the capacity to produce 1.2 million tonnes of LNG per year, are capable of
extracting natural gas from gas fields in water depths up to 200 meters via a flexible subsea pipeline
for the liquefaction, production, storage and offloading processes of LNG at the offshore gas field
(PETRONAS Annual Report 2019).
The development of Pengerang Integrated Petroleum Complex (PIPC) with oil storage terminal
in Johor has completed phase 2 of its construction and this has increased its crude oil storage cap-
acity to 20.8 million barrels for crude oil and petroleum product storage. Phase 3 construction is
expected to complete by 2021 and to add about 2.7 million barrels of storage of clean petroleum
product. It will become the largest commercial oil storage facilities in Southeast Asia, a joint venture
consisting of Vopak, Dialog Group and the state government of Johor.
2.3.2.2 Potential
Petroleum and other liquids and natural gas are the primary energy sources consumed in Malaysia,
with estimated shares of 37 percent and 36 percent respectively in 2019. Coal provides 21 percent of
the country’s energy consumption. Renewable energy accounts for 6 percent of total consumption.
The high dependence on petroleum products will be reduced by promoting the use of alternative
fuels. The use of biofuel will be promoted while research and development efforts (RandD) into the
production of biodiesel will be given full support (Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006). Gas will continue to
play a crucial role in powering Malaysia as it is the cleanest burning fossil fuel and reliable source
of energy, making it a complementary partner to renewable energy, moving towards low carbon
renewable energy in the future.
Other renewable energy sources such as solar will continue to be developed. Efforts have been
made to promote the development of biofuel using palm oil as a renewable source of energy during
the Ninth Malaysia Plan, (Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006). Studies will be conducted to explore new
renewable energy sources such as wind, geothermal and ocean energy. The government will pro-
vide 1,740 personnel to the Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA), creating experts in
the field of biomass, mini hydro and solar PV (Eleventh Malaysia Plan 2016). Therefore, increased
effort is needed in a collaboration with the government and with agencies to shape the long-term
energy policy as part of the national development agenda.
2.3.3 Maritime Tourism
2.3.3.1 Development
Tourism the single largest industry in the world of today. Tourism is an agenda issue in the social,
environmental and economic levels of many governments (Bhuiyan, Siwar and Ismail 2013).
Maritime or ocean-related tourism, as well as coastal tourism, are vital sectors of the economy in
many countries. Globally, coastal tourism is the largest market segment and is growing rapidly,
becoming less sustainable (Kathijotes 2013). Coastal and maritime tourism has been identified as
one of the sectors with high potential for sustainable jobs and growth in the Blue Growth Strategy
in the EU (European Commission 2019).
Coastal and ocean-related tourism comes in many forms and includes dive tourism, maritime
archaeology, surfing, cruises, ecotourism, and recreational fishing operations (World Bank and
47
TABLE 2.4
The Total Number of Tourist Arrival in Malaysia and Total Tourist
Receipts, 2015–2019 (Billion RM)
Year Tourist Arrival (million) Tourist Receipts (billion RM)
2015 25.72 69.1

2016 26.76 82.1
2017 25.95 82.1
2018 25.83 84.1
2019 26.10 86.1
Source: Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture, Malaysia , 2020.
UNDESA 2017). With 48,000 km of coastline, Malaysia boasts some of the most beautiful islands
and beaches in Asia with the Straits of Malacca in the west, the South China Sea in the east and the
Andaman Sea to the Northwest. The Malaysian government has given emphasis to tourism since the
middle of the 1980s. Today, tourism is the third biggest contributor to Malaysia’s GDP after manu-
facturing and commodities. It contributes RM86.14 billion to Malaysia’s economy with 26.1 million
tourists in 2019 as shown in Table 2.4, ranked number two in the region and ranked 77 in the world
when considering tourist numbers in relation to the population of Malaysia. The top ten international
tourist arrivals are from Singapore, Indonesia, China, Thailand, Brunei, India, South Korea, Japan,
The Philippines, and Vietnam.
In the Ninth Malaysia Plan, greater emphasis has been given to ecotourism and sustainable devel-
opment through the protection of natural resources such as recreational forests, parks, beaches,
islands, and lakes (Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006). The nine key initiatives for tourism development in
this period, amongst others, are to attract private sector investment for the growth of the industry,
to develop the quality of tourism services including improving the direction and coordination of
tourism activities, to improve the diversification of tourism products and activities, to give emphasis
to ecotourism, agro-tourism, culture and heritage tourism, the homestay program and thematic
events, to cooperate with the private sector for the marketing and promotion of tourism, an integrated
approach has been taken for ensuring sustainable development in tourism industry in planning and
implementation.
2.3.3.2 Potential
2.3.3.2.1 Ecotourism and Marine Parks
Sustainable development can be part of the blue economy, promote conservation and sustainable
use of marine environments and species, and generate income for local communities (Kathijotes
2013, World Bank and UNDESA 2017). Ecotourism is one of Malaysia’s biggest tourist attractions.
Malaysia is a hotspot for tourists seeking to experience flora and fauna, ancient rainforests, beau-
tiful beaches and reefs, spectacular natural formations, and unparalleled biodiversity (Idris 2021).
Marine parks (other protected areas) have been established for the protection, conservation, and
management of the marine environment. Currently there are 42 islands gazetted as marine parks in
Malaysia managed by the Department for Marine Parks. The principal goals are to protect, conserve
and manage in perpetuity representative ecosystems, particularly coral reefs and their respective
flora and fauna, so that they remain undamaged for future generations (Department of Marine Park
2021). Other goals are to promote scientific research and to inculcate public understanding, appre-
ciation and enjoyment of Malaysia’s marine heritage.
48
The National Tourism Plan (NTP) was formulated in 1992 by the Ministry of Tourism, Arts and
Culture, to develop the tourism industry. The policy incorporates necessary guidelines and man-
agement practices for tourism destination development. The policy is based on community-based
tourism, cooperation and coordination in tourism development, identified potential tourism assets,
and diversification of new products. Ecotourism has been identified as one of the sustainable forms
in this plan. NTP has emphasized sustainable ecotourism development in natural islands such as
highlands, coastal areas, marine parks, islands, national and state parks, geological sites and, wet-
land and RAMSAR sites, turtle landing sites and fire-fly sites.
Figure 2.3 shows the Tun Mustapha Park (TMP), the largest marine conservation area in Malaysia,
covering almost 1 million hectares with a stunning biodiversity of marine life (WWF-Malaysia
2017). It also incorporates more than 50 islands and islets off the northern coast of Sabah, which is
home to the districts of Kudat, Kota Marudu and Pitas. A hugely important area for conservation,
it is one of the conservation areas of the Sulu Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME) and a priority
seascape within the Coral Triangle, which is itself acknowledged as the centre of the world’s marine
biodiversity (WWF-Malaysia 2017). TMP boasts more than 250 species of hard corals, around 360
species of fish, endangered green turtles and dugongs as well as significant primary rainforest, sea-
grass beds supporting food security and the livelihoods thousands of people.
TMP gazettement comes after more than 13 years of preparatory work led by Sabah parks
with government agencies, local communities, international partners, and from support from non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), including the WWF. Fishing has been banned in some areas
of the park to better protect the endangered species, including sharks, but it is still allowed with
limitations in certain designated zones. It will be an International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN), Category VI Park where sustainable uses are still allowed and local communities living
within it are able to continue their activities within designated zones. According to WWF-Malaysia,
the park is an important part of Sabah’s fisheries industry, which produces about 100 tonnes of fish
(worth some of RM700,000) each day. Some 80,000 people make their living from the sea along the
coast, and many are fishermen. Plans are now underway to increase ecotourism in the area, which is
expected to generate income of RM343.4 million over the next two decades for the park.
FIGURE 2.3 The Tun Mustapha Park (WWF Malaysia 2016).

49
The Malaysian government has continued to promote sustainable tourism development in

the National Physical Plan (NPP)-2. The plan prioritizes several sustainable tourism approaches
including ecotourism, culture tourism, tangible and intangible zones and assets. Malaysia has also
introduced new programs such as Eco-Host Malaysia to enhance public awareness of the need to
preserve and conserve the natural environment. It also aims to educate the public on the current
environmental situation and how human activities effect ecosystems, including the local commu-
nity (Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture, Malaysia 2021). Other programs such as Ecoteer, a
volunteer-based ecotourism company, allows travelers to experience and protect nature simultan-
eously through restorative ecotourism in Malaysia.
To harness the competitiveness, Malaysia’s tourism industry, the Ministry of Tourism, Arts
and Culture has established a National Tourism Policy, 2020–2030. The aim is to transform the
tourism industry by harnessing public-private sector partnerships and embracing digitalization to
drive innovation and competitiveness towards sustainable and inclusive development in line with
the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (National Tourism Policy 2020–2030). The
National Tourism Policy has outlined six transformational strategies, first to strengthen governance
capacity, second to create special tourism investment zones, third to embrace smart tourism, fourth
to enhance demand sophistication, fifth to practise sustainable and responsible tourism and finally,
sixth to upskill human capital.
2.3.3.2.2 Cruise Tourism
Malaysia is one of the region’s most attractive cruise destinations. Malaysian ports are fully equipped
with state-of-the art facilities, offering convenient berthing spots for cruise ships from all over the
world (Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture, Malaysia 2021). The Cruise and Ferry Integrated
Seaport Infrastructure Blueprint for Malaysia was commissioned by the Economic Planning Unit in
2011 in collaboration with the Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture
(MOTAC), detailing the visions and policy for cruise industry development in Malaysia until 2020.
The blueprint identified six ports as having potential to contribute significantly to the Malaysian
cruise industry. The six ports were Penang, Port Klang, Kota Kinabalu, Langkawi, Melaka and
Kuching in Sarawak (PEMANDU Associates 2021). In 2013, Kuantan Port joined the line-up of
a primary ports due to its growing strategic importance for international cruise lines developing
their East Asia sectors (PEMANDU Associates 2021). Kuantan emergence as a core port supports
projected traffic increase of cruises to countries along the eastern coast of Southeast Asia, Hong
Kong and Taiwan.
Over the last few years, Malaysia has seen an encouraging number of cruise ships calling at
ports in various countries port, particularly Port Klang, Penang Port, Melaka and Langkawi. From
January to May 2017, a total of 253 international cruise ships called at the ports in the 11 countries,
thus indicating an increase of 9.48 percent compared to the same period in 2016. During the same
period, the country received 405,554 cruise passengers compared to a previous 330,473 passengers,
an increase of 18.51 percent. Malaysian cruise terminals such as Langkawi, Penang Port, Melaka
and Port Klang are located close to local attractions, offering cruise passengers an experience of a
big-city atmosphere and easy access to ecotourism attractions, beaches, authentic culture, and exotic
cuisine. Meanwhile, Kota Kinabalu which is the capital city of Sabah is a gateway to the natural
beauties of the rainforest and orangutan watching tends to be popular among many segments of the
cruise market.
2.3.4 Fisheries Sector
2.3.4.1 Development
Global production of fish and seafood has quadrupled over the past 50 years. According to the
Fisheries Development Authority of Malaysia (FDAM), the international seafood trade ensures
50
food security and contributes to Malaysia’s economic growth. As for 2018, the amount of seafood
imported and exported to/from Malaysia was 1,249,539 t (1.4 billion USD) and 232,156 t (632.08
billion USD), with a net import quantity of 1,017,023 t. As COVID-19 impacted the global demand
for seafood products also plunged. Malaysia covers a total area of 329,847 sq km with a population
of 32.06 million in 2020 (DOSM 2020). The countries share maritime borders with the Philippines,
Vietnam, and Singapore in the south. The fishery sector has for decades been playing an important
role as a major supplier for animal protein to the Malaysian population.
In 2015, the fisheries sector has provided employment to 175,980 people and its contribution
to the GDP was at 1.1 percent. The Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry, Malaysia is
responsible for setting up management policies relating to agriculture and fisheries. The Department
of Fisheries, Sabah (DOFS) is responsible for fisheries matters in Sabah. Two other important
agencies that deal with fisheries matters in Malaysia with exception of Sabah are the Department
of Fisheries, Malaysia (DOF) and FDAM. DOF and DOFS assess and periodically update data on
fishing capacity and establish management measures to ensure that Malaysian capture fisheries are
functioning in a sustainable manner (National Plan of Action for the Management of the Fishing
Capacity in Malaysia, PLAN 2 2015).
Various other legislation and regulations have been put in place to establish controls for related
dimensions of fisheries management, import and export, health and safety and these complement the
fisheries Act (USAID 2018). DOF released a National Plan of Action (NAP) for the Management of
Fishing Capacity in Malaysia for the period 2007–2010 known as PLAN 1 to fulfill a commitment
undertaken by the country as set forth in the 1999 FAO International Plan of Action for the
Management of Fishing Capacity (IPOA-Capacity). The original PLAN 1 focused on strategies
related to the effective management of fishing capacity for the sustainable exploitation of fishery
resources in Malaysia. The revised plan, known as PLAN 2, reviewed the achievements of PLAN 1
and to meet the long-term objectives of NPOA which is to achieve an efficient, equitable and trans-
parent management of fishing capacity (National Plan of Action for the Management of the Fishing
Capacity in Malaysia, PLAN 2 2015).
The development of the fishing industry in Malaysia followed the guidelines of National
Agriculture Policies, with the latest being the National Agro-Food Policy 2011–2020 (NAP).
Amongst others, the policies are intended to sustainably modernize and transform the fisheries
industry in Malaysia. The fisheries policy currently adopted is targeted towards the exploration and
exploitation of resources in new areas of the offshore waters on a large-scale commercial basis. At
the same time, Malaysia will continue to give great importance to the sustainable management of
coastal fisheries. Important challenges in the fisheries industry in Malaysia are listed below:
• Resources being overfished

• Overcapacity
• Inadequate updated data on fisheries resources
• Incomplete gear specification documentation
• Inadequate capacity and capability of monitoring and surveillance
• Insufficient public awareness and participation
• Decisions inconsistent with current policies
• Foreign fishermen working on board local fishing vessels
• Incentives
• Lack of political will for and awareness of conservation and management
• Encroachment of local fishing vessels into prohibited zones
• Encroachment of foreign fishing vessels.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been suggested as useful tools to conserve marine habitats
and biodiversity, particularly the fisheries and coral reefs (Gazi Md Nurul Islam et al 2017). MPA
51
was first initiated by DOF in the 1980s. Subsequently, most coral reef islands were gazetted as
Marine Parks by 1994 under the Fisheries Act 1985 which was amended to the Marine Parks and
Marine Reserves Order 1994. The management of MPAs under the DOF was less effective due to
encroachment by trawler nets. In dealing with the problems of encroachment and overexploitation of
fisheries, the government created the Marine Park Department Malaysia in 2004 under the Ministry
of Natural Resources and Environment (Gazi Md Nuzul Islam et al 2017). In peninsular Malaysia,
the main regulatory method implemented for managing the fisheries resources is limited entry
licensing through zoning. The DOF initiated fisheries conservation and introduced the Fisheries
Prohibited Area Regulations in 1983 under the Fisheries Act 1985. In Malaysia, the regulations that
govern the Marine Parks are still provided by the Fisheries Act 1985. The MPAs have been declared
as protected areas of sea where a variety of uses are permitted such as snorkeling, diving, boating,
and beach use but where fishing is prohibited within the MPA.
2.3.4.2 Potential
2.3.4.2.1 Aquaculture
In 2004, agriculture including aquaculture development, has been given top priority by the govern-
ment to ensure food security and to reduce the food import bill. The aquaculture in Malaysia began
way back in 1920 with the extensive poly-culture of Chinese-carp in pools created in water-filled
mines and has continued to develop from 1930 until the present day. Given the long coastline of
about 4,780 kilometers, brackish water aquaculture dominates the agriculture industry in Malaysia.
Brackish water aquaculture is categorized by the extensive culture of the bivalve mollusk, mostly in
the western coastal water where there is an abundance of mud flats suitable for the culture of blood
cockles. Land-based earthen ponds have spread throughout the country, with the biggest area in
the state of Sabah. The culture of marine fish in floating net-cages in lagoons and sheltered coastal
waters is concentrated mainly in peninsular Malaysia.
Aquaculture is becoming economically more important as well as increasing the variety of
local fish products for food security. Although aquaculture production is still small compared to
fish catches, it has been identified as one of the critical activities to ensure food security since the
Seventh Malaysia Plan (1996). Further impetus has been given to enhancing agriculture develop-
ment as a third engine of growth in the Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001–2005). To chart the development
of the Malaysian agriculture sector, the government formulated the first National Agricultural Policy
(NAP) in the early 1980’s. In the third NAP (1998–2010), the promotion of sustainable aquaculture
development was one of the priorities, where the aims are to increase aquaculture production.
Sustainable fisheries development has become increasingly important as it is also an important
generator of economic and social progress for the rural poor. Various management strategies have
been formulated and implemented to control fishing activity and to promote sustainability and con-
servation of marine resources and ecosystems. The government introduced the National Agrofood
Policy (NAP) in 2010 as a replacement for the third NAP. The blueprint sets a direction to transform
the agricultural sector to become more dynamic, progressive and sustainable. The NAP covers a
period between 2011 to 2020.
2.3.4.2.2 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

To have full integration of aquatic resource management in Malaysia, the management of marine
parks which is one of MPAs has been placed under the DOF. To date there are several types of MPAs
such as Marine Parks, Refugia and Conservation Zones (The New Straits Times, September 9, 2019).
MPAs in Malaysia consist of four different types of protecting areas namely marine parks, fishing
prohibited areas, wild life reserves and turtle sanctuaries (The International Coral Reef Initiative
2020). The different types of marine managed areas are due to the different objectives, namely
biodiversity which include the management of fisheries, turtles and habitats. There are five manage-
ment authorities that managed the marine areas in Malaysia, the Department of Fisheries under the
52
Ministry of Agriculture, and Department of Marine Parks, Malaysia under the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment are responsible for the management of marine areas in peninsular
Malaysia. The other managing agencies are Sarawak Forestry Department, Sabah Parks and Sabah
Wildlife Department. They are responsible for the management of marine protected areas in the state
of Sarawak and in the state of Sabah respectively (The International Coral Reef Initiative 2020).
Malaysia is supposed to set aside at least 10 percent of the coastal and marine environments as
MPAs by the end of 2020 to meet one of the Aichi’s Biodiversity Targets (WWF 2017). However,
with 25,357.9 sq km currently gazetted for MPAs, the country is only at 5.3 percent. According to
the WWF, the world had lost 27 percent of its coral reefs and if the present rate continued, 60 per-
cent will die over the next 30 years. According to WWF-Malaysia, the reefs in the Straits of Malacca
have an economic value of RM2.3 billion. Malaysia’s marine parks managed to attract an average of
650,000 visitors annually, showing the great potential of the marine ecotourism sector in Malaysia.
For example, Pulau Tioman marine park rated by the International Coral Reef Triangle Initiative
(ICTI) as a Category Four Flagship Site, is identified as a ‘large, effectively managed site with
regional ecological, governance and socioeconomic importance’ and which meets the highest level
criteria for management effectiveness (The Star 21 Jan 2020). Pulau Tioman is a prime example of
working with the local communities, with an estimated 3,500 residents having undergone major
socioeconomic changes with the gazetting of the island and its waters as marine parks. Therefore,
under the National Policy for Biological Diversity 2016–2025, the Fisheries Department is obliged
to protect, and where necessary restore, ecosystems and habitats such as mangroves, seagrasses,
limestone hills, wetlands and coral reefs.
Aside from MPAs, other methodologies adopted for conservation are known as refugia. The
refugia in Malaysia are based on four main components (Mohd. Ghazali Manap 2018):
a) Identification and management of fisheries and critical habitat linkages at two priority fish-
eries refugia
b) Improvement of the management of critical habitats of fish stocks of trans-boundary signifi-
cance via national actions to strengthen the enabling environment and knowledge-base for
refugia management
c) Information management and dissemination of the fisheries refugia concept
d) National coordination for integrated fish stocks and critical habitat management.
In 2000 the DOFS introduced one concept that had been rejuvenated from traditional practices,
called the Tagal System. The aim of the Tagal System is to strengthen the smart partnership
between government agencies and local communities in protecting and reviving depleted river fish
populations and harvesting such resources in a sustainable manner for the benefit of the local com-
munities. The system which started with 30 areas in 2001 had expanded to 487 areas by 2014 and
benefited 170,000 local communities in various economic activities. Seventeen districts in the West
of Sabah comprising of 192 rivers have already been involved in Tagal Programs (Mohd. Ghazali
Manap 2018).
Finally, the Ministry of Agriculture and Agro based Industry realised a new direction for the
Ministry that covers the period 2019–2020. The document highlights the five-point food security
plan, 18 strategies and 51 initiatives that aim to strengthen the implementation of the NAP-2011–
2020. This action plan is geared towards ensuring national food security and rural economic devel-
opment, as well as spurring domestic investment and international trade with the intention of lifting
farmers, breeders, and fishermen out of poverty. Challenges to the sustainable management of
fisheries included attention to trawling in the vulnerable reef areas, overfishing, and the use of
destructive and illegal fishing methods. In addition, encroachment by commercial fishing vessels
into traditional fishing areas and the use of excessive lights on the purse seiners (which attracted
excess and often juvenile fish), also lead to overfishing (Wild Life Fund Malaysia 2017). The result
53
was declining fish stocks and habitat degradation which threatened the very survival of fisheries,
including high value fish species (Wild Life Fund Malaysia 2017).
2.3.5 Maritime Transport—Ship Building and Repair

2.3.5.1 Development and Potential
Ship building and ship repairing (SBSR) is a strategic industry that contributes to Malaysia’s eco-
nomic growth. It facilitates shipping which carries an estimated 95 percent of national trade, and
the offshore oil and gas (OandG) which remain the backbone of the Malaysian economy. There
are about 100 shipyards in Malaysia which build and undertake maintenance, repair and overhaul
vessels of various types and sizes. Most of the shipyards are concentrated in the cities of Sibu and
Miri in the state of Sarawak and specialize in building and repairing small to medium sized vessels
such as tugboats, offshore support vessels (OSVs), barges, anchor handlers, and passenger boats.
Shipyards in the west coast of peninsular Malaysia focus on building and repairing naval patrol
vessels, and fabricating offshore structures, while most in the east coast concentrate on fishing
vessels. The SBSR industry contributes significantly to national economy and trade. In 2015 the
industry generated an estimated RM6.4 billion worth of revenue and provided employment to
35,000 people (not including sub-contractors at shipyards) (Khalid 2021).
2.4 OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

An important challenge of the blue economy is thus to understand and better manage the many
aspects of oceanic sustainability, ranging from sustainable fisheries to ecosystem health to pollution.
Bannet et al (2019) suggested that the global rush to develop the blue economy risks harming both
the marine environment and human wellbeing with bold policies and actions being urgently needed
as ocean development proliferates within Economic Exclusive Zones (EEZ) and in areas beyond
national jurisdiction. As Voyer et al (2018) pointed out, the blue economy operates in two competing
camps: a) opportunities for growth and development and; b) threatened and vulnerable spaces in
need of protection.
At the same time, the ocean economy or blue economy can contribute to addressing some of the
concerns associated with economic and environment vulnerability, including those associated with
remoteness, by fostering international and regional cooperation under an ‘open space approach’,
which is expressed in the literature as marine spatial planning (UNCTAD 2014, Smith-Godfrey
2016). The concept of ocean economy also embodies economy and trade activities that integrate
conservation, sustainable use, and management biodiversity, including maritime ecosystems and
genetic resources (UNCTAD 2014). Thus, the ocean economy offers significant development oppor-
tunities but raises challenges, not only to SIDS and LDCs but to all countries.
Despite the wide range of economic activity dependent on and shaped by the ocean as a discrete and
unique segment of the global economy and its potential for growth, measures for ‘ocean economy’ have
historically not been available (Patil et al 2016). The contribution of the ocean economy to global GDP
has rarely been measured although a number of recent estimates have been made, hampered by a lack of
comprehensive data made available for analysis. So far, the most extensive effort is the development of
an Ocean Economy Database by the OECD, suggesting a contribution in 2010 on the order of US$1.5
trillion in added value (OECD 2016). This value is growing rapidly, and prior to the COVID-19 pan-
demic, it was projected to increase to USD 3.0 trillion in 2030 (Sumaila et al 2021). Note that this is likely
to be an underestimate since many evaluations do not include benefits that lack a market value, such as
cultural, social, and ceremonial values (Sumaila et al 2021).
‘Measurement is difficult, not least because the lines between coastal and ocean economies are often
blurred. And comparisons between countries are complicated by differences in measurement systems,
income, and geography. It is also likely that the economic contribution of the ocean is undervalued in
54
many countries. National accounting systems often treat large sectors such as oil and gas and coastal real
assets separately. Meanwhile, few estimates give any sense of the value of non-market goods and services
such as carbon sequestration, to the ocean economy’. (Economist Intelligence Unit 2015).
According to Smith-Godfrey (2016), the definition of blue economy could be: ‘Blue Economy
is the sustainable industrialization of the oceans to the benefit of all’. The motivation for including
‘benefit’ is to balance improvements in equity and wellbeing of both humankind and the environ-
ment with reduction in ecological scarcities, bringing the elements of resource efficiency and a low-
carbon footprint. Benefit, as defined in this context, allows for the measurement of all the included
elements, which may be interpreted as a measurement of effectiveness (Smith-Godfrey 2016). By
adopting the definition of the blue economy as ‘the sustainable industrialization of the oceans to the
benefit of all’, together with the criteria linked to it and the balance it seeks to strike between activity
and value, several aspects need to be analyzed.
The ocean activities include harvesting of living resources, extraction of non-living resources,
generation of new resources, and trade of resources and resource health, which were established
by applying a value chain method on the oceans (Smith-Godfrey 2016, p. 4). To discuss the oppor-
tunities and challenges posted by the blue economy, it is essential to identify ocean activity and its
value. For example, different activities will have different values that contribute to the economic
growth of a country, including the establishment of new emerging industries, as shown in Table 2.5.
This method was applied on various types of activity using a life-cycle analysis and a cradle-to-
grave approach (Smith-Godfrey 2016).
Here the drivers of change vary according to the different activities, for example, for ports
and shipping activities the drivers include consumer demands, international regulations for trade
and transport, and globalization. For tourism and recreation activities, the drivers are growth in
demand for tourism and urbanization, and increases in mobility, accessibility and the demand for
TABLE 2.5
Ocean’s Value Chain
Type of Activity Related Industries Providing Emerging Industries

1. Harvesting of living Fisheries Food security for humans Aquaculture and mari-culture
resources and animals Pharmaceutical and
chemical industries
2. Extraction of non-living Mining oil and gas Energy Seabed mining
resources exploration
Alluvial mining
3. Generation of new Oil and gas supply Energy and water Water desalination Renewable
resources Water desalination energy such as wave energy,
ocean wind and solar
farming
4. Trade in resources Shipping, ports and Shipping and ports
such as transportation infrastructure supporting Cabotage
of resources Trade the services and coastal Eco-marine tourism
tourism and recreation development for tourism Marine real estate
(services) development Maritime and
marine culture and heritage
5. Resource health Ocean surveillance and Ocean technologies blue
monitoring coastal carbon habitat protection
governance and ocean rehabilitation and
management restoration pollution and
waste technologies
Source: Adapted from Simone Smith-Godfrey (April 2016). Defining the blue economy. Maritime Affairs: Journal of the
National Maritime Foundation of India, 1: 58–64.
55
conservation activities (Smith-Godfrey 2016). For resource health activities, the drivers of change
include research and development in technologies, developments in carbon regulations, political
stability from a security perspective, urbanization, preservation, and conservation demand.
However, many aspects of the current ocean resource use pattern make it unsustainable and there-
fore difficult to measure. For example, human transformation of marine ecosystems has resulted in
widespread biodiversity lost and habitat damage. This is not new phenomenon since intense exploit-
ation of ocean resources, overfishing, and pollution are major anthropogenic threats to the future
sustainability of the oceans and their resources. Unsustainable use of oceans and its resources has
reduced the ecosystems’ resilience and increased mankind’s vulnerability to future global change,
thereby incurring a huge economic cost to society. The cost of inaction in the conservation and sus-
tainable use of the ocean are high (Sumaila et al 2021).
Clearly, there is need to change existing practices to ensure that they are compatible with that
ocean economy in a way that is sustainable. There is a need to overcome current economic trends that
are rapidly degrading ocean resources through unsustainable extraction of marine resources, phys-
ical alterations and the destruction of marine and coastal habitats and landscapes, climate change,
and marine pollution (World Bank and UNDESA 2017). Sustainable used of marine resources is
a complex phenomenon that requires an interdisciplinary approach. In order to overcome the gap
between economic prosperity and the need for the sustainability of marine resources, the ecological
dimension is significant because it emphasizes the establishment of efficient sea resource man-
agement that includes a number of activities. In the first instance there is a need for the prevention
of marine pollution, protection of the marine and coastal ecosystems, encouragement of regulated
fishing, conservation of coastal and marine areas, the employment of the new marine technologies
and the acknowledgment of the scientific background (Nikcevic and Skuric 2021).
Addressing sustainability and equity demands attention to governance. However, ocean govern-
ance is highly complex and often lacks coherence and coordination. Bennet et al (2019) pointed out
that blue economy governance focuses on how the ocean will be developed and by whom, how and
to whom benefits will be distributed, how damage will be minimized, and who will bear responsi-
bility for environmental and social outcomes. Inclusive governance requires that decision making
structures and processes are representative of diverse factors from civil society, the private sectors
and the governments as shown in Figure 2.4. Ocean spaces and resources are often shared and
FIGURE 2.4 Inclusive governance of the blue economy (Nathan, J. B. et al. (October 2019). Towards a
sustainable and equitable blue economy. Nature Sustainability, 2(11): 1–3).
56
accessed by numerous users including coastal communities, small-scale fisheries and indigenous
people who should have a right to participate in the decision regarding allocation of property rights,
resources and benefits from, and management of the blue economy (Cohen et al 2019).
One of the challenges to the process of implementation of the blue economy is financial in nature.
Financial plans must be put in place to guarantee long term operation. Multisector stakeholder
agreements between government and its public utilities, private organizations, and environmental
protection groups can be drafted to shoulder long-term expenses with the commitment to share data
and equipment utilization (Bethel, Buravleva and Tang 2021). For ocean economy to be sustainable,
ocean finance must be adequate and directed to sustainable use and governance of the ocean and its
resources (Sumaila et al 2021). This encompasses local, national, and international level financial
instruments that are provided by individuals, public and private companies, governments and other
non-governmental/inter-governmental institutions.
2.5 CONCLUSION
It is clear that from the above discussion, Malaysia is still in the middle of implementing sustainable
development and at the same time promoting green growth in several sectors including the maritime
port and shipping sector, fisheries, maritime tourism and the oil and gas industry. While the ‘blue
economy’ concept is very new and not widely used yet in Malaysia, the term has gained enormous
momentum at the regional and international levels. Realizing the potential of the blue economy and
its benefits in Malaysia, the ports and shipping sector and the tourism sector could be the central
sectors of the blue economy concept in the country. Currently, ports are facing increased competi-
tive pressure. Optimization of operations, cost reduction and trade promotion could help improve
productivity. Recently, many stakeholders have been calling for an integrated approach to sustain-
able development; a ‘blue economy’ that builds an understanding of the world’s ocean that not only
accounts for more than 70 percent of the planet’s surface area but also forms a foundation for global
economic sustainability.
Apart from the ports and shipping sector, the maritime tourism sector will be a booming
sector of the blue economy. There are approximately 3.2 million jobs in the maritime tourism
sector in Europe alone. For a country like Malaysia, tourism, including maritime tourism, is a
generator for economic growth and further priority will be given by the government to develop
ecotourism that will reduce the negative impact on the environment. Coastal and maritime
tourism depends greatly on good environmental conditions and a good water quality in par-
ticular. Cruising can also be considered as part of coastal tourism and maritime tourism and the
industry grows extremely fast.
The fishing industry has not changed a lot in recent years. The importance of fishing for feeding
the world’s population has undoubtedly remained the same. Unfortunately, the negative effects
of the fishing industry have hardly changed. Sustainable fishing has huge potential in Malaysia.
Malaysia should continue to give emphasis to the development of MPAs. Malaysia as one of the
twelve leading biodiverse countries in the world and places a lot of emphasis on conservation and
sustainable utilization of its rich natural heritage. Malaysia achieves success in managing marine
parks and has been recognized for this by the International Coral Triangle Initiative (ICTI), a
multilateral partnership involving Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the
Solomon Islands and Timor Leste. However, the rise of population and rapid development of the
MPA areas has made biodiversity conservation increasingly challenging. Malaysia’s biodiversity
riches must be managed and conserved properly so that the benefits can be passed to the next
generations.
Finally, the greatest challenges in implementing the blue economy concept in most countries is that
the ocean is still not a priority and the lack of a national ocean policy and institutional arrangements.
There is an urgent need to have a common understanding of the blue economy and link it to the
57
SDGs and other regional and international agreements. Yet, neither an obvious coordinating body nor
a comprehensive set of blue economy guidelines currently exist (Bennet et al 2019). Thus, Bennet
et al (2019) recommended that the UN establish or designate a commission or agency within the
Economic and Social Council system to be responsible for developing best practices and establish
international guidelines for the implementation, monitoring and management of blue economy activ-
ities. Guidelines would provide a foundation for international deliberation and multilateral discus-
sion, as well as guidance on national policies and corporate activities (Bennet et al 2019).
Moving forward, the ocean sector which is crucial for Malaysia’s economy through its resources
and ecosystems services that support trade and industries, requires proper management and con-
servation strategies to achieve the best economic, environment and social outcomes. There should
be changes in the role of governance and the encouragement of more private sector participation to
ensure sustainable and inclusive well-being and to promote a circular economy and climate resili-
ence. Some of the initiatives that could be undertaken include developing a blue economy profile
and conducting pilot studies of the ocean to help define and refine Malaysia’s concept of a blue
economy and promoting the use of ocean economy data in marine planning and at the regional level
to facilitate further engagement of Malaysia with other countries in the region on related matters
(The Borneo Post 2018). It is envisaged that the blue economy initiative would further drive sustain-
able development at the national level (The Borneo Post 2018).
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3 Optimizing the Connectivity

of Salmon Farms
Role of Exposure to Wind,
Tides, and Isolation
Dmitry Aleynik,1* Thomas Adams,1,2 and Keith Davidson1
1
Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban, UK
2
Scottish Sea Farms Limited, South Shian, Connel, Argyll, UK
*Corresponding author: Dmitry Aleynik
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 62
3.2 Methods................................................................................................................................... 63
3.2.1 Summary..................................................................................................................... 63
3.2.2 Scoping Sites...............................................................................................................63
3.2.3 Physical Models.......................................................................................................... 64
3.2.4 Biological Model......................................................................................................... 65
3.2.5 Outputs and Analysis................................................................................................... 66
3.3 Results..................................................................................................................................... 67
3.3.1 Physical Models–Validation........................................................................................ 67
3.3.2 Physical Models—Site Characteristics....................................................................... 68
3.3.3 Sea Louse Dispersal.................................................................................................... 74
3.3.4 Dispersal of Lice from Existing Sites.........................................................................74
3.3.5 Dispersal of Lice from New Sites............................................................................... 74
3.3.6 Connectivity................................................................................................................76
3.3.7 Exposure and Isolation................................................................................................ 77
3.4 Discussion............................................................................................................................... 79
3.5 Conclusions............................................................................................................................. 81
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................... 82
Supplementary Materials.................................................................................................................. 82
References......................................................................................................................................... 82
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-3 61
62
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Growth in consumer demand for fish and other marine food products requires a corresponding
increase in production over the coming decades. This is particularly true in high-latitude countries
where salmon farming is practised. In Scotland, for example, government is targeting a sustained
increase in production to 2030 (Scotland Food and Drink 2017). To meet this demand, farm operators
have two main options: the establishment of new sites, or the expansion of the existing ones.
Preferred locations for farms are generally found in sheltered fjordic areas. However, as the industry
is now well established, such areas are already considered to have reached their capacity in terms
of numbers of sites. Furthermore, sites cannot be increased in size without regulatory established
limits. A maximum permitted biomass is applied to each site when its licence is granted (based
upon the predicted level of released depositional matter such as feed and faeces and its impact on
the benthic environment; (Scottish Environmental Protection Agency 2019b), and operators seek to
work as closely as possible to this level to maximise profits. To overcome such spatial and size based
restrictions on capacity, operators are therefore looking for new (often more exposed) locations in
which to site farms.
One of the principal environmental impacts of salmon farming relates to sea lice Lepeophteirus
salmonis (Kroyer, 1837) (Bron et al. 1993). These are parasitic copepods that feed on the soft tissues
of salmonid fish, causing a range of issues including lesions, loss of appetite, osmoregulatory imbal-
ance and increased susceptibility to other challenges such as Amoebic Gill Disease, harmful algal
blooms, and jellyfish stings. These serve to reduce fish health and welfare and can, in severe cases,
lead to mortality of infested fish. Sea lice were present prior to the establishment of salmon aquacul-
ture, but the enhanced (and year-round) availability of host fish on farms allows lice to reach much
greater numbers than they would naturally (Costello 2006; Heuch et al. 2005). Even historically,
when production levels were much lower, it was estimated that farmed fish accounted for 78-97% of
the larval sea lice in Scottish waters (Butler 2002).
Sea lice infestations have generally been treated through the application of chemicals, both in
fish feed and in topical bath treatments. Due to their impacts on the environment (in particular
benthic organisms (Veldhoen et al. 2012), the chemicals used to treat and remove sea lice are
strictly regulated (Scottish Environmental Protection Agency 2019b), with limits placed on the
frequency, number and intensity of treatments. Other approaches to dealing with sea lice include
fresh and warm water baths (Grøntvedt et al. 2015), physical barriers (Oppedal et al. 2017),
cleaner fish such as wrasse (Leclercq, Davie, and Migaud 2014; Skiftesvik et al. 2013) and
coordinated local management strategies (T. P. Adams, Aleynik, and Black 2016; Murray and
Gubbins 2016).
Farmers wishing to extend existing sites or establish new ones must demonstrate a commitment
to limiting impacts on wild fish. In Scotland, such a planning process is administered at a
local council level. Council planners are more experienced at dealing with applications where
complaints are well defined and objective (oppositions to building developments, for example).
In the case of assessing the environmental impacts of proposed aquaculture developments, they
are often faced with the challenge of vocal objectors (the concerns of whom may be justified
or unjustified), and a lack of informative and impartial information upon which to gauge the
likely impacts of a site development. These might be impacts in absolute, relative, or cumula-
tive terms.
Despite limited physical space in fjordic coastal waters, sustainable development of the industry
should be possible. It will however involve consideration of locations that, by virtue of their level
of physical exposure, might have been previously considered somewhat less suitable for farming
operations. Investigating such options requires coordination between stakeholders at a regional
level, appropriate regulation and standardised methods for the appraisal of parasite pressure and
wild fish impacts which take into account the interconnected nature of the environment in which
farms are located.
63
Optimizing Connectivity of Salmon Farms 63
Computational biophysical models are ideal for such an application. Over the last decade, meth-
odology for the modelling of sea lice dispersal in the coastal marine environment has reached a
consensus in terms of parameterization and constituent processes (Johnsen et al. 2016; Salama and
Murray 2013). Advances in computing facilities and hydrodynamic modelling software now allow
the simulation of a large spatial domain, incorporating fine resolution in key areas with accept-
able levels of computational overhead (Adams et al. 2016; Aleynik et al. 2016; 2018; Wolf et al.
2016). Given appropriate environmental forcing and using existing industry data sources, models
now allow the derivation of clearly defined and comprehensible quantitative results. This enables
appraisal of individual sites in the context of existing local developments and making scientifically
robust comparisons between different options.
To illustrate this approach, we focus on a comparative case study of two hypothetical new
salmon aquaculture sites, both of which are more exposed than most existing sites. We use biophys-
ical model simulations to investigate and describe how these sites affect and are affected by their
surroundings, in terms of the impact of sea lice populations. We discuss model parameterization,
simulation timeframes, variation in environmental conditions, and options for the integration of
available data sources relating to production statistics and local sea lice counts. Key outputs relating
to the spread of lice from sites are described, including larval density, prevalence and connectivity.
We consider how our new sites fit within the region, assessing connectivity across the full network
of sites, in the context of wave exposure and physical isolation from established sites.
3.2 METHODS
3.2.1 Summary
A combined hydrodynamic and biological model was used to simulate the spread of ‘sea lice’ larval
particles from existing salmon aquaculture sites, and from two locations where there are currently
no fish farms. Simulations covered a continuous period of twelve complete months, incorporating
a representative range of varying tides and weather conditions, which together dominate the flow
pattern in this region (Edwards 2016). Particle release rates were linked to site biomass and lice
treatment threshold levels. A range of metrics including mapped dispersal patterns, dispersal kernels
and between-site connectivity were considered to characterize the new sites in the context of their
surroundings.
The variability in connectivity of all existing sites was also assessed, in addition to the infection
pressure at locations spanning the full coastline. This was related to a wave exposure index and the
sum of inverse distances to existing sites.
3.2.2 Scoping Sites
The characteristics of two sites in the Scottish west coast region were investigated. These sites were
chosen such that they were relatively nearby to one another, allowing their comparison and a study
of interconnectivity between them, and in locations which could potentially be used for future aqua-
culture development (though no development or plan for development presently exists). The model
sites were located at Loch Buie on the south coast of Mull (‘Site 1’: lon/lat -5.9102°, 56.3339°), and
Minard Point on the coast of the mainland, south of Oban (‘Site 2’: lon/lat -5.5459°, 56.3503°) (stars
on Figures 3.1, 3.3, 3.5, 3.6).
Both sites are relatively exposed in comparison with most farms in the region, but they are some-
what sheltered in comparison to completely open water and hence characteristic of the water bodies
that aquaculture operators now wish to exploit. Site 1 is in a relatively open loch (fjord) which faces
SW, and it is exposed to prevailing winds but sheltered from most other directions. Located by an
island, it is expected to have relatively low influence of freshwater. It is relatively isolated from other
fish farm sites.
64
Site 2 is located near a headland at the mouth of a loch and is more sheltered from the prevailing
wind direction. Tidal flows in the area around this site are strong and fairly complex, due to the array
of islands and narrow straits in the vicinity. The site is likely to be subject to pulses of freshwater
emanating from the neighboring loch. Site 2 is less isolated from other existing farms, with these
being located both to the north and south of the site.
3.2.3 Physical Models
The underlying models for this study are based on the coupled operational ocean- atmosphere
WeStCOMS (West Scotland Coastal Ocean Modelling System), comprised of the WRF meteorological
model (Skamarock et al. 2008) and the unstructured FVCOM ocean circulation model (Chen et al. 2013).
This utilizes a variable resolution triangular prismatic mesh to simulate water currents, temperature and
salinity (among other quantities), representing detailed coastal and bathymetric features where required,
whilst retaining computational efficiency. Horizontal resolution ranges between 130 m to 4.5 km at some
open boundary locations. Vertically, the model resolves 10 terrain following sigma-layers, with higher
density of layers near the surface and seabed with most locations close to the coastlines being shallower
than 100 m. WeStCOMS-FVCOM is nested (one-way) into the regional operational North-East-Atlantic
ROMS model (Dabrowski et al. 2014), which provides ocean temperature and salinity fluctuations at
the open lateral boundary. A range of external forcing processes include tidal excursions driven at the
model boundaries with 11 major tidal constituencies computed with Oregon State University OSU
inverse tidal solution (Egbert et al. 2010), and the Multi-Satellite Sea-Surface Temperature MUR-SST
product available from JPL-NASA (Armstrong et al. 2012). Meteorological forcing data, derived from
the high-resolution (2 km) WeStCOMS-WRF model domain, includes cross-sea-surface shortwave and
net radiation fluxes, winds and fresh water supply via discharges from major rivers (estimated as the
accumulated WRF rainfall over their individual catchment areas).
Specific implementations of these models were developed for the Scottish west coast region,
details of which have been described previously (Adams et al. 2016; Aleynik et al. 2016; 2018). The
model domain is shown in Figure 3.1 and covers most of the west coast of Scotland, an area that
contains a large proportion of the salmon aquaculture sites in the UK (156 sites). The WeStCOMS
model produces hindcast and five-day forecasts on a weekly basis over the full period from July
2013 to the present date.
The meteorological model was compared to data from weather stations within the domain,
including Dunstaffnage, Tiree and Machrihanish (UK Met Office 2019), with a particular focus
on accuracy of wind speed and direction, which have a large impact on the surface water layers
in which sea lice generally reside (Amundrud and Murray 2009). The hydrodynamic model was
validated against a range of data sources, including tidal pressure gauges, ocean flow parameters
obtained using in-situ Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers deployed at moorings, and floating drifter
tracks (Aleynik et al. 2016).
The predicted characteristics related to each site included the residual currents, de-tided by
removing the synthetic time-series built with principal tidal components using T_TIDE toolbox
(Pawlowicz et al. 2002), temperature, salinity and wind components at 10 m height, using an ana-
lysis of the model outputs from June 2013 -June 2018. In the planning process for an actual site,
a current meter deployment was used to provide a basis for the depositional modelling required
to meet regulatory criteria. Instrumental records of the time-series of currents were also used for
hydrodynamic model validation at the site. We compared predicted current speed and direction
against equivalent ADCP (600 kHz Teledyne RDI Sentinel WH) records collected for submission
to SEPA for a proposed site ‘West Jura’, to the south of two specific sites considered (Location: -
5.903137°, 56.064578° marked with a square on Figure 3.1a). The measurements represent currents
at the sea surface, at middle depth 10.6 m, and near the seabed 34.2 m over the period between 28th
July and 15th August 2016, courtesy of (Kames Fish Farming Ltd 2016).
65
FIGURE 3.1 Hydrodynamic model domain. (a) The long-term (2013–2018) maximum current speed in cm∙s-1,
computed with the WeStCOMS model over the west Scotland region. Yellow stars indicate new sites 1 and 2,
and cyan discs indicate all other licensed salmon aquaculture sites. Red diamonds T, D and M refer to Tiree,
Dunstaffnage and Machrihanish weather stations respectively, and the magenta square indicates the Isle of Jura
ADCP current meter location. (b) The same long-term mean residual de-tided sea-surface velocity vectors.
https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.15029112.v1
3.2.4 Biological Model
Output from the hydrodynamic model was used to drive a particle tracking model, which was
parameterized to represent the characteristics of sea lice larvae.
The particle tracking model has been described previously (Adams et al. 2016; Adams et al.
2012). Particles moved horizontally subject to the water currents predicted by the hydrodynamic
model, in addition to random turbulent diffusion. Larval particles inhabited the upper layer of
the water column, and were not allowed to move vertically between layers (Cantrell et al. 2020),
although response to salinity gradient is included by some authors (Johnsen et al. 2014). Particles
experience a constant rate of mortality of 0.01 h-1, and are removed from the simulation after 21 days
(parameters after (Amundrud and Murray 2009; Salama et al. 2013; Stien et al. 2005). Stage durations
are dependent on water temperature (which typically varies between 8 –14°C in this locality), with
66
particles moving from the non-infective nauplii stage to the infective copepodid stage after accumu-
lating 40 degree-days (1 day at 10 degrees C equates to 10 degree-days). Particles are removed from
the simulation after 150 degree days (Johnsen et al. 2014; Samsing et al. 2019). Particles are viewed
as ‘super-particles’. This means that, in contrast to our previous work, but in line with other studies
(Johnsen et al. 2016; Salama et al. 2013), lice particles are able to infect multiple sites, in other
words, they do not end their movement when an infection/arrival event occurs. Particles also have
a density (reduced over time by mortality) which governs the predicted overall spatial density and
connection probabilities. This gives two options for computing connections between sites: records
of particle arrivals, and computation of particle density over an appropriate space-time window. The
particle tracking code is available in an online repository (Adams 2019).
The model was run for a continuous 380 day period to simulate the spread of sea lice from the
196 existing sites within the model domain, and from the new sites. Presented simulations covered
the period 01/01/2016 –31/12/2016, incorporating a representative balance of periods where winds
were very light (May, June), northerly (April), south-westerly (March, July, August), and south-
erly (September, October). This allows assessment of the likely variation in spread patterns from
the sites. Every hour of the model run, we released five particles from each fish farm site. For the
estimates of larval density, we applied such scaling that it provided a realistic estimate of the larval
release from each site, as described in Equation 1.
The estimated number of nauplii released from a site within a given hour t was (B × F ×
L × f)/(24 × 5), where B is the biomass, and F is the number of fish per tonne of farmed bio-
mass. L is the number of lice per fish and f is the estimated number of larvae released per adult
female louse per day. To obtain an hourly rate this value is divided by 24 and by the number
of particles released per hour (5) to rescale model particle counts to an estimated number of
nauplii released.
In order to provide a conservative ‘worst case scenario’, each operating site’s permitted biomass
was used, and fixed at the same level throughout the simulations with the range Bi =0 -2649 tonnes
(Scottish Government 2019); table 3.3: ‘Scottish west coast salmon farm locations’ (accessible at
https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.14997870.v3). For the new sites, the biomass was assumed to
be equal to the maximum presently permissible (2500 tonnes). Fi was fixed at 240 fish per tonne,
approximating the midpoint of a production cycle (though this is a substantial underestimate at early
points in the production cycle). We assumed that the number of lice per fish at all sites was on the
threshold of treatment of 0.5 adult female lice pre fish. The estimated number of larvae released per
louse per day was f =28.2 (Heuch et al. 2000), and assumed to be the same for all sites, at all times.
With the intention to provide a baseline worst case scenario, we ignore any variability in lice counts,
stocking patterns, or environmental conditions, which can affect larval release rates over space and
time (Stien et al. 2005).
Models we run in a sequential off-line hindcast fashion, with the hydrodynamic model driven by
the output from the meteorological model, and the output from the hydrodynamic model used to
drive the biological model.
3.2.5 Outputs and Analysis

To assess the influence of the new sites on sea lice spread patterns within their respective surrounding
areas, we considered a range of metrics. We mapped weekly and overall average density of larval
lice (non-infective juveniles and infective copepodids), separating the contribution of existing and
new sites. We calculated the lice density (in number of lice per m3) by dividing the estimated number
of larvae in each model element by its horizontal area (in m2) on the assumption that the vertical
portion of the water column (where lice reside) did not exceed 5 m. Lice are most often found close
to the surface (Heuch et al. 2005; Penston et al. 2008). Simulated vertical movements of sea lice
usually result in the majority being found in the upper few metres (Johnsen et al. 2016).
67
The prevalence of lice particles over time (the proportion of weeks in which they were present)
and the number of distinct source sites, was calculated throughout the spatial domain. These metrics
assess the level of influence existing and new sites have on particular areas, and the potential diffe-
rence made by the new sites.
Pairwise connectivity (Adams et al. 2012) between existing sites and the new sites (both towards
them, and from them) was calculated, in addition to connectivity between existing sites (identified by
their allocated reference ID: e.g. ‘FFMC53’, and so forth). The connection probability was calculated
by summing particle density values or particles moving within a radius of 500 m of a site location,
and dividing by the number of particles released from each site over a time window of one week
(Adams et al. 2012). This allows appraisal of how the networks, created by between-site dispersal
of larval sea lice, may be altered by the addition of new sites, and allows for the location of the new
site to be reviewed for potential impacts with respect to existing Farm Management Areas (FMAs),
within which spatially coordinated management for sea lice is carried out (Adams 2019; Code of
Good Practice Management Group 2011). Connections for each site were classified into incoming
(sum =‘influx’) and outgoing (sum =‘outflux’) connections and plotted on maps and as a matrix.
As an alternative measure of connections to sites, infection pressure was calculated by summing
element densities, multiplied by inverse distance to the element centroid from the focal location,
ρ
within a certain radius. That is, IPi = ∑ j , where i is the focal location index, j is the hydro-
j ,d <r
dij
ij
dynamic model element index, ρj is the particle density in element j, dij is the distance between
the focal location i and the element j, and r is the maximum radius used to select elements for the
summation. Value ρj is a sum of particle counts and densities over a time window of one week, and
tested values of r covered the range 500-5000 m.
Wave exposure index (‘wave fetch’) was derived from (Burrows et al. 2008), which summed the
linear distance to coastline in 16 equally spaced directions spanning the compass (22.5° intervals),
as measured using digital mapping. For the wave fetch calculation, we used a 200 m grid, covering
all coastal locations within the hydrodynamic model domain. To calculate wave exposure for fish
farm sites we identified the nearest grid cell to the recorded farm centre point. An index of fish
farm isolation was calculated by summing inverse distances to all other farms in the model domain
(Site Densityi = ∑ 1 2 ) giving a higher value for locations with more nearby farms (Figure 3.2).
j
dij
We also calculated the isolation/site density index for all coastal points in the fetch calculation grid.
Influx and outflux for all sites within the model domain were plotted against site wave fetch and
site isolation metrics, and Generalised Additive Models (GAMs) were fitted to site mean (over time)
values (Poisson family, multiplying response values by 10 and rounding to the nearest integer, log
link function) in order to describe the relationships more formally. This regression technique allows
fitting of non-parametric smoother curves between predictor and response variables and is particu-
larly useful where non-linear responses are expected. Complete details of the method are given in
Pedersen et al. (2018).
Where required, geographical coordinate transformations were computed using the SEPA OS to
WGS84 Matlab toolbox (Berkeley and Schlicke 2018).
3.3 RESULTS
3.3.1 Physical Models–Validation
Nearest to the sites, the current meter observations cover a two week period between 28th July and 15th
August 2016. Predicted winds over that time (Figure 3.3) indicate Pearson correlation coefficients
of 0.72 with the time series at the relatively sheltered Dunstaffnage weather station, and 0.88 at
more exposed Tiree airport MetOffice weather station (Table 3.1). The WRF model replicates all
68
FIGURE 3.2 Observed and modelled wind and currents vectors. Fine-scale, short duration physical model
validation over the period between 28th July and 15th August 2016. (a) Hourly wind vectors: observed (top,
red) and modelled (below, blue) at Tiree airport weather station. Hourly current vectors at three layers (top,
mid-depth, seabed) (b) observed (red) and (c) predicted (blue) at the west Jura survey site.
https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.15029181.v1
key temporal patterns in observed wind speeds over the period of interest. The best fit between short
term observed and modelled wind speed at 10 m height (and direction) we found at Tiree weather
station with the Willmott Index of Agreement values 0.91 (0.93) respectively (Table 3.1).
The hydrodynamic model clearly indicates a residual poleward averaged flow between mainland
Scotland and the Outer Hebrides archipelago (Figure 3.1b) and predominantly outward residual
surface currents inside the narrow firths and sea-lochs, as described in previous local empirical
studies (Inall et al. 2009). In terms of current speeds, the Pearson correlation coefficient between
hydrodynamic model and observed records at the west Jura location (Figure 3.3) varies between
0.82 (sea surface) and 0.75 (seabed) over the 14 day record period (Table 3.1). The highest Index
of Agreement (Willmott 1982) between measurements and model was detected for sea-surface and
mid-depth layers at hourly and at daily averaged time-series (IA =0.90, same location). The averaged
difference between measured and model surface current speeds does not exceed 2 cm s-1, which
is five times better than the Scottish regulatory requirements of 10 cm s-1 (Scottish Environmental
Protection Agency 2019a). Daily averaged surface current direction was captured even more reli-
ably, with the values of the integrated performance indices Taylor Score, (Taylor 2001) ST =0.93 and
Willmott Index of Agreement IA =0.97.
3.3.2 Physical Models—Site Characteristics

A statistical analysis of long-term hindcast model runs (June 2013 –April 2019), demonstrates
that the two new sites differ in their flow characteristics, but have very similar temperature and
salinity properties. Site 2 displayed a faster averaged (residual) surface current speed (4.15 cm s-1)
than Site 1 (2.85 cm s-1). During the winter storms, peak flow exceeded 70 cm s-1 at Site 2, but only
reached 47 cm s-1 at Site 1, which is slightly more sheltered by the surrounding terrain as shown
in Figures 3.4c, d. The averaged wind speed was close to 3 m s-1 at both sites, and the peak wind
speed was 24 m s-1. The prevailing wind direction at both sites was SW (210°), with stronger winds
during winter storm days arriving from WSW (241°) (Table 3.2). The storminess index (days per
month with winds exceeding 10 or 15 m s-1) was on average 1.5–2 days higher at Site 1 than at Site
2. Current and wind speeds in the area around the sites is shown in Figure 3.4.
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69
Optimizing Connectivity of Salmon Farms
FIGURE 3.3 Model sea-surface currents and wind speeds. (a) Residual (de-tided) currents averaged over 5 years between
June 2013 and June 2018 with arrows (spatially sub-sampled for clarity) showing flow direction. (b) Peak sea-surface residual
currents: current direction shown with arrows, colours indicate the magnitude in cm∙s-1. Peak current may occur at different times
at different locations. (c) Mean wind speed (m s-1) in June-August over 5 years. (d) Mean wind speed (m s-1) in all months over
69
5 years. New sites shown by yellow stars. Mountainous terrain topography included to indicate wind sheltering effects.
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70
70
TABLE 3.1
Short Term Statistics (<mean>, STD σO and σM, Centred RMSD Difference and RMSE Error, Pearson Correlation Coefficients R, Taylor
Score ST (Taylor 2001), Willmott Index of Agreement IA (Willmott 1982), Peak Values, Kurtosis KO, KM and Skewness SO, SM) of the
WeStCOMS–FVCOM Model (m) Performance against Observations (o)
Will-
Currents Depth <o> <m> σO σM RMSD RMSE Corr. Taylor mott PeakO PeakM Kurtosis Skewness
speed m cm s-1 Coef. score Index cm s-1 cm s-1 KO KM SO SM
aver- 0 18.72 17.33 12.92 12.35 7.63 7.75 0.82 0.68 0.90 56.73 63.65 2.84 3.30 0.81 0.83
aged 10.6 17.95 16.45 12.35 11.48 7.49 7.64 0.80 0.66 0.89 55.93 62.31 3.22 3.84 0.92 0.87
<1h> 34.2 14.17 7.60 9.08 4.76 6.34 9.13 0.75 0.40 0.67 47.00 27.97 4.20 5.23 1.11 1.18

aver- 0 18.86 17.18 6.63 6.77 3.98 4.33 0.82 0.69 0.89 33.94 28.61 2.65 1.89 0.71 0.39
aged 10.6 17.94 16.37 5.91 6.40 4.08 4.37 0.78 0.63 0.87 34.35 27.42 4.68 2.08 1.14 0.39
<24h> 34.2 14.16 7.57 4.72 2.82 3.22 7.33 0.75 0.45 0.54 28.19 14.70 5.89 3.92 1.43 0.78
Wind Duns 402 565 238 311 216 270 0.72 0.51 0.77 1337 1429 3.38 3.20 0.80 0.71
speed Tiree 645 752 310 321 157 188 0.88 0.78 0.91 1595 1552 2.85 2.94 0.59 0.38
at MO sta Mach 582 720 266 296 166 215 0.83 0.69 0.85 1492 1771 3.00 3.22 0.34 0.37
Current
direction m R ST IA o o
KO KM SO SM
aver- 0 33.1 46.7 95.9 100.1 63.9 65.4 0.79 0.64 0.89 305 349 2.28 2.82 1.00 1.17
aged 10.6 36.3 45.2 91.6 88.1 53.2 53.5 0.83 0.69 0.91 337 243 2.24 2.25 0.96 1.04
<1h> 34.2 29.8 51.7 107.2 91.2 71.2 70.5 0.75 0.58 0.88 356 328 2.39 2.14 0.86 0.87
aver- 0 33.1 46.5 66.1 66.6 17.9 23.0 0.96 0.93 0.97 167 187 2.62 3.17 0.00 0.21
aged 10.6 36.4 45.4 61.4 61.1 17.1 18.4 0.96 0.92 0.98 163 161 2.81 2.11 0.31 -0 .20
<24h> 34.2 30.4 51.9 71.6 64.3 33.2 32.2 0.89 0.78 0.95 148 170 2.20 1.97 -0 .19 -0 .24
Wind St. ID
direction 918 247 246 71.7 68.0 53.7 53.4 0.71 0.53 0.84 4.00 3.14 -1 .24 -0 .64
at MO sta 18974 274 262 79.7 69.1 40.3 39.2 0.86 0.74 0.93 3.53 3.48 -0 .97 -0 .89
908 265 267 74.1 66.9 50.7 50.9 0.75 0.58 0.86 3.04 4.01 -1 .03 -1 .21
Note: The Current Speed (|v|, cm·s-1), Their Directions (o, degrees) at Three Layers (top middle, and near sea-bedseabed) at the ‘West Jura’ site, Measured with ADCP between 28th July
and 15th August 2016. Wind Speed and Direction at 10m Height at Three Nearby Met Office (MO) Weather Stations (Dunstaffnage, Tiree and Machrihanish, not shown in figures)
are also Included.
71
FIGURE 3.4 (a) Spatial distribution of tidal-random ratio RTR between the variances of the synthetic tidal
currents time series (computed with 8 major harmonics) and the random (not-tidal) variance of the model
currents speed at sea surface for 227 (active and closed) SEPA fin-fish farm sites. (b) The ratio RTR as a
sorted distribution, both are shown with same coloured scale. (c) Spatial distribution of the ratio between the
variances of the synthetic currents time series, computed with 8 major tidal harmonics, and the total variance
of the model currents speed at the sea surface in the area of interest in 2016.
The annual average temperature was close to 11°C at both locations, with peak values slightly
below 16°C during late summer 2013, and minimum surface values of 5.83oC detected on 19th
March 2018. Average (and peak) salinity at the sea surface were 32.9 (34.3) PSU at Site 1, and only
0.1 units lower at Site 2, with a similar small difference between the sites at mid-depth and near
the sea-bed (Table 3.2). The seasonal cycle in sea-surface salinity was less pronounced than for
temperature, which dominates the evolution of vertical density stratification at both sites during the
warmer season.
Coastal ocean flows sustained a balance between tidal and a wide range of non-tidal currents.
That include internal wave motion generated by tidal interaction with the topography, various coastal
trapped waves, turbulence, wind-driven and inertial oscillations. Baroclinic circulation evolves in
response to uneven sea-water density stratification, associated with heat and mass exchanges via
the interface between ocean and atmosphere and the freshwater discharge. To enable a scientifically
informed decision-making process in practical applications we estimated the relative contributions
of two major drivers (tidal and non-tidal) in regional coastal current dynamics at the highest spatial
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72
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TABLE 3.2
Long-term WeStCOMS–FVCOM Model Statistics (<mean>, std σX, Peak Values and Dates) of a Several Physical Environmental Parameters
Such as Temperature (T), Salinity (S), Potential Density (ρ), Eastern and Northern Currents Components (u, v), Velocity Magnitude |v| and
Direction (Dir) at Three Layers (surface, mid-depth, sea-bed) at Three Sites (Site 1, Site 2 and West coast of Jura)
Site Depth <t> <s> <|r|>|r|> VarT T S ρ Peak T Peak S Peak ρ

Units C psu kg m -3
C C psu kg m -3
C psu kg m-3
Site 1 2 11.04 32.90 25.10 0.80 2.69 0.94 0.89 15.82 34.31 26.65
15 11.02 33.34 25.45 0.52 2.66 0.70 0.72 15.75 34.36 26.70
32 10.98 33.66 25.70 0.43 2.60 0.60 0.66 15.49 34.52 26.79
Site 2 2 11.00 32.82 25.04 2.02 2.77 1.71 1.42 15.72 34.20 26.65
20 11.04 33.18 25.31 0.78 2.75 0.93 0.88 15.71 34.20 26.65
41 11.03 33.30 25.41 0.65 2.73 0.81 0.80 15.71 34.24 26.67
West Jura 2 11.42 34.04 25.91 0.40 2.81 0.46 0.64 16.61 34.79 27.01
18 11.28 34.12 26.00 0.35 2.69 0.42 0.59 15.99 34.79 27.03
37 11.13 34.16 26.06 0.32 2.60 0.40 0.57 15.94 34.79 27.04
Site depth <u> <v> <|v|> <Dir> σu σv σ|v| σDir Peak |V| Peak |V|
Units m cm s -1
cm s-1
cm s-1 o
cm s -1
cm s -1
cm s -1 o
cm s-1
Dir o
Site 1 2 -2.47 -1.43 2.85 239.98 5.37 4.75 3.91 89.12 47.06 43.44
15 -0.36 -0.28 0.46 232.83 3.46 3.59 2.86 97.20 46.64 43.54
32 0.03 -0.14 0.14 165.85 1.29 1.67 1.11 108.11 16.57 232.28
Site 2 2 -2.82 3.05 4.15 317.20 9.91 4.27 6.23 117.98 70.92 278.71
20 0.25 1.55 1.57 9.12 7.58 3.60 4.82 108.68 65.61 61.61
41 -0.28 0.00 0.28 270.99 3.27 1.49 1.64 94.14 22.18 251.99
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Optimizing Connectivity of Salmon Farms
W. Jura 2 9.57 10.01 13.85 43.72 15.98 12.80 14.61 101.50 137.41 50.04
18 8.53 8.66 12.16 44.56 14.08 13.28 13.85 89.80 135.92 50.04
37 4.63 3.96 6.10 49.45 5.40 7.34 5.91 71.69 55.09 31.51
Met Office Wind <uw> <vw> <|vw|> <Dir> σuw σvw σ|vw| σDirw Peak wind Peak wind
station # m s-1 m s-1 m s-1 o
m s-1 m s-1 m s-1 o
m s-1 Dir o
Dunstaffnage 918 1.07 2.25 2.49 205.52 4.50 4.22 3.33 81.77 23.78 202.51
Tiree 18974 2.09 2.83 3.51 216.42 6.05 6.14 4.14 84.53 28.36 203.54
Machrihanish 908 1.54 1.80 2.37 220.59 5.68 4.57 3.56 81.89 24.57 213.87
Site 1 at 1.51 2.62 3.03 209.9 5.58 4.98 3.58 78.35 24.06 241.63
Site 2 10 m 1.54 2.63 3.05 210.4 5.60 4.99 3.60 78.32 24.16 241.60
West Jura Height 1.56 2.65 3.07 210.5 5.62 4.99 3.60 78.04 24.19 241.77
Note: The Estimates Obtained for Model Hindcast Runs over the 5 Years 10 Months Period Between June 2013 and April 2019. WeStCOMS WRF Model Winds Statistics over Same Sites
and at Three Nearby the Met Office Weather Stations Are Also Included.
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74
and temporal scale available within the WeStCOMS modelling framework. Providing an accurate
initial state of the coastal sea and up-to-date boundary conditions for solving equations of motion
in the hydrodynamic models is the crucial element to reduce uncertainty in such highly chaotic and
stochastic systems as air flows (Lorenz 1969) and coastal currents.
An extensive set of current records collected at aquaculture sites over several decades indicate
that non-tidal variance could exceed tidal at 75% of sites (Edwards 2015; 2016). We performed
similar discrete frequency tidal analyses of the WeStCOMS model surface velocities time series
over several years (2013–2018). For the time series Aj=o,m,T respectively observed, model and Tidal
currents, the variance Varj over their mean m̄ and the Tidal to Random ratio RTR were defined as:
1 N
( )
( VarU + VarV )
Varj = ∑ [ Ai − m ]2 ; RTR =
T T
N − 1 i =1
( VarU + VarV
R R
)
The results indicate that in the open sea areas outside the narrow channels (such as the Firth
of Lorn), modelled tidal forcing accounts for 60 -70% of the overall sea surface current variance
(Figure 3.5c), while near the seabed the tidal contribution in the flow variance increased to over
90%. The non-harmonic contributions are therefore substantial, supplying up to 30 -40% of the
kinetic energy at the sea surface, but less than 10-15% near the seabed. In many side sea-lochs non-
tidal impact could be amplified, becoming a dominant factor (80-90% of variance) over the whole
water column.
The analysis of the spatial distribution of the ratio between tidal and non-tidal variance allow
advance assessment and reduced uncertainty levels in the expected average state, extremes and
potentially severe current predictions of the flow patterns for already existing fin-fish and shell-
fish aqua-farm sites (Figure 3.5a, b). Enhanced non-tidal variance values near the perspective site
locations for developing aqua-farms could indicate their exposure to aperiodic and less predictable
high flow speed events.
3.3.3 Sea Louse Dispersal

In Figures 3.6 and 3.7, nine sites with non-zero biomass during the study period are marked by
small dots. New sites are indicated by stars. Lice values shown in the plots in this section are mean
values that take the dispersal patterns predicted over the full simulated time-period, into account.
The density and distribution of lice dispersing from existing sites varies on a weekly basis as shown
using the animations at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.14975010 (Adams and Aleynik 2021).
3.3.4 Dispersal of Lice from Existing Sites

Lice from existing sites were predicted to be present at most locations within the focal domain,
throughout much of the year (Figure 3.6a, b). The highest modelled density and modelled preva-
lence of sea lice was generally observed closer to shore, with declining density and prevalence at
locations away from the coastline. However, it is also worth noting a lower predicted density and
prevalence of lice in many of the enclosed sea lochs, due to the dominant outward residual (de-tided)
flow in the surface waters of these environments (Figure 3.4a, b). The density and prevalence of lice
dispersing from existing sites was predicted to be highest in the locality of New Site 2.
3.3.5 Dispersal of Lice from New Sites

Particles released from both sites spread over fairly large distances to cover much of the focal area
(Figure 3.6c–f). Against a backdrop of lice from existing sites, lice from the new sites increase the
75
FIGURE 3.5 Predicted sealice dispersal density and prevalence from existing sites. (a) Mean density (over 1
year) of copepodid (infective) lice spread from existing sites, based on particle densities weighted by consented
site biomass. (b) Prevalence of lice released from existing sites (proportion of weeks when lice were present).
New sites are marked by yellow stars, and existing sites by blue dots. (c) Predicted mean density of lice
dispersing from new site 1. (d) Predicted mean density of lice dispersing from new site 2. (e) Prevalence of
infective copepodid lice larvae over the simulation period, from new site 1, and (f) new site 2.
density but do not significantly alter overall spread. The plume of lice particles dispersing from
Site 2 was at its highest density between the mainland and the southern entrance to Sound of Mull,
covering a number of other fish farm sites and blocking two channels which might act as important
corridors for wild fish inhabiting the many rivers and streams feeding this body of water. The plume
from Site 1 on the southern coast of the Island of Mull exists in a more open environment, and areas
of high density were found near to the south-west coast of Mull, away from existing sites and major
rivers.
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FIGURE 3.6 Site connectivity between existing and new sites. Connections are indicated by arrows, with
colour relating to connection strength (on a logarithmic scale) from sites 1 and 2 (a, b) and from existing farms
toward sites 1 and 2 (c, d). All sites exhibited ‘self-connections’ (the potential for larval particles to re-infect
the same site), but these are omitted from this diagram for clarity. Yellow shaded regions indicate approximate
Farm Management Area boundaries (labelled M in panel (a)). https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.15029322
3.3.6 Connectivity
Figure 3.7 maps the connections made by dispersing model sea lice particles either departing from
or arriving at the two new sites. Owing to the strong currents in the area and variable conditions
due to meteorology, the area containing the sites is generally well connected (Figures 3.7 and 3.8),
with many sites connected sufficiently to impact population dynamics. Previous work indicated a
threshold total incoming connection probability of 0.01 as being sufficient for population expansion
(Toorians and Adams 2020).
Both sites were predicted to self-infect at a rate exceeding the threshold stated above. Site 1 was
predicted to supply particles to three other sites (two to the north and one to the south), and to be
supplied with particles by one other site, at rates higher than the threshold (Figure 3.6c, e). In con-
trast, Site 2 (which sits closer to a region of complex tidal currents) was predicted to have stronger
connections with many sites to both the south and the north (Figure 3.6d, f).
The connections at Site 1 could potentially introduce a link between two management areas
(FMAs M36 and M40). However, the links created between the same two FMAs (and additionally
M34 and M35) by Site 2 were much stronger and more temporally persistent. Moreover, stronger
links already exist between these two FMAs, even excluding the connections to and from the two
new sites.
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FIGURE 3.7 Connectivity matrix. A representation of the strength of connections between sites in the
locality of the new sites, plotted as log-transformed pairwise values. The new sites are identified as ‘TEST1’
and ‘TEST2’. Farm Management Area (FMA) groupings (matching Figure 3.6) are identified by red boxes and
names. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.15029364
3.3.7 Exposure and Isolation

The influx and outflux values for the sites, derived from the biophysical model, were fairly strongly
positively correlated (Spearman’s rank correlation =0.60). However, the physical explanatory
variables, fetch and isolation were weakly negatively correlated (Spearman’s rank correlation =-
0.30) (Figure 3.9). Influx and outflux for all sites are plotted against site wave fetch and isolation
indices in Figure 3.10, highlighting the two new sites. Much variability between sites was apparent,
but more wave exposed sites tend to have lower levels of influx and outflux (or more consistently
low levels over time). However, it remains possible for very sheltered sites to have low influx and
outflux, as indicated by the leftmost point in Figure 3.10a, b. More isolated sites had lower influx
and outflux values. Visually, the most connected sites in the model domain appear to be those with
intermediate levels of isolation. Fitting GAMs confirmed these relationships, with strongly signifi-
cant smoothers describing a decline in median influx with fetch, a humped relationship with isola-
tion (lowest influx at highest isolation) (Figure 3.11a, b; overall deviance explained 26.5%). Similar
strongly significant smoothers were fitted for median outflux (Figure 3.11c, d) and overall deviance
explained 25.8%).
Connectivity influx and infection pressure (when each are plotted on a logarithmic scale) follow
a positive and approximately linear relationship, indicating a power-law relationship (not shown).
78
FIGURE 3.8 Site exposure and connectivity metrics. (a) Site influx (sum of incoming connections) versus
wave exposure index. (b) Site outflux (sum of incoming connections) versus wave exposure index. (c) Site
influx versus isolation (sum of inverse squared distances to fish farm sites; small value on x-axis indicates
more isolated). (d) Site outflux versus isolation. Points show median weekly value for a site over the simulated
period, and error bars indicate 10 and 90 percentile values. Values for Site 1 (red) and Site 2 (cyan) are identified
in each plot. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.15029370
FIGURE 3.9 (a) Wave fetch (log-transformed) for salmon aquaculture sites on the west coast of Scotland
(pink = higher wave fetch). (b) Local site density for salmon aquaculture sites (pink = higher local density of
sites). https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.15029385
79
FIGURE 3.10 Site influx and outflux characteristics for all sites within the model domain. (a) Scatterplot of
mean influx and outflux. (b) Scatterplot of site fetch and isolation. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.15029388
For the non-site coastal locations given in the fetch grid, it is therefore possible to derive similar
relationships between infection pressure and wave fetch, or isolation from existing fish farm sites.
There is a limited tendency towards lower infection pressure at more wave exposed sites, while very
isolated locations far from fish farms display the lowest infection pressure values (Figure 3.12a, b).
3.4 DISCUSSION
In this chapter, a model-based comparison of the sea-lice dispersal characteristics of two hypo-
thetical new salmon aquaculture sites has been discussed. These are sites which possess certain
characteristics that require development if the industry is to expand in Scotland. We sought to under-
stand what impact such sites would have, and how the network of existing sites would affect them.
By taking a broader look at these new and existing sites together, it was possible to investigate
the general characteristics of the dispersal and connectivity pattern, which allowed us to provide
insights into the potential benefits offered by moving operations to more exposed and /or isolated
locations. Results such as these are important to inform the decision making process of site selec-
tion. However, such comparative information is currently often lacking in the site planning process,
which may force local planners to make judgements based on subjective or generic statements about
potential site impacts. The analysis determines the preferred site from the available options based
on a number of quantitative criteria.
Both sites (and particularly Site 1) are relatively more exposed to external forcing impact than the
majority of existing sites, which tend to be in more sheltered fjords and sea lochs. Hence, although
the physical characteristics of Site 1 were less energetic than Site 2 in terms of current speed, the
(modelled) currents at both sites are within a range suitable for adult salmon (Johansson et al. 2014),
and therefore, both sites would be suitable for offshore expansion under this criterion. However, the
mean wind speed is lower at Site 2, and it is less exposed to storms than Site 1; and hence a trade-off
in wind would be required if an operator were to decide which of the sites to develop.
The strength of connectivity with other sites in the network will determine the number of lice
infesting each site, and the extent to which outbreaks of lice spread between sites. Threshold values
of between-site connectivity may play a role in the occurrence of outbreaks (Toorians and Adams
2020) and higher connectivity implies a greater risk of spatially distributed lice outbreaks. In add-
ition to the magnitude of connectivity, directionality of connection is also important. Sites may be
a source of lice for other sites, a destination, a self-infector, or some combination of the three. Both
80
FIGURE 3.11 Generalised Additive Model (GAM) for site influx (a, b) and outflux (c, d). Fitted smoother
response to wave fetch (a, c). Fitted smoother response to isolation (sum of inverse squared distances to fish
farm sites (b, d). https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.15029400
FIGURE 3.12 Mean infection pressure (inverse distance-squared weighted particle density within 2000 m;
mean over time) for coastal points within the model domain, on a 200 m grid: (a) Infection pressure versus wave
fetch (log-log), (b) infection pressure versus isolation (sum of inverse squared distances to fish farm sites).
81
the considered sites created new connections between management areas, one (Site 2) much more
strongly than the other (Site 1). Connections already exist between sites in these two areas, but it
would be important to consider the approach taken to management of the new Site 2, which would
ideally match that of the connected areas (FMAs M36 and M40).
The spatial extent and distribution of dispersal from sites is also of key interest, in particular
of infective copepodids. In addition to dispersing to other sites, lice can infect wild fish moving
freely in the water column. In terms of isolating a site from its neighboring environment, a dispersal
kernel focused on the site itself is ideal. The predicted focal area of infective stage lice produced by
a site should be as far as possible from embayment or other habitat known to be used by sea trout,
which have been shown to experience mortality rates elevated by around 50% at locations up to 15
km from farm sites (Shephard et al. 2016). Ideally, it should not present a complete barrier to likely
migratory routes of salmon (covering shore to shore in a sea loch, for example). Long-range, low-
density dispersal may be tolerated, although the nature of the impact on wild fish depends on their
characteristics and behaviour (Moriarty and Murray, unpublished). In this context, Site 1 has dis-
persal focused in open areas of water, away from existing sites and river mouths. On the other hand,
the plume of Site 2 covers the entrance to Loch Linnhe (a likely passage for migrating salmon) at a
high density. Based on this, and the connectivity computation, Site 1 appears preferable in this sense.
Considering existing and new sites together, our study suggests that more exposed sites are likely
to have slightly lower connectivity with existing sites, as are sites that are physically isolated by
distance from others. However, there is a high level of variability between sites, and the statistical
models partially explain this variability. It is also worth bearing in mind that exposure and isolation
do not necessarily go hand in hand, and therefore it is likely to be useful to investigate sites which
are both exposed and isolated. These potential benefits of considering more exposed sites may be
affected by other factors, such as currents flow regime, temperature or salinity profiles, which may
favour or limit lice settlement (Bricknell et al. 2006), survival (Groner et al. 2016) or development
(Stien et al. 2005; Samsing et al. 2016) in different localities and at different times of year.
Over the period presented here, lice counts were only available in an aggregated form, grouped
within Fish Health Management Reporting Areas. From 2018, counts have become available for
each individual farm on a monthly basis, with a three-month delay (Scottish Salmon Producers
Organisation, 2018). This makes it possible to look back at the patterns of infestation that have
occurred and assess the risks that would be posed to particular sites more precisely than was pos-
sible here. For more immediate operational purposes, Norway operates a system that provides up to
date spatial information on a weekly basis (BarentsWatch 2019), which has allowed the testing of a
louse forecasting system (Sandvik et al. 2016). A final factor, limiting assessment of lice challenge
on a regional scale (between operators), is the need to translate between lice numbers (which are
reported on a ‘per fish’ basis) and sites’ current stocking level (which is reported in kilograms). The
relationship between stocking and biomass clearly varies over time, depending on fish size, and at
an early stage in the production cycle the number of fish per tonne of biomass will be many times
the value used here.
3.5 CONCLUSIONS
Finding space for aquaculture in complex and often crowded coastal environments is challenging,
requiring balanced analysis of competing concerns (Leith et al. 2014). The move to more exposed
locations involves a range of considerations, incorporating potential operational challenges (stress
on infrastructure, difficulties in access, risks to fish health, slowing feed-conversion and fish growth
rates under increased flow dynamics or higher wave fetch exposure environments). The potential
wide-range of benefits include the reduced intensity of benthic impacts (Scottish Environmental
Protection Agency 2017) or risk of harmful algal blooms (Smayda 2006; Davidson et al. 2016;
2021), and a reduced impact on local communities due to their isolation. This work demonstrates
how biophysical models can support the decision making process for salmon farm development,
82
particularly into more exposed locations, and how they enable evaluation and quantification of
potential benefits in terms of decreased parasite connectivity. Sites established in more exposed or
physically isolated locations could offer benefits in terms of parasite population connectivity, which
would have consequent benefits in controlling the broader meta-population.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Kames Fish Farming limited for permission to use the current meter record collected
during the process of planning for a potential new site. Development of the models described here
were funded by UK Research and Innovation (BBSRC and NERC) under the project ‘Evaluating the
Environmental Conditions Required for the Development of Offshore Aquaculture’ (grant number
BB/S00419X/ 1), the European Union Interreg VA projects ‘Collaborative Oceanography and
Monitoring for Protected Areas and Species’ (COMPASS) and ‘Combining Autonomous observations
and Models for Predicting and Understanding Shelf seas’ (CAMPUS –grant number NE/R00675X/
1). The UKRI ARCHER computing facilities (https://www.archer2.ac.uk) and NERC–funded HPC
cluster Samhanach at SAMS helped to advance and to run WeStCOMS physical model.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
The following supplementary materials are available online to complement the main chapter:
Appendix S3.1. Scottish west coast salmon farm locations (S3.1_WestCoastFarmLocations.csv,
https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.14997870.v3)
CSV file containing details of the 196 existing salmon aquaculture sites used in this study,
including the SEPA reference identifier, Eastings and Northings in metres on the Ordnance Survey
UK National Grid, the maximum biomass in tonnes over the study period, and the Farm Management
Area (FMA), Disease Management Area (DMA) and Fish Health Management Reporting Area
(FHMRA) to which each site is allocated (areas described in more detail by Adams et al. 2016).
Appendix S3.2: Animation of weekly lice densities (S2_weeklyLiceDensity.mp4
https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.14975010.v2, T. Adams and Aleynik 2021). An animation
showing spatiotemporal variation in model predicted lice densities over the study period, based on
releases from existing site locations.
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4 Offshore Fish Farming

Challenges and Developments in
Fish Pen Designs
Chien Ming Wang,1* Yunil Chu,2 Joerg Baumeister,2
Hong Zhang,2 Dong-Sheng Jeng,2 and Nagi Abdussamie3
1
The University of Queensland, Australia
2
Griffith University, Australia
3
University of Tasmania, Australia
* Corresponding author: C.M. Wang
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; j.baumeister@griffith.
edu.au; [email protected]; [email protected]; nagi.
[email protected]
CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 88
4.1.1 Background.................................................................................................................88
4.1.2 Definition of Offshore for Fish Farming..................................................................... 89
4.2 Challenges Faced by Offshore Fish Farming.......................................................................... 91
4.2.1 Environmental Challenges........................................................................................... 92
4.2.1.1 Water Depth.................................................................................................. 92
4.2.1.2 Current Velocity............................................................................................ 92
4.2.1.3 Wave Action..................................................................................................94
4.2.1.4 Seabed Condition.......................................................................................... 94
4.2.1.5 Adverse Weather and Storms........................................................................ 96
4.2.2 Operational Challenges............................................................................................... 96
4.2.2.1 Conducive Environment for Fish Welfare..................................................... 96
4.2.2.2 Vessel Collision with Fish Pens.................................................................... 97
4.2.2.3 Marine Animal Invasion................................................................................ 99
4.2.2.4 Infrastructure for Offshore Fish Farming.................................................... 100
4.2.2.5 Economic Sustainability for Operation (Including Material
Selection).................................................................................................... 100
4.2.3 Design Challenges..................................................................................................... 101
4.2.3.1 Lack of Experience in Designing Mega/Submerged Offshore
Fish Pens.....................................................................................................101
4.2.3.2 Lack of Standardized and Comprehensive Design
Guidelines/Codes........................................................................................ 101
4.3 Recent Developments in Offshore Fish Pen Designs............................................................ 102
4.3.1 Modified Flexible Collar Pens................................................................................... 102
4.3.1.1 Tubenet........................................................................................................102
4.3.2 Submerged Fish Pens................................................................................................ 103
4.3.2.1 Atlantis........................................................................................................103
4.3.2.2 Giant Offshore............................................................................................103
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-4 87
newgenprepdf
88
4.3.2.3 AquaPod......................................................................................................104
4.3.2.4 NSENGI Fish Pen....................................................................................... 104
4.3.3 Novel Offshore Fish Pen Designs............................................................................. 105
4.3.3.1 Open Net Pen System................................................................................. 106
4.3.3.2 Closed Containment Tank System.............................................................. 111
4.3.4 Key Observations with Regard to Recent Offshore Fish Pen Developments............ 119
4.4 Integration or Co-Location of Offshore Fish Farm with Other Marine Sectors.................... 120
4.4.1 PLOCAN................................................................................................................... 120
4.4.2 Blue Growth Farm..................................................................................................... 121
4.4.3 GIEC’s Semi-submersible Wave Powered Aquaculture Pen..................................... 122
4.4.4 Hex Box.....................................................................................................................122
4.4.5 FOWT-SFFC.............................................................................................................123
4.4.6 COSPAR....................................................................................................................123
4.4.7 Genghai No.1............................................................................................................124
4.5 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................125
Acknowledgement.......................................................................................................................... 125
References....................................................................................................................................... 125
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1 Background
Captured fisheries have become unsustainable because most of the wild captured species have
been overfished or fully fished with no potential for increase in production. On the other hand, in
recent decades, farmed aquaculture has taken an increasing role in filling the gap between seafood
supply and rising demand as shown in Figure 4.1 (FAO Report, 2020). A recent report published by
DNV (DNV, 2021) gave an estimate of marine aquaculture production by 2050. According to the
report, among aquatic animals, farmed finfish will dominate marine aquaculture production (more
than 50%) when considering edible weight versus total live weight. The edible weight for finfish is
expected at 14 million tonnes, with crustaceans taking up 7 million tonnes and molluscs at 6 million
tonnes by 2050. However, farmed fish production has been slowing down due to less nearshore
sheltered sea space being licensed for fish farming, plus the emergence of the sea lice problem (espe-
cially in Norwegian, Scottish and Chilean farm sites) plus public and environmental opposition to
the expansion of nearshore fish farms. If this trend is not reversed, farmed fish will not be able to
meet global seafood demand.
To date, almost all marine water fish farms are located at nearshore sites where they are sheltered
(in bays, coves and fjords), have a shallow water depth and are hugging the shorelines, mainly for
safe operation and easy access to service facilities such as power supply, feed, hatchery, storage,
maintenance, and fish processing. With an increasing demand for a higher production target and
cost-effective operation for fish production, many suitable nearshore sites have already been fully
exploited and most farming pens have reached their allowable fish stock density (Huguenin, 1997;
Stickney, 2002). The current nearshore fish farming practice has led to conflicts with local commu-
nities, conservation and environmental groups. The criticisms voiced against nearshore fish farming
are environmental degradation due to water pollution, noise pollution and their unsightly appearance
(Colbourne, 2005; Noroi et al. 2011; Shainee et al. 2013; Tidwell, 2012). The competition for
common sea space in coastal areas has intensified, not only amongst fish farmers but also with
other marine sectors such as shipping, tourism, conservation and recreation. Moreover, incidents of
farmed fish escaping and the spread of diseases have seriously threatened the native sea life popula-
tion (Beveridge, 2008; Huguenin, 1997; Taranger et al. 2015; Tidwell, 2012; Verhoeven et al. 2018).
In response to environmental concerns and pressures from regulatory authorities, fish farming
companies have started exploring offshore sites in their quest to expand fish production in a more
89
Offshore Fish Farming 89
FIGURE 4.1 World captured fisheries and aquaculture production (FAO, 2020).
sustainable and environmental friendly way (Bjelland et al. 2016; Buck, 2007; Holm et al. 2017;
Kankainen and Mikalsen, 2014; Kapetsky et al. 2013). Offshore sites offer more space and pristine
sea water with less contest with other sea space users (Holm et al. 2017; Huguenin, 1997;
Kankainen and Mikalsen, 2014; Tidwell, 2012). The offshore environment with stronger waves,
currents and deeper waters helps with waste dispersal and preventing the accumulation of fish wastes
(such as, uneaten feed or faeces) under fish pens as well as containing less parasites and diseases.
Consequently, fish farming operators are seeking suitable offshore sites as a location of choice for
sustainable and high-quality fish production. However, offshore fish farming has its challenges due
to a relatively high energy environment with poor accessibility in the remote sites. These challenges
will be discussed further in Section 4.2.
4.1.2 Definition of Offshore for Fish Farming

The definition of ‘offshore’ for fish farming takes on different forms according to different
stakeholders who include fish farmers, legislators, government agencies, researchers, technology
providers and classification societies. The terms of reference for the definition of ‘offshore’ for
fish farming vary and include various parameters such as met-ocean conditions, bathymetry, geo-
graphical distances, technologies used and any combinations of these. In addition to the word
‘offshore’, such words as ‘exposed’, ‘high energy’ and ‘remote’ are also used as synonyms (Morro
et al. 2021).
According to Drumm (2010), offshore aquaculture is defined as taking place in the open sea with
significant exposure to wind and wave action, and requires equipment and servicing vessels to sur-
vive and operate in severe sea conditions. Spanish law defines offshore as the sea area outside the
straight line joining two major capes or promontories. The sea space within these capes is corres-
pondingly defined as inshore waters (Cabello, 2000). Holmer (2009) defined three classes for fish
farming sites: Class 1 -coastal farming; Class 2 off-coast farming; and Class 3 -offshore farming,
based on physical and hydrodynamic settings as shown in Table 4.1. It can be seen that distance from
shoreline, water depth, and significant wave height are the key-parameters for defining offshore fish
90
TABLE 4.1
Definitions of Coastal, Off-Coast and Offshore Farming According to Holmer (2009)
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3

Defining Setting Coastal Farming Off-coast Farming Offshore Farming
Physical Distance < 500 m from shore 500 m to 3 km from shore > 3 km from shore
setting
Depth < 10 m 10 m to 50 m > 50 m
Visibility from Within sight of shore users Usually within sight Not visible from shore
shore
Exposure Significant wave < 1 m 3 m to 4 m Up to 5 m
height
Accessibility 100% 90% 80%
Legal definitions Within costal baseline Within coastal baseline Outside coastal baseline
National waters National waters National/international waters
Major countries with fish China, Chile, USA (Hawaii),

farming under the various Chile, Norway, Spain (Canaries)
classes Norway Mediterranean
Note: Accessibility <100% refers to limitations in access to the farm due to weather conditions.
TABLE 4.2
Classification of Wave by Wave Height According to NS 9415
Significant Wave Peak Wave
Wave Classes Height Hs (m) Period Tp (s) Current Classes Current Velocity (m/s) Degree of Exposure
A 0.0-0.5 0.0–2.0 a 0.0–0.3 Low

B 0.5–1.0 1.6–3.2 b 0.3–0.5 Moderate
C 1.0–2.0 2.5–5.1 c 0.5–1.0 Large
D 2.0–3.0 4.0–6.7 d 1.0–1.5 High
E > 3.0 5.3–18.0 e >1.5 Severe
Source: NS 9415, 2009.
farming. Also shown in Table 4.2 as referred to by the Norway Standard of Marine fish farms (that
is, NS 9415 (2009)), Holmer’s Class 1 sites can be regarded as moderate exposure sites with respect
to the significant wave height, whilst Classes 2 and 3 can be regarded as severe exposure sites.
Figure 4.2 presents the definition of inshore and offshore waters based on the Spanish law together
with Holmer’s three classes for fish farming.
There are also some restrictions related to the selection of offshore sites for fish farming. For
example, Cardia and Lovatelli (2016) recommended that the water depth should be at least three
times deeper than the open net pen depth and no less than 15 m between the pen bottom and the
seabed. In addition, Kapetsky et al. (2013) pointed out realistic restrictions imposed on conditions
for offshore fish farming such as:
• Offshore fish farming should take place within Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) (that is,
up to 200 nautical miles or 370.4 km from the low water mark) in order to ensure national
91
FIGURE 4.2 Definition of inshore and offshore waters with Holmer’s classes for fish farming sites.
governance and to provide for the legal protection of investors. The maximum distance from
the coastline to an offshore site is recommended to be 25 nautical miles (46.3 km) for eco-
nomic feasibility, taking into account installation and operation as reported by Jin (2008).
• The depth threshold for conventional sea pens is about 25 m to 100 m based on actual practice
and feasible mooring methods and costs.
• Current velocity is within 0.1 m/s to 1 m/s for cultured fish in the confined open net pen.
• The operation will be dependent on onshore facilities to support offshore grow-out installation
(for example, feed, holding seed, storage, maintenance, set-up for processing and transporting
harvested fish).
After studying the various definitions, parameters and viewpoints on offshore fish farming, it can
be seen that offshore fish farming might be categorized by:
(i) an unsheltered site which is seaward of a straight line joining the closest two major capes
or promontories, and at least about 3 km seaward of the shoreline but within the EEZ,
(ii) a water depth greater than 50 m,
(ii) current velocity within 0.1 m/s to 1 m/s, and
(iv) significant wave heights exceeding 3 m.
Note that the above definition of offshore fish farming is meant for a preliminary engineering design
of the offshore fish pen. There are other factors such as environmental, ecological, other regulatory
issues and fish health that have to be considered in the final offshore fish pen design.
4.2 CHALLENGES FACED BY OFFSHORE FISH FARMING

There are many challenges associated with moving fish farms to offshore sites which have not
been clearly identified and rigorously studied. As a result, fish farmers are not fully confident about
moving to offshore fish farming. It is crucial to identify the challenges in offshore fish farming as
92
they affect running costs, productivity, fish mortality, and HSE (health, safety and environment) for
workers.
An appropriate offshore fish pen design should consider environmental risks associated with the
selected farming site such as waves, currents and wind. In addition, the offshore fish farming system
should provide not only sufficient farming space but also allow stable positioning for easy operation
and maintenance as well as a guarantee of the fish’s well-being for optimum growth (Shainee et al.
2013). Occurrences of structural damage, sinking of pens and failures of the mooring system can
bring massive fish escapes that threaten biosecurity and the profitability of the farming business.
Moreover, a relatively poor accessibility in the remote sites puts farming operators in a difficult
situation maintaining facilities, monitoring fish behaviour, and carrying out planned feeding and
anti-parasite/disease treatments (Morro et al. 2021; Taranger et al. 2015).
After a thorough literature review, the following environmental and operational challenges
together with design challenges have been identified:
(1) Environmental challenges:

• water depth
• current velocity
• wave action
• seabed condition
• adverse weather and storms
(2) Operational challenges:
• conducive environment for fish welfare
• vessel collision with fish pens
• marine animal invasion
• infrastructure for offshore fish farming (for example, utility vessels, power supply)
• economic sustainability of operations (including material selection)
(3) Design challenges:
• lack of experience in designing mega/submerged offshore fish pens
• lack of standardized and comprehensive design guidelines/codes
4.2.1 Environmental Challenges
4.2.1.1 Water Depth
Water depth directly affects installation and maintenance costs for the anchoring and mooring system.
The length of the mooring lines is usually three to five times the water depth. Therefore, deeper
water means more costs for anchoring and mooring systems (Cardia and Lovatelli, 2016; Forster,
2013). The cost for surveying the seabed by using autonomous or remote vehicles at such large
water depths will also be high. In addition, a greater water depth may influence the fish growth rate
due to a deficiency of illumination and oxygen saturation, or a wide variation of water temperature.
On the flip side, a large water depth can lessen the concentration of waste sediment in the area
around fish pens (see Figure 4.3). The deeper water allows for greater dilution potential for dissolved
waste and time for detrital consumers to act on solid waste. Since water gets into the pen not only
through the sides but also through the bottom, keeping the pen bottom clear is essential to ensure
pristine water for the fish (Chacon-Torres et al. 1988). Moreover, deeper water allows a much taller
fish pen that gives more space for fish movement and lessens the probability of fish disease. It also
allows fish to swim to deeper and calmer water zones during a storm.
4.2.1.2 Current Velocity
Although an adequate current flow is essential for farming fish in pens for the replenishment of
oxygen and removal of organic waste, high flow rates may have a detrimental impact on both the
93
FIGURE 4.3 Influence of depth in solid waste displacement on seabed below pens (Cardia and Lovatelli, 2016).
0 m/s 0.12m/s 0.26m/s
0.5m/s 0.76m/s 0.93m/s
FIGURE 4.4 Net pen models subjected to increasing flow velocity (Moe-Føre et al. 2016).
pen system and on the fish. The maximum drag loads on nets are in most cases caused by current
and not by waves. Especially for a flexible open net pen system, horizontal drag forces exerted by
current on the pen can reduce the internal volume of the pen. These cause excessive strain on the pen
collar and increases tension on mooring lines. Moe-Føre et al. (2016) conducted experimental tests
and observed significant volume reduction in fish pens with increasing current velocity as shown in
Figure 4.4. Klebert et al. (2015) performed a full-scale field measurement for the current flow field
with multiple fish pens. The test results show that the maximum reduction in volume of the fish pen
is up to 30% when the current velocity exceeds 0.6 m/s.
Moreover, under an excessive current flow, fish may spend too much energy on swimming, as
well as suffering from unacceptable losses of feed (Beveridge, 2008). Consequently, fish growth
94
is curbed and the risk of mortality increases. For example, Solstorm et al. (2015) tested post-
smolts of Atlantic salmon (98.6 g, 22.3 cm) in water velocities ranging from slow (0.04 m/s) to
fast (0.33 m/s) over six weeks. They found that fish subjected to fast water velocity showed 5%
lower weight gain when compared to fish subjected to moderate and slow velocities. In practice,
current velocities in the range of 0.1 m/s to 0.6 m/s have been found to be satisfactory for salmon
fish farming (Beveridge, 2008; Faltinsen, 2015; Gowen and Edwards, 1990; Hvas et al. 2017;
Hvas and Oppedal, 2019; Kapetsky et al. 2013; Oldham et al. 2019; Remen et al. 2016; Yuen
et al. 2019).
4.2.1.3 Wave Action
Waves play a significant role in determining whether fish can be farmed in offshore sites. Some
farmed fish species, whose habitat is in sheltered sites in nature, are not well adapted to living in
high energy wave conditions as they prefer a calm and peaceful environment. Although fish can dive
in deeper water where it is relatively calm, they still prefer to be near to the surface of the water
for sunlight, oxygen saturation, lower static sea pressure, nutrients/plankton and surface air that is
necessary for fish with swim bladders. Moreover, excessive wave action in offshore sites not only
harms fish well-being, but it can damage pen structures and moorings, interrupt a worker’s routine
operation or even place the worker in a hazardous situation.
Recently, several approaches for fish farming have been proposed to control the risk associated
with wave action. These approaches include having a flexible structure that moves with the waves,
submerging parts or the whole structure, altering the environmental condition by using floating
barriers/breakwaters or strengthening and enlarging the structure to withstand the wave action. For
example, submerging fish pens take an evasive action to reduce the effect of wave load on the struc-
ture during bad weather. Liu et al. (2019) carried out physical experiments and showed that the
tension of the mooring rope and the movement of the floating collar were also significantly reduced
as the diving depth increases. However, when the fish pen reached a certain depth, the attenuation
trend tends to stabilize. Based on these results, it was established that about one third of the depth of
the water is the optimal submergence depth for the fish pen.
A floating breakwater with a sufficient draught can attenuate wave transmission through
mechanisms of either reflection or destruction of water particle orbital motions so that oper-
ational weather windows are lengthened (Beveridge, 2008; Chu and Wang, 2020; Dai et al.
2018; Kato et al. 1979; Matsunaga et al. 2002; McCartney, 1985). When the farm site is located
at a certain distance from the shoreline and there is a prevailing wave direction, the farm can
be placed in the breakwater’s lee side. If the fish farm is in a sea space with multi-directional
waves, a floating closed breakwater (in other words, circular or octagonal shaped barriers) may
be used to attenuate wave forces in order to create a calm internal water basin for fish farming.
Floating breakwaters are excellent for sheltering offshore fish farms from waves as they are rela-
tively inexpensive when compared to bottom founded breakwaters. These floating breakwaters
may be moored by using catenary chains in relatively deep water and such breakwaters do not
interfere with currents. They can be readily reconfigured as farms expand or pens are removed
(Kato et al. 1979).
Figure 4.5 shows the use of the Bridgestone floating breakwater system to protect fish farms
in Japan. Figure 4.6 shows a porous collar barrier for COSPAR design which was introduced in a
numerical study done by Chu and Wang (2020). According to the study, the porous collar barrier can
be a part of semi-submersible floating fish pens so that it can reduce wave transmission by at least
60% inside the fish pen.
4.2.1.4 Seabed Condition
The seabed condition in particular affects the mooring system and selection of the anchorage
method. A good anchor provides reliable holding power. Therefore, it is important to know the
95
FIGURE 4.5 Bridgestone breakwater systems, Japan (Kato et al. 1979).
FIGURE 4.6 Porous collar barrier (Chu and Wang, 2020).
sea bottom conditions in order to select the correct type of anchoring system. The continuous
action of a seawater dynamic load on the seabed causes the accumulation of pore pressure in
the submarine soil layer. When the accumulated pore pressure exceeds the initial stress, the
seabed will be liquefied and eventually instability and destruction of the soil layer will occur
(Jeng, 2018; Wang et al. 2014). Not only might shells and seagrass on upper layers prevent
an anchor from taking hold, but bottom layers with sand, mud, peat or clay require different
anchoring mechanisms (Cardia and Lovatelli, 2016). Apart from these, the seabed might include
submarine fiber optic cables, telephone lines or pipelines, explosive areas, or historical ship-
wreck sites (Cardia and Lovatelli, 2016). These limitations should be indicated and considered
for pen designs and mooring systems.
Detailed seabed analysis is needed for determining what kind of anchorage method would be
suitable for the site. For example, traditional anchorage (gravity method, see Figure 4.7) is suit-
able at sites where there is adequate deep sediment layer (Kankainen and Mikalsen, 2014). If the
sea bottom is rocky, drilling would be a better method to keep the mooring system at the site.
Echo sounding and sea bottom samples are methods used to evaluate anchorage (Kankainen and
Mikalsen, 2014). Seismic survey will also be required for seabed soil investigation.
96
FIGURE 4.7 Components of anchoring and mooring system (Cardia and Lovatelli, 2016).
4.2.1.5 Adverse Weather and Storms

Infrastructure and equipment failures caused by extreme environmental conditions not only bring
huge losses to investors, but they also create a high-risk working environment for workers (Jensen
et al. 2010; Mapes, 2017). Storms (hurricanes, or cyclones or typhoons) are meteorological phe-
nomena that pose a risk to offshore fish farms due to associated strong winds, resultant waves and
currents generated (Beveridge, 2008; Kankainen and Mikalsen, 2014; Kapetsky et al. 2013; Tidwell,
2012). They mostly occur in the tropical-equatorial zones, namely in the region between the Tropic
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, but their incidence can extend to the North Atlantic and
North Pacific (Cardia and Lovatelli, 2016).
A storm surge is a long-term ‘wave’ that can maintain a water level above normal levels for hours
or even days. A storm surge can combine with the astronomical tide to create a storm tide. The mag-
nitude of the surge is affected by several factors, such as storm intensity, magnitude, wind speed,
approach to the coast and coastal bathymetry (Wamsley et al. 2010). Although there are few studies
on fish pens under extreme sea conditions, we can still draw some information about storms from
other offshore structures.
The occurrence of storms should be rigorously analysed so as to detect an appropriate offshore
fish farming site and to predict the environmental forces for pen designs (Cardia and Lovatelli,
2016; Huguenin, 1997). Submerged pens are more suitable for areas where there is a high incidence
of storms and extreme weather conditions since wave forces and associating pitching and surging
motion during storms reduce significantly with increasing water depth. Therefore, the submergibility
of offshore pens provides an excellent protection for pens and fish against destructive storms.
4.2.2 Operational Challenges
4.2.2.1 Conducive Environment for Fish Welfare
Fish demand the best environmental conditions for growth. Shainee et al. (2013) listed the key
parameters for the survival needs of fish (see Table 4.3) under five factors (water quality, stocking
density, feed conversion, less motion and smaller net deflection). These factors and parameters are
very important for the design of fish pens.
The best quality of water for fish farming is species-dependent, since each type of fish thrives in
a particular water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH and turbidity (Pillay, 2004; Stien et al.
2013). However, the optimum design parameters for fish pen designs are unknown for many fish
species (Shainee et al. 2013).
The next important parameter is the stocking density which is dependent on the net water volume.
Sufficient living space is essential for the life of fish. A good pen design should provide sufficient net
97
TABLE 4.3
Design Parameters for Fish Living
Factors Parameters
1 Water quality Dissolved oxygen, salinity, temperature, pH, turbidity, pollution, infestation, biofouling
2 Stocking density Net volume, dissolved oxygen
3 Feed conversion Motion, stocking density, feeding frequency, feed type
4 Less motion Waves, current, wind, pen design
5 Smaller net deflection Waves, current, pen design
Source: Shainee et al. 2013.
volume under a strong current. Therefore, the minimum pen net deformation due to current loads
should be considered in the design to provide sufficient fish pen volume (Faltinsen, 2015). Huang
et al. (2008) found that the current-induced effects on the net-pen system were more important than
those due to waves only. So, they concluded that farming sites should not be situated in areas where
the current velocity exceeds 1 m/s, unless engineering solutions are found to overcome serious net-
pen volume deformation.
Feeding of fish is done daily from dawn to dusk by using a feed distributor that is remotely con-
trolled. Fish pens must be designed to securely hold the feed distributors so that they do not get
dislodged in the event of storms. In salmon farms, fish gather at the water surface to consume dry
pellets quickly which would otherwise become moist and sink fast and out of reach from the fish.
Note that dry pellets normally contain a high level of fish meal with enriched nutrients and must be
kept at less than 10% moisture level and supplied at the water surface (Lovell, 1989; Pandey, 2018).
Therefore, it is important for a fish pen to have calm surface water in order to reduce feed wastes and
keep fish growth at an acceptable level. A new fish pen design for deployment in energetic offshore
sites may thus require an engineering solution to reduce wave transmission inside the pen.
The environmental forces of the selected site can influence the fish welfare and the integrity of
the pen system. Hence, pen designs must not only be robust enough to survive the strong environ-
mental forces, but they should also have the means to avoid or dissipate the excess energy in order
to provide a stable and relatively quiet environment for fish to grow well. Therefore, the challenge is
to design a system that copes best with the environmental forces by means of advanced technology
and economically affordable methods (Shainee et al. 2013).
Table 4.4 presents the optimal growing conditions for various commonly farmed marine fish
species, from the species factsheets given in the Appendix of Le François et al. (2010).
4.2.2.2 Vessel Collision with Fish Pens

Large fish farming facilities in offshore sites are exposed to collision with non-aquaculture vessels,
or aquaculture support vessels such as well-boats and feed-barges (see Figure 4.8). The aquacul-
ture support vessels for offshore sites will be much larger than the nearshore fish farms for their
required fish capacity. Therefore, collision accidents in the offshore sites can be more catastrophic
than those that happen in the nearshore sites. The main consequence of the collision is not only
failure of the aquaculture system, but massive fish escapes that can threaten biosecurity and the
profitability of the farming business. A strengthening method such as berthing reinforcement for
ships and/or a back-up system are required to protect the fish farming facilities from such vessel
collision accidents. Alternatively, a dynamic positioning system may be applied in order to pre-
vent accidents associated with interactive motions between vessels and pens during harvesting or
bathing operations.
newgenrtpdf
98
98
TABLE 4.4
Optimal Farming Condition for Farming Marine Fish Species
Farming Marine European Atlantic, Southern,

Fish Species Rainbow Trout Whitefish Atlantic cod Barramundi Atlantic Salmon Pacific Bluefin tuna
Commercial size 0.6 to 0.9 kg 0.8 to 1 kg 3 to 5 kg 0.4 to 3 kg 3 to 7 kg 80 kg
Years to reach 10 to 13 months 2 to 3 years from 2 to 3 years from hatching 1.5 to 2 years from 2 to 3 years from 50 to 1.5–2.5 years from
commercial size hatching hatching 100 g smolt 15 kg fish
Open pen culture Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
(Seawater pen) (2 × 2 × 2 m to 16 × 16 × 8 m (5 to 20 m deep sea water) (40 m diameter floating
size of pen) ring)
Close containment Yes Yes Yes Yes N.A N.A
culture (Indoor/outdoor tanks) (Pond, plastic tanks) (land-based tanks) (Pond < 2 m deep)
Rearing density 20 to 40 kg/m3 20 to 30 kg/m3 20 to 25 kg/m3 (open pen) 15 to 25 kg/m3 < 25 kg/m3 Norway: 5 to 2 kg/m3
40 to 50 kg/m3 (closed 15 kg/m3, Australia and to 5 kg/m3
containment) Chile: 8 to 10 kg/m3
Optimal temperature 15°C 17 to 19°C < 15°C 27 to 36°C 15°C N/A
Source: Le François et al. 2010.

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FIGURE 4.8 Steel pen damaged due to ship collision (Photo from: https://salmonexpert.cl/article/sernape
sca-y-transmarko-activan-protocolos-de-accin-por-accidente-en-centro/).
FIGURE 4.9 Whales enter the net pen (https://fiskeridir.no/Akvakultur/Erfaringsbase/Knoelhval-i-merd).
4.2.2.3 Marine Animal Invasion

Containing a large number of fish in offshore sites, net pens can attract wild predators such as
whales and sharks which normally do not venture into nearshore sites. To gain access, such massive
predators can damage parts or entire fish pens, thereby causing fish escapees. Figure 4.9 shows an
invasion of a whale (9 m in length) in a Norwegian fish farm. At about 2 m below the water surface,
a hole in the net was observed that was damaged by the whale. The hole was covered immediately
to prevent salmon from escaping and the whale was towed out of the pen by lowering part of the
pen wall.
Offshore fish pens must therefore be designed to keep out predators by introducing methods such
as acoustic deterrent systems (Croix, 2008) and employing more durable nets (such as the EcoNet)
or double net pen (for example, Huon’s Fortress Pen). For example, EcoNet (see Figure 4.10(a)) was
developed by the AKVA Group who used it for Ocean Farm 1 project for prevention of net wear and
tear. The EcoNet is made from very strong but lightweight PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) and it
has been certified under the Norwegian fish farming standard, NS 9415 (2009), to have a lifetime in
the water for up to 14 years. Figure 4.10(b) shows Huon Aquaculture’s patented Fortress Pen. This
fish pen was developed in response to a need to keep out predators (such as seals) by employing a
durable double net system. The net material is made from ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene
100
FIGURE 4.10 (a) AKVA Group’s EcoNet, (b) Huon Aquaculture’s Fortress Pen (photo from: (a) https://
akvagroup.com/pen-based-aquaculture/pens-nets/nets-/econet, (b) https://huonaqua.com.au/wp-content/uplo
ads/2017/08/Huon-Fortress-Brochure.pdf).
(UHMWPE), the same material that is also used in bullet-proof vests, that can withstand extremely
high current flows.
4.2.2.4 Infrastructure for Offshore Fish Farming

This infrastructure includes utility vessels and the power supply. Fish farming has to cater for all
stages of production from spawning, rearing fries and fingerlings, producing mature fish, harvesting
and packing. The distance between the farm site and necessary dry land support facilities directly
affects running costs (Cardia and Lovatelli, 2016). Therefore, Kapetsky et al. (2013) considered 25
nautical miles (46.3 km) as the limit for economical offshore site development. Aquaculture Forum
Bremerhaven reported the urgent need to plan for a more comprehensive development of water-
based infrastructure for offshore fish farming (Kapetsky et al. 2013; Rosenthal et al. 2012).
Although there are many novel fish pen designs that aim to operate in offshore sites, the global
vessel fleet for offshore fish farming is not yet sufficient to be fully viable for the offshore fish
farming operation so that there is a delay in industry maturity. Moreover, there is no international
code of practice for aquaculture vessels operating in offshore sites.
Power supply is needed for electrical devices and equipment for monitoring and for automated
processes that have become essential for offshore fish farming. However, the power supply is not
cheap and easily accessible at offshore sites. The fish farming industry currently relies heavily on
diesel to power operations such as ventilation, feeding, lighting, net cleaning, fish bathing and
harvesting. Moreover, some submerged fish pen designs require a substantial ballast mass to keep
the fish pens in deep water. It will consume a lot of power to fill and empty the ballast water for
draught control or water exchange.
4.2.2.5 Economic Sustainability for Operation (Including Material Selection)

California Environmental Associates presented their global review of offshore fish aquaculture in
2018 (CEA, 2018). In the report, it is highlighted that small-scale offshore farming projects will face
a challenge in order to become a profitable operation. As it is, these small-scale offshore projects
have high capital costs, have to contend with intense oceanographic conditions, and have an unclear
path to economies of scale. Although massive industrialization and automation could provide a more
profitable business model, the current offshore farming projects have yet to prove their economic
sustainability (CEA, 2018).
Ellingsen and Aanondsen (2006) emphasize that it is not only the quality of fish that is important
to consumers, but also the environmental impact of farming, processing and transportation are
101
becoming important issues. The performance of fish pen products is an important part of the design
for environmental sustainability. The reliability of products is directly related to safety of life and
property. Poor-quality materials and facilities can cause potential safety hazards in equipment,
resulting in hazards such as broken fish nets. On the other hand, construction cost is also a consid-
eration for engineering design. From the perspective of the structure of circular full-floating HDPE
(High-density polyethylene) pen facilities, the main factors affecting the price of pen facilities are
the materials and prices of pen frames and nets, as well as the mooring systems. Balancing safety
and engineering cost are a key part of sustainable development.
4.2.3 Design Challenges
4.2.3.1 Lack of Experience in Designing Mega/Submerged Offshore Fish Pens
Unlike nearshore fish pen designs which have matured over decades, there are very few offshore
fish pen designs for reference. Most offshore fish pen designs are recently developed and remain
in a conceptual design stage. Only a few of them (such as Ocean Farm 1 and Havfarm 1) are in the
trialing phase. There is little data on their long-term survivability, durability, maintenance, and repair
methods, and guarantees for fish well-being. Therefore, there are still many unknowns associated
with the new offshore fish pen designs in particular with mega/submerged designs. As the develop-
ment and operation of these offshore fish pen designs are still in their infancy, offshore and marine
engineers face unknown challenges which can only be revealed in a long-term operation of these
fish pens.
4.2.3.2 Lack of Standardized and Comprehensive Design Guidelines/Codes

There is lack of design guidelines/codes which could help to create a path forward for building
offshore fish farms that are storm proof, ensure fish well-being and growth, and which are safe for
workers performing the farming activities.
Within the aquaculture industry, approval of a new fish pen design is necessary before clients
have the confidence to invest in building the fish pens and also for commercialization. The design
approval may be given by maritime classification societies in accordance with their certifying
rules for offshore fish farming. In recent years, some classification societies such as ABS and
DNV officially published certifying rules for offshore fish farming installations in the following
documents:
• ABS, 2018, Guide for building and classing: Offshore fish farming installations
• DNV, 2017, Rules for classification: Offshore fish farming units and installations
(DNVGL-RU-OI-0503)
These certifying rules, however, only cover hull structures, onboard machinery, and equipment that
is not part of the aquaculture systems as is common practice in certifying offshore oil and gas units.
The guidelines do not cover primary aquaculture elements such as floating collars and net pens
(made of polymers, concrete or equivalent) and their associated equipment, feeding and production
facilities, feedstock facilities and fish escape prevention devices. They indicate that aquaculture
systems will be assessed under the jurisdiction of local authorities which may not exist in some
countries.
Owing to a lack of standardized and comprehensive guidance for the offshore fish farming
industry, a wide range of fish pen designs has appeared; thereby making it difficult to establish
a single strategy for achieving a more cost-effective business model. A design guidance/code for
offshore fish pen designs will include many considerations such as maintenance methods, manned
or unmanned facilities, risks associated with fish farm sites, marine warranty, special requirements
from operators and legislative issues for the utilization of common ocean space.
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TABLE 4.5
Flexible Collar Pens—Pros and Cons and Suitability for Application in Offshore Sites
Pros Cons Application for Offshore Sites
• high resilience to wave forces with • problems with deformation of • some have shown to survive storms
a long service life (>10 years), the net due to strong waves and with significant wave height (Hs)
• high resistance to rotting, currents, of 10 m,
weathering and biofouling, • twisting and turning problems of • Possible alterations for offshore use
• easily formed into various stanchions, by featuring submergibility,
configurations and relatively cheap • limited walkway access putting • little empirical or theoretical evidence
when ordered in large volumes, workers in danger during bad to offer complete confirmation of the
• easily constructed in-land and weather, extreme sea state and survivability on
towed by boats to install. • difficulty in placing feed systems a long-term basis.
due to space constraint,
• needs large service vessels.
FIGURE 4.11 Tubenet pen (Photo from: https://fishfarmingexpert.com/article/mowi-goes-deep-to-beat-lice-

problem/).
4.3 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN OFFSHORE FISH PEN DESIGNS

4.3.1 Modified Flexible Collar Pens
Flexible collar pens have been widely used for fish farming in Japan, Western Europe, North
America, South America, New Zealand, and Australia. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is the
most commonly used material in modern industrial fish farming. The main structural elements of
these pens are floatable pipes, which can be assembled in various ways to produce the floating collar.
The pipes are held together by a series of brackets with stanchions and distributed throughout the
entire boundaries to suspend the fish net (Cardia and Lovatelli, 2016). Table 4.5 summarizes the
flexible fish pens in terms of pros, cons and their suitability for application in offshore sites.
4.3.1.1 Tubenet
The most recent development of the flexible collar pen by the AKVA Group ASA is the Tubenet as
shown in Figure 4.11. The Tubenet system uses a net to keep salmon below the sea lice layer (top 10 m
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TABLE 4.6
Submerged Pens—Pros and Cons and Suitability for Application in Offshore Sites
Advantages Disadvantages Application for Offshore Sites

• either be unattended by surface • a lack of visibility in normal • unknown submerged pens being
units, accessed only when needed, operation, deployed in offshore sites,
or remotely controlled, • relatively complex to operate • submerged operation is in question to
• best features to avoid surface debris due to its submerged mode and compete surface operation.
and effects of storms, maintenance and operating services
• structural strength does not need to are difficult,
be as great as surface structures. • operating costs may be relatively
higher than surface mode
structures.
of water layer) and protect salmon from strong waves. A large cylindrical and tarpaulin-walled pas-
sageway, called the ‘snorkel’, in the centre of the pen protects salmon from sea lice when they swim
to the surface to fill their swim bladders. Feed is delivered by way of subsurface feeding tubes. Only
the centre section, where the salmon surface to refill their swim bladders, requires bird netting. In the
outer ring the salmon are kept 14 m below the surface so that they can be protected from strong waves.
The tarpaulin ‘tube’ extends to a depth of 14 m and the feeders are placed at 13 m. The inner cylinder
is 60 m in circumference. Mowi ASA (Norway) and AKVA have successfully trialled the Tubenet
system, and it is expected to be commercially adopted by fish farmers in Scotland and Norway.
4.3.2 Submerged Fish Pens

In order to avoid strong surface waves, submerged fish pens are proposed. The pens are submerged to
a suitable water depth below the hazardous upper water column. A hypothesis of the submerged fish
pens is that fish welfare and production efficiency will be as good or even better in the submerged
position as in the surface position where high energetic waves are present. These submerged pens
may be raised temporarily to the surface for necessary maintenance requirements and for fish
harvesting. Table 4.6 summarizes the pros and cons of submerged pens as well as their suitability
for deployment in offshore sites.
Below, is some discussion of various submerged fish pen designs that have been proposed or built.
4.3.2.1 Atlantis
Atlantis Subsea Farming (see Figure 4.12), the cooperative AKVA group, has developed a submerged
offshore fish pen with flexible collars and a compressed air chamber for large-scale salmon produc-
tion. This submerged pen has a circumference of up to 160 m. Air and fish feed can be added through
hoses from a supply vessel.
4.3.2.2 Giant Offshore
Giant Offshore pens are designed for exposed localities with the aim of minimizing the risk of
escape, better protection against salmon lice and reducing point discharges of nutrients. Operations
and monitoring are performed in full, from integrated base vessels. The pen is designed from a
flexible material, with the strength to withstand being more exposed than today’s conventional near-
shore fish farms.
Giant Offshore is a 500 m long cylindrical construction with pointed ends, where the middle
section is 300 m long and 40 m in diameter. The middle section has five large net bags which together
make up the farming volume of 290,000 m3, where it is possible to produce 2.2 million salmon. The
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FIGURE 4.12 Atlantis subsea farming (Photo from: https://atlantisfarming.no/nyheter/atlantis-subsea-

farming-a-farming-concept-designed-for-the-future).
FIGURE 4.13 Giant offshore (Photo from: http://giganteoffshore.no/).
construction is designed to keep a large distance between the net bags and mooring bodies, with the
intention of reducing the risk of damage to the net (Figure 4.13).
4.3.2.3 AquaPod
AquaPod (see Figure 4.14) was developed by Ocean Farm Technologies in the United States. It has
a two-point anchor for mooring and some operational advances such as net cleaning and removal of
dead fish. It is located 8 miles offshore in a water depth of 45 m, with strong currents and waves. It
has already been proven to withstand waves of up to 10 m high. The structure is made from recycled
polyethylene plastic with fiberglass reinforcement. The reason for its geodesic shape is that this
has the least surface area possible compared to its volume, and this helps to make the pen predator
proof. Future pods are equipped with a propeller mechanism and GPS so that they can be used as
transporting vessels that carry juvenile fish and arrive at the desired location with fish that are ready
to harvest.
4.3.2.4 NSENGI Fish Pen

NSENGI (Nippon Steel and Sumikin Engineering Co. Ltd) has investigated the co-location of an existing
offshore platform and a fish farm. It has carried out offshore verification testing of large-scale seabed
105
FIGURE 4.14 Submerged aquapod pen from ocean farm technologies (Photo from: https://wired.co.uk/arti
cle/aquapod-sustainable-fish-farm).
FIGURE 4.15 Sinking fish pens (Photo from: https://eng.nipponsteel.com/english/news/2016/20161003.

html).
resting pens at a salmon farm which is 3 km from the shoreline of Sakaiminato, Tottori Prefecture,
Japan. Each pen has a volume of 50,000 m3. The fish pen is designed for the following environmental
conditions: significant wave height of 7 -9 m corresponding to a wave period of 10 to 16 s, a current
velocity of 2 knots and a water depth of 60 m. The pens are suitable for farming fish species such as
Seriola (Japanese amberjack) and Coho salmon. The pens are serviced by a jacket platform that houses
the equipment and feedstock storage facility for automated feeding of the fish (Figure 4.15).
4.3.3 Novel Offshore Fish Pen Designs

In recent years, a few global fish farming companies have developed novel designs for offshore
fish pens and built them for trial tests at selected offshore sites. Norwegian fish farm operators are
106
leading the way to offshore fish farming in order to resolve problems related to parasites (such as
sea lice) caused by water eutrophication, as well as to expand salmon production that is expected to
be five times more by 2050. To encourage innovation and the development of next generation fish
pen designs for offshore use, the Norwegian government has released a development scheme that
is financially lucrative for fish farm operators. Chinese fish farms also seek offshore sites because
of the need to expand seafood production to meet their exponentially increasing domestic seafood
consumption. China has the advantage of possessing a relatively good construction infrastructure
that allows it to fabricate mega-size fish pen projects at a relatively low cost. According to China’s
Ministry of Agriculture ‘National Marine Ranch Demonstration Zone Construction Planning
(2017–2025)’, China plans to develop 2,500 km2 of national fish farming waters by 2025. Several
hundreds of offshore fish farming facilities are expected to be deployed in the Chinese offshore
sites. Construction of these offshore facilities will reduce the scale of commercial fishing and restore
ocean resources.
Offshore fish pen designs may be divided into two main streams; open net pen system and the
closed containment tank system based on fish containment methods (Chu et al. 2020). Both systems
will be discussed in detail in the following sections.
4.3.3.1 Open Net Pen System

The open net pen system is the most widely used for marine fish farming. These net-based pens
are generally slender structures, with a low mass in comparison to the size of the structure. They
have a large damping-to-mass ratio, and this can effectively eliminate resonance problems.
Depending on net holding methods, open net pen systems can be either deformable (flexible type)
or robust (rigid type). However recent offshore fish pen designs mostly adopted the rigid type
to withstand strong waves and currents whilst providing a sufficient farming volume. Table 4.7
presents features of the rigid open net pen system in terms of its pros and cons, and its application
for offshore sites.
Some examples of the open net pen system for offshore use are described and shown in
Figures 4.16–4.24.
TABLE 4.7
Rigid Open Net System—Pros and Cons and Suitability for Application in Offshore Sites
Pros Cons Application for Offshore Sites

• stable working platform for all • need for large and heavy structures, • deployed at some exposed offshore
husbandry and management • requires good port facilities and/or sites where an occurrence of extreme
operations, expensive towing to install, storms is rare,
• potential for integral feeding and • susceptibility to structural failure in • proto-type testing performed in
harvesting systems, extreme conditions, deployed cage of Ocean Farm1 and
• construction and repair facilities • large masses require heavier Shenlan1,
may be done in conventional mooring systems, • despite not enough operating records,
shipyards, • involves relatively high it is the most progressed type for
• if rigid frames are used, they capital costs, farming fish in offshore sites,
maintain farming volumes and keep • rigorous engineering analyses, • reported some failures related to
fish in place, design and high-quality control in human error and adverse weather.
• relatively small vertical motion due construction is essential to ensure
to large mass, safety in offshore operation.
• low natural frequency avoiding
wave resonance.
107
FIGURE 4.16 Ocean farm 1 (Photo courtesy of Charles Lim).
FIGURE 4.17 Smart fish farm (Photo from: https://salmonbusiness.com/gustav-witzoe-our-biggest-challen

ger-is-land-based/).
4.3.3.1.1 Ocean Farm 1
SalMar Group, a Norwegian fish farm operator, developed Ocean Farm 1 (see Figure 4.16). Ocean
Farm 1 is a result of robust technology and principles used in submersible offshore units. It is a full-
scale pilot offshore fish pen deployed about 5 km off the coast of central Norway. With a diameter
of 110 m and volume of 250,000 m3, the pen is able to accommodate 1.5 million salmon (Zhao et al.
2019). It is intended for offshore installation in water 100 m –300 m in depth with a 25-year life-
span. It has more than 20,000 sensors and over 100 monitors and control units. It can be immersed
in deep water by filling the ballast tanks and is moored by eight lines tied at fairleads placed on the
lower parts of the side vertical columns. It uses Eco-net, developed by AKVA Group by using PET
(polyethylene terephthalate), which has a hard surface that resists marine fouling and makes it easy
to clean in the water, as well as improving durability and preventing fish escape.
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FIGURE 4.18 Shenlan 1 (Photo from: https://swissre.com/reinsurance/property-and-casualty/reinsurance/

marine/offshore-fish-farming-facilities-challenges-marine-insurers.html).
FIGURE 4.19 Havfarm 1 (Photo from: https://fishfarmingexpert.com/article/in-the-shadow-of-the-giant-watch-a-

video-of-the-havfarm/).
FIGURE 4.20 Zhenyu 1 aquaculture platform (Photo from: http://cn.zpmc.com/news/cont.aspx?id=1296).

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FIGURE 4.21 Viewpoint seafarm (Photo from: https://viewpointaqua.no/seafarm/).
FIGURE 4.22 Spider cage (Photo from: https://viewpointaqua.no/spidercage/).
FIGURE 4.23 De Maas SSFF150 pen (Photo from: http://demaas-smc.com/).

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4.3.3.1.2 Smart Fish Farm

SalMar group is planning to build an upgrade version of Ocean Farm 1 which is an even larger fish
pen with a diameter of 160 m and can accommodate three million salmon and produce 23,000 tonnes
round weight. It has been named, Smart Fish Farm (see Figure 4.17) and will have five to ten units in
the first phase. The first unit is expected to have an investment level of EUR 225 million, falling to
EUR 147-200 million for additional units. The product cost is expected at EUR 3.6/kilo of salmon
for the first unit, falling to EUR 3.3 when several units are in operation. SalMar expects production
start-up of Smart Fish Farm in the second quarter of 2024, based on approval of sites and volumes
by summer 2021 and expects to enter into a construction contract during the fourth quarter of 2021.
4.3.3.1.3 Shenlan
Shenlan 1 and Shenlan 2 were developed for salmon and trout farming about 130 nautical miles off
the shore of Rizhao in east China’s Shandong province. Shenlan 1 has already been deployed at the
site and it has a diameter of 60 m and is 35 m in height; it is able to culture 300,000 salmon. A notice-
able feature, that differentiates it from Ocean Farm 1, is the presence of a centre oscillating buoy to
generate power for fish farm operations (Figure 4.18). Shenlan 2 is in the planning stage. It will have
a 60 m diameter and a height of 80 m, and it will be able to accommodate about 1 million salmon.
4.3.3.1.4 Havfarm 1
Havfarm 1 is the world’s longest fish farm, 385 m long and 59.5 m wide and has a capacity for 10,000
tonnes of salmon (over 2 million fish). Constructed in the Yantai Shipyard, China for Norwegian
farmer Nordlaks, Havfarm 1 comprises a steel frame for six 47m x 47m pens made of HDPE mixed
with copper (from Garware, India), with open nets at 60 m depth (Figure 4.19). The facilities are
designed to withstand 10m significant wave height. Havfarm 1 is moored with 11 anchors, each
weighing 22 tonnes and each anchor has a holding power between 300 and 450 tonnes. It is sited
5 km south-west of Hadseloya in Hadsel municipality in Vesteralen, Norway. A 7 km long subsea
power cable supplies power to the Havfarm 1 from the shore.
Havefarm 1 is a vessel-shaped fish farm concept which intends to minimize the wave loads
coming from the bow in open sea sites. A single-point mooring system is employed for the vessel-
shaped fish farm concept to allow the entire fish farm to rotate freely in order to reduce the envir-
onmental loads on the structure and improve fish wastes dispersion. In Li et al. (2017) study, the
hydrodynamic properties of a basic geometry of the vessel hull were obtained from the frequency-
domain analysis. Time-domain simulations were performed by coupling the hull with the mooring
system. Mobron et al. (2020) developed a method to estimate the fatigue utilization by using
Dynamic Amplification Factor for a fatigue assessment of Havfarm 1 design.
4.3.3.1.5 Zhenyu 1
Zhenyu 1 aquaculture platform (Figure 4.20) was constructed in Lianjiang County, Fuzhou City,
Fujian Province and launched in 2019. It is located in the sea area of Dinghai Bay, Fujian Province.
The platform is olive-shaped, with a total length of 60m and a width of 30m. The aquaculture
water body reaches 130 million cubic meters. It is expected to produce 120 tonnes of high-quality
commercial marine fish annually. It is mainly composed of a floating body structure, an aquacul-
ture frame, and a rotating mechanism. Zhengyu 1 was designed based on a concept for preventing
biofouling. The pen can be rotated about the horizontal axis so that the underwater bio-fouled
part of the pen can be brought above the water surface for cleaning. There is a wind turbine to
supply power.
4.3.3.1.6 Viewpoint Seafarm and Spider Cage

Nova Sea AS, a Norwegian company, designed two innovative concepts: the Viewpoint Seafarm
(see Figure 4.21) and the Spider cage (see Figure 4.22) for offshore fish farming based on
111
semi-submersible technology. Viewpoint Seafarm comprises a hub on a semi-submersible platform

and four floating net pens connected to the semi-submersible by a hinge system. Each floater has a
projected area of 50 m × 35 m. Scale testing has been done with 11 m significant wave height and the
system showed a stable motion response (Lindeboom, 2018).
The Spider Pen has a dedicated 100 m diameter circular barrier, with an outer steel ring and
another ring inside for heave compensation. It is designed to shield the actual fish pen from heavy
sea conditions and sea lice. The design has been tested up to a significant wave height of 11 m with
and without current, where general motion, acceleration, load and sloshing have been accessed
(Lindeboom, 2018).
4.3.3.1.7 De Mass SSFF150 Pen

De Maas SMC, a firm operating in the offshore oil and gas services industry, is partnering the
Chinese government to build a $151 million deep-water aquaculture farm off the coast of China. De
Maas will design and build five SSFF150 (Semi-submersible Spar Fish Farm) pens. Each is 139 m
in diameter and 12 m high (see Figure 4.23). The central tower will house machinery spaces, feed
storage and provides accommodation for operators. By submerging underwater, the pen can be
protected from storms.
4.3.3.1.8 Impact-9 Submersible Salmon Pen

The Irish company Impact-9 invented a submersible fish pen design which can survive storms based
on an innovative flexible design that allows salmon production at offshore sites (see Figure 4.24(a)).
The fish pen, 90 m in diameter and 125,000 m3 in volume, can produce 3,000 tonnes of salmon in
every 12 month grow-out cycle. The design considers the environmental conditions of Scottish
marine sites that are over 60 m deep. Impact-9’s salmon pen design is based around a central,
strong backbone structure, which is centrally moored with a single-point mooring. It will provide
a safe working platform and a home for feed and farming equipment. Each net is suspended from
the backbone and includes an inflatable collar near the base. The pen would alleviate sea lice and
algal bloom problems by keeping salmon 6 m below the surface or more if required. The adoption
of inflatable beam collars (made of HDPE) into the structure allows operational innovations and
flexibility (see Figure 4.24(b)) so that the design will achieve inexpensive access to offshore zones,
a lot less operational cost on divers, less dependence on well boats, and resistance to seal ice and
algal blooms.
4.3.3.2 Closed Containment Tank System

In order to control the water quality and the production process, closed containment fish tanks
were introduced in the 1990s (Beveridge, 2008). These closed containment fish tanks, also known
as recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), are generally sited on land and involve a recirculation
system for the water where internal water is constantly filtered (Tidwell, 2012). Such a system is
efficient with freshwater, but when dealing with saltwater, there is a production of sulfates at the tank
bottom that kill fish if the tank is not properly cleaned.
Floating closed containment tanks for offshore fish farming are recent developments prompted
by the need to protect the internal environment from negative external factors. These tanks contain
water that is constantly refreshed using a flow-through system. The water that is pumped into the
containment is controlled up to the desired requirements of the internal environment. This may
include, extracting water from greater depth, filtering, oxygenation or other water treatments. Water
that flows out of the system may also be required to be treated before discharging. So far, floating
closed containment tanks for fish farming have been deployed in benign waters. For use in exposed
sites where there are stronger waves and currents, the closed containment tanks have to be designed
to mitigate sloshing of the water in the tank to ensure the well-being of the fish. Current developments
are presented below regardless whether they are used for nearshore or offshore fish farming.
112
FIGURE 4.24 (a) Impact-9 submersible salmon pen, (b) diagram showing deployment of Impact-9 pen
system (photo from: https://fishfarmingexpert.com/article/taking-the-plunge-a-submersible-cage-for-scotland/,
https://thefi shsite.com/articles/novel-offshore-fish-farm-edges-closer-to-commercial-reality).
Table 4.8 summarizes the floating closed containment tank systems in terms of pros and cons and
their applications in offshore sites.
Figures 4.25 to 4.34 show some recent developments of the floating closed containment tanks
for fish farming.
4.3.3.2.1 Fish Farm Egg

The fish farm egg concept (see Figure 4.25), developed by ‘Hauge Aqua’ uses a fully enclosed
egg-shaped structure. The water flow enables the system to draw inlet water segregated from where
outlet water is released. Water enters by the use of two main pumps that suck water from 20 m below
the bottom of the structure. The water quality and volume can be controlled, ensuring steady oxygen
levels. It is estimated to cost about NOK 600 million (about USD 60 million).
4.3.3.2.2 Neptun
The Neptun was developed by Aquafarm Equipment (Figure 4.26(a)). The tank has an internal
diameter of 40 m, a circumference of 126 m, a depth of 22 m and a gross volume of 21,000 m3. The
tank is designed against a wind speed of 30 m/s, and a current velocity of 1.0 m/s and its design life is
25 years. Figure 4.26(b) shows an internal view of the tank with inlet and outlet holes for water cir-
culation. The tank is made from Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) elements and reinforced
with steel in areas that bear the most stress. The design also includes a pump system to extract large
volumes of water from a depth of 25 m or more. As the concept of the containment tank is to collect
dead fish, fish waste and uneaten fish feed from the sloped bottom, there is a flexible pipeline that
connects the lowest point to the waste separator.
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TABLE 4.8
Floating Closed Containment Tanks—Pros and Cons and Suitability for Application in
Offshore Sites
Advantages Disadvantages Application for Offshore Sites

• has control over water replacement • requires a power supply system to • it is still unknown as to whether
so that water can be constantly deploy in offshore sites, a closed containment tank can be
disinfected to remove pathogenic • may be too expensive to bring deployed in offshore sites,
organisms, power from land for offshore fish • several challenging issues are raised
• external environmental events farming, such as sloshing, swirling and power
like algal blooms is no longer a • requires significant construction resources.
problem, and equipment costs, more
• organic waste can be removed management demands for
by biofiltration system before monitoring and intervention,
discharging the water back to • detrimental sloshing effect to both
the sea, structure and fish by the contained
• threat of predators (such as sharks water.
and seals) is completely eliminated,
• achieve a higher production rate
when compared to the open pen
system.
FIGURE 4.25 Closed fish farm concept ‘fish farm egg’ (Photo from: http://sysla.no/fisk/skal-bruke-600-
mill-pa-lukkedeoppdrettsegg/).
114
FIGURE 4.26 (a) Neptun closed containment fish tank, (b) internal view of Neptun semi-closed containment
fish tank (photo from: http://aquafarm.no/closed-pen/).
4.3.3.2.3 Salmon Home 1
Dr. Techn. Olav Olsen, a Norway based marine technology consulting company, proposed a closed
containment concrete tank, named Salmon Home 1, for offshore farming (see Figure 4.27). The
cylindrical concrete tank has a 14.8 m inner diameter, 16.5 m outer diameter and 6 m height pro-
viding 1,000 m3 for salmon farming. It uses an existing mooring system such as a system of 2 × 4 or
2 × 8 nets in a rectangular array. It has a sloping bottom for easy collection of organic waste (Olsen,
2020). For a larger tank, of about 16,000 m3, in a water depth of 80 m and significant wave height of
2.5 m, it is proposed that the mooring system comprises of eight 48 mm chains.
4.3.3.2.4 Eco-Ark
AME2 Pte Ltd, a Singapore based company, has developed a closed-containment flow-through
floating fish farm called the Eco-Ark as shown in Figure 4.28(a). It has four large tanks of 500 m3
and is about the size of an Olympic swimming pool. It can produce 166 tonnes of fish annually and
enables sustainable farming out at sea in volumes that are 20 times more than average minimum
production levels at traditional coastal farms. It has a flow-through water supply system. It has a roof
equipped with solar panels to supply electricity for the fish farm (Leow and Tan, 2019).
The following environmental conditions were used for designing the Eco-Ark: wind speed 15 m/
s, significant wave height 0.5 m, current velocity 1.2 m/s, and water depth 10 m. The mooring system
115
FIGURE 4.27 (a) Salmon Home 1, (b) Salmon Home 1 on site (Photo courtesy of Tor Ole Olsen).
adopted is a spud housing on the port and starboard of the hull. The spud housing allows for self-
installation and removal for quick mobilization and demobilisation when required. A total of six
spuds with a diameter of 762 mm and length of 25 m are installed at the site in order to keep the
Eco-Ark in position. The total weight of Eco-Ark is 5300 tonnes.
The Eco-Ark was constructed in Batam Island, Indonesia and was deployed in the northern coast
of Singapore near Pulau Ubin in September 2019. Eco-Ark was designed, constructed and surveyed
according to the rules of the classification society, Bureau Veritas as a special service floating fish
farm and is fully insured for Hull and Machinery (H&M) and also has third party liability insurance
for up to $500 million.
The Eco-Ark allows augmentation and integration by forming a fleet connected to a lift-dock
facility that enables the cultivation and processing of fish on site (see Figure 4.28 (b)).
4.3.3.2.5 Marine Donut
The Norwegian salmon farmer, Marine Harvest ASA now known as Mowi ASA, developed a closed
containment design, named the Marine Donut. The concept is owned by ODP Donut Solutions
(see Figure 4.29). The Marine Donut is a tube made out of HDPE with a volume of 20,000 m3 and
has a capacity of approximately 1000 tonnes of biomass. The design should be able to withstand
116
FIGURE 4.28 (a) Eco-Ark closed containment system, (b) Eco-Ark fleet connected to lift-dock (photo
courtesy of Mr. Ban Tat Leow).
a significant wave height of 3 m. Water is taken in via six inlet pipes that reach below the sea lice
barrier and water is continuously circulated inside the donut. In 2019, Norway’s Directorate of
Fisheries granted permission for 1,100 tonnes of biomass to be used to test the design.
4.3.3.2.6 Stadion Laks
Stadion Laks, is a bathtub-shaped floating aquaculture system made out of reinforced concrete that
holds 34,000 m3 of water. It is designed for a stock density of 50–75 kg/m3 and should be able to
accommodate smolts and post-smolts up to harvest sized 4–6 kg fish. Water is pumped from below
the sea lice barrier, from at least 20 m depth, and is circulated. Various installations and management
systems are in place to secure water quality to achieve the best health for the fish (see Figure 4.30).
It is looking forward to commencing the construction in 2022 and its operation in 2023.
4.3.3.2.7 Preline
Preline Fish farming Systems AS has developed a concept that is closely related to a raceway system
as described by Tidwell (2012). Water is not circulated but runs though the containment. It is a 40 m
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FIGURE 4.29 Marine donut—Close containment concept design of Marine harvest (Photo from: http://
marin.bergen-chamber.no/en/teknologi/Growth-through-innovation/).
FIGURE 4.30 Stadion Laks concept (Photo from: https://stadionlaks.no/en/home/).
long oval HDPE tube with a volume of 2000 m3 that is suspended at the water surface. It is designed
to hold 100,000–200,000 salmon of up to 1 kg in weight. Slots in the tube that extend above the free
surface allow the fish to reach for air. At the bottom, waste collection traps are installed. On the two
far ends, it holds two tubes that reach down below the sea lice barrier. Figure 4.31 shows the artist
impression of the preline. The right-hand tube is the inlet and the other the outlet. Pumps ensure
a water velocity of roughly 0.15 m/s through the system. Fish are kept in the horizontal part of the
system and internal net boundaries are put in place to ensure fish do not escape via the inlet or outlet.
4.3.3.2.8 FishGLOBE
The FishGLOBE fish pen has been developed to reduce the required sea space, minimize production
costs and have minimal negative impact on the environment. When viewed from the water surface,
the FishGLOBE appears as a floating iceberg (see Figure 4.32). The latest model is the FiskGLOBE
K10 with a total volume of 30,000 m3 and a biomass capacity of 2000 tonnes. The structure has a
total height of 35 m with a cylindrical shape. The inlet and outlet pipes together with the central pipe
are a part of the load bearing structure by increasing its stiffness. The FishGLOBE can withstand
waves with a significant wave height of up to 2.5 m and currents of up to 1.0 m/s. Oxygen and large
quantities of water are supplied by pumping from below the structure where it is free from sea lice.
118
FIGURE 4.31 Artist impression of the Preline (Photo from: http://preline.no/).
FIGURE 4.32 Fish globe deployed in Norway (Photo from: https://fishglobe.no/).
The interior can be airtight. By increasing internal air pressure, water can be pressed out to gently
transport the fish out of the tank. An internal current can be introduced to converge the waste as
shown in a study by Gorle et al. (2018) through CFD simulations.
4.3.3.2.9 Eco Cage
Serge Ferrari, a France based company, has developed a composite fabric that is suitable for flexible
bag-type closed containment aquaculture systems and is called Biobrane Aqua. They have a range
available to suit different purposes and environmental loads. The Biobrane Aqua 2050 is applied
in the Eco Cage, which is produced by EcoMerden AS in Norway (see Figure 4.33). The construc-
tion consists of three main parts: (1) a steel circular shaped collar ring which holds the heavy-duty
flexible wall; (2) the flexible wall creating an enclosed internal environment; and (3) an internal net
inside the fabric where the fish reside.
4.3.3.2.10 FiiZK
Another flexible closed-containment aquaculture system that uses the Biobrane Aqua 2050 is a
concept developed by the Norwegian-based company FiiZK AS. They deliver a flexible closed-
containment solution for the aqua culture industry. Designs in different sizes are possible (see
Figure 4.34). Water is drawn from greater depths by extended pipes reaching below the sea lice
barrier. Before the water is pumped into the containment area it is oxygenated. Waste is collected at
the bottom of the pen, from where it is removed and processed externally.
119
FIGURE 4.33 Eco Cage – a flexible type closed containment aqua culture systems (Photo from: https://
ecomerden.com/).
FIGURE 4.34 Flexible closed containment aqua culture systems designed by FiiZK (Photo: https://fiizk.com/
en/product/closed-cage/).
4.3.4 Key Observations with Regard to Recent Offshore Fish Pen Developments

• Most offshore fish pen designs are at the conceptual stage. There are, however, a few real
scale proto-type designs which have been built (examples are, Ocean Farm 1, Shenlan 1, and
Havfarm 1).
• To date, the operation of offshore fish farms is still in its infancy. For example, Ocean Farm 1
and Shenlan 1 started operation only a few years ago!
• Instead of an array of small pens in nearshore fish farms, offshore fish farms tend to have a
single ‘mega’ fish pen that can accommodate more than a million fish.
• Instead of flexible pens and fabric nets, offshore fish pens involve the use of rigid frames and
stiffer nets (such as PET or metal) for robustness.
120
• A submerged pen is a good solution for offshore fish farms as it avoids strong surface waves,
and its structural strength does not need to be as great as surface structures.
• Offshore fish pens are commonly equipped with remote and autonomous devices for oper-
ation, maintenance, monitoring and surveillance (feeding, ventilation, lighting, cleaning, and
the removal of waste).
• Offshore fish pens that are sited at a considerable distance from the shoreline will have to tap
on wind, wave, and solar energy for their power supplies.
• The existing submerged pens and closed containment tank designs are small in size.
• Closed containment tank designs have only been deployed in nearshore sites.
4.4 INTEGRATION OR CO-LOCATION OF OFFSHORE FISH FARM WITH

OTHER MARINE SECTORS
Offshore fish farming would have to generate high economic value in a short period for a quick return of
investment. Therefore, additional functionalities of the fish pens are necessary. These include integrating
or co-locating the offshore fish pens with renewable energy production, or involving cruise tourism,
maritime transport and leisure and entertainment activities that can bring added income streams.
The renewable energy sector is actively seeking offshore sites for capturing strong and sustainable
natural energy resources and expecting less societal impact from inconspicuous offshore locations
than from nearshore locations. In general, offshore renewable energy refers to the generation of elec-
tricity from ocean-based resources including winds, waves, tides, and salinity and thermal properties
as well as the conversion of generated electricity to hydrogen (Wiersma and Devine-Wright, 2014).
In order to succeed in the offshore renewable energy business, it is necessary to suggest a stable but
cost-effective floating substructure and mooring system that should be robust enough to withstand
the highly energetic environments and save capital and operating costs including the cost of power
delivery from the long-distant sites to the end users.
There is a great potential for collaboration between the aquaculture and renewable energy sectors
as they share a common challenge to explore more energetic and exposed localities to sustain pro-
duction growth (Weiss et al. 2018). By having an integrated and/or co-located solution for offshore
fish farming and renewable energy harvest, not only can the fish farms be remotely and autono-
mously operated via clean energy, but the renewable energy partners can also save capital costs by
sharing the substructure and mooring system and reduce power delivery cost through direct power
supply to the end users (namely, fish farms). Both industry partners can leverage their profit sig-
nificantly and synergetic benefits are expected to attract other marine sectors by suggesting better
utilization of sea space, and reduction of service and maintenance costs by sharing labour, trans-
portation, monitoring and operational control (Sakellariadou and Kostopoulou, 2015).
CAPEX (Capital Expenditures) and OPEX (Operational Expenditure) for offshore fish farms are
certainly much higher than for nearshore fish farms. Co-location or integration of offshore fish farm
with other marine sectors will allow the sharing of maintenance and support ships (for example,
utility vessels, work boats, general cargo ships and barges) that are required to operate multiple
activities (Holm et al. 2017; Kaiser et al. 2011). Moreover, offshore renewable energy facilities can
provide freshwater via a desalination process, and hydrogen power and oxygen for fish pens via
water splitting (Papandroulakis et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2019). The floating platforms will be able to
accommodate fish feed silos and equipment so that transportation costs and the numbers of service
vessels for fish feed delivery can be reduced.
Below are some examples of an integrated offshore fish farm and renewable energy production facility.
4.4.1 PLOCAN
The Oceanic Platform of the Canary Islands (PLOCAN) as shown in Figure 4.35 is sited in water
depths ranging from 40 m to 200 m and 1.5 km from the coast of the island of Gran Canaria, Spain.
121
FIGURE 4.35 Oceanic platform of the Canary Islands (PLOCAN) (photo from: https://steemit.com/steems
tem/@geronimo14/plocan-a-boost-to-the-blue-economy).
FIGURE 4.36 Blue Growth Farm project’s Multipurpose floating platform (photo courtesy from Prof
Maurizio Collu of Strathclude University).
The PLOCAN comprises multidisciplinary laboratories for analyzing bio-geo-chemical variables in

the water column. It has a main deck area with an office building and a helideck. It carries equipment
for loading and unloading the material for experimental testing, and other general-purpose facilities
such as workshops, cranes and other equipment providing basic operational support. This facility
also aims to encourage development of offshore aquaculture, offshore wind turbines and other
marine structures.
4.4.2 Blue Growth Farm

The Blue Growth Farm project is EU’s ambitious project to produce advanced industrial knowledge
in a fully integrated and efficient offshore multipurpose floating platform. This platform provides
a central protected pool to farm fish, as well as large storage and deck areas to host a commercial
10 MW wind turbine and a number of wave energy converters (WEC). Figure 4.36 shows a 1/15
scale of the Blue Growth Farm deployed at a site near the port of Reggio Calabris in Italy.
122
4.4.3 GIEC’s Semi-submersible Wave Powered Aquaculture Pen

An integrated offshore renewable energy facility, water desalination plant and fish farms has been
implemented by the Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion (GIEC). Figure 4.37 shows GIEC’s
semi-submersible wave powered aquaculture pen with seawater desalination plant on board and
solar panel roof. This multipurpose open sea aquaculture platform is named, the Penghu platform.
4.4.4 Hex Box
Ocean Aquafarms developed a new concept of offshore salmon farm named the Hex Box as shown
in Figure 4.38. The concept can operate at sites with a significant wave height of up to 10 m, a water
depth greater than 100 m and a wind speed of up to 100 knots, thereby allowing salmon farming in
areas that are inaccessible with today’s technology. The Hex Box uses a ballasting system to be able
to change the draft from 4 m to 30 m for inspection and replacement. It has a 275 m circumference
providing a net submerged volume of 430,000 m3. The net bag can be suspended in winches a further
20 m below the frame structure. For Australia and New Zealand, the pen can be armed with a full
FIGURE 4.37 Penghu open sea aquaculture platform (photo courtesy of Mr. Ban Tat Leow).
FIGURE 4.38 Hex box offshore salmon farm by ocean aquafarms (photo from: http://oceanaquafarms.com/
product/hex-box-norway-2/).
123
FIGURE 4.39 Illustration of concept of FOWT-SFFC (Zheng and Lei, 2018).
double net against predators. It is equipped with two or three deck cranes for operation. In addition
to two diesel generators for power supply, the Hex Box carries three wind turbines (3x100 kW) with
batteries to reduce usage of hydrocarbon fuel. The mooring system comprises of 6 to 9 mooring
ropes with fixed anchor points in the seabed. The overall mooring system, including ropes, has been
demonstrated to meet Norwegian requirements by over three times. A scaled model has been tested
and showed promising results (SalmonBusiness, 2020). The construction cost of the Hex Box is
approximately USD70 to 90 million.
4.4.5 FOWT-SFFC
Zheng and Lei (2018) presented an integrated design of a Floating Offshore Wind Turbine and a
conical Steel Fish-Farming Pen (FOWT-SFFC) as shown in Figure 4.39. The integrated pen design
can generate multi-megawatt power and encloses a 200,000 m3 volume of seawater for farming fish.
The inner space of the pen can be subdivided into eight sectors to raise a variety of fish. To balance
the gravity with buoyancy, high density concrete is placed in the radial and ring pontoons for ballast.
The bottom net is attached to lifting devices inside the pen so that can be moved vertically from the
bottom to the surface of the water, for harvesting. Nets are made of copper alloy to resist seawater
corrosion and biofouling.
4.4.6 COSPAR
Chu and Wang (2019) proposed a combined design of a spar platform and a fish pen with a partially
porous collar barrier, named, the COSPAR fish pen (see Figure 4.40). The pen design features an
octagonal shape with a partially porous collar barrier to attenuate wave energy for a calmer water
environment inside the pen. The pen has a diameter of 80 m, a height of 39 m and encloses a water
volume of about 180,000 m3. The deep draught spar is 82 m in height and is made from concrete for
its bottom half and from steel for its top half. The spar carries a wind turbine and a control unit. The
pen is connected by four truss girders (above water) and 16 girders at the base of the spar so that
both pen and spar work as a monolithic rigid body. The four top girders form walkways to access
the control unit and the wind turbine. For mooring, four catenary chains are attached to the spar 38 m
under the water surface (outside the fish pen) so as to mitigate the tension force in the mooring lines
and to reduce the benthic footprint.
124
FIGURE 4.40 COSPAR fish pen design (Chu and Wang, 2020).
FIGURE 4.41 Genghai No.1 (Photo from: https://swissre.com/reinsurance/property-and-casualty/reinsura

nce/marine/offshore-fish-farming-facilities-challenges-marine-insurers.html).
4.4.7 Genghai No.1
Another interesting design combines aquaculture production with leisure/ entertainment activ-
ities. Swimming pools, scuba diving facilities and hotels can be placed onto offshore fish farming
platforms. Figure 4.41 shows Genghai No.1, which is an aquaculture farm, ocean monitoring centre,
as well as a leisure centre. It has an aquaculture volume of 27,000 m3 equivalent to 14 standard
swimming pools, and it can accommodate 300 visitors at any given time.
125
4.5 CONCLUSION
In summary, there is an increasing interest in the fish farming industry to move offshore for sustain-
able farming, larger sea space and higher fish production. However, offshore operation generally
requires higher capital and production costs (Jansen et al. 2016) and therefore rigorous research and
development must be carried out urgently to seek cost effective solutions. Also, fish pen designs
should consider the health of the fish, fish diseases, exposure to toxicity, fish growth, harvesting of
fish, transportation to the market, and environmental issues. Feasibility in offshore fish farming may
be achieved through the adoption of new developments of multi-functional, modularity for ease of
scaling the farm sizes and an autonomous infrastructure that has been validated by the oil and off-
shore industry (Dalton et al. 2019; Grinham et al. 2020). By co-locating offshore renewable energy
systems (wind turbines, wave energy converters) and floating platforms (that can accommodate fish
feed silos, feeding equipment, harvesting cranes and nets, fish processing and packaging plants,
waste treatment plants, desalination plants) with offshore fish farms, it is possible to leverage the
benefits of collocation, vertical integration and shared services and to reduce operating times and
costs (Chen et al. 2020). Also, the use of offshore renewable energy helps to decarbonize the fish
farming industry.
Nevertheless, a combination of fish farming with other marine activities is desirable from an
economic point of view. The overall infrastructure and operational procedure will no doubt be
more complex, and the increased functionalities will bring more risk and require more rigorous
assessments for warrants and insurance coverage than would be the case with solely fish farming
activities. More research and development are needed in this area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the Blue Economy Cooperative Research Centre,
established and supported under the Australian Government’s Cooperative Research Centers
Programme.
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5 Risk Finance for Natural

Disaster in Lakes and Coastal
Seas Using Modeling
Techniques
Jinxin Zhou,1 Kentaro Kikuchi,2 Hideya Kubo,3 Takero
Yoshida,4 Md. Nazrul Islam,5 and Daisuke Kitazawa1*
1
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan
2
Faculty of Economics, Shiga University, Japan
3
The Organising Committee of the World Masters Games Kansai, Japan
4
Department of Ocean Sciences, Tokyo University of Marine Science
and Technology, Japan
5
* Corresponding author: Daisuke Kitazawa
Email: [email protected]tokyo.ac.jp; kentaro-[email protected]u.ac.jp;
[email protected]; [email protected]; nazrul_[email protected].
bd; [email protected]tokyo.ac.jp
CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 130
5.2 Statistical Model.................................................................................................................... 131
5.2.1 Model Structure and Parameter Estimation............................................................... 131
5.2.1.1 Autoregressive Model................................................................................. 131
5.2.1.2 Parameter Estimation.................................................................................. 132
5.2.1.3 Model Selection.......................................................................................... 132
5.2.2 Monte Carlo Simulation............................................................................................ 132
5.3 Physical-Biogeochemical Model........................................................................................... 133
5.3.1 Hydrodynamic Submodel.......................................................................................... 133
5.3.2 Ecosystem Submodel................................................................................................ 134
5.3.3 Boundary Conditions................................................................................................. 135
5.4 Case Study in Lake Biwa, Japan........................................................................................... 137
5.4.1 Lake Biwa and Environmental Problems.................................................................. 137
5.4.2 Risk Finance Product for the Loss of Overturn in Lake Biwa.................................. 138
5.4.3 Application of Statistical Model............................................................................... 139
5.4.4 Application of Physical-biogeochemical Model....................................................... 141
5.4.4.1 Computational Conditions.......................................................................... 141
5.4.4.2 State Variables............................................................................................. 142
5.4.4.3 Boundary Conditions.................................................................................. 142
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-5 129

newgenprepdf
130
5.4.4.4 Parameter Estimation and Initial Values..................................................... 142

5.4.4.5 Scenarios and Threshold for Overturn........................................................ 143
5.5 Future Application................................................................................................................. 144
References....................................................................................................................................... 145
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Humans, from a global perspective, first survived on freshwater resources, for example, lakes (Bouch
and Jones 1961), and the growth in population and technology has driven the exploitation of marine
resources (Erlandson 2008). Nowadays, both lakes and seas are subject to equally high expectations.
Reynaud and Lanzanova (2017) initially conducted a meta-analysis with a worldwide dataset of
699 records from 133 studies and estimated the average economic value provided by lakes to be
over US$100 per respondent per year and a maximum of US$403 per property per year for hedonic
price studies. On the other hand, reports from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), an organization at the heart of international cooperation, estimated the total
value brought by ocean economic activities to be worth US$1.5 trillion per annum and claimed that
the annual blue growth would outpace the growth in terrestrial activities for the next few decades
(OECD 2016; OECD 2019). However, those expectations are challenged by continuously emer-
ging uncertainties, such as eutrophication and global warming (lakes: Kumagai et al. 2003; coastal
seas: Rabalais et al. 2009). Taking global warming as an example, according to the report by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Pörtner et al. 2019), it has been estimated that climate-
induced ocean degradation will cost the global economy US$428 billion per annum by 2050 and
US$1.98 trillion per annum by 2100.
Concerns about the undesirable effects on aquatic environment are growing around the world
and consequently, countermeasures have been taken. The foremost thing is to monitor and assess
water quality or, indirectly, meteorological data in terms of climate change. For example, the
Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), initiated in 1972 after the United Nations
Stockholm Conference on the Environment, aims to conduct climate-related monitoring and ocean
monitoring throughout the world (Gwynne 1982). Five years later in 1977, the GEMS/Water
Programme was inaugurated, especially aiming at freshwater monitoring and already covering
103 countries in 2001 (Robarts et al. 2003). The second approach is to restore the affected aquatic
environment. Taking the global restoration of eutrophic lakes as an example, Jeppesen et al. (2003)
summarized the efforts worldwide to combat eutrophication by 1) reducing the phosphorus input,
2) removing planktivorous and benthivorous fish but stocking piscivorous fish, 3) protecting
or planting submerged macrophytes, and 4) introducing artificial structures. However, both
monitoring and restoring programs are capital-intensive and need bilateral and multilateral cooper-
ation. For example, the above-mentioned GEMS/Water Programme was led by the United Nations
Environment Programme and the World Health Organization, and assisted by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the World Meteorological Organization
(Robarts et al. 2003).
Risk finance is an effective way to quickly secure the large amounts of funds needed when risks
materialize. Risk finance is a risk transfer mechanism in which a third party compensates for damages
on behalf of the entity holding the risk if the risk materializes. In addition to conventional insur-
ance, securitization and financial derivatives may be used as risk transfer instruments. Risk finance
has been used as a means of risk transfer for entities that are exposed to natural disasters such as
typhoons, hurricanes, earthquakes, and droughts. For example, in 2010, Sompo Japan developed a
product, called ‘weather index insurance’, for rice farmers in northeastern Thailand who are at risk
of reduced yields due to drought. Under this product, Sompo Japan’s local subsidiary will pay an
insurance claim to the Bank for Agricultural and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC) in the event of
a drought event in which the cumulative precipitation (weather index) falls below a predetermined
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Risk Finance for Natural Disaster 131
threshold during a certain period (such as, July to September), and BAAC will pay the equivalent
amount to the farmer. Sompo Japan is also developing weather index products for rice and sesame
farmers in Myanmar and longan (a type of fruit) farmers in Thailand.
The risks posed to countries and regions by natural disasters under climate change have become
an international concern and consequently, international conferences, such as workshops held by
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Rio+20 Conference in 2012,
have discussed the development of systems to reduce disaster risks. Through these international
discussions, it has been widely recognized that risk finance is an effective means of securing funds
quickly before and after disasters. There is also a growing trend in efforts toward internationally
coordinated risk finance to address the impacts of climate change risks. An example of a risk finance
initiative involving governments and international organizations is the Caribbean Catastrophe Risk
Insurance Facility (CCRIF), established in 2007 through a partnership between 18 Caribbean coun-
tries and the World Bank. The Caribbean is a region that is prone to hurricanes and earthquakes,
and in the event of these natural disasters, CCRIF provides compensation according to the amount
of damage. CCRIF Segregated Portfolio Company, which was restructured from CCRIF in 2014,
has received financial support from the Government of Japan, the U.S. State Department, and a
multi-donor trust fund by the Government of Canada, the European Union, the World Bank, and
so forth.
As described above, risk finance has contributed to the risk transfer of natural disasters
associated with climate change. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, there are still no
risk finance initiatives targeting the risk of degradation of marine and lake environments. In this
chapter, we introduce two models as tools for modeling the risk of environmental degradation: a
statistical model and a physical-biogeochemical model. In addition, taking the environmental deg-
radation risk of Lake Biwa in Japan as an example, we explain how to calculate the probability of
environmental degradation using these methods in implementing risk financing for marine and lake
environmental risks.
5.2 STATISTICAL MODEL
Towards realizing risk finance for environmental risks in lakes and seas, it is necessary to 1) iden-
tify the target risk, 2) model the stochastic fluctuations of the indicators (risk indices) that represent
the status of the identified risks, and 3) calculate the probability of occurrence of the risks based on
the model.
Variables that affect environmental risks in lakes and seas, such as water temperature and wind
speed, are often seasonal in nature. Unseasonal terms obtained by applying seasonal adjustment
to these variables depend on past levels or are determined stochastically in some cases. Statistical
approaches such as time series models are effective in capturing the patterns of these fluctuations.
The autoregressive model is comparatively simple and is popular among time series models. Hence,
we present an overview of an autoregressive model in this section. Furthermore, we explain how
to estimate model parameters and calculate the probability of risk occurrence based on time series
models using the Monte Carlo method.
5.2.1 Model Structure and Parameter Estimation

5.2.1.1 Autoregressive Model
The autoregressive (AR) model is commonly adopted to extract the fluctuation characteristics of
time-varying data, especially in the fields of statistics, economics, and signal processing. The AR
model, as its name explains, is based on a regressive analysis and, for example, the present value of
water temperature is supposed to be dependent on its historical values. The AR model specifies a
linear regression with a stochastic term. Moreover, the AR model is capable of flexibly adjusting the
132
time range by defining the order p, because the time of auto-dependence is different among indices
in nature, with the notation AR(p) indicating an AR model of order p, as defined in Eq. 1.
p
X t = c + ∑ρi X t − i + ε t (1)
i =1
where Xt is the seasonally adjusted risk index at the time t, ρi is the ith parameter of the model with i
ranging from 1 to p, ε t ~ i.i.d. N ( 0,1) are the independent and identically standard normal distributed
random variables, and c is a constant.
5.2.1.2 Parameter Estimation
In estimating the model parameters of statistical models, maximum likelihood estimation (MLE)
is widely applied (Rossi 2018). MLE selects a parameter set when the likelihood L (θ | X ), which
represents the probability that data set X occurs given the parameter set θ , is maximized. The
form of the likelihood L (θ | X ) is determined dependent on the density function of stochastic
terms (ε t ~ i.i.d. N ( 0,1) in Eq.1) of a statistical model. Once we have the likelihood L (θ | X ), we
search for a set of parameters that maximizes the likelihood (Eq. 2) through analytical or numer-
ical methods:
()
L θ = L(θ | X ) = maxL (θ | X ), θ ∈ Θ (2)
where θ is the best parameter obtained by MLE and Θ is the parameter space that contains all
possible parameter values.
5.2.1.3 Model Selection
In general, increasing the degree p of the AR(p) model increases the goodness of fit to the data.
However, as the degree of the selected AR model increases, the model becomes more complex and
is prone to overfitting. Information criteria such as the Akaike Information Criteria (AIC, Akaike
1973) and the Schwarz Bayesian Information Criteria (SBIC or BIC (Schwarz 1978) are used to
select a model that can predict unknown situations without making the model too complex. In
section 5.4.3, we adopt BIC as statistical model selection criteria; thus, we here present the formu-
lation of BIC (Eq. 3).
( ( ))
BIC = −2 ln L θ + kln ( n ) (3)
where k is the number of model parameters, and n is the number of data points or the sample size.
The model with the lowest BIC value is selected.
5.2.2 Monte Carlo Simulation

After selecting the best AR(p) model based on information criteria, we perform the Monte Carlo
simulation of risk variables using the selected AR(p) to calculate the probability of risk occurrence.
Although there is no consensus on the definition of Monte Carlo simulation (Sawilowsky 2003;
Ripley 2009), the algorithm of Monte Carlo simulation generally aims to solve problems through
random sampling from a probability distribution (Kroese et al. 2014). We show below a method of
conducting the Monte Carlo simulation by the repeated sampling of the random variables (ε t ) in the
AR model of Eq.1 to calculate the probability of risk occurrence.
133
Let us take an example of a risk finance product that aims to hedge the risk of facing less rainfall
during the rainy season in one city, to better understand the risk calculation process by the Monte
Carlo simulation. The observed precipitation Yt at time t is decomposed into the seasonal part St and
the unseasonal part Xt, namely, Yt = St + Xt. Suppose that the insurance company must pay for the
drought crisis when the average precipitation during t +(T– l) and t + T falls below a predetermined
value, for example, a. To calculate the premiums for this risk finance product, we must estimate the
drought crisis probability in advance. In the following, we explain the method of calculating drought
probability based on a Monte Carlo simulation.
First, we suppose that parameters in the unseasonal component (Xt) have been estimated by
the AR(1) model from its historical data. Then, the Monte Carlo simulation must cover the whole
insurance span and therefore is conducted from t +1 to t + T with t being the present time. Finally,
this simulation is repeated N times. The random effects for the kth (1 ≤ k ≤ N) repetition can be
labeled accordingly, for example, ε tk+1 at time t +1, and when their probability distribution follows
the standard normal distribution, the precipitation in the future, for example, Yt k+1, can be calculated
accordingly (Eq. 4) using Eq. 1.
Yt k+1 = St +1 + X tk+1 = St +1 + c + ρ1 X tk + ε tk+1 (4)
Back to the definition in the risk finance product, the drought crisis depends on the average pre-
cipitation during t +(T –l) and t + T, which can be calculated by Eq. 5 for the kth repetition. By
comparing the value of this calculated mean value (Y ) and the predetermined value (a), the drought
crisis is quantified and judged.
1 l k
Y = ∑Y (5)
l + 1 i = 0 t + (T − i )
In this way, after completing the whole N repetitions, the occurrence of this drought crisis is counted
as M, and therefore the risk of drought crisis under the scope of this risk finance product is M/N.
5.3 PHYSICAL-BIOGEOCHEMICAL MODEL
Another modeling technique is to apply process-based theoretical models to investigate the fluc-
tuation of the aquatic environment under uncertainties. The aquatic environment can be roughly
divided into two components: water hydrodynamics like flow velocity and water density, and water
quality composed of the abiotic environment as in the concentration of nutrients, and the biotic
environment as in the concentration of phytoplankton. Accordingly, most physical-biogeochemical
models consist of hydrodynamic and ecosystem submodels. Among many models that have been
developed worldwide, the Marine Environmental Committee (MEC) ocean model (MEC 2000) is
chosen in this chapter. Because the MEC ocean model has been practised and validated for both
lakes (for example, Kitazawa et al. 2018) and coastal seas (for example, Zhou et al. 2021), this
model is readily prepared to serve current risk finance for natural disasters in lakes and coastal seas.
5.3.1 Hydrodynamic Submodel
In this submodel, the water movement driven by either wind or water density, together with water
temperature and salinity that determine the water density, is described by the governing equations
(Eqs. 6–12). However, especially for lakes and coastal seas where the effects of natural disasters
are enormous and concerning, two assumptions are adopted for practical simplicity: a hydrostatic
approximation where the weight of the water identically balances the pressure, and a Boussinesq
134
approximation where variations in density have no effects on the flow field, except that they give rise
to buoyancy forces. The equations are described in the Cartesian coordinate system, where the x, y,
and z axes point eastward, northward, and vertically upwards, respectively.
(The motion equations)
∂u ∂ (uu ) ∂ ( vu ) ∂ ( wu ) 1 ∂p ∂  ∂u  ∂  ∂u  ∂  ∂u 
+ + + = − ⋅ + fv +  AM  +  AM  +  K M  (6)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ0 ∂x ∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z 
∂v ∂ (uv ) ∂ ( vv ) ∂ ( wv ) 1 ∂p ∂  ∂v  ∂  ∂v  ∂  ∂v 
+ + + = − ⋅ − fu +  AM  +  AM  +  K M  (7)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ0 ∂y ∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z 
1 ∂P
0=− ⋅ − g (8)
ρ ∂z
(The continuity equation)
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + = 0 (9)
∂x ∂y ∂z
(The advection-diffusion equation of water temperature and salinity)
∂T ∂ (uT ) ∂ ( vT ) ∂ ( wT ) ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T 
+ + + = A + A + K  + RTMP (10)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x  H ∂x  ∂y  H ∂y  ∂z  H ∂z 
∂S ∂ (uS ) ∂ ( vS ) ∂ ( wS ) ∂  ∂S  ∂  ∂S  ∂  ∂S 
+ + + =  AH  +  AH  +  KH  + RSAL (11)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y  ∂y  ∂ z  ∂z 
ρ = 1028.14 − 0.0735T − 0.00469T 2 + ( S − 35.0 ) ⋅ ( 0.802 − 0.002T ) (12)
where t (s) is time, u, v, and w (m s–1) the x, y, and z components of flow velocity, ρ0 (kg m–3) the
reference density of water, ρ (kg m–3) the density of water, p (N m–2) the pressure, g (m s–2) the accel-
eration due to gravity, f (s–1) the Coriolis parameter, AM (m2 s–1) the horizontal eddy viscosity coef-
ficient, KM (m2 s–1) the vertical eddy viscosity coefficient, T (℃) the water temperature, S (psu) the
water salinity, AH (m2 s–1) the horizontal eddy diffusivity coefficient, KH (m2 s–1) the vertical eddy dif-
fusivity coefficient, RTMP (℃ s–1) the heat flux through rivers, and RSAL (psu s–1) the salt flux through
rivers. Note that water salinity in lakes is low and its advection-diffusion equation is generally
unnecessary.
5.3.2 Ecosystem Submodel
The ecosystem submodel is based on the observed food web in the aquatic environment at the
eutrophic level (Figure 5.1). The number of state variables changes due to the range of complexity
of the ecosystem submodel from a NPZ (Nutrient-Phytoplankton-Zooplankton) model to a pelagic,
benthic, and higher-trophic coupled model. A relatively simplified model includes seven state
variables—phytoplankton (PHY), zooplankton (ZOO), particulate and dissolved organic carbons
(POC and DOC), dissolved inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen (DIP and DIN), and dissolved
oxygen (DO) (Figure 5.1). Phosphorus and nitrogen are two limiting nutrients that control primary
135
FIGURE 5.1 Material cycle in ecosystem submodel. The variables enclosed by boxes indicate state variables
in the ecosystem submodel (not including inorganic carbon), and descriptions by arrows indicate chemical-
biological processes.
production. Silicate is sometimes ignored in the model because it is either in relatively sufficient
supply, such as in lakes or in a completely negligible concentration such as in the seas.
With an assumption that the transportation of plankton and nutrients is based on the surrounding
current field, the governing equation for each state variable can be described by an advection-
diffusion equation, similarly to that practised by water temperature and salinity.
∂B ∂ (uB ) ∂ ( vB ) ∂ ( wB ) ∂ 
*
∂B  ∂  ∂B  ∂  ∂B   ∂B 
+ + + =  AH  +  AH  +  KH  +   + RB (13)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z   ∂t 
where B denotes each state variable and RB represents the effects of the river on the corresponding
*
 ∂B 
state variables. The item   summarises the effects on corresponding state variables due to the
 ∂t 
chemical and biological interactions, with more details given in Zhou (2020).
5.3.3 Boundary Conditions
Boundary conditions refer to the theoretical incorporation of those boundaries that surround the cal-
culation domain. Typically, they are conditions of the land, river, water bottom, water surface, and
open boundary for seas. At the land and water bottom boundary, flow velocity is usually affected by
boundary friction. The river and open boundary generate the water exchange and its accompanying
heat, salt, and nutrient flux. However, at the water surface, when considering the effects of meteoro-
logical conditions, the interaction is much more complicated.
136
First, consider the momentum condition at the water surface. Usually, the water surface is
regarded as the free surface with frictional stresses by wind (Eqs. 14–17).
p = pa , (14)
∂ζ ∂ζ ∂ζ
− − u − v + w = 0, (15)
∂t ∂x ∂y
∂u τ x
KM = ,, (16)
∂z ρ0
∂v τ y
KM = (17)
∂z ρ0
where pa (N m–2) is atmospheric pressure, τ x (N m–2) and τ y (N m–2) are the surface frictional stresses
in the x and y directions, respectively. They are calculated by the following equations (Eqs. 18–22).
τ x = Cd ρa Wx Wx2 + Wy2 , (18)
τ y = Cd ρa Wy Wx2 + Wy2 , (19)
273.15 pa  E 
ρa = 1.293  1 − 0.378 a  , (20)
273.15 + Ta 1013.25  pa 
Ea = Es ⋅ humd , (21)
Es = 6.1078 × 107.5Ta / (237.3+ Ta ) (22)
where Cd is the coefficient of wind friction, Wx (N m–2) and Wy (N m–2) are wind velocities in the x and
y directions, respectively. Ea (hPa) is the atmospheric vapor pressure and Es (hPa) is the saturated
vapor pressure. Ta (°C) is the atmospheric temperature and humd is the relative humidity ranging
from 0 to 1.
Second, consider the heat and salt fluxes through the water surface. Affected by the interactions
with the atmosphere, water temperature and salinity have a fluctuation that can’t be ignored (Eqs.
23–24).
∂T Q
−KH = T , (23)
∂z ρ0C p
∂S QS
−KH = (24)
∂z ρ0
where Cp (J kg–1 K–1) is the specific heat at constant pressure, QT (J m–2 s–1) and QS (kg m–2 s–1) are the
heat and salt fluxes through the water surface, respectively.
137
The heat transfer is due mainly to the solar radiation from air and heat transport from water (Eq.
25), and we adopt the bulk equation (Eq. 26) for practical convenience.
QT = Qr − Ql − Qh − Qe (25)
(
Q f = α f ρa T − Ta ) Wx2 + Wy2 (26)
where Qr (J m–2 s–1) is the short-wave solar radiation, Ql (J m–2 s–1) is the net long-wave radiation from
water, Qh (J m–2 s–1) is the sensible heat transport due to convection, and Qe (J m–2 s–1) is the latent heat
transport due to evaporation. Qf (J m–2 s–1) represents the transferred heat, and α f is the parameter
representing the characteristics of the fluid and requires manual specification. For more details on
applying the bulk equation to heat flux calculation, refer to Zhou (2020).
On the other hand, the salt flux is caused by precipitation and water evaporation. Here, depending
on the wind speed, we adopt different equations for the salt flux calculation.
(wind speed slower than 1.0 m s–1)
QS = S ρa CE′ {(T − T ) + 0.61(T )( )} − Pr  (27)

1/ 3
+ 273.15 qs − qa
 a a

(otherwise)
{ (
QS = S ρa CE qs − qa ) }
Wx2 + Wy2 − Pr (28)
where qs is the saturated specific humidity, qa is the specific humidity, and Pr (kg m–2 s–1) is the atmos-
pheric precipitation. CE and CE′ are bulk coefficients for latent heat transfer.
5.4 CASE STUDY IN LAKE BIWA, JAPAN

Because impacts of global warming on aquatic environment share a common mechanism (Yanik and
Aslan 2018), we take Lake Biwa, Japan –one of the world’s ancient lakes in the archaeological and
cultural sense (Kawanabe 2019) –for an example to elucidate how the above mentioned two mod-
eling techniques are applied to risk finance for natural disasters in lakes and seas.
5.4.1 Lake Biwa and Environmental Problems

Lake Biwa, the largest holomictic lake in Japan, is in Shiga Prefecture and is the source of drinking
water for about 11 million people living in Osaka, the largest city in western Japan and its suburbs.
Lake Biwa consists of two basins: Northern Basin and Southern Basin (Figure 5.2). The Northern
Basin is relatively large and deep, with an area of 612 km2 and a maximum depth of 104 m. The
Southern Basin is small and shallow with an area of 58 km2 and a maximum depth of 8 m (Kumagai
et al. 2003). The total lake volume is 27.5 billion m3, where the Northern Basin has a volume of
27.3 billion m3 and water exchange there takes 5.5 years. Water exchange in the other basin, which
has a volume of 0.2 billion m3, takes 15 days. One of the factors affecting the water exchange is
stratification, typically during the spring and autumn seasons. The water temperature begins to
increase from 8°C in late March and reaches about 28°C at the water surface in August. However,
the water temperature keeps about 8°C at the water bottom throughout the year, resulting in the tem-
perature difference and consequent stratification. As the surface water cools down during autumn
and winter, the stratification gradually weakens and the water is more readily mixed up; typically,
138
FIGURE 5.2 Bathymetry of Lake Biwa and discrimination between Northern and Southern Basins.
the stratification completely disappears around February. Accompanied by the disappeared stratifi-
cation and water mixture, also known as overturn, saturated dissolved oxygen above the thermocline
is transported to the deep lake and supports the activities of aquatic organisms below the thermo-
cline, for example, the decomposition of organic matter by bacteria. The dissolved oxygen tension
marks the minimum value (about 4 mg L–1) around December at the deepest point of the Northern
Basin. Then the concentration of dissolved oxygen is recovered to the saturated level at 11 mg L–1
when the vertical mixing of waters occurs around February.
However, since the 1980s the atmospheric temperature around Lake Biwa rose by 1°C and pre-
cipitation decreased by 100 mm, according to the meteorological observations (www.data.jma.
go.jp/multi/index.html?lang=en; Accessed on June 8, 2021). With the warming weather, Woolway
and Merchant (2019) indicated a less frequent mixture in lake waters by summarizing the climate
change impacts on mixing regimes in 635 lakes around the world, and Woolway et al. (2021) fur-
ther pointed out the effects of this prolongated stratification on lake deoxygenation. Lake Biwa, like
any other of Earth’s largest lakes, for example, Lake Michigan (Anderson et al. 2021), is suffering
from global warming (Kumagai et al. 2003). The minimum concentration of dissolved oxygen
at the deepest point of the Northern Basin kept decreasing and was sometimes less than 2 mg L–1
(Figure 5.3), which is a general criterion of hypoxic water. Hypoxia has implications on the Lake
Biwa environment, especially habitat loss and the mass death of aquatic species, and the lifestyle of
the local population (Kawanabe 2019). As a result, the occurrence of hypoxic water in Lake Biwa
has attracted public attention, especially in local government.
5.4.2 Risk Finance Product for the Loss of Overturn in Lake Biwa

If we face the loss of overturn in Lake Biwa in winter, the local governments concerned will have to
take immediate measures, such as purchasing oxygen injectors for the bottom layer of Lake Biwa.
Risk finance is an effective way to secure funds for these countermeasures as soon as possible.
Kubo et al. (2021) proposed a risk finance product for the risk of loss of the overturn in Lake Biwa
using options, a type of financial derivative. Compared to conventional insurance, risk finance with
options can be used to raise funds quickly when risks materialize. An option is a contingent claim
that gives its buyer the right to receive a certain amount of money from its seller if a predetermined
condition is met on the maturity date. On the contract date, the buyer pays the seller an option
139
FIGURE 5.3 Annual change in the minimum concentration of dissolved oxygen at the deepest point of Lake
Biwa, with the red line representing the general criterion of hypoxic water. Data are provided by Lake Biwa
Environmental Research Institute.
premium. Let us take as an example the option against the loss of Lake Biwa overturn proposed in
Kubo et al. (2021) as follows.
• Buyer: a local government, Seller: X company

• Date of the contract: October 1, 2014
• Duration of the contract: 196 days
• Date of maturity: April 15, 2015
• Amount of premium to be paid on the contract date: A Japanese Yen (Yen)
• Terms and conditions: If the amount of dissolved oxygen at the bottom layer of Lake Biwa
does not reach 8.0 mg L–1 on the maturity date, the seller of this option is obligated to pay C
Yen to the buyer on the day following the maturity date.
The target of the risk faced by local governments is the loss of the overturn in Lake Biwa. The
loss of the overturn in Lake Biwa means that dissolved oxygen at the bottom layer of Lake Biwa
remains at a low level even at the beginning of spring. For this reason, in the above option, we see
this risk as the amount of dissolved oxygen at the bottom layer of Lake Biwa falling below a certain
threshold (8.0 mg L–1 in the above example) even after the winter is over. The reason why we here set
a threshold at 8.0 mg L–1 is due to the historical fact that DO levels after the occurrence of overturn
are always over 8.0 mg L–1. With this option, when the loss of overturn occurs, the local government,
as the buyer, can quickly receive C Yen from the seller and take actions to prevent further aggrava-
tion of the hypoxia situation in Lake Biwa. When an overturn occurs, the seller makes a profit of A
Yen from this option contract. Here, the problem is how to set the level A Yen of the option premium.
According to a financial theory, the option premium A depends not only on C but also on the prob-
ability of loss of the overturn in Lake Biwa. To estimate the probability of the loss of overturn, we
need some quantitative models. Kubo et al. (2021) present the two models mentioned above, statis-
tical and physical-biogeochemical approaches, to estimate the probability.
5.4.3 Application of Statistical Model

In the previous section, we exemplified an option against the loss of Lake Biwa’s overturn.
Calculating the probability that the amount of dissolved oxygen at the bottom of Lake Biwa falls
below a certain level in early spring allows us to determine the level of the option’s premium. Thus,
in this section, we will explain how to calculate the probability by constructing a time series model
of dissolved oxygen fluctuations with observation data since 1979 in Lake Biwa.
140
In the current analysis, we use data on dissolved oxygen at the bottom of Lake Biwa from April
1978 to March 2015. Because dissolved oxygen at the bottom of Lake Biwa has been measured
twice a month, the time unit (t) is taken for 15 days, and every month is approximated as 30 days for
simplicity. Following this data standardization, each observation record is utilized at an even time
interval.
The change of dissolved oxygen, similar to the water temperature, has a seasonal pattern, and
therefore its fluctuation is divided into two components—seasonal variation and irregular variation.
The irregular DO variation ( U t ) can be calculated with the following Eq. 29.
U t = lnDO t − lnDO t (29)
where DOt (mg L–1) is the concentration of bottom dissolved oxygen, ln x is the natural logarithm
of x, and lnDOt represents the mean value of each natural logarithm of observed DO values for the
corresponding month, the seasonal level of the natural logarithm of DO concentration.
The time series fluctuation of irregular DO variation is modeled by the following extended
version of AR(k) we explained in section 5.2.1.1:
U t = ∑ρi U t − i + σ t ε t , ε t ~ i.i.d.N ( 0,1) (30)

i =1
where σt denotes the amplitude of the random effects and it has the seasonal variation as modeled
by a sine function in Eq. 31.
σ t = σ 0 − σ1 sin ( πt + α ) (31)
where σ 0 is the constant, σ1 defines the amplitude of variation by a sine function, and α represents
the phase difference. Hereafter, we also denote this extended version of AR(k) as AR(k).
We estimated the model parameters based on the maximum likelihood method using the DO data
from 1979 to 2012. Table 5.1 presents the parameter estimation results and the values of BIC for
AR(1), AR(2), and AR(3). AR(2) has the lowest BIC value. Figure 5.4 compares the observed and
estimated values based on AR(2) of DO and shows a good fit between the model estimates and the
observed data.
TABLE 5.1
Results of Parameter Estimation and BIC Values for Three AR Models
Items AR(1) AR(2) AR(3)

σ0 0.4680 (0.0026) 0.4647 (0.0028) 0.4638 (0.0029)
σ1 0.4096 (0.0036) 0.4063 (0.0039) 0.4058 (0.0040)
α 0.3756π (0.0123π) 0.4151π (0.0103π) 0.4566π (0.0094π)
ρ1 0.5225 (0.0141) 0.4751 (0.0170) 0.4697 (0.0166)
ρ2 0.09571 (0.0171) 0.06811 (0.0167)
ρ3 0.05636 (0.0132)
lnL( θ ) 319.58 324.44 326.70
BIC –612.01 –614.95 –612.69
Note: The numbers in parentheses show the standard error of each parameter.
141
FIGURE 5.4 Comparison of observed (solid line) and estimated (dashed line) DO concentration. These
estimated values are based on the AR(2) model with parameters shown in Table 5.1.
FIGURE 5.5 Grid system in Lake Biwa, and the monitoring station off Imazu, and the locations of rivers.
To calculate the probability of the loss of the overturn in Lake Biwa towards setting the premium
of the option presented in section 5.4.2, we perform the Monte Carlo simulation of DO based on
AR(2). Specifically, we run the Monte Carlo simulation of DO to obtain 65,000 sample paths from
October 1, 2014, to April 15, 2015, and judge whether the DO value of each simulated path on April
15, 2015, is below 8 mg L–1 or not. According to our calculations, the DO level on April 15, 2015,
was below 8 mg L–1 in 169 sample paths. Hence, we can estimate the probability of the loss of the
overturn in Lake Biwa as 169/65000 = 0.26%.
5.4.4 Application of Physical-biogeochemical Model

5.4.4.1 Computational Conditions
The computational domain and grid system of Lake Biwa for this analysis are shown in Figure 5.5.
The area is latticed by the structured grids, and its horizontal size is 1,000 m for model validation,
142
and 2,000 m for long-term simulation, with a size of 2.5 m in the vertical direction. For numerical
practicality, a staggered grid system is adopted to arrange the evaluation points of flow velocity and
pressure, water temperature, density, and state variables.
With the given input of computational conditions, water surface elevation is first calculated,
followed by horizontal and vertical flow velocities, water temperature, and each state variable. As
for the finite difference scheme, an explicit time integration method of Euler, Quadratic Upstream
Interpolation for Convective Kinematics, and a second-order central difference method were
adopted for the time derivative term, the advection term, the eddy viscosity, and the diffusivity
terms, respectively. Then, water density is calculated by the state equation as a function of only
water temperature. The time step is set to be 20 seconds for 1,000 m mesh, and 40 seconds for
2,000 m mesh.
5.4.4.2 State Variables
In Lake Biwa, phytoplankton blooms start from the rapid growth of diatoms such as Melosira in
early spring. Then it is followed by the dinoflagellate Uroglena americana in late spring, and in
sequence, green algae and blue-green algae such as Microcystis and Anabena during summer and
autumn. The dominant phytoplankton species are due largely to the seasonal variation in nutrient
levels, and the life cycles of these species share a lot in common. As a result, it is robust to model
these species with one state variable for analysis. Similarly, although zooplankton is dominated by
many species depending on feeding habitat and food abundance, it is also summarized by one state
variable. Particulate organic carbon refers to fecal pellets, dead phytoplankton, zooplankton, and
bacteria. Dissolved organic carbon is composed of an extracellular release of phytoplankton and
fraction production with the bacterial decomposition of particulate organic carbon. Therefore, its
decomposition rate is much smaller than that of particulate organic carbon, but their accumulation
readily raises the oxygen depletion level. Moreover, special attention should be paid to the fact
that microbial loop is not considered and bacteria are not treated as a state variable, although their
decomposition of organic carbon is implicitly modeled to release nutrients and consume oxygen.
Finally, the effects of upper trophic level predators, such as large fish, birds, and human fishing
activities, are neglected on the assumption that they have only a secondary contribution to the food
web system in Lake Biwa, and therefore they exert a limited influence on oxygen depletion as well
as the loss of overturn.
5.4.4.3 Boundary Conditions
On the sidewalls, the velocity component normal to the walls is zero, and a free-slip condition is
applied to the velocity component parallel to the walls. The normal gradients of water temperature
and of each state variable are also zero so that there is no advective or diffusive heat, chemical con-
siderations, or plankton through the walls. The effects of fluxes of heat and chemical matter through
rivers are considered in this case, with the layout of the river (Figure 5.5).
The boundary conditions of kinematics and bottom stress are assumed at the bottom surface,
without consideration of the heat flux through it. The sinking organic matter is assumed to be
decomposed immediately with oxygen consumption and nutrient release, while some nutrients are
fossilized in the sediment. Finally, at the water surface, the dynamics, kinematics, wind stress, and
heat flux are all modeled. The wind stress and heat flux through the water surface are estimated by
the bulk formula.
5.4.4.4 Parameter Estimation and Initial Values

All parameters are determined in accordance with the physical and biogeochemical conditions in
Lake Biwa, and here, thinking about parameters in physical conditions as an example, the horizontal
eddy viscosity and diffusivity are determined by the grid size following Richardson’s 4/3 power
law. The vertical components, when considering the dominant stratification, are determined by the
143
TABLE 5.2
Parameter Values in the Physical Submodel
Symbol Value Unit Reference

ρ0 1000 kg m –3
G 9.8 m s–2
Cd 0.0015 – Kondo (1975)
Cp 3.93 × 103 J kg–1 K–1
CE 1.1 × 10–3 –
CE′ 1.1 × 10–3 –
stratification function with additional assumptions, such as an instantaneous mixture of water. In

addition, the value of the Coriolis parameter depends on the latitude of Lake Biwa. Values for basic
or above-mentioned parameters are listed in Table 5.2. For more details about the parameter estima-
tion, refer to Zhou (2020).
The calculation of the water current and the water level starts from the value of zero for the model
stabilization and spin-up. The initial values of water temperature, salinity, and each pelagic state
variable are consistent with the empirical values for all grids.
5.4.4.5 Scenarios and Threshold for Overturn

In this section, in accordance with Kubo et al. (2021), we present a methodology for determining the
probability of the loss of the overturn in Lake Biwa by combining a physical-biogeochemical model
with a statistical model for several meteorological variables.
Before creating scenarios about climate change, the risk factors dominating the loss of overturn
should be identified from the perspective of numerical efficiency. There are mainly two approaches
that lead to the same conclusion: statistical (for example, Kubo et al. 2021) or mechanistic (Yoshida
et al. 2018). Atmospheric temperature, solar radiation, and wind speed are the top three risk factors.
First, we model the time series of these risk factors by the multivariate vector regressive model,
the extension of the AR model, and estimate model parameters using their historical data. Next, we
generate tens of thousands of scenarios for a group of atmospheric temperature, solar radiation, and
wind speed using a Monte Carlo simulation based on the estimated model. Theoretically speaking,
feeding all the generated scenarios into the physical-biogeochemical model and calculating the ratio
of the number of scenarios, in which the level of dissolved oxygen output in early spring remains
low to the total number of simulations (namely, the loss of overturn), allows us to calculate the
probability of the loss of overturn. In practice, however, the computational load of the physical-
biogeochemical model is so high that it is not feasible to input all tens of thousands of meteoro-
logical scenarios and perform numerical simulations of the model.
To solve this problem, Kubo et al. (2021) proposed an alternative methodology to calculate the
probability of the loss of the overturn in Lake Biwa. The idea was to search for a ‘threshold zone’ of
meteorological conditions where the overturn may or may not occur. If it were possible to identify
such a threshold zone, it would be possible to judge whether the overturn in Lake Biwa occurs by
giving one meteorological condition: temperature, wind speed, and total solar radiation. Kubo et al.
(2021) select dozens of scenarios, including those in which the loss of overturn is expected, from
tens of thousands of scenarios for a group of the atmospheric temperature, solar radiation, and wind
speed generated by the Monte Carlo simulation based on the estimated model. For each of these
selected scenarios, they perform numerical calculations of the physical-biogeochemical model and
check the amount of dissolved oxygen at the bottom layer in early spring to determine the occurrence
or loss of the overturn in Lake Biwa for each scenario. The results obtained are summarized in
144
TABLE 5.3
The Threshold for the Loss of the Overturn in Lake Biwa
Wind speed in January (m s–1)
1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9 1.95 2.0

Atmospheric Temperature in
10
December (°C)
5
Note: Colour in grey shows the loss of overturn and the bold line shows the threshold value.
a matrix with the average atmospheric temperature in December and the average wind speed in
January as axes (Table 5.3). If the cells in Table 5.3 are colored gray, it means the loss of overturn
in the numerical simulation; otherwise, it means that the overturn occurs. From Table 5.3, it can be
seen that the weaker the wind speed and the higher the temperature in winter, the less likely it is that
the overturn in Lake Biwa will occur. The bold line indicated in Table 5.3 seems to show a threshold
zone that separates whether the overturn occurs. Once we obtain a threshold zone, we can judge
the occurrence or loss of overturn for a scenario without performing numerical calculations of the
physical-biogeochemical model by checking whether the scenario is in the gray zone in Table 5.3.
This leads to the calculation of the probability of the loss of the overturn in Lake Biwa.
As a matter of fact, according to Kubo et al. (2021), when the physical-biogeochemical model is
calculated in some scenarios with an average wind speed of 1.7 m s–1 in January, all results show the
occurrence of overturn. For this reason, it should be noted that additional detailed analyses for the
threshold zones obtained in Table 5.3 are needed.
As discussed above, we believe that a methodology that combines a statistical model with natural
science models that are deterministic models based on the principles of scientific phenomena, such
as the physical-biogeochemical model, is effective in quantifying environmental risks.
5.5 FUTURE APPLICATION
The number of natural catastrophes and the resultant loss are continuously rising on a global scale
(Alexander 2018). Besides the example of Lake Biwa in this chapter, similar threats have been
discovered by a meta-analysis of lakes in Europe (Blenckner et al. 2007). Therefore, risk finance
has a high potential to mitigate the deterioration risk of the marine and lake environment. The
environment is becoming more conducive to implementing risk finance for marine and lake envir-
onmental risks. First, environment-related issues are under the spotlight nowadays, especially with
the adoption of Sustainable Development Goals at the UN General Assembly in September 2015,
and interest in investing in environment-related issues has simultaneously grown. Second, from an
asset management perspective, risk finance products targeting environmental risks have a low cor-
relation with financial instruments such as stocks and bonds and contribute to investors’ portfolio
diversification.
To calculate the cost of risk transfer in risk finance, we need to quantitatively model the targeted
risk variable’s fluctuation using a statistical model or a natural science model proposed in this
145
chapter. These two techniques have their advantages and disadvantages. The statistical model
is characteristically able to handle the risk variable directly, for example, the hypoxia situation.
Modeling the risk variable based on a statistical model, such as the AR model, has the following
three strengths: 1) ease of the data collection process of the risk variables; 2) user-friendly model
operation without special background knowledge; and 3) compact output without data post-
processing. Although the statistical model has these advantages, it should be noted that the model
is estimated only from the past patterns of changes in the risk variables. Since the statistical model
does not consider mechanisms of natural scientific phenomena, it cannot capture rare events that
deviate from past fluctuation patterns, which leads to misinterpretation of the probability of risk
occurrence. Hence, we need to consider this when determining the cost level of risk transfer in risk
finance.
On the other hand, the process-based physical-biogeochemical models are deterministic; how-
ever, they take into account the mechanisms of natural scientific phenomena. They can obtain more
robust results than the statistical models in environmental risk analysis, but they have disadvantages.
First, because they consider physical, chemical, and biological processes, a wide range of know-
ledge is necessary to understand and debug models. Second, they require data with high quantity and
quality. The data needs to support the parameter estimation, initial condition, boundary condition,
and model validation. Third, the whole analysis takes a long time and requires more computer per-
formance than statistical models.
Since the physical-biogeochemical model is deterministic, we cannot use it to calculate the prob-
ability of risk occurrence in implementing environmental risk finance. Thus, in section 5.4.4.5,
taking the environmental risk of Lake Biwa as an example, we have presented a methodology for
calculating an environmental risk probability by combining a physical-biogeochemical model with a
statistical model of risk variables. This methodology needs further verification, but once established,
it should be a powerful tool for calculating environmental risks accurately.
To increase the use of environmental risk finance and to reduce environmental risks in various
parts of the world, it goes without saying that it is essential to calculate the probability of risk
occurrence with high accuracy. We believe that the modeling techniques presented in this chapter
help us to calculate the risk probability accurately and implement environmental risk finance.
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6 Blue Economy Prospects,

Opportunities, Challenges,
Risks, and Sustainable
Development Pathways
in Bangladesh
Md. Simul Bhuyan,*1 Md. Nazrul Islam,**2 Mir Mohammad
Ali,3 Md. Rashed-Un-Nabi,4 Md. Wahidul Alam,5 Monika
Das,6 Ranjan Roy,7 Mohan Kumar Das,8 Istiak Ahamed
Mojumder,9 and Sobnom Mustary10
1
Bangladesh Oceanographic Research Institute (BORI), Cox’s Bazar,
Bangladesh
2
Department of Geography and Environment, Jahangirnagar
University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh
3
Department of Aquaculture, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
4
Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Marine Sciences and Fisheries,
University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
5
Department of Oceanography, Faculty of Marine Sciences and
Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
6
Department of Fisheries, Matshya Bhaban, Dhaka, Bangladesh
7
Department of Agriculture Extension and Information System,
Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
8
National Oceanographic and Maritime Institute, Dhaka, Bangladesh
9
Department of Zoology, University of Chittagong, Chittagong,
Bangladesh
10
Department of Biological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, UK
* Corresponding author: Md. Simul Bhuyan. Email: simulbhuyan@
gmail.com
**Corresponding author: Md. Nazrul Islam. Email: nazrul_[email protected]
CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 149
6.2 Maritime History and the Victory of Bangladesh.................................................................. 154
6.3 Materials and Methods.......................................................................................................... 155
6.3.1 Study Sites................................................................................................................. 155
6.3.2 Data Collection.......................................................................................................... 155
6.4 Prospect of a Blue Economy in Bangladesh......................................................................... 156
6.5 Opportunities for a Blue Economy in Bangladesh................................................................ 156
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-6 147

148
6.6 Maritime Shipping and Transportation................................................................................. 157

6.6.1 Port Facilities............................................................................................................. 158
6.7 Shipbuilding..........................................................................................................................159
6.8 Shipbreaking or Recycling.................................................................................................... 159
6.9 Coastal and Marine Tourism................................................................................................. 160
6.10 Construction of Artificial Islands.......................................................................................... 161
6.11 Marine Fisheries.................................................................................................................... 161
6.12 Marine Aquaculture............................................................................................................... 162
6.13 Non-conventional Marine Species Culture...........................................................................163
6.14 Food Security........................................................................................................................163
6.15 Energy...................................................................................................................................163
6.15.1 Gas and Oil................................................................................................................ 163
6.15.2 Mineral Resources..................................................................................................... 164
6.16 Marine Renewable Energy.................................................................................................... 164
6.17 Sea Salt Production............................................................................................................... 165
6.18 Marine Biotechnology........................................................................................................... 165
6.19 Carbon Sequestration and Climate Change Mitigation......................................................... 166
6.20 Challenges to the Blue Economy in Bangladesh..................................................................166
6.21 Resolving the Issues of Climate Change............................................................................... 166
6.22 Market Generation for Blue Carbon...................................................................................... 166
6.23 Creating Awareness............................................................................................................... 167
6.24 The Generation of Jobs.........................................................................................................167
6.25 Biodiversity Protection and Conservation............................................................................. 167
6.26 The Unsustainable Extraction of Marine Resources............................................................. 168
6.27 Ensuring Food Security......................................................................................................... 168
6.28 The Destruction of Marine and Coastal Habitats.................................................................. 168
6.29 Greening of the Coastal Belt................................................................................................. 169
6.30 Marine Pollution Reduction.................................................................................................. 169
6.31 Conflict Minimization Among Users (Coastal and Marine)................................................. 169
6.32 Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP)......................................................................................... 169
6.33 Maritime Security.................................................................................................................. 169
6.34 Skilled Manpower................................................................................................................. 170
6.35 Ocean Governance and International Cooperation...............................................................170
6.36 A Strong Marine Policy Formulation.................................................................................... 171
6.37 Risks/Threats to a Blue Economy......................................................................................... 171
6.38 The Tendency for Illegal Fishing or Overfishing.................................................................. 171
6.39 The Increasing Trend of Marine Pollution............................................................................ 172
6.40 Climate Change Impact......................................................................................................... 172
6.41 The Destruction of Nursery, Breeding, and Feeding Habitats.............................................. 173
6.42 Hypoxic Ocean Water............................................................................................................ 173
6.43 The Reduction of Offshore Energy Production Risk............................................................ 173
6.44 Shipping Emits and Discharges Pollutants............................................................................ 173
6.45 Ensuring Maritime Surveillance............................................................................................ 173
6.46 Risks at Working Sites........................................................................................................... 174
6.47 Accidental Oil Tanker Spill................................................................................................... 174
6.48 Karnaphuli Oil Spill.............................................................................................................. 175
6.49 Sundarbans Oil Spill.............................................................................................................. 175
6.50 Sustainable Development Pathways...................................................................................... 175
6.51 Initiatives Adopted by Bangladesh for Sustainable Maritime Development........................ 176
6.52 Initiatives Taken by the Ocean-Based Countries................................................................... 178
newgenprepdf
149
Blue Economy Prospects in Bangladesh 149
6.53 Partner Agencies Working on Blue Economic Development Worldwide............................. 180

6.54 GDP in South Asia................................................................................................................ 180
6.55 Recommendations for Sustainable Blue Economic Development........................................ 180
6.55.1 Overall Policy Recommendations.......................................................................... 181
6.55.2 Maritime Skills Development................................................................................ 181
6.55.3 Expert Marine Panel............................................................................................... 181
6.55.4 Marine Research Organizations............................................................................. 181
6.55.5 Marine Spatial Planning (MSP)............................................................................. 181
6.55.6 Comprehensive Ocean Policy................................................................................ 182
6.55.7 Ocean Governance................................................................................................. 182
6.55.8 Scientific Review and Economic Analysis............................................................. 182
6.55.9 Public–Private Partnership..................................................................................... 182
6.55.10 Identification of Priority Sectors............................................................................ 183
6.55.11 International Collaboration.................................................................................... 183
6.55.12 Maritime Security and Surveillance....................................................................... 183
6.55.13 Environment and Biodiversity Protection.............................................................. 183
6.55.14 Monitoring and Evaluation....................................................................................183
6.55.15 Lessons from Successful Countries....................................................................... 183
6.55.16 Sector-Wise Recommendations............................................................................. 183
6.56 National Policies, Acts, and Rules Adopted by Bangladesh................................................. 183
6.57 Policymaking Authority in Bangladesh................................................................................. 184
6.58 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................188
References....................................................................................................................................... 188
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Sustainable Development Goal 14 emphasizes the life below water. SDG 14 (Life Below Water) has
strong synergies with SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 15 (Life On Land) and a poten-
tial trade-off with SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) (Lee et al. 2020). The blue
economy is the use of ocean resources in a sustainable way. The European Union (2018) defined the
blue economy as the ‘all-economic activities related to oceans, seas, and coasts that cover a wide
range of interlinked established and emerging sectors’ (European Union, 2018) (Figure 6.1).
Roughly 40% of the world’s population lives within 100 km of the coast (UN, 2017) and three-
quarters of the world’s large cities are located on the coast (Rayner et al. 2019). Marine ecosystems
along the coast are valuable ecological and socio-economic sectors that deliver products and services
(Seitz et al. 2013). Three billion people rely on oceans for their livelihood. 350 million employees
are interconnected with the ocean and developing countries account for 97% of all fishermen.
The blue economy (BE) is a blessing/crucial factor for ocean-based countries like Bangladesh,
for them to become developed countries. Gunter Pauli (a Belgian economist) reported that the ocean
will provide 10 million jobs through 100 innovations that will take 10 years. The world economy
is 88 trillion USD, of which 24 trillion USD solely comes from the sea. The world population is
increasing and it will be 900 crores by 2050 (Bhuyan et al. 2020). This huge population will feed
largely from the sea. Oceans provide 15% of protein for humans worldwide. 32% of CO2 is absorbed
by the ocean which has a great role in climate change mitigation (Parletta, 2019). 30% of oil and gas,
50% of magnesium, and many life-saving medicines are extracted from the sea (Bhuyan et al. 2020).
By 2030, the global added value of marine equipment is projected to contribute US$ 300 billion to
the global economy (BALance Technology Consulting, 2014). The contribution of oceans and their
coasts in global GDP is depicted in Figure 6.2.
The blue economy is currently worth US$ 1.5 trillion and provides employment for 31 million
people around the world (OECD, 2016). This amount will be US$ 3 trillion by 2030 which will
150
Established Emerging
Industries Industries
Capture fisheries
Open water
and
aquaculture
aquaculture
Deep- and ultra-

Seafood
deep-water oil and
processing
gas
Offshore wind
Shipping
energy
Ocean renewable
Ports
energy
Shipbuilding and Marine and

repair seabed mining
Offshore oil and

Maritime safety
gas
and surveillance
(shallow water)
Marine
Marine
manufacturing and
biotechnology
construction
Maritime and High-tech marine

coastal products and
tourism services
Marine business
Others
services
Marine R&D and

education
FIGURE 6.1 Established and emerging ocean-based industries (adapted from OECD, 2016).
be driven by aquaculture, offshore wind, fish processing, shipbuilding, and recycling. Australia,
Europe, the U.S.A. China, Africa, and the Small Island Developing States (SIDs) make impressive
profits from the blue economy (Roberts and Ali, 2016). The whole maritime economy of China
would reach 8327 and 8894 billion RMB in 2018 and 2019, respectively, with annual growth rates
of 7.3% and 6.8% (To et al. 2018). Despite having resources, only 7% of the oceans of the earth have
been investigated (Toropova et al. 2010). UN (2016) set a timeline for SDG-14 targets (Figure 6.3).
In Bangladesh, the blue economy is a new concept although China, Japan, and the Philippines
have been earning revenue from the ocean economy for almost 300 years. After the maritime victory
151
Terrestrial Coastal Open ocean
25%
38%
Estuaries 12%
Seagrass/algae bed 11%

38%
Coral reefs 2%
Shelf 13%
FIGURE 6.2 Contribution of resources from the coast and the sea in global GDP.
2032
2030
2030
2028
Time to meet SDG-14
2026 2025
2024
2022
2020 2020 2020 2020
2020
2018
2016
2014
SDG 14.1 SDG 14.2 SDG 14.3 SDG 14.4 SDG 14.5 SDG 14.6 SDG 14.7
SDG
FIGURE 6.3 Time Line for SDG-14 Targets (United Nation, 2016).
over Myanmar (14 March 2012) and India (07 July 2014), the blue economy becomes a hot topic/
buzzword. Bangladesh can earn a huge amount of international money by utilizing the Bay of
Bengal’s resources. About 255 trawlers, 67669 mechanized and non-mechanized boats engaged in
fishing. 6.55 lakh MT fish were caught from the ocean in the year 2017-18 (DoF, 2020).
The Bay of Bengal is one of the world’s largest bays (Figure 6.4), with 64 bays in total. It is the
Indian Ocean’s unprotected area, which is 1,300 miles long and 1,000 miles wide, bordered on the
west by Sri Lanka and India, on the north by Bangladesh, and on the east by Myanmar and Thailand.
The most important feature of the Bay of Bengal is that it is located downstream of one of the most
active deltas in the world (Shoeib and Rahman, 2014). The Bay of Bengal (BoB) is also important
for politics of influence as well as geopolitical tension. It’s considered that the BoB is the biggest
reserve source of offshore hydrocarbon including gas, oil, and living resources like fishing resources,
herbs, and corals. Capital, both living and non-living is important for the economic development of
Bangladesh. Sustainable use and management of fisheries will increase jobs and food security.
Bangladesh is situated in a lucrative geographic location that will grow a significant economy
capable of generating US$ 100 trillion by 2030 (Roy, 2017). The contributions from the ocean
economy sectors in Bangladesh are shown in Figure 6.5.
152
FIGURE 6.4 Maritime region (Bay of Bengal) of Bangladesh.
Tourism and recreation
Marine fisheries and

9% aquculture
25%
19%
Minerals
22%
22% Transport
3%
Energy
Ship and boat

building/breaking
FIGURE 6.5 Contribution of ocean economy sectors in Bangladesh, percentage of GVA (2014–18).
153
Relevant SDG 14 Target Blue economy sectors or activities in Bangladesh
14.1 Prevent and significantly reduce all Fisheries, Aquaculture, Desalination, Shipping & navigation, Coastal
kinds of marine pollution development, Tourism
14.2 Sustainable management to protect Fisheries, Aquaculture, Renewable energy, Seabed mining, Desalination,
marine and coastal ecosystems Shipping & navigation. Coastal development. Tourism, Ocean monitor &
surveillance, MSP to conservation, Carbon sequestration.
14.3 Minimize and address the impacts

Ocean monitor and Surveillance, MSP
of ocean acidification
14.4 Effectively regulate harvesting, and

end overfishing, illegal, unreported and Fisheries, Ocean monitor and Surveillance, MSP
unregulated (IUU) fishing and
destructive fishing practices
14.5 MSP to conserve at least 10 per

Tourism, Ocean monitor and Surveillance, MSP, Carbon sequestration
cent of coastal and marine areas
14.6 Prohibit certain forms of fisheries

Fisheries
subsidies
14.7 Increase the economic benefits to

Fisheries, Aquaculture and Tourism
SIDS and LOCs
Marine Biotechnology, Renewable energy, Seabed mining. Desalination,

14 a Increase scientific knowledge
Shipping & navigation, Ocean monitor & surveillance
14 b Provides access for small- scale

artisanal fishers to marine resources and Fisheries
markets
Marine Biotechnology, Shipping & navigation, Ocean monitor &

14 c Implementing international law
surveillance, MSP
FIGURE 6.6 Blue economy sectors and activities’ importance to SDG 14 targets (Hussain, 2019).
Linkages between the blue economy, sustainable development, and economic growth have been
recognized in different national and international conferences, seminars, and forums. Unfortunately,
the Bay of Bengal and its marine habitats on the coast are being threatened by the rapid pace of
urbanization, population growth, IUU fishing, marine pollution, climate change, ineffective marine
regulation, the non-traditional security menace, and other land-based issues (Rahman, 2017; IPCC,
2018). Rising water temperature, rising sea level, ocean acidification, changing ocean circulation
patterns, and increasing nutrient input have a great impact on ocean productivity, species compos-
ition, biodiversity, and population dynamics (Harley et al. 2006; Doney et al. 2012).
A sustainable blue economy is required to focus on the conservation and justifiable exploitation
of aquatic resources (Wenhai et al. 2019). SDG targets and blue economy sectors are presented in
Figure 6.6. A good conceptual framework for the blue economy can be used to measure coastal
management sustainability and a blue economy management framework promotes blue growth and
achieves sustainable development goals (SDGs) (Keen et al. 2018; Sarker et al. 2018). Different
154
stakeholders play an important function in blue economic growth (Howard, 2018). For the conver-
gence of the blue economy and the marine ecosystem, ecosystem accounting is closely linked to
blue growth (Häyhä and Franzese, 2014; Lillebø et al. 2017). Globally, Marine Spatial Planning
(MSP) and Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) are regarded as efficient tools for preserving and
developing coastal and ocean resources in a sustainable manner (Danovaro et al. 2017).
Bangladesh needs to increase oceanographic awareness, research capacity creation, technology
transfer in the marine environment, and international cooperation for a successful blue economy.
The 2030 Agenda of SDGs comes when Bangladesh becomes an upper-middle-income country
by 2021 and will be a developed country by 2041. To be a developed country, Bangladesh needs
to ensure sustainable use of ocean resources following international law (as reflected in UNCLOS
III) and formulate a strong ocean policy. For sustainable ecosystem management, marine spatial
planning can be implemented.
The Government of Bangladesh has established the marine sector as a significant sector to con-
tribute to increasing food security, alleviating poverty, increasing job opportunities, and lifting the
country’s trade and industrial profiles in terms of the ‘blue economy’. This would have positive
economic and environmental consequences if the resources of the Bay of Bengal are handled sus-
tainably (Singh, 2019).
Bangladesh, being a littoral state in the Bay of Bengal is situated in Southeast Asia, facing dif-
ficulties with ocean governance, maritime security, and regional/international cooperation to get
blue economy benefits from the Bay of Bengal. This paper uncovers the prospect and opportunities
of a blue economy for Bangladesh compared to the rest of the ocean-based countries. This article
also focuses on the challenges and risks faced and which will be faced by Bangladesh in near future
towards the blue economy’s effective implementation. It also emphasizes the sustainable develop-
ment pathways to overcome these challenges and risks. Finally, it provides some overall and sectoral
recommendations for sustainable blue economic growth.
The economic contributions from the Oceans at the regional, national, and sub-national levels
include:
• Australia: AU$ 47.2 billion contribution to GDP in 2012, or more than 3% of the overall
(National Marine Science Committee, 2015);
• China: In 2010, the overall gross value added (GVA) was US$ 239 billion, or 4% of GDP, with
over 9 million people working (Zhao et al. 2014).
• European Union: Complete annual GVA of EUR 500 billion with over 5 million employees
(EC, 2017).
• Ireland: In 2016, the gross GVA amounted to EUR 3.37 billion, or 1.7% of GDP (Vega and
Hynes, 2017).
• Mauritius: For the period from 2012 to 2014, on average, 10% of GDP (Cervigni and
Scandizzo, 2017).
• United States: In 2013, the contribution to GDP was US$ 359 billion, or more than 2% of the
total, employing 3 million people (Kildow et al. 2016).
Different maritime industries adding value to the global ocean economy are shown in Figure 6.7.
6.2 MARITIME HISTORY AND THE VICTORY OF BANGLADESH

The Father of the Nation, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, predicted the need for marine
resources for the country’s overall development after the War of Liberation in 1971. The Territorial
Water and Maritime Zones Act 1974 was implemented long before UNCLOS III came into being
in 1982, under his visionary leadership. The Honorable Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina subsequently
carried forward Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s vision and agreed on 25 July 2001 to ratify
the UNCLOS, which also granted the right to claim the continental shelf or to claim the continental
155
40%
35% 34%
30% 26% 26%
25% 22%
20% 16%
15% 13%
11% 10%
10% 8% 9%
6% 5%
5% 4% 4%3%
0%0% 0% 1%2%
0%
2010 2030
FIGURE 6.7 Ocean industry value-added to double (1.5 to 3 trillion dollars) by 2030 (OECD, 2016).
shelf within 10 years. Afterward, under the sensible leadership of the Honorable Prime Minister
Sheikh Hasina, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea resolved the maritime boundary
demarcation with Myanmar in 2012 and with India at the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 2014.
Bangladesh gained sovereignty over the Bay of Bengal’s living and nonliving capital. Bangladesh
won over 118,813 sq km of the territorial sea, 200 nautical miles (NM) of the Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ), and the continental shelf up to 354 nautical miles off the coast of Chittagong. It is a
large region, with economic and commercial concerns and environmental stakes. It, therefore, guar-
antees adequate defense and security, and this confirmation is Bangladesh’s outstanding achievement
(Bhuiyan et al. 2015). The Bay of Bengal has enormous potential as a source of the blue economy.
Bangladesh can take advantage of its ocean-borne properties, such as research into oil and gas, fish-
eries, shipbuilding and shipbreaking, salt collection, tourism development, and the like (Figure 6.8).
6.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

6.3.1 Study Sites
Bangladesh is a maritime country, blessed with the Bay of Bengal, which is around 1.5 times bigger than
the area on the land. The coastal zone occupies an area of approximately 36,000 sq. km, almost 25%
of the total land surface of the country. The continental shelf is roughly 37000 sq. km and has an area
of around 37000 sq. km. The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) has roughly 1,64,000 sq. km (Begum,
2013). Almost all forms of activities in the economy are connected to this maritime field. So, one of the
latest and very prospective avenues is the maritime sector for the development of the country.
6.3.2 Data Collection
Identification of the related research was part of the initial phase. We developed the following
requirements for our database to perform a systematic literature review:
• Searching database: Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, Dimension

• Searching conditions: English-language journal articles; Blue economy-related journals,
book chapters, conference proceedings; available on the internet (with no time limitation)
• Searching strings
156
FIGURE 6.8 Sectors of blue economy in Bangladesh.
Data was collected using keywords: blue economy concept; sustainable blue economy; blue economy
in Bangladesh; the prospect of the blue economy in Bangladesh; opportunities of the blue economy;
opportunities of the blue economy in Bangladesh; risks towards successful blue economy; risks
towards the successful blue economy in Bangladesh; threats towards successful Blue Economy;
threats towards the successful blue economy in Bangladesh; sustainable development pathways for
the blue economy; recommendation for sustainable blue economic growth; recommendation for
sustainable blue economic growth in Bangladesh.
6.4 PROSPECT OF A BLUE ECONOMY IN BANGLADESH

Being a maritime country, Bangladesh gained a vast area of the ocean which can play a dynamic
role in its national economic development and the well-being of its future generations. Since land
resources are depleting rapidly, people will depend on ocean resources for their livelihoods in the
future. Bangladesh has a huge prospect of a blue economy, that’s why the government is giving
priority to the collaboration and formulation of ocean-related policies and plans. Bangladesh can
fulfill the blue economic growth with marine fisheries and aquaculture, minerals and mining,
oceanic renewable energy, increasing maritime trade, shipping, and transport, tourism, education
and research on maritime affairs, marine spatial planning, and so forth. These maritime activities
will increase job opportunities, reduce poverty, and develop the national economy.
6.5 OPPORTUNITIES FOR A BLUE ECONOMY IN BANGLADESH

Approximately half of the world’s population, most of its major cities and industries, along with
vital supply chains, tend to be centered along the coast to ensure access to transport routes and
ensure steady flows of energy and goods. Worldwide, different countries make significant income
from the blue economy sectors and boost their national GDP (Table 6.1).
157
TABLE 6.1
Selected Estimates of Value of Ocean-Based Industries, by Country, Region and World
Date Contribution of
of Date of Ocean Sectors to % of GDP Employment
Country Author Study Data GDP or GVA or GVA (total) FTE)
China (People’s APEC 2014 2012 9.6% GDP =

Republic of)
Jiang et. al. 2014 2000–11 13.83% GDP =
CMIEN 2013 2012 CNY 50,087 tn GDP 9.6% GDP 34 0240 000
Zhao, Hynes and He 2013 2010 CNY 239.09 bn GVA 4.3% GDP 9 000 000
Dubai Gujarat Maritime Board 2014 2013 4.6% GDP =
France Kalaydjian et al. 2009 2007 EUR 28 bn GVA 1.4% GDP 484 548
Kalaydjian et al. 2011 2009 EUR 26,122 bn GVA 2.5% GDP 460163
Kalaydjian et al. 2014 2012 EUR 30,252 bn GVA 2.75% GDP 460396
Hong Kong (China) Gujarat Maritime Board 2014 2013 25% GDP =
Iceland Sigfusson and Gestsson 2012 2010 26% GDP ca. 30 000
Ireland Vega, Hynes and O’Toole 2015 2012 EUR 1.3 bn GVA 0.7% GDP 17 425
Vega, Hynes and Coriess 2013 2010 EUR 1.2 bn GVA 0.7% GDP 16614
Japan Nomura Research 2009 2005 JPY7 863 bn GVA 1.6% GDP 981 234
Institute
Korea APEC 2014 2005 8% GDP =
Hwang et al. 2011 2008 KRW13,435 bn GVA
4.9% GDP 919314
Netherlands Maritime by Holland 2014 2012 EUR 21 bn GVA 3.3% GNP 224 000
New Zealand Statistics New Zealand 2006 1997–2002 NZD 3.3 bn GVA 2.9% GDP 21 000
Portugal DGPM 2013 2010 2.5% GVA =
Singapore MPA -Maritime Singapore 2014 7% GDP =
United Kingdom Pugh 2008 2005–06 GBP 46,041 bn GVA 4.2% GDP 890 416
United States Kildow et al. 2014 2010 US$ 258 bn GDP 4.4% GDP 2.8 million
Europe Ecorys 2012 2011 EUR 495 bn GVA 5.6 million
US$ 2.5 trillion =
Worldwide Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2015 2011–14 ‘Gross marine 3.2% GDP =
product’
Source: Individual reports by country and region.
Notes: =data not available. The German study focuses only on maritime technology and ocean engineering. FTE =full-time
equivalent.The value added of Iceland and the China Marine StatisticalYearbook include also indirect effects on the economy.
In Bangladesh, about 30 million people connect with marine resources and ocean-related work
for their livelihoods. In the blue economy sector, Bangladesh has a lot of potential. It aims to be
a developed country by the year 2041 and this is possible if we can use ocean resources properly.
Few statistics and a birds-eye overview of marine sectors will prove the above statement. The con-
tribution (from 2010-2015) of major blue economic sectors in Bangladesh is tabulated in Table 6.2.
6.6 MARITIME SHIPPING AND TRANSPORTATION

Shipping is the safest, most secure, efficient, and environmentally sound transportation system that
is regarded as the lifeblood of the global economy. 90% of global commerce, 80% of global trade by
volume, and 70% by value are being transported by sea (Alam, 2018).
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The shipping sector is developing very fast in Bangladesh because of its geographic location. The
Bay of Bengal is a blessing for Bangladesh (Hung et al. 2010). Bangladesh is earning 80 billion dollars
from imports and exports and thus shipping trade is increasing by 10–15% every year (Uddin et al.
2017). These growth percentages are higher than average in terms of the Bangladeshi national economy
(Alam, 2014). In 2011, during the global economic crisis, global trade increased by 4%. By 2030,
container traffic is expected to triple. The top import and export partners were China, India, Europe,
Indonesia, Singapore, and Thailand (World Bank, 2017). Shipping provides facilities to landlocked
South Asian countries and connects South, Southeast, and East Asia as the Indo-Pacific Corridor.
Bangladesh earned about US$ 67 billion (2013– 14) from exported and imported goods
transported by 2500 ships from other countries docked in the country’s ports. Moreover, US$
95 billion was paid by importers, exporters, and buyers who paid shipping firms for freight and
associated costs, airlines, and freight operators to carry goods in and out of Bangladesh during
the last ten year (Alam, 2014). In 2012, inland and coastal networks transported 231.5 million
passengers and 32.6 million Mt of freight (Alam, 2018). Over the last ten years, the annual rate
of increase in imports was 15.79% and the export growth rate was 15.43%. According to these
estimates, freight value is predicted to be around US$ 435 billion over the next ten years. To keep
US$ 400 billion in Bangladesh over the next ten years, the country needs to add more ships to its
current fleet and more freight operators.
Maritime transport plays a dynamic role in Bangladeshi social-economic prospects that mostly
rely on their ability to connect to the rest of the world and access international markets.
Coastal shipping from India, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and Myanmar ports can
play a great role in achieving 5–6% long-term annual growth for the coming decade. Transshipment
at Singapore, Kelang, Colombo, and other ports could be cost-effective, time-saving, and favorable
for employment growth.
6.6.1 Port Facilities
Ports play a strategic role in national trade and economy. For maritime economic activities, ports
are critical crystallization sites. Port facilities are needed for cruise ships, coastal shipping, foreign
shipping, passenger ferries, fishing, marine mineral mining, oil drilling, and offshore or maritime
surveillance (Alam, 2018).
Bangladesh’s economy largely depends on international trade. Ports transport 94% of foreign
trade. almost 3000 foreign ships visit Bangladeshi ports every year carrying cargo. Bangladeshi
ports are not located adjacent to main international shipping lanes and have a draft restriction. Have
TABLE 6.2
Financial Evaluation of Major Blue Economics Sectors in Bangladesh from 2010 to 2015
(million US$)
Economic Sector 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Marine fisheries 843.75 949.48 1107.42 1231.06 1384.77 1475.66

Oil 21.90 23.84 26.82 28.77 29.35 34.05
Gas 948.35 956.30 1041.35 1127.73 1158.13 1305.42
Sea salt 119.25 123.48 160.90 206.00 212.35 214.84
Sand, Mineral and Coals 735.18 944.39 1183.79 1452.46 1644.08 1893.14
Water Transport 1215.14 1330.36 1450.21 1606.10 1682.31 1816.67
Trade and Shipping 31390.15 36178.04 41728.94 47156.44 52078.80 58466.90
Source: Data adapted from Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS, 2017; Hussain et al. 2017).
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TABLE 6.3
Annual Gross Value Added from Bangladesh’s Blue Economy
Ocean economy industry/service

(Nominal USD Millions) 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 2013–14 2014–15
Marine capture fisheries 664.00 777.00 786.23 907.49 1,037.49 1,167.79

Marine aquaculture and shellfish farming 78.65 92.48 99.76 122.05 144.99 163.20
(shrimps and crabs)
Sea salt production 123.20 124.11 145.51 184.35 195.45 197.88
Crude petroleum extraction 22.42 23.65 23.69 25.16 26.40 30.55
Natural gas (liquid) extraction 971.13 948.62 919.94 986.25 1,041.87 1,174.58
Maritime freight transportation 307.90 319.55 295.81 300.33 327.15 375.58
Maritime passenger transportation 617.61 659.27 606.66 663.14 720.69 788.35
Port and harbour operations 104.95 103.29 135.57 145.32 172.37 202.17
Shipbuilding and repairing 110.32 114.77 106.68 109.58 108.59 387.06
Ship breaking 127.39 130.80 134.27 136.83 138.31 138.21
Source: World Bank, 2018.
no recommended routes or an international ship traffic separation scheme. Consequently, all these
constraints create an adverse situation for foreign ships coming to Bangladesh (Uddin et al. 2017).
Currently, there are only two ports in Bangladesh, including Chittagong Port and Mongla Port
to support this huge trade volume. Bangladeshi ports, along with Kolkata and Chennai, serve as
hubs within the Bay of Bengal. Facilities and infrastructure development of ports will increase the
chances of being a central focus of the country’s future ocean economy. Matarbari port, Payra Port,
Sonadia Deep Sea Port, Kutubdia FSRU LPG, and the LNG Terminal and Bay terminal would be
suitable sites to develop seaports with more capabilities and modern handling equipment (Saha and
Alam, 2018). This will open a new window in maritime trade and commerce. The establishment of
new seaports will reduce export times and earn a steady flow of revenue for the country.
6.7 SHIPBUILDING
Shipbuilding is regarded as an important sector that is a vital component of the blue economy
because of its income generation feature (Table 6.3). Marine engineering consists of the construc-
tion and repair of boats, ships, fishing vessels, yachts, and floating structures that need routine main-
tenance. In Bangladesh, there are currently over 300 shipyards and workshops. These use almost
100% capacity for inland vessels, fast patrol boats, dredging barges, passenger vessels, landing
craft, tug, supply barges, deck loading barges, speed boats, cargo coasters, troop-carrying vessels,
hydrographic survey vessels, survey boats, pilot boats, water taxis, and pontoons, which are being
built by these yards (Alam, 2018). Currently, shipbuilding yards are building 10,000 DWT sea-
going ships for exportation and are projected to advance their capabilities to 25,000 DWT. Annually,
approximately 15 ships are undergoing repairs in the dry docks of Bangladesh and contribute to
earning foreign exchange.
6.8 SHIPBREAKING OR RECYCLING
Bangladesh recycles 300 ships every year, which is 24% of the total scrapped ships in the world
(MOI, 2019). Bangladesh ranked 2nd considering the quantity of ships while rated third in terms of
gross tonnage. Bangladesh has 105 yards and around 60-70 percent of the yards are in operation
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(Alam et al. 2019). As a result, Bangladesh is considered a graveyard of scrap ships of the world that
produces continuous capital for Bangladesh (Table 6.3).
Around 70 -75% of scrap steel used in steel and re-rolling mills comes from the ship recycling
industry. As a result, this industry is harnessing a large amount of foreign currency. Furthermore,
this industry met the rising demand for furniture, all forms of household fittings, boilers, life-saving
vessels, and generators, as well as creating jobs.
Ship recycling industries are the main polluters of the coastal environment. Ship recycling should
be promoted with an all-eco-friendly infrastructure and compliance with an international agreement.
The Bangladesh government launched steps to control pollution from ship recycling. A ship recyc-
ling yard has to obtain clearance from the Environment Department before recycling a ship (Rabbi
and Rahman, 2017).
6.9 COASTAL AND MARINE TOURISM

Tourism is a huge global business that creates new jobs and reduces poverty since tourism is human
resource intensive. Furthermore, every job created in the core industry generates one and a half
jobs in the tourism-related economy. International tourism has increased from 25 million in 1950 to
1.035 million in 2012, with the UNWTO estimating average growth of 3.3% a year, with a projec-
tion of 1.8 billion for 2030. In 2016, tourism and leisure contributed just over 10 billion US dollars
to the national GDP and more than 2 million direct and indirect jobs (WTTC, 2017).
According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), approximately one of
every two tourists visited the seaside (UNWTO, 2013). Rising incomes and low transport costs make
coastal and ocean tourism more popular. Cruise tourism is getting more popular day by day. Between
1970 and 2005 the number of passengers increased 24-fold to 16 million by 2011. Annual passenger
growth rates average about 7.5%, with annual passenger expenses expected to be around US$ 18 billion.
Marine and coastal tourism are important to Bangladesh (one of the developing countries) since
it offers 5% of world GDP and contributes to 6 -7% of total employment globally. In 2012, tourism
supported 9% of Global GDP, 9% of global jobs were created, and US$ 1.3 trillion, or 6% of
global export earnings, was produced (Alam, 2018). Bangladesh can be a major tourist attraction
site since it has Cox’s Bazar (longest unbroken sea beach), St. Martin’s Island (Coral Island), and
the Sundarbans (largest single tract mangrove forest). Tourism can create employment for local
communities through business facilities (hotels, restaurants, other entertainment industries, and so
forth). Tourism will be sustainable if it focuses on the other factors of the environment (Figure 6.9).
Social
sustainability
Marine
tourism
Economic Environmental
sustainability sustainability
FIGURE 6.9 Marine tourism and three facets of long-term development.

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In Bangladesh, coastal and marine tourism is not developed in the same way as in other south
Asian countries (for example, India, Sri Lanka, and Maldives). Recreational fishing is very important
but the facilities in Bangladesh are limited (Hassan et al. 2014). In the country’s coastal waters, there
is no recreational fishing (Humayun et al. 2016). Recreational fishing is very small, according to the
United Nations, with imports of fishing rods, reels, hooks, and other tackle totaling just US$127,180
in 2013 (UN Comtrade, 2017).
Diverse water sports have been introduced as recreational activities. The construction and main-
tenance of seaworthy pleasure boats, and the requisite infrastructure support, including marina ports,
could promote a rise in coastal tourism. About 100 hotels and motels were recorded in Cox’s Bazar
where more than 10,000 people work (Bari, 2017).
6.10 CONSTRUCTION OF ARTIFICIAL ISLANDS

Bangladesh should follow an effective strategy for the creation of new islands formed artificially in
the territorial sea and the EEZ authorized by the 1982 UNCLOS to minimize demographic pressure
on land. By planting salt-tolerant/mangrove plants, the survival of the current 75 marine islands
or newly developed islands can be ensured. Agricultural production on sandy soils through the
enhancement of existing crops must be adopted. Seawater desalination for the use of freshwater for
agriculture, irrigation, commercial use for inhabitants, and marine/offshore island animals may be
considered.
6.11 MARINE FISHERIES
Almost 350 million people are working with marine fisheries worldwide (FAO, 2012). Globally,
15.7% of animal protein demand is met by fish. Fish’s contribution to the supply of animal-based
protein in Bangladesh is 52%, Indonesia 68%, Malaysia 61%, Sri Lanka 65%, and Thailand 52%.
The global catch of fish was 4 million tonnes in 1900, 16.7 million tonnes in 1950, 62 million
tonnes in 1980, and 86.7 million tonnes in 2000 but then it plateaued. In 2009 marine capture
production was 79 million tonnes. Overall catch probabilities declined with 75% of stocks fully
exploited or depleted. Almost 90% of fishermen living in developing countries earned US$ 25
billion from fish trading.
Bangladesh is blessed with a Bay of Bengal wide range of shrimp, fish, molluscs, crabs,
mammals, seaweed, and other marine creatures. There are about 740 species of fish found
in the EEZ of Bangladesh (Habib and Islam, 2020). Total fish production in Bangladesh was
reported as 3.68 million tonnes, of which 1.0 million tonnes (28%) come from capture fisheries,
2.2 million tonnes (56%) from aquaculture, and 0.6 million tonnes from marine fisheries (16%).
It contributes 3.69% of the GDP of the nation (DoF, 2016). Artisanal small-scale fisheries con-
tribute 86.8%, while trawl fishing (considered a large industrial fishery) accounts for 14.2% of
the total marine output (DoF, 2016). The last 5-year fish production from different sources is
tabulated in Table 6.4.
The Bay of Bengal’s coastal and offshore fishing industry plays a vital role in economic devel-
opment, social development, and ecological balance. A recent estimate reported that 1.85 million
people are engaged in fisheries on a full-time basis covered by the Bay of Bengal Program (BOBP).
Other countries catch 8 million tonnes of fish in the Bay of Bengal, while Bangladesh only catches
637379 tonnes (DoF, MoF and LS, 2018).
Fishing activities in Bangladesh can be separated into artisanal fishing and industrial fishing
(Islam et al. 2017). 70,000 wooden fishing boats (Lengths 30 to 35 feet) are fishing on the coast-
line since they cannot go beyond 20 to 30 km from the coastline. Most of the wooden vessels are
not registered (DOF, 2018). Over 250 steel body registered trawlers go up to 50 nautical miles for
fishing. Bangladesh has a 660 km long sea area from the coastline, and 2,300 m deep sea. In the
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TABLE 6.4
Last 5 Years’ Fish Production
Source-wise Production (MT)

Year Inland Open Closed Marine Total
2013–2014 1054585 1460769 546333 3061687

2014–2015 1029937 1351979 517282 2899198
2015–2016 1123925 1062801 514644 2701370
2016–2017 1060181 1005542 497573 2563296
2017–2018 10067761 955812 634746
Source: MoF and LS.
Bay of Bengal, most of the deep-sea fish are dying due to aging because they are not being caught
due to a lack of appropriate technology to go deep-sea fishing. Since a high number of fishing
boats fish near the shoreline, it creates conflicts with other ocean users (for example, shipping,
tourism, and gas exploration) (DOF, 2018). Bangladesh has few fish processing zones or factories
in its coastal area to export different types of fish including, Hilsa, tuna, shrimp, and crab (Hussain
et al. 2018).
6.12 MARINE AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture is considered to be the world’s fastest-growing food market. Fish for human consump-
tion makes up 47% of the total and is provided by the aquaculture sector. Between 1960 and 2009,
fish production increased by more than 90 million tonnes (from 27 to 118 million tonnes) which are
mostly used as food for human consumption 26. It is projected that aquaculture fisheries production
will surpass capture fisheries production soon. In Asia, about 91% of aquaculture is taking place,
contributing to over 89% of global production (more than 5%/year).
Bangladesh has huge potential for aquaculture development. Aquaculture offers food and
a means of subsistence that ultimately helps in poverty reduction. It will consider the import-
ance of natural resources in its production whilst adhering to ecological guidelines throughout
the production cycle, ensuring long- term decent jobs, and supplying high- value export
commodities.
Marine aquaculture based on tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) culture has evolved into a heavily
traded export industry. Tiger shrimp is largely cultured in the coastal districts of Satkhira, Khulna,
Bagerhat, and Cox’s Bazar. Between 1970 and 1990, the culture in these areas grew steadily, covering
approximately 183,221 hectares (Belton et al. 2011). Softshell crab (Scylla serrata) and finishes are
export items also being cultured. In 2015, Bangladesh received US$582 million from shellfish and
finfish exports (DoF, 2016). Sea bass (Lates calcarifer) is a high-value aquaculture species that can
be bred and farmed in the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Increasingly, fishmeal is made from fishery by-products that constitute more than 25% of global
production (OECD, 2012). Findings show that at least 50% of fishmeal, 50-80% of salmonid oil, 30-
80% of fishmeal, and up to 60% of marine fish diet oil can eventually be supplemented by vegetable
replacements that greatly expand the potential for industry expansion.
There is a high export value and great potential for marine aquaculture species. However com-
mercial marine aquaculture, as well as marine stock enhancement and sea ranching, are all prom-
ising but are still to be established.
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6.13 NON-CONVENTIONAL MARINE SPECIES CULTURE

Non-conventional marine species include seaweed, other macroalgae, mussels, oysters, and other
shellfish (edible oysters, Crassostrea sp. Saccostrea sp. pearl oyster, Anadra sp. green mussel,
Perna viridis, clam, Meretrix sp., Marcia opima, sea snails), sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and
so forth. Favorable sites for seaweed, sea urchin, and sea cucumber culture are Cox’s Bazar, St.
Martin’s Island, and the coastal areas. These marine invertebrates are used for valuable cancer-
treating pharmaceuticals in many developing countries. Marine pearl culture can be developed in
Bangladesh’s suitable inshore and coastal areas following Japan and other countries
Crab fattening was carried out on a limited scale, and these were exported to other countries.
Over the last 10–15 years, live giant mud crabs (Scylla serrata) and estuarine eels (Muraenesox
bagio) have been exported to East Asian countries. The marginal farmers of Satkhira, Bagerhat,
and Cox’s Bazar produced less than 20% of the exported live crab. Softshell crab farming is being
practised on a limited scale in Sathkhira, Cox’s Bazar, and the Moheshkhali areas and this could also
be extensively practised in other feasible coastal areas such as Cox’s Bazar, Moheshkhali, Kutubdia,
Chittagong, Khulna Bhola, and the Barisal regions.
6.14 FOOD SECURITY
In developing countries like Bangladesh, one billion people rely on seafood as their main protein
source. Apart from that, many people all over the world enjoy seafood. The oceans can be the
largest source of food for all developing countries, and they can also help to solve food security
concerns.
6.15 ENERGY
6.15.1 Gas and Oil
The seabed is a hidden source of treasure that currently provides 32% of the global supply of
hydrocarbons which had been 20% in 1980. Gas and oil have long been the key sources of energy in
the industrialized world, and they will continue to be so for many decades to come. Offshore fields
accounted for 32% of global crude oil output in 2009, and this figure is expected to grow to 34% by
2025, and even higher thereafter. Methane hydrates, a potentially massive source of hydrocarbons,
are now being investigated and tapped from the ocean floor.
In Asia, Bangladesh is regarded as the 19th largest producer of natural gas (Alam et al. 2019).
Geologists predicted that within its maritime boundaries, Bangladesh might have a huge amount of
gas and oil reserves as do India and Myanmar. Adjacent to the Arakan offshore blocks of Myanmar,
there is the possibility of finding significant oil and gas reserves.
A total of 20 wells were dug in the Bay of Bengal’s offshore locations until 2014. Only two gas
reserves were discovered during the exploration (Hossain et al. 2014). Today, Bangladesh discovered
26 blocks in the Bay of Bengal. Among 26 blocks, 15 are deep-sea blocks and 11 are shallow water
blocks (Bari, 2017). Bangladesh has been producing and using natural gas from offshore block-16
since 1998. Primary tender and negotiations took place on blocks 4, 9, 11, 12, 16, and 21 (Hussain
et al. 2018).
26 TCF (Trillion Cubic Feet) of the gas reserve has been discovered in Bangladesh. About 1 TCF
of gas was recorded in offshore gas reserves where the drilling success ratio is also less attractive
(9:1) compared to onshore (3:1) (Hossain et al. 2014). 0.8 TCF gas in the Sangu reserves has already
depleted. 0.04 TCF gas reserves in the Kutubdia reserves are yet to be established. To generate
commercial quantities of hydrocarbons, the Magnama (3.5 TCF) and Hatia (1.0 TCF) fields must be
drilled.
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Bangladesh needs to explore the gas and oil fields (Alam, 2013). More extensive research,
drilling rigs, specialized support ships, platform building, production, and exploitation is required.
Downstream activities include refining and distribution to consumer markets.
6.15.2 Mineral Resources
The world is trying to explore and exploit mineral deposits (for example, cobalt, copper, and zinc) on
and beneath the seafloor. The ocean floors may contain 5% of the world’s minerals, such as cobalt,
copper, and zinc. By 2020, 5% of the world’s minerals will have made their way to the ocean floor,
with the number increasing to 10% by 2030. In the next ten years, global annual mineral mining is
projected to rise from virtually nothing to €5 billion, and then to €10 billion by 2030.
Polymetallic nodules, cobalt crusts, massive sulfide deposits, yttrium, dysprosium, and terbium
are important in renewable energy systems and new ICT hardware due to increasing product prices
in industries. The International Seabed Authority Initiated Mining Code regulates and licenses
bodies to mine in the international sea bed. Coastal countries like Bangladesh need to prepare to
explore ocean resources to the best of their abilities from the EEZ.
Bangladesh has the prospect of finding valuable heavy minerals from Patenga to the Teknaf belt
(250 km) (Table 6.5). According to the Beach Sand Exploration Center, 17 deposits discovered in
this belt enriched with minerals like zircon, rutile, ilmenite, leucoxene, kyanite, garnet, magnetite,
and monazite can be useful (Alam, 2004). Extraction in the right way and management of minerals
will promote different industries (for example, welding electrodes, glass, paper, and ceramics) and
will provide a large number of job prospects for the local population (Alam, 2004).
Mineral extraction and commercialization from beach sand may boost the growth of a variety of
industries (such as welding electrodes, glass, paper, and ceramics) and create huge job opportunities
for local communities (Alam, 2004).
6.16 MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGY

The demand for renewable energy is expected to increase two and a half times by 2035 all over the
world. Renewable energy enjoys an almost 22% share of the global energy mix. There are several
TABLE 6.5
Heavy Mineral Reserves are Located in Deposits Along Bangladesh’s Coastal Belt
Name of the sites

Reserve of minerals Cox’s
(in MT) Badarmokam Sabrang Teknaf Sikhali Inani bazar Kuakata
Crude sand 1765000 347556 1939580 2759828 729286 5119000 2872486
Heavy minerals 411000 68582 442291 489714 175476 920000 831668
Zircon 4932 4184 38306 33300 10880 23000 9647
Rutile 3288 1372 13230 10744 4036 6440 3911
Ilmenite 94530 19614 163170 173360 53170 161000 76015
Leucoxene 18002 3470 20124 10970 439 10488 9647
Kyanite * 727 14728 4407 1404 * 16800
Monazite 4932 206 3045 3918 965 2024 83.2
Magnetite 10275 1001 7209 3085 5545 33214 4325
Garnet * 3018 22424 39422 12810 50229 52229
Source: Modified after Alam (2004).
* Not estimated.
165
forms of marine renewable energy: (1) offshore solar energy, (2) offshore wind energy, (3) wave
energy, (4) tidal energy, (5) ocean thermal energy, (6) salinity gradient, (7) ocean current energy,
and (8) energy from marine biomass. In both onshore and offshore islands, marine-based renew-
able energy may provide an alternate source of electric power for homestead houses, small mills,
and factories. It also provides a strong source of income for coastal communities that depend on
fishing.
Globally speaking, offshore wind energy (electricity generation) is the most advanced ocean-
based energy source. Global installed capacity was slightly over 6 GW in 2012; however, this is
predicted to quadruple by 2014 and, according to optimistic projections, might reach 175 GW by
2035. The growth from producing 7100 MW of electricity in 2013 to today is astounding at a rate
of 40% /year.
Bangladesh has huge potential for renewable energy. In the coastal region of Kutubdia,
Bangladesh, a wind generator with a capacity of 2 MW was constructed, but it is still inactive.
6.17 SEA SALT PRODUCTION

The salt reserves in the world’s oceans have already been measured at more than 50 million billion
tonnes, covering more than half of the world’s supply (Mannar, 1982). In Bangladesh, marine salt
production has been traditionally produced mostly in Cox’s Bazar coastal areas (Alam, 2014). Salt
can be generated in onshore areas such as Chakaria, Cox’s Bazar, Banshkhali, Teknaf, and off-
shore islands such as Moheshkhali, Kutubdia, and others. Salt farmers can produce about 20 tonnes/
ha during dry seasons. The average production of such crude salt is about 7000–10,000 kg/ha.
Production can be increased up to 20,000 kg/ha/season in these locations (Alam, 2014). The coastal
region of Cox’s Bazar produces 22 metric tonnes of salt per year, while Thailand’s Samut Sakhon
produces 43 metric tonnes (Hossain et al. 2006).
Traditionally, salt (NaCl) is produced by evaporating marine waters. Most salt farms are small-
scale and run with local machinery. The land is rented from local landowners or the government on
a yearly basis.
6.18 MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY
By 2020, the global demand for marine biotechnology goods will have grown from US$ 2.8 billion
to US$ 5 billion. Marine biotechnology produces pharmaceutical medicines, chemical materials,
enzymes, and other industrial products and processes. Biomaterials, health-care diagnostics, fish-
eries and aquaculture, seafood conservation, bioremediation, and biofuels all benefit from it (Thakur
and Thakur, 2006). Marine bio-resources like fish, algae, bacteria, invertebrates, and other marine
organisms are used to produce bio-products needed for the benefit of mankind.
Over 36 marine drugs were discovered in 2011, of which 15 were used for cancer treatment.
Yondelis was the first marine drug derived from small soft-bodied animals to fight cancer. Antiviral
drugs Zovirax and Acyclovir were discovered in sponges from the Caribbean. Marine biopros-
pecting detected over 14,000 novel chemicals in 2006, and 300 patents on marine natural products
were filed. The European Science Foundation assumes that a production volume of 20–80 thousand
liters of oil per hectare per year can be achieved from microalgal cultures, considerably higher than
terrestrial biofuel crops. Approximately 20% of all living marine species are screened for chemical
and medicinal purposes (Schlosser, 2013).
The future of marine biotechnology in Bangladesh looks bright. In the Bay of Bengal, a large
number of marine species remain untapped, with enormous potential for marine-based biotech-
nology products in the region. Biotechnology can create and produce new processes, products,
and services (Hossain et al. 2014). The economy of Bangladesh will be developed if marine bio-
resources can be turned into medicines, bioactive compounds, nutrient supplements, and food.
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6.19 CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION

The world’s biggest environmental or emissions trading market is the carbon market (Newell
et al. 2013). Carbon sequestration is a process of taking up CO2 over a long period by seaweeds,
mangrove forests, intertidal salt marshes, and seagrass beds. Seaweed is a powerful tool to miti-
gate carbon, hence reducing climate change (Bhuyan et al. 2022; Bhuyan et al. 2021). This
stored carbon is referred to as blue carbon since it offers carbon credit (Trumper et al. 2009;
Nellemann et al. 2009; Chowdhury et al. 2015). Carbon is the greenhouse gas responsible for cli-
mate change. Some effective measures such as solar panels, the California Climate Action Plan,
and the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement, were undertaken to reduce the human carbon footprint.
Carbon offsetting (credits for reducing, avoiding, or sequestering carbon) is widely considered
to be the most effective method for reducing climate change (van Kooten et al. 2004; Brotto and
Pettenella, 2018).
6.20 CHALLENGES TO THE BLUE ECONOMY IN BANGLADESH

Bangladesh should prepare a comprehensive strategy to explore and exploit ocean resources. It is
challenging to balance blue growth and conservation of the environment. The ocean’s resources
are valued at US$ 24 trillion, with a US$ 2.5 trillion annual value addition. It is believed that the
ocean will offer more economic benefits to ocean-based countries like Bangladesh. Despite having
a huge number of marine resources in the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh faces numerous obstacles to
developing its blue economy.
6.21 RESOLVING THE ISSUES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change worsens the overall situation. Livelihoods and food security are threatened.
Increasing population and less socio-economic development in the exposed zone would result
in a high-risk situation (IUCN, 2010). Bangladesh is a low-lying country most vulnerable to cli-
mate change. Huge property and crop damages as well as about 718,000 deaths took place because
of cyclones over the past 50 years (Haque et al. 2012). Moreover, potential fish production was
reduced by 10% in the Bay of Bengal. Sea level rise, ocean acidification, and changes in ecosystem
status occur because of changing temperatures. As a result, the ability of marine organisms to shape
and sustain shells and skeletons, to survive, grow, proliferate, and for their larvae to develop, was
harmed. Unfortunately, the long-term impacts of climate change on ocean systems are not yet fully
understood. Currently, no international mechanism to specifically address acidification exists and so
appropriate means need to be elaborated to enable coordinated international action.
6.22 MARKET GENERATION FOR BLUE CARBON

Long-term carbon sequestration by mangroves, seaweeds, salt marshes, and seagrass can mitigate
climate change and open a new window for carbon trading mechanisms. Carbon credits mechanisms
can be a great sector for reducing climate impacts. Coastal blue carbon (seagrass, mangroves, salt
marshes) is estimated to be worth about US$180 million in Europe (Luisetti et al. 2013). Other eco-
system services offered by these ecosystems, such as fisheries, can also be protected and capitalized
on with such financial incentives for blue carbon. Beyond the immediate carbon sequestration
benefits, there would be long-term benefits. For example, hundreds of thousands of dollars per hec-
tare is the value of ecosystem services offered by mangroves and tidal marshes. The blue economy
strategy would put policies, regulations, infrastructure, and incentives in place to make the transition
to a low-carbon economy as smooth as possible. Andrew et al. (2019) proposed a blue carbon frame-
work for the successful utilization of blue carbon (Figure 6.10).
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Blue Carbon
Mechanism to move to low Mechanism to create economic Component of a broader set of

carbon economies value ecosystem services
National carbon Formulation of carbon as Vegetated coastal

inventories, in which Blue a commodity that can be ecosystems, which has
Carbon is an emerging bought and sold value that might or might
component that can not be transformed into
assist countries to meet units of currency
their National Determined
Contributions
Market-based mechanisms Creation of wider set of

that allow industries to livelihood options,
offset carbon emissions as particularly in developing
a way to achieve carbon countries
neutrality
FIGURE 6.10 Function of Blue Carbon (Andrew et al. 2019).
6.23 CREATING AWARENESS
The creation of awareness of the ‘blue economy’ among the general population is urgent. This issue
in Bangladesh has been confined largely to intellectuals and interested people. Media coverage (for
example, Television, Radio, Newspaper, and the like) are essential to transforming our people into
a more maritime-oriented nation.
6.24 THE GENERATION OF JOBS

Employment generation is a great challenge for Bangladesh. There are jobs linked to the creation
of the latest maritime sectors. The generation of new sectors linked to research and innovation (for
example, minerals exploration, mariculture, and the like). Some sectors need careful attention if they
are to develop (for example, tourism). A successful blue economy will generate a great number of
jobs for the coastal people (Table 6.6).
6.25 BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION

The biodiversity of the marine ecosystem is being degraded and this has significant effects on
livelihoods. Around 20% of the world’s coral reefs have been destroyed, and another 20% are
being degraded, according to estimates. 30–50% of mangrove cover has been reduced while 29%
of the seagrass ecosystem has been extinct since the late 1800s. In Bangladesh, corals, seaweeds,
mangroves, seagrass, salt marshes, and fish are being reduced day by day. To restore biodiversity in
the Bay of Bengal, an ecosystem approach is needed.
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TABLE 6.6
Overview of Forecasts of Industry-Specific Value Added and Job Growth Rates for 2010
and 2030
Compound Annual Total Change in Total change in

Growth Rate for GVA GVA Between employment between
Industry between 2010 and 2030 2010 and 2030 2010 and 2030
Industrial marine aquaculture 5.69% 303% 152%

Industrial capture fisheries 4.10% 223% 94%
Fish processing 6.26% 337% 206%
Maritime and coastal tourism 3.51 % 199% 122%
Offshore oil and gas 1.17% 126% 126%
Offshore wind 24.52% 8 037% 1 257%
Port activities 4.58% 245% 245%
Shipbuilding and repair 2.93% 178% 124%
Maritime equipment 2.93% 178% 124%
Shipping 1.80% 143% 130%
Average of the total ocean-based industries 3.45% 197 130
Global economy between 2010 and 2030 3.64% 204 120
Source: OECD, 2016.
6.26 THE UNSUSTAINABLE EXTRACTION OF MARINE RESOURCES

In Bangladesh, the traditional fishing boat can fish up to 60 meters. This causes depletion of fish
stock in inland and shallow marine water by overexploitation and unsustainable fishing practices
(use of destructive and illegal gear) (BOBLME, 2012). Piracy by domestic and international crim-
inal gangs is also a factor in the decline of fish stocks. Underexploited or moderately exploited
marine fish stocks are believed to have decreased from 40% in the mid-1970s to 15% in 2008
whereas stocks that have been exhausted or are recovering have risen from 10% in 1974 to 32% in
2008. The annual loss of overfishing is projected to be in the region of US$ 50 billion. Around 57%
of fish populations are completely exploited as a result of technological advancements, while the
remaining 30% are overexploited, declining, or recovering (FAO, 2016). The fish stock is also being
depleted by IUU fishing, responsible for fish catches ranging from 11 to 26 million tonnes per year.
6.27 ENSURING FOOD SECURITY

The world’s population will be 900 cores by 2050 and this huge amount will be fed largely from the
sea (Bhuyan et al. 2020). In developing countries, about 1 billion people rely on seafood as a source
of protein. Food security is strongly related to the sustainable use of biodiversity. Mariculture can be
a good sector of the blue economy since it provides food for the people. In Bangladesh, mariculture
is being done on small scale, but it needs to expand industrially.
6.28 THE DESTRUCTION OF MARINE AND COASTAL HABITATS

Cutting down plants along the coast and uprooted submerged plants causes damage to marine and
coastal habitats. Erosion is also responsible for the destruction of coastal infrastructure and hence
affects coastal livelihoods. Haphazard development along the coastal area increased externalities in
different industries, infrastructure placement that isn’t ideal, conflicting ground and sea-based uses,
169
the demonization of poor communities, and sensitive ecosystems are being destroyed or degraded.
Habitat degradation leads to the destruction of marine biodiversity.
6.29 GREENING OF THE COASTAL BELT

Coastal belt greening is very important to reduce the wind pressure of cyclones. It also solidifies new
lands along the coast. Bangladesh has already started working on the coastal belt greening which
will help sustainable agriculture, and river courses. It will also help to prevent saline water intrusion.
6.30 MARINE POLLUTION REDUCTION

Anthropogenic causes (the growing human population, intensification of agriculture and the rapid
urbanization of coastal areas, sewage, siltation, turbidity, oil spills, maritime shipping, submarine
hydrocarbon/mineral exploration and extraction, and so forth.) are responsible for marine pollution.
Marine pollutants can be categorized as liquids, metals, gaseous, solids, or harmful microbes
(BOBLME, 2011). Marine pollution led to the destruction of marine habitats and damage to marine
organisms (Hossain et al. 2014). There are some regulations to stop marine pollution in Bangladesh,
but these are outdated and ineffective.
6.31 CONFLICT MINIMIZATION AMONG USERS (COASTAL AND MARINE)

Conflicts between the ocean and the coastal resource user are a common phenomenon. In the past
conflict was reported between the agricultural sector and the shrimp farming sector. Saline water
enters agricultural land when it is converted to shrimp farming. Chakaria Sundarban contained large
Mangrove forests but was converted to shrimp farming because of huge potential profits (Iftekhar,
2006). This created significant environmental damage. Further, agricultural fields were converted
for salt production. The Government is planning to build a seaport for blue economy development,
and it is also attempting oil and gas exploration, to develop fisheries, tourism, and other ocean-based
activities. These will also potentially create conflicts amongst the users.
6.32 MARITIME SPATIAL PLANNING (MSP)

Maritime spatial planning is a very important tool or mechanism for the effective management of
ocean resources. MSP recognizes which part would be suitable for mariculture, which part is suit-
able for port development, and so forth. It would reduce the conflicts among users once developed.
MSP identifies that the ocean is the driver of blue economic development with blue growth and
innovation. But it is very challenging for countries like Bangladesh. Recently, Bangladesh has been
attempting to develop MSP. In-depth knowledge of the marine environment is a prerequisite for
successful MSP development. It will give a clear idea of how maritime activities impact each other
and the environment.
6.33 MARITIME SECURITY
Maritime security is very important for successful blue economic development. Each sovereign
country is liable for its marine resource uses and sustainable development. Without sovereignty
over the entire coastal and marine areas, it will be difficult to use marine resources. The activities of
pirates will increase in the oceanic region. For Bangladesh, it is challenging to maintain safety over
the commercial coastal area of this Asian nation. Bangladesh needs to be more careful and tactful
about maritime security.
170
6.34 SKILLED MANPOWER
Bangladesh faces difficulties with expert personnel in the blue economy sectors. There is a lack of
knowledge, expert human resources, and technology that is not yet available to explore and exploit
deep-sea fish and seabed resources. A group of experts on blue technology is required for maximum
benefits from the blue economy.
6.35 OCEAN GOVERNANCE AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Structured foreign/international cooperation supports all facets of the blue economy. Updating and
advancing governance structures to ensure the sustainable development of waters outside national
control (for example, maritime protection, high seas MPAs, sustainable fisheries, and the exploit-
ation of petroleum and minerals) or to support the efficient management and use of national EEZs
(for example, technology transfer, technical assistance, and marine spatial planning), capacity
building, funding for the promotion of national marine spatial planning and efficient tracking, con-
trol, and surveillance. The Economist Intelligence Unit (2015) has prepared a database of ocean-
based countries regarding their performance in coastal governance (Figure 6.11). Research is
considered to be an essential feature of international cooperation in the blue economy approach.
The scientific approach is vital for the sustainable development of the blue economy. The initial
assessment and the critical valuation of blue capital will begin. This will provide a foundation for
up-to-date decision-making and adaptive governance. In line with changing circumstances, emer-
ging technology, and our growing awareness, this major undertaking must be tackled and constantly
refined, and upgraded for the blue economy approach to be developed. This emphasizes the signifi-
cance of technical support, the transfer of technology, and capacity building in the pursuit of
sustainable growth.
FIGURE 6.11 Countries in the Coastal Governance Index, 2019: overall performance (The Economist
Intelligence Unit).
171
6.36 A STRONG MARINE POLICY FORMULATION

A strong marine policy is key for successful blue economic development. The lack of proper policy
and marine experts at policy-making levels, ministerial levels, and national organizations means
that the department is regarded as a hindrance to the implementation of many issues related to the
development of marine sectors in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, there is not enough concentration
on integrated coastal management and ocean governance policy. Bangladesh is currently following
scattered laws, regulations, and policy statements for maritime management. UNCLOS 1982,
FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, 1995, United Nations Fish Stock Agreement,
Ramsar Agreement on Wetland issues, Convention on Biological Diversity 1992, and Paris Climate
Agreement of 2015 are notable (Rahman et al. 2017). Most of them are fit for the international
arena but are not suitable for national legislation, laws, and policymaking processes. As a result,
several initiatives are slow to materialize. Bangladesh should adopt a strong and comprehensive
maritime strategy concentrating on maritime safety, pollution, resource protection, research, and the
technology transfer issue. Bangladesh must follow the existing international laws and policies (for
example, UNCLOS, 1982) during the drafting of its national marine policy (Bhuiyan, 2014). It is
high time for Bangladesh to adopt and implement policies along with maritime technical develop-
ment and research capacity. Without a strong maritime policy, Bangladesh will not be able to get full
benefits from the blue economy.
6.37 RISKS/THREATS TO A BLUE ECONOMY

The blue economy faced lots of threats in its route towards successful execution. These risk factors
can hamper the ultimate goals of the blue economy. The overall risk is depicted in Figure 6.12.
6.38 THE TENDENCY FOR ILLEGAL FISHING OR OVERFISHING

Illegal fishing or overfishing is a great threat to the blue economy. It depletes the fish stock from
the ocean which is difficult to recover. These types of fishing reduce not only the fish but also destroy
the other organisms (by-catch) essential for the marine ecosystem. Consequently, it abolishes
a valuable source of food and income for coastal people. About US$ 50 billion is lost per annum
due to overfishing. Illegal fishing is a risk to the sustainability of fisheries (FAO, 2014). Increasing
Political and Social and Environmental Technological

Economics risks
legal risks cultural risks risks risks
•Conflict •Social •Recession •Underwater •Manpower
between awareness •Depression earthquake •Training and
countries •Social unrest •Marketing •Tsunamis knowledge
•Government •Language and policy •Cyclones •Technological
types cultural barriers •Government •Water and air change
•Government and subsidy pollution •Technology
foreign rules and •Service •Climate change transfer
regulations •Operation and
•Inflation •Oil spill
•Contact maintenance
•Tariffs •Gas leaks
violation •Research and
•Import or export •Flooding
development
•Government •Disposal
restriction •Obsolete
•Safety issues
technology
•Dumping
•Ignorance
FIGURE 6.12 Risk and uncertainty associated with blue economy (Hossain, 2020).
172
world populations pressurize fish production. Global fish production is growing at a 3.2% annual
rate, surpassing the global population growth of 1.6% (FAO, 2014).
6.39 THE INCREASING TREND OF MARINE POLLUTION

Marine pollution originates from land-based and marine sources, creating adverse conditions for
marine life and human beings as well (Figure 6.13). Pollution is destroying the marine ecosystem,
and, hence threatening marine species. Marine pollution is increasing at an unprecedented rate. This
increasing trend is in opposition to sustainable blue economic growth.
6.40 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT

Climate is changing now, due mostly to anthropogenic causes, posing a threat to marine animals
and humans. The ocean has been warmed during the period from 1971 to 2010 at an average rate
of >0.1°C per decade in the upper 75 m of the water column and 0.015°C per decade at a depth of
700 m. As a result, there is glacial melting and rising sea levels (Rhein et al. 2013). The ocean is
becoming more acidic due to the increasing pattern of CO2 emissions from man-made sources (for
example, industrialization). Acidification of the ocean is considered to be one of the key drivers of
oceanophysical and biological changes.
Ocean acidification can cause decreased calcification, slower repair rates, and damaged calcified
systems in most marine species (Kroeker et al. 2013). Moreover, reproductive success, early life-
stage survival, feeding rate, and stress-response mechanisms can be affected by the acidification
phenomenon (Pörtner et al. 2014).
FIGURE 6.13 Possible impacts of marine pollution in the environment.

173
6.41 THE DESTRUCTION OF NURSERY, BREEDING, AND FEEDING HABITATS

Coastal development, industrialization, trawling, and aquaculture risk the destruction of suitable
nursery, breeding, and feeding habitats. As a result, ocean productivity is being reduced gradually.
Ocean productivity is also being harmed because of ocean stratification and reduced nutrient mixing
in the open seas. The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and LME assessments forecast
(2040-2060) a consistent drop in ocean productivity. This poses a threat to the marine environment
because animals will perish.
6.42 HYPOXIC OCEAN WATER

Oxygen-depleted water has an impact on pelagic and benthic marine organisms and their physio-
logical performance and distribution are affected by the hypoxic condition (Pörtner, 2010). Large,
mobile, and more active fish would face a greater survival challenge than small ones. There are
social and economic effects of coastal hypoxia on coastal areas, including loss of tourism due to
restrictions on swimming and boating, beach closures, public health issues, and fish and shellfish
consumption, all of which have adverse impacts on estuarine and coastal fishery resources.
6.43 THE REDUCTION OF OFFSHORE ENERGY PRODUCTION RISK

Bangladesh needs to produce offshore energy for blue economic development. But it is risky work
for the marine environment. Off-shore drilling has some negative environmental impacts. Whale
beaching is a result of explosive charges and sounds from seismic operations, which can affect
dolphins’ and other marine mammals’ ears. During tanker transportation, oil spills occur. Pollutants
and radioactive elements are brought up from deep earth during drilling and cutting mud. Off-shore
drilling requires natural gas and burns off the gas that appears to prevent any hazardous conditions.
Offshore drilling operations are expensive and environmentally sensitive processes that require
terminals and shipyards which also pose a risk to the marine environment.
6.44 SHIPPING EMITS AND DISCHARGES POLLUTANTS

Shipping has an impact on the environment, whether at sea or in port. The harmful effects on the
ecosystem of the oceans have been known for decades. Ships emit SOx about 8% annually, while
global NOx emissions accounted for 15% (Islam, 2018). Around 1 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions
per year have been attributed to the global shipping industry. CO2 alone accounts for 3% of the
world’s overall Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. Global temperatures have therefore risen by
around 0.8°C since 1880, as stated by the Goddard Center for Space Studies of NASA (GISS)
(Islam, 2018). Ships discharge oil and chemicals, ballast water, bilge water, sewage and garbage,
and antifouling agents in the seawater. Then these pollutants sink and become permanent in the
ocean water and are responsible for huge environmental pollution and biodiversity degradation
(Saha and Alam, 2018). Ships discharge oil and contaminants into the seawater, ballast water, bilge
water, sewage and waste, and antifouling agents (Figure 6.14). These contaminants then sink and are
irreversibly in ocean water, responsible for immense environmental contamination and the destruc-
tion of biodiversity (Saha and Alam, 2018).
6.45 ENSURING MARITIME SURVEILLANCE

Maritime security is required for the increasing number of both legal and illegal activities at sea.
Maritime safety and security must be strict for marine environmental protection, piracy control,
fisheries control, trade, and economic interest. In Bangladesh, densely populated coastal cities are
174
FIGURE 6.14 Pollutants emit and discharge from ships.
working as a hub for terrorism. The networking between organized criminals and terrorists with
transnational capabilities poses maritime security threats. Moreover, the Bay of Bengal remains very
rough for almost nine months in a year causing a threat to maritime security.
6.46 RISKS AT WORKING SITES

People are suffering in the workplace, sometimes they get injured working in shipping lines
and related terminals, yards, and so forth. Lack of protective clothing and training in hand-
ling equipment causes accidents. At ship recycling or ship breaking yards, workers become
affected by various chronic diseases. Sometimes the workers get injured on the working sites
(Onselen, 2018).
6.47 ACCIDENTAL OIL TANKER SPILL

Oil tanker accidents can be disastrously damaging to the surrounding environment. The effects of
oil pollution are even more severe when tanks explode along the shore/coast (Khondaker, 1998).
Worldwide oil tanker explosions are a common phenomenon. The global accidental oil spill trend is
presented in the following Figure 6.15.
In Bangladesh, oil spill risk is associated with oil transportation during regular oil tanker
movements. About 20 crude oil carriers and 80 product carriers call at Chittagong Port every year.
Chittagong Port handles approximately 1200 international ships on an annual basis and more than
400 ships call at Mongla Port each year.
The causes of oil tanker accidents are mechanical failures and human negligence or errors.
Moreover, collision, allision, grounding, fire on board, or explosion resulting from flammable gas
are also responsible for oil tanker accidents, and oil spill incidents.
A large oil spill took place back in 1989. MT Filothei, an old Cypriot vessel arrived at the outer
anchorage of Chittagong Port fully loaded with crude oil imported for Eastern Refinery Limited.
Another oil tanker accident took place in May 1998.
175
FIGURE 6.15 Global accidental oil spill trend (ITOPF, 2020).
6.48 KARNAPHULI OIL SPILL

An oil tanker leaving for Khulna Desh-1 collided with City-38, a vegetable oil tanker, carrying
1200 tonnes of diesel. On Saturday, October 26th, 2019, it was anchored at Karnaphuli River’s
Padma Jetty.
6.49 SUNDARBANS OIL SPILL

On December 9, 2014, an oil spill occurred in the Sundarbans (a UNESCO World Heritage site) at
the Shela River. An oil tanker, named Southern Star VII that was carrying 350,000 litres (77,000 imp
gal; 92,000 US gal) of furnace oil collided with a cargo vessel and sank in the river. The oil had
spread out over a 350 km2 (140 sq mi) area including a second river, canals, and shoreline.
A clear picture of the top 20 major oil spills around the world is given in Table 6.7.
The spills have devastating effects on trees, plankton, fisheries, agricultural resources, and
dolphins. Highly toxic spilt oil is responsible for the death of phytoplankton and zooplankton (pri-
mary producers of the marine ecosystem). This results in the destruction of the food chain in that
area. Marine mammals and seabirds are particularly vulnerable to spilt oil.
6.50 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PATHWAYS

Sustainable development is the guiding principle for achieving the objectives of human develop-
ment while retaining the capacity of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem
services on which the economy and community depend (Figure 6.16). A state of society is needed
in which living standards and the utilization of resources continue to meet human needs whilst
considering the marine environment. An integral and vital part of sustainable development is the
oceans, seas, and coastal areas. Oceans and seas account for 80% of all life forms and 90% of
global trade is sea-borne. More than 3 billion people rely for their livelihoods on marine and coastal
resources. Due to the massive facilities, 13 of the world’s 20 megacities are along the coastline.
Despite having a wide range of valuable uses, ocean resources should be extracted sustainably.
176
TABLE 6.7
Top 20 Major Oil Spills around the Globe
Position Ship Name Year Location Spill Size (tonnes)
1 Atlantic Empress 1979 Off Tobago, West Indies 287,000

2 Abt Summer 1991 700 nautical miles off Angola 260,000
3 Castillo De Bellver 1983 Off Saldanha Bay, South Africa 252,000
4 Amoco Cadiz 1978 Off Brittany, France 223,000
5 Haven 1991 Genoa, Italy 144,000
6 Odyssey 1988 700 miles off the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada 132,000
7 Torrey Canyon 1967 Scilly Isles, UK 119,000
8 Sea Star 1972 Gulf of Oman 115,000
9 Sanchi 2018 Off Shanghai, China 113,000
10 Irenes Serenade 1980 Navarino Bay, Greece 100,000
11 Urquiola 1976 La Coruna, Spain 100,000
12 Hawaiian Patriot 1977 300 nautical miles off Honolulu 95,000
13 Independenta 1979 Bosphorus, Turkey 94,000
14 Jakob Maersk 1975 Oporto, Portugal 88,000
15 Braer 1993 Shetland Islands, UK 85,000
16 Aegean Sea 1992 La Coruna, Spain 74,000
17 Sea Empress 1996 Milford Haven, UK 72000
18 Khark 5 1989 120 nautical miles off Morocco’s Atlantic coast 70,000
19 Nova 1985 Off Kharg Island, Gulf of Iran 70,000
20 Katina P 1992 Off Maputo, Mozambique 67,000
Source: ITOPF, 2020.
6.51 INITIATIVES ADOPTED BY BANGLADESH FOR SUSTAINABLE MARITIME

DEVELOPMENT
It is high time for Bangladesh to achieve unparalleled economic growth and phenomenal growth in
regional connectivity, seaports, coastal manufacturing, offshore oil and gas production, special eco-
nomic zones, and energy clusters. Different factors are responsible for a sustainable blue economy in
Bangladesh (Figure 6.17). The Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 is a big blue economy project focusing
on long-term delta management, integrated management of water resources, long-term land rec-
lamation, climate change adaptation, and so forth. Besides, Vision 2041, a long-term strategy for
a developed Bangladesh, has established the blue economy as one of the main drivers of sustain-
able growth. Besides, the goals of SDG 2030, particularly SDG Target 14 are being introduced with
various maritime growth agendas in Bangladesh. To ensure that both government and private sector
maritime stakeholders in the country are properly organized in their blue economy activities, the gov-
ernment has created an autonomous blue economy cell. Bangladesh established a Maritime Affairs
Unit to increase international cooperation for the blue economic growth of Bangladesh. Bangabandhu
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Maritime University, Bangladesh Oceanographic Research Institute, and
Marine and Technology Station of Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI) were established
for higher ocean education and research. There are various public and private universities, academies/
departments, and departments that teach marine and oceanography-related subjects.
Three voluntary commitments were made in New York by Bangladesh at the UN Ocean Conference
in June 2017. Firstly, 5% of marine areas should be designated as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) of
around 7,500 sq km by 2020 (Target 14.2). The percentage of marine protected areas as a percentage
of the total territorial waters in South Asia is shown in Figure 6.18. The Sundarbans, the world’s
177
Agenda setting,
awareness, and • Step1
sensitisation
Planning and
preparation of
Blue Economy • Step 2
policy
Building national
ownership of the
policy formulation
process
Sector
identification • Step 4
and prioritisation
Designing the
policy
Policy
Implementation • Step 6
Monitoring
and • Step 7
Evaluation
FIGURE 6.16 Flowchart of working process to activate sustainable blue economy.
Good
Governance
Institutional
and Resource
Regulatory Management
Reforms
Sustainable
blue
economy
Monitoring
Technology &
Surveillance
FIGURE 6.17 Factors governing success of blue economy.

178
FIGURE 6.18 Marine protected areas (%) of total territorial waters in South Asia (OECD).
largest mangrove ecosystem, has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Secondly, IUU
fishing and harmful fishing activities in marine areas should be effectively controlled (Target 14.4).
The third promise is to avoid and significantly reduce all kinds of marine pollution, particularly
pollution from land-based sources (Target 14.1). The establishment of collaborations with companies
and international institutes, but also at the national level, will promote research in the field of
marine aquaculture for the advancement of projects.
Both types of fish are prohibited from being fished for 65 days, and juvenile Hilsa fish is prohibited
from being fished for 8 months if specimens are less than 25 cm long, a 22-day fishing ban for large
Hilsa fish, and a complete ban on destructive fishing activities in the Bangladesh Maritime Region
(Islam and Shamsuddoha, 2018). In 2012, Bangladesh announced the first MPA-SONG in the world
under the Wild Conservation Act. In addition, the IUCN established and published a proposal for the
establishment of MPAs in Bangladesh in 2015, which proposed a total of 67 MPA declaration sites,
including St. Martin Island and Nijhum Dip (Karim and Uddin, 2019). The South Patch has already
been declared a marine reserve by the Fisheries Department and the Sundarbans have been declared
an ECA by the Ministry of the Environment.
6.52 INITIATIVES TAKEN BY THE OCEAN-BASED COUNTRIES

A scientific approach is needed for blue economic development that emphasizes the appropriate
conservation and sustainable management of marine resources (living and non-living). Fisheries and
aquatic plants are living resources, while non-living resources are made up of minerals, oil, and gas.
The identification and use of new and existing resources, international cooperation, successful ocean
governance, and management of ocean and coastal resources are all needed.
Different ocean-based countries already passed National Ocean Acts15 while some of the coun-
tries have made special budgetary provisions for the blue economy. Australia, Brazil, Canada, China,
Colombia, Japan, Norway, Portugal, Russia, United Kingdom, and the USA already formulated
179
National Ocean Policy. USA, Canada, and Australia have special legislation and specific provisions
for ocean policy in their national budgets. Canada and Australia established a systematic hierarchy
of institutions at federal and state levels to plan, coordinate and monitor progress on the various
pillars of ocean policy. In Canada, three different layers of institutions comprising the National
Ocean Act, the Ocean Strategy, and the Ocean Action Plan govern the development, management,
and governance of ocean resources (Mohanty et al. 2017).
At the federal and state levels, Canada and Australia have formed a systematic hierarchy of
institutions to prepare, organize and track progress on the different pillars of ocean policy. In
Canada, the growth, management, and governance of ocean resources are governed by three dis-
tinct layers of institutions comprised of the National Ocean Act, Ocean Policy, and the Ocean
Action Plan. Likewise, coastal and marine issues are handled by a multi-layer institutional frame-
work consisting of Ocean Policy, Regional Maritime Strategies, Integrated Ocean Planning and
Management, the Minister for the Environment and Heritage, the National Advisory Council, and
others (Repetto, 2005).
Seychelles and Mauritius have established separate ministries for the blue economy. For
example, the Government of Mauritius formulated a Roadmap for Ocean Economy in 2013 which
included diverse objectives, action plans, and mutual-reinforcing sectoral components. In 2009,
the Government of Australia launched a Strategic National Framework for Marine Research
and Innovation (Mohanty et al. 2017). In Europe, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Norway are
quite successful in implementing their blue economy policies. Following their success, Ireland
introduced a Marine Knowledge, Research, and Innovation Strategy in 2006 for the period 2007
-13 which aimed at policy measures to promote blue economy sectors in the Irish economy. The
CARIFORUM-EU Economic Partnership Agreement signed in 2008 encourages the importance
of fisheries and other living marine resources in the CARICOM member states and the Dominican
Republic. The Seychelles and Mauritius have set up separate blue economy ministries (Mohanty
et al. 2017). In 2013, for instance, the Government of Mauritius developed a roadmap for the ocean
economy that included different goals, action plans, and sectoral components of mutual reinforce-
ment. A Comprehensive National Framework for Marine Exploration and Innovation was initiated
by the Government of Australia in 2009. The Netherlands, Denmark, and Norway have been very
active in the introduction of blue-economy policies in Europe. Following their performance, in
2006, Ireland launched a Marine Awareness, Research, and Innovation Plan for the period 2007-13,
aimed at promoting the blue economy sectors in the Irish economy through policy initiatives. The
Economic Partnership Agreement between CARIFORUM and the EU, signed in 2008, promotes
the value of fisheries and other living marine resources in the Member States of CARICOM and
the Dominican Republic. Similarly, the Temporary Cooperation Agreement between the European
Community and the Pacific States includes clauses on trade in fishery products that are derogated
directly from the Rules of Origin (Mohanty et al. 2017).
Regional research and networking projects, such as the EU Joint Programming Initiative for
Safe and Sustainable Seas and Oceans (JPI-OCEANS), the European Marine Biological Resource
Centre (EMBRC), CSA MarineBiotech, the European Research Area Network (ERA-NET), the
Association of European Marine Biological Laboratories (ASSEMBLE) and others, are intended to
establish popular research.
Trans-regional projects such as the Mediterranean Science Commission (CIESM), the Sustainable
Use of Baltic Marine Resources Program (SUBMARINER), and the BioMarine Program are
intended to contribute to the promotion of marine biotechnology research and applications. To
build capacity and promote innovation in the core industries and sectors of the blue economy, these
national and regional initiatives are important. Bangladesh established the Maritime Affairs Unit at
MOFA, for exploring international cooperation for maritime development.
180
TABLE 6.8
Real GDP Growth in South Asia
Country Name 2018 (%) 2019 (e) (%) 2020 (f) (%) 2021(f) (%)
Afghanistan (CY) 1.8 2.5 3.0 3.5

Bangladesh (FY) 7.9 8.1 7.2 7.3
Bhutan (FY) 4.6 5.0 7.4 5.9
India (FY) 6.8 6.0 6.9 7.2
Maldives (CY) 6.7 5.2 5.5 5.6
Nepal (FY) 6.7 7.1 6.4 6.5
Pakistan (FY and factor price) 5.5 3.3 2.4 3.0
Sri Lanka (CY) 3.2 2.7 3.3 3.7
Source: GDP: gross domestic product, CY: calendar year, FY: fiscal year, e: estimate, f: forecast; in Bangladesh, Bhutan,
Nepal and Pakistan, 2019 refers to FY2018/2019 and ended in June 2019. For India, 2019 refers to FY2019/2020
and will end in March 2020 (World Bank, 2019).
6.53 PARTNER AGENCIES WORKING ON BLUE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

WORLDWIDE
Potential Partner Agencies and Processes include AIMS, AOSIS, CARICOM, Convention on Biological
Diversity, Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, Convention on Migratory Species,
Indian Ocean Commission, Commonwealth Secretariat, Duke University USA, GLISPA, Global
Ocean Acidification Observing Network, Global Ocean Commission (GOC), Global Ocean Forum,
the IOC/UNESCO Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), World Bank (IBRD), International
Maritime Organisation, International Seabed Authority, IOR-ARC, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration USA, Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre, Ocean Acidification
International Reference User Group, Plymouth Marine Laboratory UK, Regional Seas Programmes,
RFMOs, SPREP, UNDESA, UNDOALOS (UNCLOS), UNDP, UNEP, UNESCO’s Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission, UNFAO, UNIDO, UNWTO, World Ocean Council. CBD Sustainable
Oceans Initiative, UNEP Green Economy Initiative, European Project on Ocean Acidification.
6.54 GDP IN SOUTH ASIA

South Asian countries are showing growth in their GDPs. In the case of Bangladesh, GDP was
7.9% in 2018 while it reached 7.3% in 2021 (Table 6.8). Bangladesh can make significant growth
in GDP using ocean resources. Some recommendations are provided for sustainable use of the blue
economy, hence the growth of national GDP.
6.55 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE BLUE ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT
A successful blue economy needs a collaborative effort between oceanographers, engineers,
navigators, merchant mariners, fisheries technologists, biologists, biotechnologists, and so forth.
Since Bangladesh acts as a central cohesive source of support for the economic hub connecting
inter-Asian states, it is necessary to formulate blue economy strategies carefully. A comprehen-
sive blue economy framework has been proposed for Bangladesh’s sustainable extraction of blue
resources (Figure 6.19). The blue economy initiative specifically aims to increase job opportunities
in the short, medium, and long-term time frames. The government should emphasize coastal poverty
reduction in the Bay of Bengal by developing a good policy and action plan. The following policy
recommendations are needed for successful blue economy execution.
181
Blue Economy
Sectors (Existing & Emerging)
National governance framework
International & regional governance

framework
Global dynamics
Environmental Economic Social

sustainability sustainability sustainability
FIGURE 6.19 Proposed blue economy framework for Bangladesh.
6.55.1 Overall Policy Recommendations

Blue economic risk can be reduced/minimized by following the prescribed recommendations. A trad-
itional risk management approach also proves useful in the minimization of threats (Figure 6.20).
6.55.2 Maritime Skills Development

Bangladesh should increase its marine educational institutions. Experts are needed in the field of
oceanography, marine dynamics, marine engineering, biotechnology, marine fisheries, marine trade,
offshore engineering, naval architectural engineering, marine geological aspects, the marine envir-
onment, ecosystem science, and so forth.
6.55.3 Expert Marine Panel

An expert panel from various fields (marine biologists, fisheries and aquaculture specialists, marine
trade experts, and economists) can be engaged in tracking and assessing a proposed project. They
will provide technical and other assistance. Without the approval of the expert group, no project
work should be undertaken.
6.55.4 Marine Research Organizations

Pure marine research-based organizations must be established with up-to-date modern technologies
(for example, deep-sea research vessels, underwater cameras, and the like).
6.55.5 Marine Spatial Planning (MSP)

Marine Spatial Planning is an important tool for Bangladesh to manage and use blue economy
resources sustainably. An effective MSP is a prerequisite to ensuring a stabilized and sustainable
blue economy in any ocean-based country through policy and legal protection, despite the many
challenges.
182
Establish the Context

Understand important social and ecological components of the system.
Bound scale and select the units.
Monitoring the social and ecological outcomes of decisions made.

Incorporate interdisciplinary expertise and stakeholders in the process.
Risk Assessment
Communication and Consultation
Risk Identification
Identify social and biophysical drivers of risks. Involve
Monitoring and Review

stakeholders throughout the process.
Risk Analysis
Examine social and ecological impacts using qualitative and
quantitative approaches. Integrate perceptions as data.
Risk Evaluation
Evaluate potential responses including trade-offs.
Risk Treatment
Decide on intervention as a multi-stakeholder group.
FIGURE 6.20 The traditional risk management approach was adapted from ISO Risk Assessment Principles
(ISO, 2009). The italicized text refers to the forms in which this work’s ideas are translated into improvements
to the conventional method.
6.55.6 Comprehensive Ocean Policy

A comprehensive ocean policy based on a shared regional vision for integrated ocean planning
and management is needed. Bangladesh should design its foreign policy in such a way that it can
actively participate in regional and global forums or associations. The participation will help to ful-
fill its vision of the ‘blue economy’.
6.55.7 Ocean Governance
Investment is needed for the strong ocean governance that promotes a blue economy.
6.55.8 Scientific Review and Economic Analysis

Regular systematic scientific review and economic analysis should take place for a successful blue
economy.
6.55.9 Public–Private Partnership
The public-private partnership plays a key role in the sustainable blue economy to enhance capacity
building.
183
6.55.10 Identification of Priority Sectors

Priority sectors must be recognized based on domestic and global needs. Then research work must
be carried out on the identified sectors.
6.55.11 International Collaboration
Regional collaboration is needed for technical assistance, technology transfer, and capacity building.
Ocean resources management and exploration are highly dependent on this kind of cooperation.
The cooperative mechanism among members of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral
Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) can be developed to promote collaboration for
reaping the maximum benefit of the blue economy.
6.55.12 Maritime Security and Surveillance

Security is essential to protect the EEZ and high seas areas from international smugglers, trafficking
of drugs, humans, arms, fish pirates, and narco-terrorism. Maritime security is also needed to reduce
ocean-based crimes on the national border.
6.55.13 Environment and Biodiversity Protection

Marine resources exploration and exploitation should be executed in an environmentally eco-friendly
way. Marine ecological balanced must be ensured. The increasing temperature is responsible for
ocean acidification, coral bleaching, and loss of biodiversity. Mangroves, seaweed, and seagrass
have a great role in managing carbon emissions and hence can aid in climate change mitigation.
These resources must be protected. There is a need to protect the sea area to keep it free from both
marine and land-based pollution. Sustainable development can be achieved by protecting marine
biodiversity from possible threats (Figure 6.21).
6.55.14 Monitoring and Evaluation

A strong monitoring and evaluation committee should be formed for regular checking of the ongoing
blue economy activities. This committee would report on the progress and failure from time to time
to the relevant authorities.
6.55.15 Lessons from Successful Countries

Bangladesh can follow the successful blue economy countries reported by UNEP (2015). Bangladesh
can learn a lesson from these countries and can build its own expertise.
6.55.16 Sector-Wise Recommendations
Table 6.9 represent the sector-wise recommendations for the sustainable use of ocean resources.
6.56 NATIONAL POLICIES, ACTS, AND RULES ADOPTED BY BANGLADESH

The Bangladesh government adopted some legislation and regulatory frameworks for maritime and
ocean governance (Table 6.10). These are Territorial Water and Maritime Zones Act, Coastal Zone
Policy-2005, Coastal Development Strategy-2006, Port Act 2006, Arbitration Act 2016, Merchant
Ship Ordinance of 1983, Flag Ordinance Convention 1982, Inland Shipping Ordinance 1976,
184
Conservation and sustainable

use of marine biodiversity
Resilience to stressors
Increased Increased biomass Increased services
(e.g. Climate
biodiversity productivity provision
change, pollution)
Improved economic Better

Increased fisheries Unchanging natural
potential environmental
potential ecosystem
(biotech etc...) quality
Sustainable livelihoods
Alleviation of hunger Improved human
for coastal people
(food security) well-being
(eradication of poverty)
Sustainable Development
FIGURE 6.21 Sustainable blue economy framework.
Protection and Conservation of Fish Act of 1950, Marine Fisheries Ordinance and Rules 1983, Wild
Conservation Act-2002, Forest Act-1927, Provision of Ecologically Critical Area (ECA) Regulation
1995, the Bangladesh Petroleum Act- 1974, National Energy Policy- 2004, Bangladesh Water
Policy-1999, Bangladesh Water Act-2013 (Shamsuzzaman et al. 2017). Most of the legislation and
regulations were enacted a long time ago. Some of them have been updated from time to time based
on the changing social, economic, cultural, and environmental circumstances, but most of the time the
legal framework failed to tackle new challenges (Islam and Wahab, 2005). Updating this outdated and
inactive legislation is required. The Department of Shipping (DOS) and the Department of Fisheries
(DOF) are trying to create a new shipping and fisheries act (Islam et al. 2017).
6.57 POLICYMAKING AUTHORITY IN BANGLADESH

Blue Economy Cell (BEC) is the sole authorized cell to formulate ocean policy. It was formed in
January 2017 as part of the Ministry of Power, Energy, and Mineral Resources’ Energy and Mineral
Resources Division (Islam and Shamsuddoha, 2018). But the activities of the BEC are confined
to holding occasional meetings since the administrative body is equipped with inadequately few
officials temporarily. Although the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Power, Energy, and
Mineral Resources Ministry recommended upgrading the BEC as an authority with a permanent
setup, the recommendation has been ignored (MOFA, 2018). Cooperation between ministries at the
regional level is very important for successful blue economic development.
185
TABLE 6.9
Sector-Wise Recommendations for the Fruitful Use of Blue Economy to be Developed
Country
Maritime Sectors Sub-sectors Recommended Activities
Fishing Capture fishery, Aquaculture, 1) Upcoming Bangabandhu Satellite-based monitoring system

and seafood processing. 2) Fish capture and protection capability increase
3) Promotion of environment-friendly and sustainable shrimp,
crab, and potentially important other species farming systems
in the coastal region
4) Mitigation and adaptive measures on the impacts of
climate change
5) Declaration of fish sanctuaries
6) Seasonal banning of fishing
7) Advanced deep-sea vessel and technologies
8) Should be a member state of IOTC
9) Encourage Integrated Multi Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA)
10) Maritime security and surveillance to stop piracy and IUU
fishing
11) Ensure entrance for native and poor fishermen and ban foreign
trawlers
12) Women empowerment
Minerals Oil and gas, deep-sea mining 1) Determine the location of possible oil and gas fields, as well as
(exploration of rare earth their reserves
metals). 2) A well-thought-out strategy is needed to carry out a
multiline survey
3) Massive exploration and drilling activities
4) Monitoring and assessment
5) Public and private partnerships
6) Foreign support
7) Update the potential evaluation initially that was done in 1994
Salt production Salt production 1) Land-leasing structures that are focused on the community
2) Sufficient credit facilities
3) Mechanical machinery is used (water pump, leveler, and
the like)
4) Reliable weather forecasting
5) Modern techniques even collecting and refining common salt
by mining
6) Public-private partnership
Marine Renewable Solar, wind, wave, and Tidal 1) Marine Renewable Energy mapping project to determine the
Energy energy production. true potential
2) Financial support from national and foreign
3) Technology transfer and training
4) Long-term policies
Marine Pharmaceuticals, chemicals, 1) Mid and Long-term research on preservation, processing, and
Biotechnology seaweed harvesting, quality control of marine products
seaweed products, marine- 2) Encouragement of Sea food-based restaurant and sea
derived bio-products. product based industry
Marine Boat and ship manufacturing 1) Loan and project to implement Maine manufacturing
Manufacturing and repairing, marine
instrumentation, marine
industrial engineering.
(continued)
186

Sector-Wise Recommendations for the Fruitful Use of Blue Economy to be Developed
Country
Maritime Sectors Sub-sectors Recommended Activities
Port, Shipping Ship building and 1) Sonadia deep (Island) seaport establishment
and Maritime repairing, ship owners 2) Capability building of three existing ports
Logistics and operators, shipping 3) Need more sophisticated ships
agents and brokers, ship 4) Increase modern merchant ships
management, container 5) Needs to add more fleets
shipping services, 6) Proper monitoring and management system and training
customs clearance, freight 7) Effective planning and actions
forwarders. 8) Diplomatic efforts to consolidate Bangladesh’s international
position
9) Need expertise in technical areas
10) Construction of a deep-sea port (DSP)
Marine Tourism Sunbath, Sailing, and 1) Eco-friendly tourism
boating at sea, surfing, 2) Safety and security
scuba diving, swimming 3) Easy communication system
in the sea, bird watching 4) Marine tourism zone
in coastal areas, whale, 5) National and regional planning
dolphin watching, trips 6) Technical cooperation
to the beach, seaside, and 7) Public financial support and
islands. 8) Public-private partnerships
Education and Education and training, 1) Capability enhancement of maritime educational department,
Research Research and institutions, and research centre
Development. 2) Making high-quality maritime experts
3) Greater use of economic analysis
4) Better use of innovations in science and technology (for
example, drones, unmanned airborne vehicles (UAVs), sensors,
mapping, imaging)
5) Government and stakeholder engagement
6) Formulate comprehensive Ocean Policy
Source: Hasan et al. 2018.

187
TABLE 6.10
Reviewed or Developing Policies Related to the Blue Economy in Bangladesh
Sector Policies Laws and Acts Responsible Institutions
Coastal Protection Bangladesh Climate Change The 2010 Climate Change Ministry of Environment
Climate change resilience and Strategy and Action Trust Act established the and Forests Disaster
adaptation (including coastal Plan (BCCSAP) is to be Bangladesh CC Trust, the Management Information
protection) completed by 2020. Bangladesh CC Trust Fund, Centre of Ministry of Food
National Action Plan for and the Bangladesh Climate and Disaster Management
Adaptation (NAPA) is to be Change Resilience Fund.
completed by 2020.
Existence of Biodiversity, Coastal and Wetland Wetland Conservation Act. The Ministry of Environment
including mangrove Biodiversity Management Environment Conservation and Forests
ecosystems (‘blue forests’) Plan is under review. Act, 1995, 2000, and 2002. The Bangladesh National
Environment Conservation Herbarium
Rules, 1997, 2000, 2001.
National Conservation
Strategy, 2005; National
River Protection
Commission Act, 2013;
Forest Act, 1927; Wildlife
Protection and Security Act,
2012
Waste Disposal, Bangladesh Water Act is underIntegrated Water Ministry of Water Resources
including addressing review and revision. Resources Management
externalities from industrial (IWRM), 2005.
and agriculture pollution Participatory Water
creating marine dead zones Management Regulations,
2014
Energy (including renewable Renewable Energy Policy, The Bangladesh Petroleum Ministry of Power,
energy from wave, 2008 and National Energy Act of 1974 supports Energy, and
wind, and solar from ocean Policy, 2004 are under review planning, organizing, Mineral Resources
areas and explicit gender and implementation of Sustainable and Renewable
dimensions) exploration, exploitation, Energy Development
development, and Authority (SREDA)
production of petroleum Bangladesh Power
wealth from the sea Development
(including all territorial Board (BPDB)
waters, continental shelf, Local Government
and EEZ). Engineering
Directorate (LGED)
Blue Economy Cell
Living Resources: Capture National Marine Fisheries The proposed National Ministry of Fisheries and
Fisheries, supporting Policy, undergoing Marine Fisheries Policy Livestock,
sustainability consultations and review includes provision for Dept. of Fisheries
development of Bangladesh Fisheries
new laws in support of Development Corp.;
sustainable capture Bangladesh Coast Guard.
fisheries. Bangladesh Navy
(continued)
188

Reviewed or Developing Policies Related to the Blue Economy in Bangladesh
Sector Policies Laws and Acts Responsible Institutions
Living National Aquaculture Fish Hatchery Act 2010; Fish Ministry of Fisheries and
Resources: Aquaculture, Development Strategy and Hatchery Rules 2011; Fish Livestock
including mariculture Action Plan (2013–2020) is Feed and Animal Feed
reviewed annually. Act 2010; Fish Feed Rules
2014 National Shrimp Policy 2011; Fisheries Research
is under review Institute Ordinance, 1984
Tourism, including marine National Tourism Policy, 2009 Tourism Board Act, 2010; Ministry of Civil Aviation and
tourism is under review Bangladesh Tourism Tourism
Protected Areas and Special Chambers of Commerce
Tourism Zone Act, 2010; Bangladesh Parjatan Corp.
Bangladesh Tourism Ministry of Shipping
Protected Areas and Special
Tourism Zone Rules, 2011
Shipping and Transport Maritime and Shipping Clean Air Act; Import Policy Ministry of Power, Energy and
including measures to Strategy of Bangladesh Orders; 2012–2015; Payra Mineral Resources
address marine pollution Port Authority Act, 2013; Infrastructure Financing
Chittagong Port Authority Facility
(Amendment) Act, 1995; Inland Water Transport
Mongla Port Authority Authority
(Amendment) Act, 1995;
Navy Ordinance, 1961;
Coast Guard Act, 1994
Ocean-based industry Comprehensive Credit Inclusive Digital Financial Ministry of Industries
development and growth via Policy for SMEs, including Systems, 2015 Bangladesh Standards and
access to finance encouraging investment in Testing Institution
ocean industries Bangladesh Small and Cottage
Industries Corporation
Bangladesh Chemical
Industries Corporation
Bangladesh Bank
Source: Patil et al. 2018.
6.58 CONCLUSION
Blue economic prospects in Bangladesh are notable but challenges and risks are also working
against blue economy development. A successful blue economy can change the economic status
(developing to developed) of developing countries like Bangladesh. It is now time for data, pol-
itical will and financial capital to be marshaled to bring Bangladesh onto the blue path and form
global and regional partnerships towards ocean governance and sustainable maritime growth. For
the blue economy’s growth, the government should follow a future policy agenda that can focus on
institutional cooperation, translating product science, a holistic approach to the blue economy, and
empowering and educating young generations.
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7 Application of Blue Economy

for Polymetallic Nodules
from the Central Indian
Ocean Basin
Ankeeta A. Amonkar,1* Niyati Gopinath Kalangutkar,2
and Sridhar D. Iyer3
1
Dnyanprassarak Mandal’s College and Research Centre, Mapusa,
Goa, India
2
School of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science, Goa University,
Taleigao Plateau, Goa, India
3
Formerly with CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula,
Goa, India
*Corresponding author: Ankeeta Amonkar; E-mail: ankeetaamonkar9@
gmail.com
CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 196
7.2 Polymetallic Nodules of the Central Indian Ocean Basin..................................................... 197
7.2.1 Regions of Occurrence.............................................................................................. 197
7.3 Geomorphology and Morpho-Structures..............................................................................198
7.4 Sediments in the Indian Ocean.............................................................................................. 199
7.5 Characteristics of the CIOB Nodules.................................................................................... 200
7.5.1 Shape and Size..........................................................................................................200
7.5.2 Nodule Nucleus......................................................................................................... 200
7.5.3 Surface Texture.......................................................................................................... 201
7.5.4 Internal Structure and Growth................................................................................... 201
7.5.5 Age............................................................................................................................ 202
7.5.6 Composition..............................................................................................................202
7.5.7 Processes of Nodule Formation................................................................................. 203
7.6 Micronodules......................................................................................................................... 203
7.7 Buried Nodules...................................................................................................................... 203
7.8 The 5ES, India’s Efforts In the CIOB................................................................................... 204
7.8.1 Exploration................................................................................................................204
7.8.2 Environmental Studies............................................................................................... 205
7.8.3 Exploitation...............................................................................................................206
7.8.4 Enrichment................................................................................................................207
7.8.5 Economics................................................................................................................. 209
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-7 195

newgenprepdf
196
7.9 Blue Economy of Polymetallic Nodules............................................................................... 210

7.9.1 Exploration................................................................................................................210
7.9.2 EIA............................................................................................................................210
7.9.3 Exploitation...............................................................................................................212
7.9.4 Enrichment................................................................................................................ 213
7.9.5 Economics................................................................................................................. 213
7.10 Epilogue................................................................................................................................214
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... 215
References....................................................................................................................................... 215
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Under the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDG-14) emphasis has been given to
exploiting in a sustained way the oceans and seas for their energy and marine resources, especially
for Small Island Developed States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries. The background infor-
mation and importance of the blue economy (BE) and maritime zones is discussed in Chapter 10
where the seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) of the Indian Ocean are discussed. Although the polymet-
allic nodules and crusts of the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) (Figure 7.1) have been thor-
oughly investigated over the four decades or more (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2018), this is the first time
that the detailed role of BE as applicable to these deposits is presented.
FIGURE 7.1 Contract area in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) allotted to India (https://isa.org.jm/
map/government-india).
197
Polymetallic Nodules from the CIOB 197
7.2 POLYMETALLIC NODULES OF THE CENTRAL INDIAN OCEAN BASIN

7.2.1 Regions of Occurrence
The knowledge about the Indian Ocean originated from the geophysical studies carried out during
the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) between 1961 and 1965. Subsequently, the inter-
national scientific drilling campaigns namely, Deep-Sea Drilling Project (DSDP), Ocean Drilling
Program (ODP), and International Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) drilled several sites in the Indian
Ocean. The results obtained of the drilled sediments and rocks have provided a large amount of data
that have helped to validate the inferences made from initial geophysical and geological investigations.
Polymetallic nodules (also called ferromanganese or manganese nodules; henceforth we will be
using the terms ‘nodules’) were first collected from the Pacific Ocean during the HMS Challenger
expedition (Glasby, 1977) but for a few decades, no interest was shown by the scientific community.
According to the report entitled by ‘The mineral resources of the sea’ by Mero (1965) the economic
viability of mining the nodules provided an impetus to launch full-scale exploration in the Pacific
Ocean in the 1970s. Exploratory programs in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) were initiated
by the US, UK, Germany, Russia (then USSR), Japan, and France and followed later by China and
South Korea.
In the Pacific and Indian oceans, the nodules generally occur in water depths >5,000 m, are black
in colour, and of variable size (mostly 2 -6 cm diameter) (Figure 7.2). The nodules have variable
nuclei such as weathered rock pieces, sharks’ teeth, older nodules, and sediment clasts. Over these
nuclei, iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), and several
other elements accrete mainly from seawater. These elements could also be contributed through
diagenesis and hydrothermal sources or be from mixed sources and hence, the nodules may exhibit
one or more accretionary processes. The elements are in the oxide form and ore beneficiation of the
nodules would provide metals of economic interest such as Mn, Cu, Co, and Ni. Some nodules occur
as large concretions (Figure 7.3) while crusts are common along seamounts and abyssal hills (Iyer
and Sharma, 1990) .
FIGURE 7.2 Polymetallic nodules occurring in siliceous pelagic sediments recovered in a box core from the
CIOB. Marker pen is used as a scale (Length =14cm).
198
FIGURE 7.3 A large manganese nodule from the CIOB collected during 48th Expedition of Research Vessel
Sindhu Sadhana in April 2018. Pencil is used as a scale (18cm long).
7.3 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND MORPHO-STRUCTURES

The Indian Ocean has four major spreading ridge systems: Carlsberg Ridge, Central Indian Ridge
(CIR), South West Indian Ridge (SWIR), and South East Indian Ridge (SEIR) (Iyer and Ray,
2003). The details of hydrothermal activities along these ridges are discussed in Chapter 10 by
Kalangutkar et al. (this volume). The aseismic ridges, Chagos-Laccadive and Ninety East Ridge
(NER) were formed from the Reunion and Kerguelen hotspots, respectively. The other ridges are
the Broken, Madagascar, Mozambique, Kerguelen-Gaussberg, and Laxmi. The tectonically active
regimes are the Andaman back-arc basin and Indonesian trench which are subduction zones in
the Indian Ocean. There are also microcontinents such as Socotra with seamounts, and contin-
ental islands such as Madagascar, Seychelles, and Sri Lanka. The identified seamounts in the
Indian Ocean are Error, Sagar Kanya, Panikkar, Wadia, Alcock, Sewell and the Afanasy-Nikitin
Seamount complex (Iyer et al. 2012). In addition, there are several sedimentary basins such as
Wharton, Somali, Owen, Madagascar, Laccadive, and Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB), the Bay
of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea.
Among the sedimentary basins, the CIOB is the largest that extends between 6º S and 20º S
and 72º E and 80º E and has an average water depth of 5,000 m. The basin is open in the north
and bounded by the NER on the east, SEIR in the south, and on the west by the CIR. To the north
of the basin, there is a prominent deformed boundary zone which has a smooth seafloor, buried
hills, folded and faulted sediments, and the Afanasy-Nikitin seamount complex (Mukhopadhyay
et al. 2008). The CIOB formed from the Indian Ocean Triple Junction that has been proposed to
be of ~65 Ma age and with a half rate of spreading of 67.5 mm/year. The initial or ‘soft’ collision
occurred between the north-moving Indian Plate and stable Eurasian Plate at ~60 Ma and the first
‘hard’ collision between ~51 and ~50 Ma. During these collisional events the half rate of spreading
reduced from 95 mm/year to 26 mm/year. The CIOB is complex in terms of its tectonic and mor-
phologic nature, vast latitudinal extent, seamounts, abyssal hills, faults, crenulations, lineations,
fracture zones (FZ), and with a variety of sediments and rocks. Most importantly the basin has
significant and rich economical deposits of nodules that are second to the North Pacific nodule belt
(Mukhopadhyay et al. 2018 and references therein).
Seamounts in the CIOB have helped to understand the evolutionary history of the basin.
Mukhopadhyay and Khadge (1990) suggested that the seamounts have originated from a hotspot
199
while Kodagali (1991) took the view that the seamounts resulted from mid-plate volcanism. Das
et al. (2005, 2007) reported 200 seamounts, the majority of which occur between 10°S and 14°S.
Most of these seamounts are along eight chains that trend approximately in an N-S direction while a
few are in isolated places. These authors suggested that the seamounts were mostly emplaced along
propagative FZ during the northward travel of the Indian Plate. Petrological studies indicated mul-
tiple basaltic volcanism episodes during the formation of the CIOB seafloor and seamounts (Iyer
et al. 2018).
The basalts occur as outcrops and fragments on the slope and summit of the seamount, abyssal hills,
and on the seafloor. Compositionally, the basalts are Normal-Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts (N-MORB)
similar to those from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) and East Pacific Rise (EPR) (Mukhopadhyay
et al. 2008; Das et al. 2012). Ferrobasalts occur with plagioclase (predominant), olivine (rare), and
small euhedral magnetite and hematite grains, and have high Fe (>12 wt.%) and Ti (>2%). These
basalts were recovered near topographic highs and high amplitude magnetic zones and perhaps
formed from a fractionated melt that was emplaced at shallow crustal depth (Iyer et al. 1996). The
basalts along the flank and summit of the seamounts form substrate for the ferromanganese oxides
while the weathered fragments at the foothill form nuclei for the nodules.
Spilites that occur near the 79o E FZ resulted from low-temperature alteration of basaltic lava piles
(Karisiddaiah and Iyer, 1992). Pumices of variable colours, shapes, sizes, and vesicularities encom-
pass a large field (600,000 sq km) and are trachyandesitic to rhyodacitic in composition. Studies
of the pumice provide evidence of their formation from intraplate volcanism (Iyer and Sudhakar,
1993a; Iyer, 1996; Kalangutkar et al. 2011; Kalangutkar, 2011). The possibility of drift pumice from
the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa volcano, Indonesia is not ruled out (Iyer and Karisiddaiah, 1988;
Mukherjee and Iyer, 1999; Pattan et al. 2008; Kalangutkar et al. 2011).
The volcanogenic-hydrothermal materials (vhm) in the CIOB comprise delicate bread-crust-
like magnetic particles, magnetite spherules, spherules of Fe-Ti and Al composition, glass shards
(silicic and basaltic), and palagonite grains (Iyer 2005; Amonkar et al. 2020a, Amonkar et al. 2020b,
Amonkar and Iyer, 2021). The presence of vhm, at seamounts’ base, and near FZ, and their ages
from 625 ka (Iyer et al. 1997a; 1999b) to as recent as 100 years (Nath et al. 2008) attest to ongoing
volcanic and hydrothermal activities in the basin.
7.4 SEDIMENTS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

The nature and distribution of seafloor sediments in the Indian Ocean are influenced by five
interrelated factors. These are climatic and current patterns, nutrient and organic production in
surface waters, relative solubility of calcite and silica, submarine topography, and detrital input
(Mukhopadhyay et al. 2008). The wide geographical extent of the CIOB has resulted in a change
in the sediment composition and lithofacies. The four types of sediment in the basin are (Udintsev,
1975; Kolla and Kidd 1982).
a) Terrigenous sediments: These sediments are mainly sourced from the Indo-Gangetic plain
and Himalaya and debouch into the CIOB at a rate of 1.670 x 106 tons/yr from the Ganges-
Brahmaputra rivers. Although the northern area of the basin is mainly of terrigenous
sediments but their presence is reported up to 15° S (Nath, 2001).
b) Siliceous sediments: Siliceous sediments are composed of diatoms, radiolarians, silico-
flagellates, and sponge spicules. In the Indian Ocean, diatoms are the primary producers of
silica followed by radiolarians in the CIOB. The region between 5º S and 15º S has a distinct
zone of ooze with more than 70% of radiolarians. The sediments are associated with a high
biogenic productivity region wherein the production of biogenic silica outweighs its dissol-
ution, resulting in siliceous materials. Siliceous sediment is a favourable host for nodules in
the Pacific and Indian oceans (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2018).
200
c) Calcareous sediments: These sediments composed of foraminifera and pteropods occur

above the Carbon Compensation Depth (CCD) and form more than 54% of the surface of
the Indian Ocean floor. A small patch of calcareous sediment is present at around 12 -14° S
and 82.5 -83.5° E in the CIOB. Interestingly, a minor patch of calcareous sediment is present
near a seamount summit which is below the CCD (Nath et al. 2012).
d) Red clays: Red clays or pelagic sediments are present between 15º S and 25º S in the CIOB.
The red clay sediments occurring below the CCD and outside the zones of biogenic inputs
have the lowest sedimentation rate.
The authigenic minerals in the CIOB sediments are zeolites (phillipsite, clinoptilolite, and the like),
and hydrogenous Fe-Mn oxy-hydroxides (todorokite, birnessite, vernadite, and so forth) that occur
as a coating on existing minerals and rocks and as nodules and crusts. Besides these there are also
extra-terrestrial materials such as cosmic spherules and dust, tektites, and microtektites, and most
importantly an abundance of volcanic glass shards that may be contributed from nearby terrestrial
volcanoes and/or formed in the abyssal depth due to phreatomagmatic activity (Amonkar et al.
2020a and references therein). Evidence in the form of spherules and fragments of iron, titanium,
and aluminium, extensive palagonite formation in sediment cores with the simultaneous absence of
radiolarians, all vouch for the occurrence of episodic albeit localized hydrothermal activities in the
CIOB (Amonkar and Iyer, 2021; Amonkar et al. 2021).
7.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CIOB NODULES

7.5.1 Shape and Size
Generally, the nodules are classified based on their shape, size, nucleus, and surface texture. The
nodules display variation in shapes with larger size nodules being elongated, discoid, flattened, or
irregular while the smaller ones are spheroid and sub-spheroid. The nodules with a typical bulge
and knobby band around their equator are termed as ‘hamburger-shaped’ nodules. The nodule size
is an important criterion because the collecting device has to be designed, based on the dominant
size present in the mining area. The CIOB nodules vary from <10 mm to a few centimeters but are
mostly in the size range of 20 -60 mm.
7.5.2 Nodule Nucleus
A nucleus is vital for the growth of nodules since ferromanganese oxides around the core are
deposited as concentric layers from hydrogenous, diagenesis or hydrothermal processes. The CIOB
nodules commonly have rock fragments that are derived from weathering of the basaltic hills,
seamounts, and seafloor. The other types of nuclei are sharks’ teeth, palagonite grains, and rarely,
older nodules. There are examples of phillipsite crystals (21 x 10 x 8 mm) that formed a nucleus for
the growth of the surface nodules (Ghosh and Mukhopadhyay, 1995) and micronodules (<10 mm
size) within sediment cores (Iyer et al. 2012, 2018).
The sizes of the nodule and nucleus are unrelated and are independent of the environment of for-
mation. The CIOB nodules have a large nucleus and less oxide growth and vice-versa, while some-
times the nucleus is fully altered by seawater and replaced by ferromanganese oxides.
The shape of the nucleus often determines the shape of the nodules because the initial growth
around it influences the overall layering of the nodules. This is distinctly seen in younger nodules that
have a larger nucleus and a thin oxide layer. Nodules with a single nucleus are called mononucleate
while those with two or more nuclei are termed as polynucleate. The CIOB mononucleate nodules
generally occur in the abyssal plain, whereas polynucleate nodules are commonly on the flanks of
seamounts and abyssal hills (Sarkar et al. 2008). A study of the relation between nucleus type and
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size suggests that the CIOB nodules are of first-generation while the Equatorial North Pacific (ENP)
nodules are more matured and of second generation. Martin-Barajas and Lallier-Verges (1993)
suggested that the CIOB nodules that formed from the diagenetic process are younger than those
formed by the hydrogenous process.
The ratio of thickness of oxide : nucleus (O : N) is an important factor as this would indicate the
viability of mining the nodules. It has been noted that the ratio is low for nodules on the upper slope of
seamounts close to the summit in contrast to the nodules on the seabed. The former types of nodules
have a smooth texture, a larger nucleus with rock fragments and indurated sediments as compared
to the seabed nodules with rough texture. Also, the seamount nodules contain high concentrations
of Co and Fe as compared to seafloor nodules that are rich in Mn, Ni, and Cu (Mukhopadhyay
and Nath, 1988). The nodule size and nucleus affect the bulk composition in that the large nucleus
composed of material different from the nodule composition, can dilute the bulk composition of
the nodule and in turn lower the metal value of the nodules. Therefore, during mining, areas with
nodules containing smaller nuclei need to be identified and these nodules have to be separately
treated during the ore beneficiation processes.
7.5.3 Surface Texture
The mammillae on the surface (top and bottom) of the CIOB nodules have variable relief, shape,
size, and abundance, and they form due to oxides precipitated from the seawater. Normally, the
nodules are rough or smooth textured. The latter results from the fact that the upper parts of the
nodules are exposed to the seawater while the undersides are resting on the sediment and are rough-
textured. Some nodules with fine granulated smooth surfaces have cracks and pits on the upper. The
hamburger-shaped nodules have a very rough bottom side due to the intense biological activities
that are visible in the form of broken worm tubes. In such nodules, the bottom surface gets oxides
from the underlying sediments’ pore water through sub-oxic diagenetic remobilization (Glasby et al.
1983; Mukhopadhyay, 1988).
The overall morphology of a nodule is controlled by the topography of the seafloor. For example,
nodules on the flank or near seamounts and hills receive a large amount of nucleus material in
the form of rock fragments. Further, these nodules are relatively smooth compared to the seafloor
nodules because of the flow of water along the seamounts washes off the sediments sitting over the
nodules. In contrast, nodules at the base of topographic highs are smaller in size and have a rough
surface texture (Iyer and Sharma, 1990).
7.5.4 Internal Structure and Growth

Sliced and polished sections of nodules depict well-preserved structures in the form of concen-
tric rings that record the complex growth history from the nucleus to the periphery of the nodules.
Considering the types of concentric rings and chemical compositions, Sorem and Fewkes (1977)
identified five textural patterns in nodules from the world’s oceans. The patterns are (1) mottled
(discontinuous and chaotic layers), (2) columnar (radial pattern), (3) compact (dense layers with
very low Mn/Fe ratio), (4) laminated (short, dense, and columnar) and (5) massive (dense layers,
high Mn/Fe ratio).
The CIOB nodules mostly show colloformic (columnar/cuspate patterns) and parallel layers or
dendritic features with the former made up of sub-concentric laminae (arcuate cusps). The light
colour laminae indicate a high growth rate and are enriched in Mn, Ni and Cu because of diagenetic
remobilization of metals. The dark layers with Fe or FeMn-rich oxides with some amounts of Co
are precipitated from the water column. The parallel oxide layers indicate slow growths that were
perhaps interrupted because of unfavorable conditions (Banerjee et al. 1991).
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7.5.5 Age
Based on radiochemical measurements, radiometric dating and empirical equations the CIOB
nodules grew at a rate of between 1.2 and 3.2 mm/106 years. The study of growth rate along with
oxide thickness indicates the initiation of nodule growth. In the Indian Ocean, the growth of nodules
commenced between 8 and 3 Ma (Late Miocene to Early Pliocene) (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2018). The
CIOB nodules are older than those of the Southwest Pacific nodules that started forming at 3.5 Ma
(during Pliocene) but younger than ENP nodules which are ~15 Ma (Lower Miocene) (Glasby et al.
1982; Martin-Barajas et al. 1991).
7.5.6 Composition
The CIOB nodules have quite similar mineralogical and chemical compositions but are different
than those of the Pacific Ocean nodules.
a) Mineralogy: The nodules are mainly composed of Fe and Mn minerals with silicate phases as
accessories. The nodules with rough texture predominantly have todorokite (10 Å manganite) and
these are relatively rich in Mn, Ni, and Cu while the smooth surface nodules have δ-MnO₂ (vernadite)
and are rich in Fe and Co. But irrespective of the nuceli type, todorokite is the main mineral in the
CIOB nodules (Sarkar et al. 2008). Todorokite and birnessite are typical minerals in abyssal nodules
on the seabed and are formed in a mildly oxidizing environment while δ-MnO₂ is abundant in an
oxidizing environment at shallower depth, namely, on flanks and summits of seamounts. Todorokite
is associated with high-to-moderate biological productivity in the Indian Ocean. Phase transform-
ations or post-depositional changes within the nodule result in the conversion of δ-MnO₂/vernadite
to todorokite (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2002).
The accessory components in the CIOB nodules include volcanic glass, rock fragments, diverse
silicate minerals, aragonite, zeolitic grains, and fossil tests. The occurrence of clay minerals such
as montmorillonite-chlorite and phillipsite crystals indicate alteration of volcanic material (Ghosh
and Mukhopadhyay, 1995; Iyer and Sudhakar, 1993a). In contrast, detrital quartz in some of the
nodules point to an influx of clastic terrigenous sediments from the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers.
There are also reports of the presence of merlinoite (Mohapatra and Sahoo, 1987) and detrital and
authigenic baddeleyite (ZrO2) in the form of single isolated, subrounded to elliptical grains in the
CIOB nodules (Nayak et al. 2011) but these are very rare.
b) Chemical Composition: The CIOB nodules are mainly hosted by siliceous sediment and are rich
in Mn, Co, Ni, and Cu, however, there are intrabasinal compositional variations as reflected by the
Mn : Fe ratio and overall concentrations of Cu, Co, Ni, and Zn. On average, the nodules have Mn
24.40 wt.%, Fe 7.10 wt.%, Ni 1.10 wt.%, Cu 1.04 wt.%, and Co 0.11 wt.% (Jauhari and Pattan,
2000). The diagenetic nodules in the southern part of the basin are rich in Fe and Co while the
hydrogenetic nodules in the central part have Mn, Cu, and Ni. Nodules from the seabed have a high
Mn/Fe ratio and high Cu and Ni while those from topographic highs have high Fe and Co and low
Mn/Fe ratio (Mukhopadhyay and Nath, 1988). In general, the CIOB nodules are of para-marginal
grade with Ni + Cu + Co ≥ 2.0% but the smaller nodules (<4 cm) with smooth surface and present in
terrigenous and red clay sediments have 1.21%. The larger nodules (>4 cm) with a rough surface and
occurring in siliceous, siliceous-pelagic clay, and calcareous-pelagic clay transition-zone sediments
have a grade of 1.8% (Banerjee and Miura, 2001).
In the CIOB nodules, the rare earth elements (REE) occur mainly in the Fe oxyhydroxide and
titanium and phosphatic phases. The concentrations of La and Nd are >100 ppm while Ce is very
high (1,000 ppm and above) while the rest of the REE have concentrations <100 ppm with Lu being
the lowest (<3 ppm). The nodules are rich in Middle REE (MREE) (Sm) compared to Light and
Heavy REE (LREE) (La-Lu). The probable intake of these elements could be mainly from the
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host sediments through diagenesis (Nath et al. 1993). The moderate positive Ce anomaly (~0.25)
indicates that the nodules formed under an oxidizing bottom environment which is created by the
nutrient-rich, cold Antarctica Bottom Watermass (AABW). In contrast, negative Ce anomaly in
the sediments indicates movement of Ce into the nodule phase by Fe-hydroxide colloidal flocks
(compare this with Glasby et al. 1987). Alabarède (1995) noted the isotopic composition of Nd in
the nodules to be on par with those of the ambient seawater and similar to the average Nd in the
deep-water masses over periods of 105 -106 years. The study suggests the present-day patterns of
deep-ocean circulation to have been predominant throughout the Pleistocene.
7.5.7 Processes of Nodule Formation

The formation, composition, and distribution of nodules show significant intra-and inter-oceanic
variations. This is because of the controlling factors such as sedimentation rate, bottom sediment
type, availability of nucleating material, the influence of bottom currents, source, and supply of
elements, biological productivity, topography, and the physico-chemical environment amongst
others, play important roles in the formation of nodules.
Bonatti et al. (1972) and Halbach et al. (1981) identified three types of growth mechanisms for
the formation of nodules. These are:
(i) Early diagenetic in which the elements are transferred from sediment pore water to nodules
through remobilization of elements from the sediment column.
(ii) Hydrogenetic process during which elements are precipitated at a very slow rate from the
seawater column onto different nuceli and/or already formed nodules. The elements are
mainly in colloid form and occur near the bottom seawater.
(iii) A mixed process consisting of processes (i) and (ii).
Glasby (2000) suggested that enrichment of elements in nodules is highly dependent on diagen-
esis and that the acoustically transparent sediment layer (ATSL), a thin outermost layer in nodules
that forms an interface between the seafloor sediment-bottom water, is involved in elemental uptake.
The degree of metal mobilization depends on the sedimentation rate and upward flux of the dissolved
elements in the sediment column (Mukhopadhyay and Nath, 1988).
7.6 MICRONODULES
Micronodules of up to 2 mm in diameter, but mostly of <1 mm in size, commonly occur in surface, sub-
surface, and tens of centimetres below the seafloor sediments. Micronodules have similar surface tex-
ture, mineralogy, chemistry, and internal features like the macro-nodules. In the CIOB the abundance of
micronodules decreases with depth in the siliceous but increases in red clay sediments (Mukhopadhyay
et al. 1988). Micronodules are associated with biota (radiolarians, diatoms, ichthyoliths, phytoliths,
bacterial cells), volcanic glass shards, phillipsite crystals, and palagonite grains (Banerjee and Iyer,
1991; Iyer et al. 2012). Bulk analysis of micronodules, on an average have Mn 35% and Ni+Cu 3% and
high Mn/Fe (5-101) and very low Fe 1.8% and total REE (522 ppm) in contrast to the surface nodules.
The average REE concentration is around 650 ppm in micronodules, 1,164 ppm in surface nodules,
and 210 ppm in the sediments (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2018 and references therein).
7.7 BURIED NODULES
Although most of the nodules (>1 cm) are present at the sediment-water boundary, but there are
examples where nodules of different sizes are seen buried at different depths within the sedi-
ment column. Buried nodules can be recovered by coring the sediments by using spade, box
and gravity cores. Hence, it is difficult to estimate the total nodule reserve in the mining area,
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determining the actual bulk composition of buried nodules, and to understand as to whether the
nodules formed on the seafloor sediments and were subsequently buried or grew within the sedi-
ment column.
Nearly 60 spade and gravity cores from water depths of 4,700-5,800 m were studied from
different geographical sites in the CIOB. Of the 60 cores, 50 buried nodules were found in 12 cores
at different depths within the sediment and mostly in the cores below 8°S in the basin (Banerjee
et al. 1991, Pattan and Parthiban, 2007). Most of the buried nodules are ~2 cm in diameter and
are irregular, discoidal, polynucleated, and largely elliptical in shape. Their smooth and rough sur-
face textures are quite similar to those of the surface nodules. The buried nodules show alternate
recrystallized thick δ-MnO₂-rich layers and todorokite with dendritic texture. Since these nodules
are surrounded by sediments, intercalations of clay-rich zones within the nodules are also seen
(Banerjee et al. 1991). Pattan and Parthiban (2007) reported the composition of five buried nodules
that were found at different depths (166-168, 172-174, 228-230, 328-330, and 418-420 cm) from
the siliceous sediment. Nodules in the first three levels with a high Mn/Fe ratio (9.3-15.1) were
formed by early diagenesis. The fourth level (328-330 cm) nodule with a very low Mn/Fe ratio (1.6)
indicated a hydrogenetic process. The nodule in the fifth level (418-420 cm) with a moderate Mn/Fe
ratio (3) again points to diagenesis. The buried nodules have REE between 164 and 497 ppm with
an enrichment in HREE and MREE contents.
7.8 THE 5ES, INDIA’S EFFORTS IN THE CIOB

Four economically potential nodule-rich areas have been identified in the world ocean and of
these three are in the Pacific Ocean (CCZ, Peru Basin, and Penrhyn Basin) and one in the CIOB
(Figure 7.1).
The International Seabed Authority (ISA, previously the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea, UNCLOS) has allotted 75,000 km2 each to 19 Contractors for exploitation of nodules
in the CCZ and CIOB. Of the 18 Contractors 17 are in the CCZ and one in the Western Pacific
(China Minmetals Corporation). The 17 Contractors are Interocean Metal Joint Organization
(Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Cuba, Poland, Slovakia, and Russia), JSC Yuzmorgeologiya (Russian
Federation), Government of the Republic of Korea, China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and
Development Association (China), Deep Ocean Resources Development Co. Ltd. (Japan), Institut
français de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (France), Government of India, Federal Institute
for Geosciences and Natural Resources of Germany (Germany), Nauru Ocean Resources Inc.
(Nauru), Tonga Offshore Mining Limited (Tonga), Global Sea Mineral Resources NV (Belgium),
UK Seabed Resources Ltd (UK of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 2 sites), Marawa Research
and Exploration Ltd. (Kiribati), Ocean Mineral Singapore Pte Ltd. (Singapore), Cook Islands
Investment Corporation (Cook Islands), China Minmetals Corporation (China), Beijing Pioneer
Hi-Tech Development Corporation (in Western Pacific) (China) and Blue Minerals Jamaica Ltd
(Jamaica). India is the sole Contractor for the CIOB nodules.
In the above background we now provide a gist of the information concerning the CIOB nodules
in terms of 5Es: Exploration, Environmental studies, Exploitation, Enrichment, and Economics.
Later we discuss the applicability of the BE to the nodule deposits.
7.8.1 Exploration
On 26th January 1981 India achieved success by recovering nodules and this led the government to
launch a major exploratory programme, “Surveys for Polymetallic Nodules,” in the CIOB. This multi-
dimensional, multi-disciplinary and multi-institutional programme was funded by the Department
of Ocean Development (later re-christened as the Ministry of Earth Sciences, MoES New Delhi)
and the nodal laboratory is CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. The programme has four
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components: Survey and Exploration, Environmental Impact Assessment, Technology Development

for Mining, and Technology Development for Metallurgy.
Tens of expeditions were made to obtain thousands of kilometers of bathymetric, magnetic
and gravity data and to collect nodules and associated crusts, sediments and rocks. A reconnais-
sance survey of about 4 million sq km area in the CIOB was conducted and this led to identi-
fying 300,000 km2 as the Application Area. On 18th December 1987, the erstwhile UNCLOS III
recognized India as the first country in the world to be the Pioneer Investor (PI) and allocated a
Pioneer Area (PA) of 1,50,000 km2 area in the CIOB. Sampling was initially carried out in a grid
pattern with a distance of 111 km between the sampling stations. For an accurate assessment of
the nodule resources in the PA the sampling distance was halved from 50 km to 25 km to 12.5 km
to 6.25 km. By 2002, 50% of the PA was relinquished to ISA in phases and India retained 75,000
km2. About 10% of this Retained/Exploration Area has the best nodule resources and forms the
First Generation Mine site (FGMS). The nodule resources are estimated to be about 670 million
tonnes and with an average abundance of 5 kg/m2 on the seafloor. These para-marginal grade
nodules have 2-2.4 wt.% nickel +copper +cobalt that constitutes 11 mt of metals (Mukhopadhyay
et al. 2018).
Several thousands of samples of nodules, crusts, and rocks were collected through grabs
(Pettersson, Okean), dredges (net, box, chain-bag), and also tens of sediment samples by using
corers (spade, box, gravity). In addition, geophysical surveys (single and multi-beam bathymetry,
gravity, and magnetic) and thousands of underwater photographs were obtained. Various reports
have highlighted the morpho-structural, geological, sedimentological, volcanic, and evolutionary
history of and hydrothermal episodes in the CIOB (Iyer et al. 2018, Amonkar and Iyer, 2021).
Considering these and other parameters, the first geological model to explain the formation and gen-
esis of the nodules in the basin was proposed by Mukhopadhyay et al. (2002). Based on grade and
abundance of nodules, seafloor geomorphology and other factors, the geological model helped to
identify fours sectors within the basin that had mineable nodules. Another model for the CCZ was
reported which, besides grade, abundance and geomorphology, considered a different set of factors
(such as chlorophyll content and biota) (ISA, 2010).
7.8.2 Environmental Studies
The Mining Code of the ISA mandates that prior to mining of nodules, it is imperative to carry out
an environmental impact assessment (EIA) of the mineable and nearby areas. This would help to
chalk out the environmental management plan (EMP) and remedial measures to protect and sus-
tainably exploit the nodules. During an EIA study of the nodule-bearing areas, several broad scien-
tific topics and associated parameters need attention. These are geology (seafloor features, rocks,
sediments), biology (flora and fauna that thrive in the seawater and also on the seabed), micro-
biology (bacteria, fungi in the seafloor sediments), chemistry (physical and chemical properties of
seawater column and bottom water), physics of the water (optical, conductivity, temperature), and
meteorology (weather and climate conditions in the potential mining area), among others. Once the
protocols of the ISA are followed and satisfied then the Contractor is one step closer to be granted
permission to mine the nodules.
In 1995, EIA studies were commenced in the CIOB by artificially disturbing the seabed using
a hydraulic disturber ‘Deep-Sea Sediment Resuspension System.’ This multidisciplinary 3-phase
study called INDEX (Indian Deep-Sea Environment Experiment) was carried out with technical
cooperation from the Central Marine Geological and Geophysical Expedition, Gelendzhik Russia.
The INDEX collected baseline environment data from Reference and Test sites in the CIOB. These
sites with similar characteristics were selected with an optimum distance from one another to
ensure that disturbance at the test sites does not affect the reference site. The data collected were of
pore water, sediment geochemistry, sediment size, clay mineralogy, biostratigraphy, geotechnical,
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macro-and meiobenthos, and microbiology. In addition, moored buoys and sediment traps were
also deployed.
The impact of disturbance on the distribution of radiolarians, macrofauna, meiofauna and on
microbial and biochemical parameters, was documented. Similarly, the changes in the composition
of surface sediments and particles in sediment traps and rosette water sampler were examined. The
results indicated the temperature, salinity, potential density, and geostrophic circulation to decrease
below 3,500 m water depth. This was ascribed to a southwestward weak flow of abyssal water
around 10°S (Ramesh Babu et al. 2001).
Due to the disturbance, the daily flux rate of sediment particles (avg. 50 mg/m2/day) increased
by 300% and later fell drastically to 33% within 5 days, because of a rapid settlement of particles.
Modeling and kriging estimation indicated that most of the 3,600 tonnes of disturbed sediment
discharged from 5 m above the seafloor in the water column did not either spread, laterally nor ver-
tically from the Test sites (Parthiban, 2000). The disturbed sediment samples showed an increase
in their water content capacity and a decrease in undrained shear strength in the top 10–15 cm
sediment layer (Khadge, 2000). These findings are important to develop an appropriate mining
technology to avoid sinking of the collector during nodule recovery. It was noticed that after the
disturbance at the Test site, there was decrease in the population of megafauna and benthic biomass
but over a period of days there was a prolific growth due to rehabilitation and occurrence of new
species of organisms (Rodrigues et al. 2001). The results from the INDEX helped to understand
the restoration and recolonization processes of benthic biota in the mineable areas (Sharma, 2015
and references therein).
7.8.3 Exploitation
Prior to mining, the geotechnical properties of the seabed sediments (besides their type and
characteristics) need to be investigated. Some of these properties that need to be determined (either
in situ or in the laboratory) are water content, porosity, permeability, wet bulk density, void ratio,
shear strength, and liquid and plastic limits. These measurements are necessary to understand the
bearing capacity of the seabed sediments that would help during the development and deployment of
the mining equipment and nodule recovery systems. In addition, the height, aerial extent and slope
of topographic features and geology of the mining area have to be mapped. These studies would help
to avoid steeply sloping and also rocky areas during mining operations and save time and equipment
(Sharma et al. 1994).
Mining of nodules comprises of recovery of nodules from the seabed, lift these to the mother
ship, dry and transport the nodules to onshore processing laboratories. In 1970, the first company to
test a nodule mining technology was Deep-Sea Ventures Inc. (USA) in the Blake Plateau at a water
depth of 750 m and in 1978 nodules were collected from >5,000 m water depth in the North Pacific
Ocean (Cronan, 1980). Four mining systems have been tested globally to collect nodules and these
are hydraulic lift, air lift, shuttle or modular, and continuous line bucket. The Integrated Mining
System (IMS) which many countries prefer, is a remote-controlled ocean-floor miner with a self-
propelled collector connected to a free bottom end of the pipe. The miner-to-buffer link, and a buffer
at the pipe’s other end, completes the system.
Deep-sea mining activities would involve three main phases (Hajkowicz et al. 2011):
(i) Research, exploration, feasibility, and funds

(ii) Development and manufacturing of equipment, operation, and rehabilitation, and
(iii) Long-term monitoring and recycling of new products
The impact of mining on the oceanic environment would be in 3-ways: operational, spatial, and tem-
poral and there are several ways to mitigate these concerns (SPC, 2013).
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FIGURE 7.4 Remotely Operable In-situ Soil Tester (ROSIS) (https://niot.res.in).
Presently some mining systems are available in the international market that are used to exploit
the beach and nearshore placer minerals. Various equipment has been used to demonstrate recovery
of the nodules but since commercial operations are yet to take off there is no large-scale production.
The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT, Chennai India), in collaboration with the
University of Siegen (Germany), and also the CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research
Institute (Durgapur, India), have been working on a mining concept where a crawler-based mining
machine collects, crushes, and pumps crushed nodules from 6,000 m water depth to the mother ship.
The NIOT has also fabricated systems such as a subsea solid pump system that works at a depth of
little more than 1,000 m, a fully electrical remotely operable subsea in-situ soil tester (Figure 7.4)
that was operated at 5,462 m water depth, and an acoustic underwater positioning system for 5,400
m water depth.
The NIOT has built a Remotely Operated Submersible (ROSUB 6000) (Figure 7.5) which was
deployed at a water depth of 6,000 m in the CIOB to exhibit its capability to pick up the nodules
from the seabed. Work is underway to develop a battery-operated submersible that would have an
endurance of 12 hours, dive up to 6,000 m, and can be manually operated (Atmanand et al. 2019). In
June 2021 the Government of India approved about US$ 550 million to implement the Deep Ocean
Mission over a period of 5 years. This multi-institutional mission mode project would support the
BE and the Ministry of Earth Sciences would be the nodal agency. As a part of this initiative devel-
opment for deep-sea and manned submersible (Figure 7.6) would be indigenously developed and
deployed in the CIOB and an IMS would be fabricated to mine the nodules. This equipment as
components of the BE could significantly help to explore and exploit the CIOB nodules in a sustain-
able and environmental-friendly manner.
7.8.4 Enrichment
The recovered nodules need to be transported to onshore laboratories or beneficiation plants where
the metals from the nodules would be extracted. It was envisaged that extraction of the metals could
account for 60-70% of the total cost of the nodule mining project (Kunzendorf, 1986; Padan, 1990).
Since late 1980, the various methods to extract the metals from the CIOB nodules have been
undertaken in three organizations: the Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology (IMMT, erst-
while Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar, using the ammoniacal sulfur dioxide leach
route), National Metallurgical Laboratory (Jamshedpur, following the roast reduction ammoniacal
leach route), and Hindustan Zinc Limited (Udaipur, using the acid leach-pressure leach route). Over
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FIGURE 7.5 ROSUB-6000 (https://niot.res.in).
FIGURE 7.6 Design and development of a manned submersible for 6,000 m water depth (https://niot.res.in).
209
the last four decades more than 50 tonnes of nodules have been processed for three metal (Cu, Ni,
Co) extractions in these laboratories and in recent years the process has been refined to obtain Mn
(which forms the bulk of the nodules).
The IMMT identified two main extractive methods: pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy. In
pyrometallurgy, nodules are smelted at high temperature under reducing conditions to produce a
crude alloy of Ni, Cu, Co, and Fe. In contrast, hydrometallurgy is a low-temperature aqueous pro-
cess in which a copious amount of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is used. Both the processes efficiently
extract Ni (∼90%) and Cu (80%–90%), but Co and Mn are better recovered through pyrometallurgy.
Both the processes result in an enriched Mn-bearing slag and this value-added by-product could be
mixed with low-grade terrestrial manganese ores for use in industries.
Because of the high-energy cost of pyrometallurgical processing, it was decided to combine hydro-
and pyro-metallurgical processes in a cost-effective manner. This helped to enhance pure metal
extraction to about 99.8%, comprising of Ni (94.2%), Cu (93.9%), and Co (62.5%; Sen, 1999). Cobalt
was recovered up to 79% by using liquid and gaseous reductants (Srikanth et al. 1997). Bioelectro-
chemical in the presence of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and T. thiooxidans results in recovery of Ni
(0.735 gm), Cu (0.709 gm), and Co (0.308 gm) from every 100 gm of nodules (Kumari and Natarajan,
2002). By recycling and use of bulk chemicals, bioelectro-chemical could be congenial for commer-
cial use (Agarwal and Goodrich, 2003). In some processes H2SO4 acid can be avoided by using a
stoichiometric amount of FeSO4 (Vu et al. 2005), oxidative precipitation (Zhang and Cheng, 2007),
and use of ammonia (Sen, 2010). Further research could result in better ways to economically extract
the metals from the nodules and also address the environmental concerns.
7.8.5 Economics
According to the ISA (ISA, 2010), a nodule-rich area may be categorized as an individual commer-
cially feasible mine site if 3 million metric tonnes of nodules per year are possible to be recovered
continuously for 20 years. The economic interest in nodules has received attention from several
mining companies because the metals within the nodules have applications in many hi-tech and
green-tech industries such as ferroalloys, dry cell and rechargeable batteries, steel manufacturing,
and in critical sectors like energy, military and IT.
It is predicted that by 2030 about 10% of the global minerals could be recovered from the ocean
floor (European Commission, 2012). But this is easily said than done since the Contractor has to
address the above 4Es, following the stringent guidelines of ISA. An in-depth analysis of the cost-
benefit factors could help to realize the feasibility of profits through mining the nodules. Towards
this, the factors to be considered are capital costs (mother ship, support vessels), manpower, salaries,
daily expenses, hire/purchase of mining equipment, conveyance of personnel, transport of nodules
to land, setting-up an onshore metal beneficiation plant, price variations of the metals in the market,
vagaries of nature that could restrict mining operations and other known/unknown aspects.
The total resource in the 75,000 km2 PA of India is 365 mt, with Mn of 95.17 mt, Ni 4.508 mt,
Cu 4.455 mt, and Co 0.418 mt (all wet nodules), and the approximate value of the four metals were
estimated at US$331,840 million (Sharma, 2015). A comprehensive financial feasibility study of
a possible nodule mining in the CIOB was made by Mukhopadhyay et al. (2019). Those authors
considered the above parameters together with nodule reserve (200 mt), metal grade (Mn +Ni +Cu
+Co =54 mt), and an operating cycle of the mining system for 6 months in a year over a period of
25 years. It was calculated that with an initial start-up cost of US$ 5,000 million, and based on the
EBIDT (i.e. earnings before interest, depreciation, and tax), a negative net present value (NPV) and
with a profitability index (PI) less than 1, in the first 5 years of the mining operation in the CIOB
may not be highly profitable. But by the eighth year, due to a notable increase in NPV and PI, the
Contractor could begin to book profits for at least a decade. Though presently far-fetched but if new
ore deposits are discovered on land, then any Contractor may have to forego substantial profits by
mining the nodules.
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Nodule mining is viable provided we have an appropriate ecofriendly mining technology, the
demand for the metals in the global market shows an upward trend, availability of an efficient metal-
lurgical process, and that future tax and royalty fee structure remain investor-friendly. Satisfactory
completion of the 5Es could help to appreciate the concept of “Minerals to Market” and justification
to mine the nodules.
7.9 BLUE ECONOMY OF POLYMETALLIC NODULES

In the background of the above information and considering the need for marine minerals, we now
discuss the 5Es of the CIOB nodule deposits with respect to the BE paradigm. To sustainably mine
the nodules the various facets of the BE need to be covered. These are optimum use of finance for best
results, transport of personnel and nodules, human resources and training, employment and business
opportunities, skill development, minimum damage to the environment, collaborations among others.
7.9.1 Exploration
Exploratory activities for the nodules need to be well-planned since huge costs are involved and fre-
quent use of research vessels to sample the nodules could leave behind large footprints of carbon.
Further, regular cruises to the exploration area could also severely affect the biota of the ocean.
Hence, it could be prudent if more than one Contractor in the Pacific Ocean join hands during the
exploratory work so that cost overruns and environmental issues could be minimized. India, the sole
Contractor for the CIOB, could conduct her cruises from the nearest country such as Seychelles or
Mauritius. This would help to share finance, ship-time, result in scientific collaborations, create jobs
in the host countries, and help improve the economy of these countries. Interestingly, both these
countries have made significant progress in implementing the BE, and furthermore, Seychelles has
a separate Ministry of Finance, Trade, and Blue Economy.
7.9.2 EIA
In 1970, the Deep-Sea Ventures Inc. (USA) carried out the first EIA studies to decipher the impact of
mining of deep-sea minerals. It was opined that it is important to understand the nature of bottom sedi-
ment, sub-bottom water, and overlying water column during mining. To address these concerns several
environmental parameters are required to be measured and monitored before, during, and after mining.
Water samples need to be collected from several desired depths from different locations since
the characteristics of flux, colloidal material, and particulate matter, in the water column, influences
metal adsorption in nodules. Several sensors are to be lowered along with rosette samplers to
measure temperature gradient, conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, light transmissivity, and other
parameters in the water column.
Based on their body size, deep-sea biota are classified into four classes (Raghukumar et al. 2001;
Smith et al. 2008):
(i) M
egafauna of >3 cm (fish, octopus, squids, starfish, and the like) thriving in the water
column and sediment surface,
(ii) Macrofauna of 3 cm to 62 µm (polychaete) living within the sediment,
(iii) Meiofauna 62 to <500 µm (foraminifera, shrimps, nematodes) within the sediment, and
(iv) Microfauna (bacteria, fungi) within sediments and on nodules.
Biological sampling is essential to recover biota of various sizes (mega-, macro-, micro-, and
meiofauna). The seabed sediments that would be disturbed by the collector device and suspended
in the water would disrupt, displace and bury the biota. During cleaning and crushing of nodules on
the seabed prior to their recovery, the resultant slurry could affect the ecology.
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A discharge depth of 1,000 m for the slurry was suggested which would reduce the sediment
plume to depths greater than the biologically active zone defined by more intensive vertical migra-
tion (Thiel, 2001). But we also need to account for the bottom current regime before fixing the
final discharge depth of the tailings (Young and Richardson, 1998; Murty et al. 2001; Raghukumar
et al. 2006).
Deep-sea mining results in the oceanic environment being subjected to short-and long-time
disturbances and the recovery could be slow or fast in the mining area. The seabed would undergo
long-term disturbance and a slow rate of recovery due to physical impact and sediment suspension.
The water column would show both the effects: reduction in nutrients because of the sediment
plume (long term) and on marine life (short term) (Berge et al. 1991; Sharma et al. 2015).
Several environmental experimental programs namely, Metalliferous Sediment in Atlantis
II Deep (MESADA, 1977-81), Red Sea; Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study (DOMES),
Disturbance and Recolonization (DISCOL), Benthic Impact Experiment (BIE), and Japan Deep
Sea Impact Experiment (JET) were undertaken in the world’s oceans to study the impact of mining
on the environment. The objective of MESADA (Germany) was to exploit metalliferous mud and
sediment from a depth of 10 m below the seabed from an area of 60 km2. A total of 12,000 m3 of
tailings containing 225 tonnes of particulate matter was discharged at 400 m water depth during this
test. The resultant plume was traced to a depth of 1,100 m with lateral extension up to 900 m around
the discharge point, which later extended to 5,000 m within 10 days. MESDA’s work showed that a
mining unit with a capacity of 100,000 tonnes per day would discharge 400,000 m3 of toxic tailings
every day and this could severely damage the marine food chain.
The DOMES, DISCOL, BIE, and JET were undertaken in the Pacific Ocean. The DOMES
(NOAA, USA) studied the effect of mining on surface discharge plume, the particulate and
dissolved phases, trace metals, particle accumulation at the pycnocline, and light attenuation. The
bacterial growth and oxygen demand, the standing stock of phytoplankton, nutrients, trace metal
uptake, fish and benthos were also examined (Thiel, 2001). The study suggested regular monitoring
in the mining area to determine in-situ settling velocities of particulate phases and their role on
the biota.
DISCOL, a long-term large-scale experiment was conducted in the tropical South Pacific by the
then West German government to understand the recolonization of the fauna. The study was carried
out in an area of 10 km2 at a water depth of 4,150 m about 600 km south of the Galapagos Islands.
During the experiment, about 20% bottom sediment was turned and still and video photographs of
the seabed were obtained before, during, and after the disturbance. It was inferred that (1) bottom-
dwelling and nodule-crevice fauna have little chance to recolonize, (2) stalked species, penetrating
through the sediment blanket, can recover after initial shocks of the sediment plume, (3) tailings
should preferably be discharged below the euphotic zone to ensure productivity, and (4) scattering
of tailings discharge depends on the nature of the water column and the current regime, which differs
from place to place (Thiel, 2001).
The BIE, a joint study by the US and erstwhile Commonwealth of the Independent States (CIS),
was made in the North Pacific. The test area was experimentally disturbed in May 1992 and sampled
after 4 months. Both continuous line bucket and hydraulic lift systems were used and the impact
on the near-surface biological productivity and bottom-dwelling fauna was examined. The Metal
Mining Agency of Japan and the NOAA investigated the impact studies of artificial disturbance
under the JET, in the North Pacific (off Mexico). The area was monitored to understand pre-and
post-disturbance conditions.
Deep scattering layer depths and vertical migration behaviors are proxies for mesopel-
agic micronekton and zooplankton communities by using acoustic Doppler current profilers.
Environmental data are acquired of mean midwater oxygen partial pressure, surface chlorophyll-
a, and sea surface height anomaly. Such studies were carried out in the CCZ by Perelman et al.
(2021). In the midwater (i.e. the epipelagic, abyssopelagic, meso-and bathypelagic zones) the
212
environmental impacts are expected to be less because no equipment is deployed (Leal Filho et al.
2021). The surface water could be affected by noise and light from ships, hydraulic oil, and waste
discharges (Washburn et al. 2019).
Due to the creation of the plumes caused as a result of removal, discharge, and re-deposition
of sediments; benthic organisms may get buried, the respiratory surfaces of filter feeders could
get clogged reduce the metal content, and also cause depletion in oxygen (Leal Filho et al. 2021).
Light and noise pollutions from ships, cameras, machineries, and other instruments could disturb
the marine life which would avoid habitats, be temporarily blinded among others (Stanley and Jeffs,
2016; Deep Sea Mining Campaign, 2019).
During sediment, plumes would be generated, and these may have severe ecological effects in
deep midwaters that extend from a water depth of 200 m to 5,000 m. The deep midwater hosts more
than 90% of the biosphere and has fish biomass 100 times greater than the global annual fish catch.
The midwater fauna would suffer (Gillard et al. 2019) and since the midwater is connected with the
deep-sea, therefore ecosystems that play key roles in carbon export and regeneration of nutrients
could be affected (Drazen et al. 2020). The biodiversity and dynamics of midwater ecosystems are
important factors that need to be considered and necessary steps need to be taken to lessen the envir-
onmental impact on the midwater regime by the Contractors.
Mining of nodules, as and when it commences, needs to be sustainable and have mitigated
measures in place. Any deep-sea mining venture would have three main phases.
Phase I: research, exploration, feasibility, and funding

Phase II: system fabrication, operation, and rehabilitation
Phase III: long-term monitoring and recycling of new products (Hajkowicz et al. 2011).
Mining would affect the environment in three ways: during operation, and on spatial and tem-
poral scales. Some of the operational mitigating measures are: (1) to use a closed lifting mechanism
so that the nodules do not fall onto the seabed and result in additional operations, (2) spread the
discharge fluid close to the seafloor rather than releasing it in the water column, (3) minimize waste
production, (4) have effective sewage treatment plants. The spatial mitigating management plans
need to include: (1) identify nearby areas for conservation, (2) delineate areas for total mining, par-
tial mining, fisheries, and tourism, and (3) evaluate the location of waste discharge to ensure min-
imal impact on ecosystems. The temporal measures suggest that the million-year scale of nodule
growth and long time that is required for faunal recovery in the abyssal would make short timescale
measures impractical. Yet, as best mining practices environmental it is essential to have in place
management plans.
Time-series (few months, a year, few years) information need to be undertaken. The collation
and analysis would significantly help to identify the possible threats to the organisms and the ver-
tical and lateral dispersal of the sediment plume. Although several investigations have/are been
conducted in the Pacific and Indian oceans yet, these are insufficient to predict the true extent of
impact when full-scale deep-sea mining commences.
7.9.3 Exploitation
Mining systems that are under development have to consider the following. (a) The mining equipment
should be made of materials that are non-toxic to the seawater environment, be of low weight, able
to bear the huge hydrostatic pressure, and be minimally non-corrosive. (b) The system must be able
to move freely over the seafloor without either toppling or getting stuck in the sediments. Hence,
there is a need to study the microtopography of the seabed and sediment properties. (c) The mining
system needs to be easily steered around seafloor mounds and rocks and to be moved from one site
to another. (d) Transport the recovered nodules to beneficiation plants on land.
213
The Blue Nodule project involves 14 industry and research partners from nine European coun-
tries. The project aims to: manufacture a state-of-art and industrially viable mining system that can
be used between 3,000 and 6,000 m water depths and to develop an in-situ sediment separation and
sizing equipment. The nodules would be processed (dewatering and conditioning) onboard and it
would be ensured that there is minimum impact on the environment (www.blue-nodules.eu).
Besides the scarce availability of technology, certain related factors limit deep-sea mining viz.
availability of land ore and mineral deposits, payment of millions of dollars by Contractors to the
ISA to obtain a license and for its annual renewal, huge capital investments either by consortia
or governments or through a partnership among them. Once technologies are developed, environ-
mental concerns are accounted for and mining mechanisms are established, then the day is not far
off when countries would be retrieving metals from the deep sea.
Though there are proponents for deep-sea mining but Miller et al. (2021) opine that there are
ample risks to biodiversity, ecosystem function, and related ecosystem services, and a lack of equit-
able benefit sharing amongst the global community now and for future generations. They justify a
moratorium on deep-sea mining so as to protect the marine ecosystems and to focus on baseline
research. These steps could improve governance, preservation, and conservation of ocean biome in
the nodule mining areas.
7.9.4 Enrichment
Simultaneous processing of SMS and nodules was reported by Kowalczuk et al. (2019). Those
authors leached different ratios of nodules and SMS by using H2SO4 and sodium chloride (NaCl).
The experiment resulted in high extraction of metals while the residues had silicates (quartz, mus-
covite, microcline, albite), elemental sulfur, barite, and traces of sulfides (<1wt.%). These products
could be purified and used in various applications e.g. electronics, glass, ceramics, oil and gas
drilling (baryte), etc. Simultaneous leaching of marine minerals lessens the need for additional oxi-
dizing and reducing agents and is also a less costly, time-saving, and more environmentally friendly
process. This method helps to avoid pyrometallurgical pretreatment of nodules and the use of expen-
sive hydrochloric acid.
A suitable ore beneficiation method for nodules must study if the selected process is techno-
economically feasible, market demand for the metals, infrastructure for the plant and its location,
and significant, at least 30%, return on investments. In addition, environmental consequences of the
processing methods on the groundwater and atmosphere and noise pollution need to be considered.
7.9.5 Economics
There are several sectors of the BE and these need to be made inclusive in the economics of nodule
mining. Mining being a capital-intensive venture requires massive funds, machineries, and man-
power. These could be undertaken by a Contractor through collaborations within the country or with
other Contractors. Investments could be sought from government and corporates and by raising the
capital amount through public offerings. The cost and time involved in developing technology and
systems for mining could be reduced by outsourcing these to private firms instead of being carried
out by one or two entities. The technology developed by a Contractor could be sold or hired to
others at a reasonable price. Since different areas have been allotted and not all Contractors would
be simultaneously carrying out mining in their respective areas, hence exchange of information and
sharing of mining systems could be viable options. And these recommendations are more apt for the
several Contractors in the Pacific Ocean.
Mining and shipping of the nodules, and ore beneficiation activities could provide ample jobs
both skilled and unskilled, and also help to train hundreds of people in various ways. Small Island
Developing States (SIDS) could be used by the Contractors for their ports, maintenance of the
214
mining systems, and if feasible create facilities for metal beneficiation plants. Obviously, during
such activities we need to consider the environmental impacts on the SIDS and have precautions
in place.
In summary, India’s efforts to sustainably mine the nodules could bear fruit for the reasons that
since more than four decades copious amount of a spectrum of data has been gathered pertaining to
the various aspects of the CIOB, including EIA studies. A few hundred promising mineable blocks
have been demarcated in which close grid sampling (nodules and sediments) would be undertaken
and microtopography would be examined. These inputs are needed prior to deploying an ROV and
the mining system which are being developed. Further, beneficiation routes have been defined which
would be able to extract four metals from the nodules with less wastage of chemicals and low impact
on the environment. And finally, although the expiration of the Contract of India was on 24th March
2022 and is likely to be renewed; the Indian government has invested large capitals to conduct the
above activities in different laboratories.
It is envisioned that the allied aspects of the BE paradigm could get an impetus once deep-
sea mining starts. Some of the sectors that could benefit are employment opportunities, maritime
activities (ship building and maintenance, upgradation of ports to handle and transport the nodules,
etc.), scientific collaborations (within and outside India), indigenous technology, skill development,
increase in production of raw materials and chemicals that would be required in beneficiation plants,
better ways to dispose of the treated tailings, improvements in infrastructure, IT, among others.
7.10 EPILOGUE
Deep-sea mining involves key challenges but in the near future, we may have to turn our attention
to the ocean for mineral deposits due reasons such as depleting terrestrial resources, non-availability
or scarcity of some important minerals/metals, or no discoveries of land deposits. Hence, it is pru-
dent that we develop and refine deep-sea mining technologies, create a detailed EIA database, and
have in place robust EMP and remedial measures. The work towards these could be hastened and
the enormous cost and time overruns could be reduced if Contractors and corporates work in unison
instead of in isolation.
After the Goa Declaration in 2015 (Mohanty et al. 2015), the Indian government has taken sev-
eral steps to recognize and enhance the BE sectors that pertain to marine minerals. The National
Institute of Transforming India (NITI) is collaborating with several stakeholders and the Ministry
of Earth Sciences to successfully implement a sustainable use of the several blue minerals (placers,
SMS, polymetallic nodules). This is in tune with the policy statement which states that, “The blue
economy refers to the exploring and optimizing the potential of the oceans and seas which are under
India’s legal jurisdiction for socio-economic development while preserving the health of the oceans.”
It is envisaged that the blue minerals could significantly contribute to India’s projected economy of
US$10 trillion by 2030, despite the recent set-backs due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.
Deep-sea mining aims for a “Green Economy in a Blue World,” and to maintain a fine balance
between economic, social, and natural gains. The green economy is a low-carbon, resource-efficient,
and socially inclusive initiative to help improve human well-being, enhance social security, reduce
ecological risk, and limit environmental sacrifices (UNEP et al. 2012). This would result in a
greener and more resilient economy, with low-carbon footprints, social inclusiveness, increased
social security, decrease in ecological damages and risks, among others. We need to learn from the
mistakes made during terrestrial mining that have resulted in environmental damage, demographic
change, and low economic returns. The notion of green economy is that no single form of capital
grows more than the others (SPC, 2013). National politics and international geopolitics may be
hurdles to deep-sea mining activities. Several important trials and tribulations are needed to be over-
come in a phased manner to make deep-sea mining an economically viable and environmentally
sustainable venture.
215
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge Prof. Dr. Md. Nazrul Islam for the invitation to contribute this chapter. We thank
the support extended by DMC College and Goa University during the preparation of the manuscript.
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8 Development and Challenges

of Indian Ocean Blue
Economy and Opportunities
for Sri Lanka
Nawalage S. Cooray,1 Upul Premarathna,2 Keerthi Sri
Senarathna Atapaththu,3 and Tilak Priyadarshana3*
1
Graduate School of International Relations, International University of
Japan (IUJ), Japan
2
Department of Oceanography and Marine Geology, Faculty of Fisheries
and Marine Sciences & Technology, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka
3
Department of Limnology and Water Technology, Faculty of Fisheries
and Marine Sciences & Technology, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka
*Corresponding Author: Tilak Priyadarshana
CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 222
8.1.1 Blue Economy as a Concept...................................................................................... 222
8.1.2 Historical Records of the Indian Ocean.................................................................... 223
8.1.3 Historical Records of Sri Lanka................................................................................ 224
8.2 Blue Economic Potentials in the Region and Sri Lanka....................................................... 225
8.2.1 Fisheries and Aquaculture......................................................................................... 228
8.2.1.1 Fisheries......................................................................................................230
8.2.1.2 Mariculture.................................................................................................. 230
8.2.2 Renewable Ocean Energy.......................................................................................... 233
8.2.2.1 Wind Power.................................................................................................233
8.2.2.2 Wave Energy...............................................................................................233
8.2.3 Seaports and Shipping............................................................................................... 233
8.2.4 Marine and Coastal Tourism..................................................................................... 236
8.2.4.1 Coastal Tourism..........................................................................................236
8.2.5 Offshore Hydrocarbons and Minerals....................................................................... 238
8.2.5.1 Hydrocarbons.............................................................................................. 238
8.2.5.2 Minerals......................................................................................................241
8.2.6 Marine Biotechnology, Research and Development................................................. 245
8.3 Economic Analysis................................................................................................................ 246
8.3.1 Fisheries and Aquaculture......................................................................................... 246
8.3.1.1 Fisheries......................................................................................................246
8.4 Challenges to Developing the Blue Economy in the Region and in Sri Lanka..................... 246
8.4.1 Driving Forces Impacting the Blue Economy........................................................... 246
8.4.1.1 Fisheries and Aquaculture........................................................................... 247
8.4.1.2 Tourism.......................................................................................................248
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-8 221

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8.4.1.3 Ports and Shipping......................................................................................248

8.4.1.4 Energy Resources........................................................................................ 249
8.4.1.5 Climate Change........................................................................................... 249
8.4.1.6 Pollution......................................................................................................249
8.4.2 Policies and Regulations........................................................................................... 250
8.5 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................253
References....................................................................................................................................... 253
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Oceans are approximately three-quarters of the earth’s surface, accountable for more than 90% of
the biosphere, providing an array of goods and services to the global community which includes
food, employment, recreation and cultural well-being, minerals, oxygen production, greenhouse gas
absorbance, climate change impact mitigation, and serve as highways for seaborne international
trade (United Nations, 2017). For the development of economies along with the threats posed by
the climate change and global warming the concept of the Blue Economy was first introduced in
1994 by Professor Gunter Pauli of the United Nations University (UNU). Because of this significant
role played by the oceans, the importance of implementing sustainable development measures for
marine environment was discussed at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
(Rio+20) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 2012. Consequently, the conference adopted a set of
ground-breaking guidelines on green economic policies which are considered as essential tools for
achieving sustainable development goals (United Nations, 2012). With strong support from coastal
and island nations at the conference, because of the contribution made by the oceans to their econ-
omies, the ocean derived green economy was accepted as the blue economy.
8.1.1 Blue Economy as a Concept

It has been nearly a decade since the conference held at Rio de Janeiro which led to the devel-
opment of the ‘Blue Economy’ concept. The blue economy is a way of looking at the eco-
nomic growth of a nation through its contribution from ocean and costal based activities while
assuring environmental sustainability and assuring livelihood improvement. The oceans are huge
natural resource pools that consist of both renewable and non-renewable resources that can be
utilized in many industries to strengthen the economies of nations (Sumaila, 2021). Among the
many definitions for the concept of blue economy Kathijotes (2013) identifies it as a system
of ocean based green economy that connects to create neo-science and technologies. In other
words, strengthening economic systems through ocean-based resources can be referred as ‘ocean
economy’, while using ocean resources sustainably, giving due consideration to the ecological
aspects for economic development can be defined as ‘blue economy’. Therefore, efficient, and
optimal utilization of marine natural resources within ecological capacities are important aspects
of blue economy and can be identified as:
i. a subset of the economy,

ii. encouraging production from ocean inputs,
iii. utilizing ocean resources sustainably without degrading the environment,
iv. aiming to reduce environmental risks and ecological scarcities, and
v. supporting livelihoods in an equitable manner with benefit-sharing
According to Keen et al. (2018) there are five key components of the blue economy: ecosystem
resilience, economic sustainability, community engagement, institutional integration, and tech-
nical capacity. Thus, the blue economy can be referred to as the sustainable management of ocean
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Blue Economy Opportunities for Sri Lanka 223
resources to support livelihoods, the fostering of more equitable benefit-sharing, while enhancing
ecosystem resilience to climate change, eliminating destructive fishing practices, and managing
pressures from external sources to the fisheries sector. According to Wenhai et al. (2019), in all
definitions of the blue economy, there are common key areas that includes a strategic framework, a
kind of policy, being part of the green economy, a sustainable marine economy, and a marine-based
new technology economy, despite the country specific views, because the core of the blue economy
is ocean based.
Ocean based economic activities such as fishing, shipping, harnessing offshore wind, maritime
and coastal tourism, and marine biotechnology accounts for nearly US$ 1.5 trillion, or 2.5% of
the global gross value added in the year 2010. Further, global blue economy sustains 350 million
livelihoods, with a continuous increasing contribution over the last few years, and the predicted
size of the blue economic contribution accounts to US$ 3.0 trillion by 2030 (Sumaila, 2021).
Consequently, in managing economies, the concept of the blue economy is becoming increasingly
popular as it is one of the vital tools that can be used by many nations.
8.1.2 Historical Records of the Indian Ocean

The Indian Ocean (Figure 8.1) is unique in terms of its mix of natural resources, cultures, ethnic
groups, and shipping routes across its nations and has a long history of human involvements mainly
associated with its unique wind pattern for sailing (Cordner, 2011). High intensity temperature
oscillations of water masses between the Western Pacific and the Eastern Indian Ocean, attributed
to a large scale Tropical Warm Pool, interact with the atmosphere to build a seasonal wind pattern.
From May to September (the summer monsoon season) the Indian Ocean faces south-westerly
winds and from December to February (the winter monsoon season) north-easterly winds, while
from March to April (the pre summer monsoon) and October to November (the post summer mon-
soon) are considered as inter-monsoon seasons. Sailors used the advantage of south-westerly and
north-easterly winds to travel and return between the countries of the region and conduct their inter-
national business. Maritime trade records found between Egypt and Somalia (circa 3,000 BC) and
Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley (circa 2,500 BC) are the early records and wind pattern might be
the reason. The years between 1960s and 1970s and, after the Cold War, it has experienced a polit-
ically unstable period.
FIGURE 8.1 Indian Ocean on the World Map.

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TABLE 8.1
Indian Ocean Counties and Islands
Population
density (per
Continent Countries Islands Population sq km)
African Djibouti, Egypt, Kenya, Eritrea, Mauritius, Seychelles, 1,340,598,147 45

Mozambique, Somalia, Somaliland, Comoros, Madagascar,
South Africa, Sudan, Yemen, Mayotte, Réunion
Tanzania
Asian Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Chagos and Diego Garcia, 4,641,054,775 150
Kuwait, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Cocos
Saudi Arabia, UAE, Pakistan, India,
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand,
Timor-Leste
Oceania Australia Ashmore and Cartier, Christmas 43,111,704 5
Antarctica Prince Edward, Heard and 0 0
McDonald, French Southern
and Antarctic Lands,
Amsterdam and Saint Paul,
Crozet, Kerguelen
In particular for the Indian Ocean, the concept of the blue economy is vital as is the diversity of
the ring countries (Table 8.1), its resources, increasing population and the extent of the ocean. The
prevalence of strong southwest monsoon winds induces upwelling which augments the oceanic
productivity (Gonaduwage et. al. 2021, Zeng et. al. 2021). Upwelling zones can be identified as
major regional components of biological production and are important for the socioeconomics of
fishing livelihoods (Tacon and Metian, 2008) which account for about 11% of global marine primary
production (Chavez and Toggweiler, 1995). Further, oceanic productivity is largely influenced by
the excess freshwater input from monsoon rain and river runoff (Hermes et al. 2019). It is predicted
that the Indian Ocean Rim (IOR) countries will be the home for nearly half of the world population
by 2050.
8.1.3 Historical Records of Sri Lanka

It is apparent that Sri Lanka’s involvement in international maritime trading from ancient times,
connecting the east-west maritime route, Greece, Rome and Persia from the west and India, South
Asian countries, and China from the east. Sri Lanka had been treated as the meeting point of traders
from the east and west. According to the literature, Sri Lankan maritime history dated back to
the 6th century B.C, through the well-known seaport of Mahatiththa (Mahatota) that linked to the
Indian Ocean trade network for more than thousand years (Kiribamune, 1991; Bohingamuwa, 2017;
Sudharmawathie, 2017). The very reason that Sri Lanka became important in maritime history is its
geographical location in the Indian Ocean. By the 6th century CE, ancient Mahatiththa had been one
of the major seaports and one of the greatest entrepots of Indian Ocean maritime (Indicopleustes,
2010; Bohingamuwa, 2017).
Archaeological findings of megalithic black pottery, red pottery, and several fragments of
imported Rouletted Ware which were similar to those found in the South Indian coast, provide
strong evidence for the close maritime relations of Sri Lanka with India (Bopearachchi, 2002;
Bohingamuwa, 2017). It proves that maritime trade and commerce has played a significant
225
role in Sri Lankan history, specifically with India, Persia, and Ethiopia (Indicopleustes, 2010).
Similarly, early Brahmin inscriptions from Andiyagama in Anuradhapura and the Nainativu Tamil
Inscription of King Parakramabahu is evidence of maritime voyages and state trading with other
countries (Indrapala 1963). According to Murphy (2004), Taprobaneans (Sri Lankans) were also
a trading nation whose merchants sailed great distances to India and China similar to competi-
tive Mediterranean traders who were dominant in the Roman world. Besides maritime trade and
commerce, Sri Lankans had been engaged in ship manufacturing, repairing, and supplying raw
materials for ships (Hall, 2009; Indicopleustes, 2010). Around 100 BC, Sri Lankan maritime trade
and commerce was further augmented by the pearl fishery and was famous for natural pearls in the
world for more than two millennia, particularly there were high foreign earnings for the country
(Katupotha, 2019). These pearls were exported to Rome either by Roman or Greek ships and those
were highly valued in Rome. Famous pearl banks were in the proximity of the ancient seaport of
Mahatiththa, and thus, this port city was considered to be one of the main pearl processing centres
of the region (Bohingamuwa, 2017).
8.2 BLUE ECONOMIC POTENTIALS IN THE REGION AND SRI LANKA

The Indian Ocean covers approximately one fifth of the surface area of the earth’s surface which
amounts to 73.5 million km2 extending from longitude 20° E to 147° E and latitudes 30° N to 40° S
which includes extensive EEZs of different countries and large seas (Table 8.2). The Indian Ocean
is a territory boarded by Asia in the north, Africa in the west, Australia in the east and Antarctica
in the south. It has a coastline of 114,172 km boarded by 32 countries and 18 islands. South Asian
countries are fortunate to a part of the Bay of Bengal, the largest bay in the world bordered by
Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka in north, west, east, and southwest respectively (Bari,
2017). Even though the percentage land cover of the IORCs is small, the total share of world’s EEZ
is nearly 17% (Table 8.2).
The geographical position of the Indian Ocean in terms of industry, international trade, trans-
port, labour, environment, and security together with a considerable portion of the world’s popula-
tion will increasingly influence the global economy in the twenty-first century (Timothey, 2018) by
representing approximately a 13% share of the world’s GDP (Table 8.2). Further, population of the
IORCs has been growing exponentially in the last couple of decades with a population of approxi-
mately 2.42 billion in 2020 which represents nearly 30% of the world population. It is expected to
be half of the world population by 2050 (Timothey, 2018).
Furthermore, half of the world’s trade transport is through this region, due to its geographical
significance. The Liner Shipping Connectivity Index (LSCI) captures the level of integration of each
country into the existing global liner shipping network by measuring liner shipping connectivity,
which is computed by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The
LSCI is a function of the number of ships, their container-carrying capacity, maximum vessel size,
number of services, and number of companies that deploy container ships in a country’s ports. Sri
Lanka ranked fifth among other Indian Ocean Rim Countries (Figure 8.2) indicating the global val-
idity of the Sri Lankan shipping industry. Further, there is an increasing trend in Sri Lankan LSCI
over the last two decades, and the increment was approximately two-fold during this period, and we
are very close to UAE and France (Figure 8.2).
IORC are rich in both marine and terrestrial natural resources which are essential for the stability
of both the built and the natural environment. Blue economy as a concept is well fitting to the Indian
Ocean countries and the Indian Ocean region, is defined by a ‘maritime regionalism’, and the Indian
Ocean is considered to be the ‘Ocean of the future’ (Timothey, 2018, Doyle and Seal, 2015).
Sri Lanka being an island in the Indian Ocean, accounts to 1600 km of coastline and territorial
waters extended up to 22 km from the shoreline covering an area of 21,500 km2. As per the provision
set out in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the island has
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TABLE 8.2
Potential of the IOR Counties (EEZ, Terrestrial Land Extent, GDP, and Population)
Land Area % of EEZ Compared GDP (US$) Population as at

IOR Country EEZ (km2) (km2) to Total Area in 2020 2020 (thousand)
Australia 8,505,348 7,692,020 52.51 1,359.33 25,500

Bangladesh 118,813 130,170 47.72 329.12 164,689
Comoros 164,476 1,861 98.88 1.22 870
French Republic 345,240 547,557 38.67 2,598.91 65,274
India 2,305,143 2,973,190 43.67 2,708.77 1,380,004
Indonesia 6,159,032 1,877,519 76.64 1,059.64 273,524
Iran 168,718 1,628,760 9.39 635.72 83,993
Kenya 116,942 569,140 17.04 99.29 53,771
Madagascar 1,225,259 581,800 67.80 13.84 27,691
Malaysia 334,671 328,550 50.46 338.28 32,366
Maldives 923,322 300 99.97 3.76 541
Mauritius 1,284,997 2,030 99.84 11.40 1,272
Mozambique 578,986 786,380 42.41 14.38 31,255
Oman 533,180 309,500 63.27 63.19 5,107
Seychelles 1,336,559 460 99.97 1.13 98
Singapore 1,607 709 69.39 339.98 5,850
South Africa 1,535,538 1,213,090 55.87 302.11 59,309
Sri Lanka 532,619 61,864 89.59 80.70 21,413
Somalia 50,229 627,340 7.41 4.92 15,893
Tanzania 241,888 885,800 21.45 63.24 59,734
Thailand 299,397 510,890 36.95 501.89 69,800
United Arab Emirates 58,218 71,020 45.05 354.28 9,800
Yemen 552,669 527,970 52.51 20.14 29,826
Share of IORC (%) 17.1 1.5 12.9 30.0
Source: EEZ: https://vividmaps.com/exclusive-economic-zones-maps/ and https://marineregions.org/ access on

09.11.2021; Land Area: World Bank data base available at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.
K2 access on 09.11.2021.
GDP: World Economic Outlook Database available at https://imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/

April, access on 08.11.2021; Population: United Nations world population prospects available at https://populat
ion.un.org/wpp/ access on 08.11.2021.
been able to claim an offshore area EEZ, which is approximately 517,000 km2 and eight times
the size of the onshore of the island (Figure 8.3). The outer edge of the EEZ is 200 nautical miles
(370 km) from a baseline, which more or less coincides with the coastline of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka
has exclusive rights to the living and non-living resources of the water column, on the seabed and
the subsurface under the EEZ. The majority of Sri Lanka’s EEZ lies in water depths of more than
3000 m. According to the Annex II of Article 76 of the UNCLOS, coastal states such as Sri Lanka
can claim an extension to their continental shelf up to a limit where the sediment thickness is not
less than one kilometer. Accordingly, the Sri Lankan Government implemented a project named the
‘Delimitation of the Outer Edge of the Continental Margin of Sri Lanka’‘ (DEOCOM) in 1999 to
define an offshore area beyond Sri Lanka’s EEZ, where the sediment thickness is not less than one
kilometer. Based on the results of the project, the Government submitted its claim on the Limit of the
Continental Shelf beyond the EEZ to the United Nation’s Commission on Limit of the Continental
Shelf (UNCLCS) on 8th May 2009. The area of the proposed extension is approximately 17 times
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Blue Economy Opportunities for Sri Lanka
FIGURE 8.2 Average annual linear shipping connectivity index (LSCI) of selected Indian Ocean rim countries. Countries having LSCI
below 20 was not include (annual index is the average of four quarters. LCI of 2021 is the average of first three quarters. https://unctadstat.
unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=92).
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FIGURE 8.3 Sri Lanka’s EEZ and the extended ‘continental shelf’ claimed by Sri Lanka (DEOCOM).
the size of its land area. This proposal is currently under deliberation before the UN. If the proposal
is accepted as it is, Sri Lanka will have the right to explore and exploit non-living resources on the
sea bed and in the subsurface over the continental shelf extended beyond the EEZ. On the other
hand, among other south Asian countries, Sri Lanka has a greater maritime area compared to their
land (Bari, 2017).
Non-living resources presently extracted from the world’s oceans vary from common constituents
to high-tech metals within the water itself. The chemical composition of seawater has demonstrated
that it contains about 3.5% dissolved solids, with more than 60 chemical elements (Bardi, 2010;
Batapola et al. 2021; Berman et al. 1980; Magazinovic et al. 2004).
The economical extraction of elements dissolved in seawater and offshore mineral resources
depends on the available technology and geographic location (ownership and transport distance).
The non-living ocean resources that could be profitably exploited from the Sri Lankan offshore
include oil, natural gas, gas hydrates, mineral sands (placer deposits), common salt, gypsum, lime-
stone, and metals such as magnesium and lithium dissolved in seawater (Subasinghe, 2021, Batapola
et al. 2021).
Moreover, Sri Lanka has the potential to promote recreational opportunities such as surfing,
whale and dolphin watching, deep sea diving, sea entertainment, sea sports, and the like. Maritime
recreation and sea sports, which remain relatively subtle, could be a substantial foreign exchange
earner for the country.
8.2.1 Fisheries and Aquaculture

Sri Lankan coastal waters are rich in diversity of marine biological resources, which consists of
620 species from 137 families, mainly represented by teleost fish having a density of 8.13 ± 0.86 t/
Nm2 followed by fewer elasmobranchs, cephalopods, crustaceans, decapods, echinoderms,
gastropods, and reptiles (Athukoorala et al. 2021). There is a gradual increase in total marine fish
production over the last couple of decades and it has reached approximately 400,000 Mt in 2019
(Figure 8.4).
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FIGURE 8.4 Sri Lankan marine fish production (Ministry-of-Fisheries Yearbook 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020 and NARA Fisheries
Yearbook 1998, 2000, 2008).
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8.2.1.1 Fisheries
A large majority of this production is represented by tuna species (33%) followed by different types
of small pelagic shore seine varieties (29%) such as sardines, herrings, and sprats. Besides finfish,
Sri Lankan coastal waters are rich in non-finfish living resources. For instance, there are 24 sea
cucumbers species including the most expensive Holuthuria scraba (approximately US$ 7.00 per
fresh animal) (Prasada, 2020). Further, six lobster species are available in Sri Lankan waters including
Panulirus homarus, P. ornatus , P. versicolor , P. longipes , P. polyphagus and P. penicillatus . As
an island, the entire Sri Lankan coastal belt (~1600 km), consists of several brackish water bodies
that provide habitats for an array of bottom fauna and flora which provide home for mangrove mud
crab; Scylla serrate (How-Cheong and Amandakoon, 1992). All these marine living resources play
a significant role in the Sri Lankan export market and there is a gradual increase in foreign exchange
earnings over the last two decades (Figure 8.5).
During the early 1990s, the dominant exported fish product was shrimp, while in the last
two decades shrimp was to some degree replaced by food fish (Figure 8.5). Exported food fish
is mainly represented by tuna varieties such as yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) and skipjack
tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis). The population structure of the yellowfin tuna in the Indian Ocean
may be more complex and suggests the presence of more than a single stock (IOTC, 2006). The
average annual tuna export over the last two decades was 21403 ± 4605 Mt and it accounts for
121 million US$ in 2020. Besides food fish, shrimps, molluscs, crab, and bêche-de-mer products
are also significant seafoods in the export market. Nevertheless, the percentage contribution of the
fisheries sector for the total export earnings ranges from 1.6% to 2.5% (Figure 8.6).
Similarly, floral diversity in the Sri Lankan coastal region consists of a large number of seaweeds.
Seaweeds are considered one of the important natural marine resources that are used in different
industries such as food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture. Approximately, there are 320
seaweeds in the Sri Lankan coastal waters while nearly 50 -60 species are commercially important
(Kariyawasam, 2016). Among approximately 320 species of seaweeds known in both inter-tidal
and deep-water zones of the Sri Lankan coastal waters including green (such as, Halimeda sp.
Ulva sp. Caulerpa sp. Codium sp. Enteromorpha sp. and the like), brown (Padina sp. Sargassum
spp. Turbinaria sp. and the like) and red seaweeds (Gracilaria sp. Gelidium sp. Gelediella sp. and
the like). Along the southern coast, in the areas most exposed to sea waves with high dissolved
oxygen contents brown seaweed such as Sargassum species are the most common, whereas in in
the shallow depths green seaweed like Ulva species dominate (Pernetta, 1993). Sri Lanka has a
great potential for the development of seaweed-based industries (Kariyawasam, 2016) because of
the high diversity.
8.2.1.2 Mariculture
Global capture fishery production is at its maximum level of exploitation over the last two decades,
but the demand for fish is continuously increasing. Aquaculture is the only means to fulfil the
increasing demand (FAO, 2020b). Mariculture and inland aquaculture are important fields that
can play a significant role in securing food at a time of increasing demand. Mariculture refers to
rearing marine flora and fauna under control or semi controlled marine environments. In maricul-
ture systems, finfish, shellfish, and aquatic plants are being cultured using completely or partially
artificial structures, near sea (Kapetsky et al. 2013, FAO, 2020b). Although, mariculture practices
are common all over the world, such setups are mostly concentrated in South, Southeast and East
Asian countries and some Latin American countries, in farming finfish, shellfish and to a lesser
extent, seaweed (FAO, 2020b). The use of the open ocean for offshore mariculture is in its infant
stage compared to coastal mariculture (Kapetsky et al. 2013). Global total mariculture production
was 63.1 million tonnes (Table 8.3) with a value of approximately 120 US$ billion in 2018 (FAO,
2020a).
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FIGURE 8.5 Exports of fishery products in Sri Lanka (Fisheries Statistics, 2020, Department of Fisheries, Sri Lanka).
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FIGURE 8.6 Percentage contribution of the fisheries sector to the total exports of Sri Lanka (Ministry of
Fisheries (MOF), 2020).
TABLE 8.3
Global and Sri Lankan Mariculture Production
Global Sri Lankan Production by Different Mariculture Systems (mt)

Mariculture
Production Lagoon Sea
(Mt x 107) Shrimp Fish Ponds Cages Pens Rafts Seaweeds cucumber
2010 4.2 3550
2011 4.4 3480
2012 4.9 4150
2013 5.3 3310
2014 5.5 4430
2015 5.8 6836 548 15 52 5 165 2802
2016 6 6030 3319 32 120 71 200 950
2017 6.3 4630 5920 42 232 19 668 578
2018 6.4 8180 4866 137 352 196 27 320 1171
2019 6.7 6400 5683 587 28 280 11 247 5711
Since Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, there is a big potential to develop
mariculture in the island. Along the 1600 km coastline, diverse environments such as lagoons, estu-
aries and coastal bays can be seen that provide excellent opportunities for mariculture. Furthermore,
these coastal waters are rich in economically important finfish, shellfish, and seaweed species.
During the last century Sri Lankan mariculture production was dominated by the shrimp (Penaeus
monodon) which suddenly declined with the spread of global white spot disease (Table 8.3).
Research conducted by the National Aquaculture Development Authority (NAQDA) and other research
institutes in Sri Lanka found various possible species for coastal aquaculture including finfish, shellfish,
and seaweeds. According to investigations, there are two commercially important seaweeds, Gracilaria
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edulis and G. verucosa together with several other commercially important algae (Deepananda, 2011).
Further, there is a big potential to develop sea cucumber farming in Sri Lankan coastal waters. Although
there is a potential for farming several shellfish species including mussel, oyster, and sea cucumber, it is
at very primitive stage in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka used to have a prominent place in seaweed farming in the
1930s, but it is limited to a small-scale farming at present. Farming seaweed could be viable and profit-
able if initial challenges are overcome with the support of coastal communities.
At present, coastal aquaculture is being conducted using either floating cages, net enclosures,
earthen ponds, or constant water recirculating systems (Jayasinghe, 2019). There is a small scale
production of a few other species (Table 8.3), namely, groupers, sea bass, milkfish, oysters, and
crabs are also being cultured on different scales in Sri Lankan coastal waters. However, Jayasinghe
(2019) identifies that multi-trophic and a mixed culture of seaweed and shellfish farming systems
works more effectively to ensure the environmental safety and sustainability of mariculture.
8.2.2 Renewable Ocean Energy

8.2.2.1 Wind Power
The Sri Lankan Government has made a policy decision to increase nonconventional renewable
Energy generation (NCRE) by up to 20% in the near future. The contribution of NCRE in 2020
was approximately 12%. Accordingly, the Hambantota and Mannar areas, amongst other places,
have been identified as suitable locations to establish large-scale wind farms in Sri Lanka. In 2019
the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB) awarded an EPC contract to a Danish wind turbine producer
to build the country’s first large-scale wind farm in Sri Lanka, along the southern coast of Mannar
Island which comprises of 30 wind turbines, each having capacity of 3.45 MW. The electricity gen-
erating capacity of this wind farm amounts to 103.5 MW. The project is the result of a long-term
effort of the country to harness the potential of wind energy on a large scales, exploiting the major
monsoonal wind systems across the country. Out of this project, CEB anticipates generating signifi-
cant amounts of electricity from wind power.
Funding requirements for the project, which is approximately 141 million US$ has been facilitated
by the Asian Development Bank. Once completed, it is expected to generate more than 380 million
units of clean electricity annually. The estimated cost of generation amounts to 5.0 US Cents/kWh,
which is cheap compared to any other source of production and reduces the use of fossil fuels for
electricity generation. This is expected to reduce the emission of CO2 by 285,000 tonnes per year.
8.2.2.2 Wave Energy
There is a huge potential in the ocean for harnessing energy from ocean waves and currents mainly
affected by southwest and northeast monsoon patterns in the Indian Ocean. Power plants can be
either coastal structures or floating types. They may either use the kinetic energy of ocean waves or
the decreasing temperature with depth.
The southwest monsoon that mainly affects the western coast, is the strongest compared to the
northeast monsoon that affects the northern and eastern coastal belts. The southern coastal belt,
especially from Yala to Thirukkovil is influenced by both monsoons and is suitable for the installa-
tion of power plants operating on wave energy (Chamara and Vithana, 2018). Power plants operating
on energy from ocean waves can be used as part of the Sri Lankan government’s policy to increase
nonconventional renewable energy generation. Hence, wave energy remains as a future potential
energy source in Sri Lanka.
8.2.3 Seaports and Shipping

Sri Lanka owns four major ports and three minor ports, which are managed by the Sri Lanka Ports
Authority (SLPA), a state arm constituted under the Sri Lanka Ports Authority Act, No. 51 of 1979
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FIGURE 8.7 Seaports of the Island.
and subsequent amendments by Act No. 7 of 1984 and Act No. 35 of 1984. The SLPA is operated by
revenue generated by itself and the main ports that it operates are Colombo, Galle, Hambantota and
Trincomalee, while minor ports are Oluvil, Kankesanthurai and Point Pedro (Figure 8.7).
Total Vessels arriving in Sri Lanka in 2019 were 4697, out of which 4198 arrived in Colombo
harbor (Annual report of the CBSL, 2020). Remaining vessels arrived at Galle, Trincomalee and
Hambantota harbors and the numbers were 43, 142, and 314, respectively. Figure 8.8 shows the
container handling, transshipment volume and ship arrivals for five consecutive years from 2016
to 2020.
According to the Central Bank of Sri Lanka (annual report 2020), the financial performance of
the SLPA indicates progress despite the decline in port operations. Further, the CBSL annual report
states that the total revenue of the SLPA declined by 4.5% to Rs. 38.9 billion, while operational cost
decreased by 20.6% to Rs. 29.7 billion. In the year 2020 the SLPA recorded a profit before taxes
of Rs. 20.3 billion compared to 16.2 billion recorded in 2019. Container handling, transshipment
volume and ship arrivals in 2020 have been shown in Figure 8.9.
Colombo Port is primarily a container port, which handled about five million twenty-foot equiva-
lent units (TEU) of containerized cargo in 2020. Colombo Port handles cargo originating from and
destined for Europe, East and South Asia, the Persian Gulf, and East Africa. Originally the port had
a harbor area of 184 hectares. Then in 2008, about 285 hectares were added through the construction
of the South Harbor area, which accommodates deep water berths and the latest generation of main-
line vessels. At present, the two-way channel of the harbor has an initial depth of 20 m, and a width
of 570 m. Colombo Port can be identified as an emerging maritime hub in the Indian Ocean region.
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FIGURE 8.8 Container handling, transhipment volume and ship arrivals (annual report of the CBSL, 2020).
FIGURE 8.9 Performance of port activities (annual report of the CBSL, 2020).
Galle Port, which is a natural harbor, is located on the south-western coast of the island. It is one
of the oldest harbors in the region, and has been in operation since the pre-Christian era, but gained
prominence after the 12th century A.D. Galle port has been an important service station for boats
and ships traveling between Europe and Asia. It remained as the main harbor in Sri Lanka until the
construction of Colombo harbor in 1873. Thereafter, much of international shipping was diverted to
Colombo from Galle. Since then, Galle port became less important, yet it still handles some ships
and boats. It is the only Sri Lankan port that provides facilities for pleasure yachts.
SLPA has a plan to further develop Galle port to handle the increasing demand for freight handling
for Sri Lanka. SLPA has plans to construct a deep-water passenger vessel terminal and breakwaters,
to increase the depth by the dredging of entrance channel and basin, and other auxiliary facilities at
the port of Galle. In addition, upgrading to a fully-fledged yacht marina, which will be beneficial to
the economic development of Sri Lanka.
Trincomalee Harbor, is located in Trincomalee, along the eastern coast of the island. It is known
as the second-best natural harbor in the world. As far as the land and water areas are considered, it
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is approximately ten times the size of Colombo Port. Trincomalee has been identified as a potential
center to accommodate bulk and break-bulk shipments and port-associated industrial activities. As a
result, it can be expected that the Trincomalee harbor will further develop in future.
Hambantota International Port is located in Hambantota on the southern coast of Sri Lanka. It
is in a very strategic location close to the major international shipping route between East Asia and
the west. Annually, many ships sail along this maritime route passing Sri Lanka and this provides
a good opportunity for providing services like fueling, water, vessel staff adjustments, in addition
to the usual port operations. The port has been one of the major development projects undertaken
by the Sri Lankan Government in recent times. The first phase of the port has been completed and
phase II is in the construction process. Hambantota port is connected to Colombo by an expressway
constructed parallel with the port construction project. The harbor is protected by 312 m and 988m
long break waters. The port access channel is about 210 m wide and 17 m deep allowing it to facili-
tate vessels up to 100,000 DWT. In addition, Hambantota port will provide fuel bunkering facil-
ities as well as acting as a point for re-exporting goods, especially vehicles. Cargo handling at the
Hambantota port increased in 2020 compared to the previous year with the diversion of some vessels
from the Colombo Port due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the total number of vehicles
handled at the Hambantota Port declined by 14.3% to 35,291 with the policy measures taken by the
Government to pause importation of motor vehicles in 2020 (Annual report of the CBSL, 2020).
Oluvil Port is on the southeast coast of Sri Lanka. The Government of Sri Lanka constructed this
port with the aim of economic expansion in the Eastern region of the island. In terms of access to
and from the south-eastern region for goods and cargo originating from the west coast this port can
facilitate access effectively.
Kankesanthurai (KKS) Port is in the Jaffna peninsula in the north of Sri Lanka. It connects the
north of the island with the rest of the country by sea. The government of Sri Lanka is planning to
rehabilitate Kankesanthurai harbor, with the project aiming to repair and rehabilitate the existing
breakwaters, piers, and roads including dredging and wreck removal and the construction of a new
pier, which has growing economic potential.
In addition to the above-mentioned harbors operated by Sri Lanka Ports Authority, there are 19
fisheries harbors located on the coastal belt from east to west (Figure 8.10). Ten fisheries harbors
have been proposed to be constructed mainly in the northern part of the country to tap fishery
resources and to promote the economic activities in the northern part of the island, which was hard
hit by the 30-year civil war. The construction of a fishery harbor is underway in Suduwela on the
southern coast of the country.
Fishery harbors of the country are managed by the Ceylon Fishery Harbor Corporation (CFHC),
established in 1972. The CFHC has the mandate to deliver fishery-harbor related services and
provide the modern infrastructure and facilities for fishing communities. The corporation has
come up with a development plan aimed at better managing itself while developing fishery related
businesses in the country. Through this plan it is expected the Sri Lankan fishing industry would
be competitive with other prominent fishing-oriented countries in the region. In addition, plans to
develop marinas and marine-related sporting and leisure activities, such as diving, whale and dol-
phin watching.
8.2.4 Marine and Coastal Tourism

8.2.4.1 Coastal Tourism
Coastal tourism is another important economic sector expanding in the South Asian region. The
coral reefs of the shallow coasts of Sri Lanka, Maldives, and India and the dry land mangroves of
Pakistan which consist of vast numbers of floral and faunal species (Bari, 2017) are excellent tourist
destinations. Coastal regions of South Asia are extraordinarily rich in ecological diversity that can
attract tourists to the region, for its climates, biodiversity, clear water, and long sandy beaches.
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FIGURE 8.10 Locations of existing and proposed fishery harbours in Sri Lanka (Ceylon Fisheries Harbour
Corporation 2021).
Sri Lanka is a tourist destination filled with numerous tourist attractions and it has been selected
as the number one destination for the year 2019 by leading travel agency, the Lonely Planet. Tourist
attractions can be classified as natural or anthropogenic. The coastal belt of approximately 1600 km
consists of lagoons, estuaries, mangrove swamps, sandy beaches and sand dunes providing immense
opportunities to develop coastal tourism. Among them, tropical sandy beaches are popular natural
attractions both for local and foreign visitors. In particular to Sri Lanka, there is a narrow continental
shelf, inhabited by abundant cetacean species, nine species of whale and two dolphin species
(Buultjens et al. 2016; Ilangakoon, 2012; Sankapala et al. 2021) which is getting extra attention.
Approximately 82% of tourists visit Sri Lanka either for pleasure or for a vacation and their
popular tourist destinations include coasts (SLTDA, 2019a; SLTDA, 2019b). Most tourists prefer
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FIGURE 8.11 Tourist arrivals and official tourist receipts from 1985–2020 (Sri Lanka Tourism Development
Authority (SLTDA)).
different water-based activities such as lying on the beach, swimming in the sea (72.2%), surfing
(18.6%), snorkeling (15.8%), or whale/dolphin watching (9.8%) that are fundamental elements of
the blue economy (SLTDA, 2019b). Out of total arrivals in 2019, there were 98,834 tourists who
arrived via sea routes (SLTDA, 2019a) which is an indication of blue economic development poten-
tial. Whale watching is getting popular worldwide and generates approximately US$2 billion a year,
supported by professional operators and guides (Nanayakkara, 2000). Three destinations, namely
Mirissa in the south-west, Trincomalee in the north-east and Kalpitiya on the west coast of Sri Lanka
offer opportunities for whale watching (Buultjens et al. 2016, De Silva 2019). There is a continuous
increase in whale watching tourist records in the Southern coast, where this number in 2014, 2015,
2016, 2017, and 2018 were 76,465, 86,138, 146,150, 166,104 and 117,772 respectively (De Silva
2019). Besides whale watching, the calm beach and coastal waters around the country are preferred
for surfing where Mustafa and Majeed (2021) observed that the younger tourists prefer Arugam Bay
rather than other tourist spots due to the surfing nature of the beaches which is helped by favorable
winds. Further, there is a significant tourist attraction on traditional stilt fishing which is unique to
certain locations in the Southern coast of Sri Lanka. Furthermore, a recently opened underwater
museum in Galle also provides an extension to develop coastal tourism.
The tourism industry has gradually increased over the last couple of years (Figure 8.11), and the
sector is one out of the top six foreign exchange earners for Sri Lanka (Ranasinghe and Sugandhika,
2018). Among other foreign exchange earnings, the tourism industry remains at the fifth place in
Sri Lanka, and this sector directly and indirectly influences economic growth via producing tourism
revenue, foreign direct investments, new employment opportunities and also increasing the gross
domestic product (Ranasinghe and Sugandhika, 2018). The GDP contributions of this sector in 2018
and 2019 were 4.3 and 4.9% respectively.
8.2.5 Offshore Hydrocarbons and Minerals

8.2.5.1 Hydrocarbons
Sri Lanka’s energy need is met entirely by the import of crude oil and refined petroleum products.
The following graph shows the country’s oil bill for the last decade. Fuel oil is used for electricity
239
FIGURE 8.12 Sri Lanka’s oil bill for the last decade (Central Bank of Sri Lanka).
generation in Sri Lanka, 27% of electricity generation in 2020 has come from fuel oil and 36 % from
coal. The same year the Sri Lankan government spent around 217 US$ on coal imports.
Contribution of various sources for electricity generation in Sri Lanka in 2020 includes 25% from
hydropower (excluding mini hydro), 12% from non-conventional renewable energy including mini
hydropower, 36% from coal and 27% from fuel oil (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2020).
Accordingly, Sri Lanka’s expenditure on crude oil, refined petroleum products and coal is a
significant percentage compared to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Figure 8.12).
According to the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka’s GDP in 2020 was around 80.71 billion
US$. Hence, the economic growth of Sri Lanka is highly dependent on world crude oil and coal
prices.
Annually, the Sri Lankan Government spends a significant percentage of its foreign exchange
earnings on the import of crude oil, natural gas, and other petroleum products. If a significant per-
centage of the country’s oil and gas demand could be met by a domestic supply, it would be a huge
relief to the country’s balance of payment and the exchange rate. The best way to free Sri Lanka’s
dependency on imported petroleum and petroleum products is to explore and produce hydrocarbon
resources in the country. Being a metamorphic terrain the hydrocarbon potential on Land Sri Lanka
is almost zero. Sri Lanka’s offshore basins with a higher petroleum potential include the Cauvery
Basin and the Gulf of Mannar basin. The Sri Lankan sector of the Gulf of Mannar, which is com-
monly named the Mannar Basin, covers approximately 45,000 km2 of the western offshore areas of
the island (Figure 8.13). The Cauvery Basin is located between the south-eastern region of India and
the north-western area of Sri Lanka. In fact, the Sri Lankan sector of the Cauvery Basin has no indi-
cation of any hydrocarbon deposits, oil and natural gas have been produced from the Indian sector
of the Cauvery Basin.
Sri Lankan history of the upstream petroleum industry can be divided into two phases, the first
phase lasted from 1957 to 1984 and the second phase began in 2001 and continues to date. During
the first phase, numerous hydrocarbon explorations wells (Pesalai-1, 2 and 3 and, Palk Bay-1, Delft-
1, and Pedro-1) were drilled in the Cauvery Basin and Pearl-1 was drilled in the northern part of the
Mannar Basin in shallow water (Premarathne, 2015). However, all these wells failed to encounter
any economically feasible hydrocarbon deposits and they were plugged and abandoned as dry wells.
Further explorations were conducted during the 1984 to 2000 period. The second exploration phase
in Sri Lanka began with the acquisition of 1050 km2 two-dimensional (2D) marine seismic data
over the Mannar Basin by a Norwegian geophysical company (TGS-NOPEC) in 2001. Based on
the interpretation of this data, the Mannar basin was identified to have a significant hydrocarbon
potential with a rift-basin structure and more than nine-kilometer-thick sediment succession on the
crystalline basement (Baillie et al. 2002).
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FIGURE 8.13 Hydrocarbon exploration block map of Sri Lanka (PDASL).
Accordingly, the Sri Lankan Government offered an exploration license to Cairn Lanka Private
Limited (CLPL), a wholly owned subsidiary of Cairn India Limited in 2008 to explore petroleum
in the M2 block identified in the northern part of the Mannar Basin. After preliminary geophysical
studies, CLPL drilled three exploration wells in the northern part of the Mannar Basin in 2011. Two
of these wells discovered natural gas making them the first hydrocarbon discovery of the island as
241
well as in the whole of the Gulf of Mannar. These discoveries demonstrated the presence of an active
petroleum system in the gulf. As a result, the potential of finding oil and natural gas on Sri Lanka’s
continental shelf is very high. The higher hydrocarbon potential of the Mannar Basin is further
supported by the petroleum system modelling studies carried out recently.
In addition to the exploration block that discovered natural gas in the Mannar Basin, the Petroleum
Development Authority, Sri Lanka (PDASL), which was earlier called as Petroleum Resources
Development Secretariat would offer other exploration blocks in the Mannar Basin and Cauvery
Basin to international oil companies (IOCs) at future licensing rounds. Meanwhile, research is being
carried out to see the technical and fiscal viability of using natural gas discovered in the Mannar
Basin as a fuel for generating electricity and public transportation. To facilitate this move, PDASL,
regulator of Sri Lanka’s upstream petroleum Industry, gazetted the National Policy on Natural Gas
in October 2020.
8.2.5.2 Minerals
Mineral resources that are quantities of rocks enriched with one or more useful materials can be
divided into two major categories: metallic and non-metallic. Sri Lanka is endowed with a variety
of marine origin mineral resources.
Heavy minerals like ilmenite, rutile, monazite, garnet, zircon, magnetite, and so forth (mineral
sand) tend to form onshore, on the beach and on the ocean floor. Prominent deposits occurring along
the coastline of Indian Ocean rim countries like India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Australia
are among the largest marine non-living resources in the world. The main difference between normal
sand and mineral sand is the higher density (> 2.9 g/cm3) and the hardness of the mineral sand. Most
of the mineral sand deposits originate from high quality metamorphic and igneous rocks. Mineral
sands produced by weathering and erosion of rocks reach the sea via streams and rivers. The coastal
processes give rise to their deposition in the coastal zone. Sediments are modified by waves, tides,
longshore currents, and wind, which are effective natural mechanisms for separating the mineral
grains based on differences in their size and density.
The coastline of Sri Lanka is approximately 1600 km long and open to the Indian Ocean (Silva
et al. 2013). Several mineral sand deposits occur along the coastal zone of Sri Lanka. These
occurrences contain minerals such as ilmenite, rutile, garnet, zircon, or monazite. Most of these
mineral sands are higher amphibolite to granulite facies metamorphic rocks and they mainly occur
in the Highland Complex, this is one of the four lithotectonic units of crystalline rocks in Sri Lanka
(Figure 8.14). The coastal line of the Pulmoddai areas in the northeast coast of Sri Lanka has a prom-
inent ilmenite and rutile sand deposit, while a garnet sand exists in the southern coast of Sri Lanka
from Hambantota to Yala.
The mineral sand deposit that occurs in the Pulmoddai area on the north-eastern coast of the
island (Figure 8.17) has been known for a long time and has been exploited economically since
1918 (Wickremeratne, 1986). The deposit extends over an area of 3.6 km2 on the coastal zone,
which is about 6 km long and 600 m wide. It is one of the high-grade mineral sand deposits in the
world, containing 60% to 70% of heavy mineral sand. The deposit is a collection of many valuable
non-ferrous minerals, including ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite, and garnet. Among these min-
eral sands, the deposit contains around 65% of ilmenite, 10% rutile, 10% zircon, and 15% other
minerals. It has been estimated that 12.5 million tons of mineral sand reserves are available in the
Pulmoddai deposit.
Mining operations of the Pulmoddai deposit is undertaken by Lanka Mineral Sands Ltd, a com-
pany fully owned by the state. It is the successor to Ceylon Mineral Sands Corporation, which
was founded in 1957 under the Industrial Corporation act. The Ceylon Mineral Sands Corporation
was renamed Lanka Mineral Sands Ltd in 1992. The functions of the company are to manage
mining, processing, and the exportation of heavy mineral beach sands. This enterprise is regulated
by the Ministry of Industry and Commerce. The company is headquartered in Colombo, while
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FIGURE 8.14 Outline geological map of Sri Lanka.
the processing plant is in Pulmoddai about 54 km north of Trincomalee (Figure 8.15). 99% of the
annual production of mineral sand is exported to countries like Japan, UK, USA, India, Pakistan,
China, and Eastern European countries. In 2019, the company exported 34,976 MT of ilmenite and
4,286 MT of rutile and earned 1.839 billion Sri Lankan Rupees (National Output, Expenditure, and
Income, 2020). Ilmenite and rutile are mainly used to produce titanium dioxide (TiO2). Ilmenite
and rutile contain 53% and 95% titanium dioxide, respectively. Titanium dioxide is used in many
paper, plastic, and ink industries.
In Sri Lanka, there are several garnet rich beach sand deposits. Among them, the most significant
deposits in terms of mineral concentration and quantity occur along the south and southeast coast
of Sri Lanka, especially in the Palatupana and Yala areas. These deposits consist of natural industrial
quality garnets, which can be used as an important raw material in the manufacture of abrasive
243
FIGURE 8.15 Mineral sand deposit in Pulmoddai (Lankan Mineral Sands Ltd.).
powders and papers due to their abrasive qualities and low material cost. However, commercial
mining of these deposits has not been carried out due to the negative environmental impacts that
may arise during mining.
Common salt (sodium chloride) is available in seawater at a concentration of about 3.0% and
hence constitutes more than 80% of the dissolved chemical elements in the seawater. Like some
countries such as the USA, natural rock salt deposits do not occur in Sri Lanka. Therefore, salt in
seawater is separated by evaporating water at salterns in the Hambantota and Puttalam areas. The
Arid and windy climatic conditions in these areas are ideal for producing salt from seawater. The
amount of salt produced in each year varies due to different climatic conditions. Annual demand for
salt in Sri Lanka is 160,000 MT (120,000 MT for domestic and 40,000 MT for industrial use), while
the combined output is 255,000 MT, which translated into an excess production of 95,000 MT. Salt
is harvested largely in the southern, north-western, northern, and eastern parts of Sri Lanka where
there’s relatively less rainfall (Figure 8.16). The global industrial salt market size in 2018 was around
17 billion US$. Sri Lanka cannot compare itself with the global salt market. Owing to the insuffi-
cient infrastructure of the country between 10,000 and 40,000 metric tonnes of salt are imported
each year. In 2020 the government spent nearly one billion rupees on salt importation. There are
four major salt producers in the country, that are Lanka Salt Limited, Puttalam Salt Limited, Raigam
Wayamba Salterns PLC and the government-owned Matai/Elephant Pass Salt Limited, and there are
many other salterns run by private organizations. Forty percent of the country’s salt requirement is
supplied by the Hambantota Salt Company.
The United Nations (UN) has a red alert flag for Sri Lanka because of its high salt consumption, which
could pose a huge potential for the prevalence of conditions such as high blood pressure. Therefore,
steps should be taken to reduce salt consumption in Sri Lanka. Excessive salt could be exported or used
as a by-product of other industries such as the manufacturing of caustic soda and chlorine.
244
FIGURE 8.16 Harvesting salts at Hambantota saltern.
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) forms during the evaporation of seawater and can be produced as a by-
product in the salterns at Hambanthota and Putlam. Gypsum is used for the manufacturing of wall-
board, cement, plaster of Paris, in soil conditioning, and as a hardening retarder in Portland cement.
In addition, gypsum can be used as a fertilizer.
The limestone rocks composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), are formed extensively in the
tropical to subtropical part of the world today because of precipitation by biological organisms ran-
ging from molluscs to corals and plants. There is little exploitation of the modern limestone as it is
forming in the oceans. North, north-eastern, and north-western coastal areas of Sri Lanka have thick
limestone sequences deposited during the period 5-23 million years ago (Miocene age). During
this period, the sea level was much higher than the present sea levels. As a result, a large part of the
island’s coastal areas was covered by the sea during the Miocene age. This gave rise to the limestone
sequences in the north, north-eastern and north-western coastal areas of Sri Lanka. The thickness
of this limestone in some areas reaches more than 900 m. Not only the northern part of the country,
but also the south such as in the Akurala area, have inland coral deposits, which are thought to have
formed due to high sea levels during the Miocene age.
Limestone is used as a raw material for manufacturing Portland cement, quicklime (calcium
oxide), and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). Crushed limestone is used as a soil conditioner to
neutralize acidic soils. Limestone required for the Puttalam cement factory is mined at a quarry site
located in the Aruwakkalu area in the Puttalam district (Figure 8.17).
Ocean basins are the ultimate depositional sites of sediments that are eroded from the land, while
the beaches represent the largest residual deposits of sand (Figure 8.18). Even though beaches and
near-shore sediments are locally extracted to be used in civil engineering constructions, they are
generally regarded as too valuable as recreational areas and pristine ecosystems to allow mining of
sand for construction purposes.
Being an island, the beach is extremely important to Sri Lanka in many ways. Some beaches
such as Unawatuna, Nilaweli and Arugam Bay have become world famous tourist destinations.
245
FIGURE 8.17 Limestone quarrying at Aruwakkalu areas in the north-western province of Sri Lanka.
FIGURE 8.18 Sand dunes occur at Yala in the southeast coast of Sri Lanka.
Some beaches act as very important ecological niches for pristine flora and fauna. Though places
with huge sand mounds can be identified in the island’s coastal belts as possible sand mining sites,
however such practices may not be suitable due to environmental concerns.
8.2.6 Marine Biotechnology, Research and Development

The vast biological and chemical diversity of marine ecosystems is a sink of chemicals that could
be use in various human needs such as pharmaceuticals, nutritional supplements, cosmetics, food
additives, pesticides, insecticides, agrochemicals, and biopolymers, to name but a few. The use of
marine organisms for the production of traditional medicines has a long history in many parts of the
world. Pharmaceutical and nutritional supplements from microalgal species, red algae, seaweeds,
jellyfish, sponges, and other fish species have a great potential for developing cures for ailments
such as diabetes, cancer, viral and bacterial infections, and allergy inflammations (Sarvanan, 2013).
Similarly, many natural marine products derived from marine organisms have been reported and
patented, leading to the evolving field of marine biotechnology, especially with the manufacture
of pharmaceutical products (In economic terms, marine biotechnology has a big role to play as it
has key important categories namely, food, energy, health, environment, and industries). The global
market share of marine biotechnology was estimated to be US$ 4.8 billion in 2020 and it is expected
to reach US$ 6.4 billion in 2025. Countries in the Indian Ocean need to identify the potential and
devise a strategy for joint exploration to find sources and tap the marine organisms from the Indian
Ocean that are of potential interest in marine biotechnology. Especially, islands such as Sri Lanka
could be used as manufacturing centres for drugs from these marine organisms from the extensive
costal zones.
246
8.3 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
8.3.1 Fisheries and Aquaculture
8.3.1.1 Fisheries
The contribution of marine fisheries to the overall economy is very significant. Fish products are a
vital source of animal protein supply to the population, contributing to 34.5% calorie intake, 50.0%
protein intake, and 22.2% fat intake in 2019 (Ministry of Fisheries, 2020). In per capita terms, fish
consumption was 16.6 kg in 2019 (Ministry of Fisheries, 2020). Moreover, the sector contributes
added value to the national income, employment, and foreign exchange through exports.
The total value added from the fisheries sector, which includes marine and inland fisheries, has
gone down to about 1% of GDP in 2019, contributing nominal value to GDP growth. The highest
contribution of 2.8 per cent was in 1999 (see Figure 8.3 for long term trends). Sri Lanka produced
415,490 tonnes in 2019, about an eightfold increase from the 51,003 tonnes of 1960. The estimated
instantaneous (at a point in time) growth rate, using a linear trend model for total marine produc-
tion is 3.1% (or 7, 085 tonnes annual increase) between 1960 and 2019. Our econometric analysis
shows that the number of fishing boats affects marine fishing production more than any other factor.
Following the Cobb-Douglas production function, we estimated an Autoregressive Distributed
Lag Model (ARDL), which shows a long-run cointegration (long-run relation) between the two
variables. For example, if the number of the boats increases by one, then fish production goes up
by 10.26 tonnes in the long run, while the figure for the short term is 4.1 tonnes. Production is also
dependent on the number of active fishers (fishermen and women). In 2019, the country had 224,610
active fishers, 1.95 times higher than 115,014 in 2001. On average, if one fisher is added, the total
production increases by 3.4 tonnes in the long term and it goes up by 1.3 tonnes in the short term.
The marine fishing sector generates livelihood for 185,390 fishing households while the sector
provides direct employment to 224,610 fishers, both men and women, in 2019, which is a 3.6%
instantaneous annual growth rate since 2001. The number of fishers in 2001 was 115,014.
The foreign exchange received from the export of fish and fishery products increased to Rs.53,
483 million in 2019 from Rs.854 million in 1990, contributing 1.5% of the country’s total exports.
The estimated instantaneous annual growth rate of export earning is 12% during 1990–2019. The
highest contribution to export earnings of 2.6% was recorded in 2000 and 2009 and, since then, the
figure has gone down continuously. It is disappointing to note that with great potential for produc-
tion and export, Sri Lanka still imports a tremendous amount of fish and fishery products (mainly
dried fish and canned fish), creating a negative balance of fish trade in some years (2015 and 2016).
On average, Sri Lanka exports only about 5% of the total fish production quantity. One of the biggest
challenges that Sri Lanka is facing today is to increase fish production, enabling the country to
reduce imports of dried fish and canned fish and then similarly reduce foreign exchange.
8.4 CHALLENGES TO DEVELOPING THE BLUE ECONOMY IN THE REGION

AND IN SRI LANKA
8.4.1 Driving Forces Impacting the Blue Economy
Population of the IOR countries are expected to increase drastically in the future and in conse-
quence, food security and economic activities derived from marine resources would become more
important. The Indian Ocean economy is highly diversified with small countries like Comoros and
Madagascar, and densely populated countries like Indonesia and Malaysia belonging to this terri-
tory. Also, in terms of low income, from Mozambique and Tanzania to high income countries such
as Singapore and Australia. According to the World Bank (World Bank Report, 2017; 2018) the
combined GDP of the Indian Ocean economy was around 12% in the year 2018 while for South
Asia it was 3.9%. If the current trend continued the figure would be 20% of world GDP by 2025 and
247
by that time the proportion of the population who are in abject poverty will decrease by about 50%
from its present level.
Many of the countries in the Indian Ocean are developing countries with many of the people
relying on marine resources for their food security. An increasing rate of utilization of marine
resources builds pressure on the marine systems that can lead to over exploitation, habitat deg-
radation and pollution (Link, 2020, 2021, Larik et. al. 2017). With the current trends it is evident
that sustainability of the marine environment needs strengthening of marine polices on marine
resources. Among the future challenges of the Indian Ocean and the impact on the region of climate
change such as increasing temperature, acidification, sea level rise, changes to distribution of marine
species, extreme weather conditions, structural changes to communities as of resettlements, and
declined economic productivity are some of the multidimensional challenges faced by the regions
(Roy, 2019). With the continuous growth of the human population, need of a governance structure
to preserve resources of the Indian Ocean, including areas beyond national territories are significant.
The blue economy captured the attention of all IORA member states at the 14th Ministerial
Meeting held in Perth, Australia, in October 2014. Considering its wide range of resources, and
growing interest in the blue economy, IORA Member States recognised the establishment of a
common vision that would drive for balanced economic development in the Indian Ocean Rim
Region. However, economic, and sustainable development concerns of the IOR countries are chal-
lenging as is the growing competition over marine resources among the IOR countries. It indicates a
need for an enhanced regional framework for harnessing resources in a more substantiable manner.
Action needed in this domain involves cooperation between all the stakeholders with an interest of
the region. These are the private sector, non-governmental organizations, the scientific community,
and local communities, as existing partnerships do not include all the relevant players.
Also, maintaining an effective monitoring control, enhancing surveillance capacity, increasing
domain awareness, and information sharing will remain critical in ocean affairs, and efforts should
continue to strengthen regional capacities, that is especially for those counties with large exclusive
economic zones and weak enforcement capacities.
Non-traditional security threats, for instance, the impacts of climate change and environmental
degradation, as well as unlawful activities such as drug smuggling, human trafficking, terror
campaigns, and IUU fishing, continue to be critical issues, also many of such activities take place out-
side the jurisdiction of coastal states, and all are unfavourable to the development of blue economy.
In these circumstances, it is crucial to guarantee an appropriate environmental management of the
marine ecosystem, supported by an effective law and policy framework (Benzaken, 2017).
8.4.1.1 Fisheries and Aquaculture

The impact of environmental degradation and climate change on global fish stocks seems to be sig-
nificant, but hard to predict (Rumley et al. 2009). In the case of fisheries, the current status of the
Indian Ocean fish stocks indicates an impossibility for further expansion, as some of the species are
overexploited (Chang et a. 2020). Over 800 million people around the IOR depends on fisheries as
their main source of protein. The region is wealthy in seafood resources, in terms of abundance and
varieties and is one of the prominent areas of global fishing. Commercial fisheries are equipped with
modern fishing gear mainly targeting tuna or tuna-like species and controlled by distant, mostly
foreign vessels that are from Europe and Asia. Artisanal fisheries can be seen throughout the region
and mainly by coastal communities accessing the ocean and resources for local livelihoods and sub-
sistence, but these are not managed properly.
In the Indian Ocean many of the living resources are not restricted to one particular area with
the fish crossing borders of nearby countries, and sometimes not so nearby countries. Specifically,
large pelagic fish species such as tuna and billfish roam over a large ocean space and cross through
many boarders of countries inside and outside of the Indian Ocean. A significant number of species
at higher trophic levels are exploited in the sea with human consumption itself utilizing 400 species
248
from the seas. In comparison to the past, fisheries technologies are so developed that many marine
species are threatened to extinction. Although the Indian Ocean Rim countries have their own laws,
regulations, and policies to manage marine resources, specifically, fish stocks, those measures have
been ineffective in most cases of illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing (Stefan et al. 2010).
The main four driving issues that can be found related to fisheries are:
i. a decrease in the availability of fish resources

ii. a shift in the species composition of catches
iii. the fraction of immature fish in the catch
iv. a decrease in the marine biodiversity
v. the loss of vulnerable and endangered species.
The rapid growth of human population during the last few decades has led to an overutilization
of marine resources, largely to meet the increasing demand for food. To provide fish to meet the
increasing demand needs a two to three-fold increase of fishing fleets all over the world and it is
not certain whether our ocean can support this sustainably. In the case of the Indian Ocean, many
indicators reflect that depleted state of the fisheries resources (Nisar, 2021; Polacheck, 2006):
i. the deflation of production in many of the Indian Ocean countries

ii. the shifting species composition of the catches
iii. the higher percentages of juvenile fish now being taken.
iv. an assessment of major fish stocks reported by Asia-pacific Fishery Commission and Indian
Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC)
v. a decrease in catch-rates in trawler surveys carried out over a long time period
vi. circumstantial evidence from fisherman.
8.4.1.2 Tourism
Among the various tourisms sectors in the world, coastal tourism is getting a higher place because of
the varying climate along the coasts. This sector is an important GDP contributor and employment
generator for IOR countries. For Sri Lanka, an all-time high of 4,381 million US$ was recorded in
2018 which is 4.9% direct contribution to GDP. Coastal tourism covers a variety of activities such
as sunbathing, snorkeling, surfing, scuba diving on coral reefs, or whale watching. The potential of
this sector is continuously increasing as more people choose to spend their holidays on this kind
of leisure. Tourism related authorities of IOR countries need to strategically plan and design new
sites and activities. Such coastal areas need to include other infrastructure facilities such as road
networks for easy access, transport, accommodation, restaurants, hotels, and the like. In addition
to that, museums, cultural centres, amusement parks can help to increase the added value (Valle
et al. 2001).
8.4.1.3 Ports and Shipping

Ports and harbors are crucial components of a country for movement of goods within that country
and also in and out of the country. The berthing of cruise ships and marine recreational actives are
organised through such infrastructures. Auxiliary activities of shipping are hauling, use of tugs,
anchorage at berths, repairs to ships, immigration, customs services, handling of consignments,
warehousing of cargoes, and the like. The Indian Ocean is responsible for 11.2% of shipping in
DWT terms (Dead Weight Tonnage). The increase in maritime activities and trade through the
Indian Ocean is a blessing to IOR countries and an opportunity for countries to develop their ports
and harbors to contribute to the shipping networks of the region. Sri Lanka located facing the east-
west bound maritime route is one of the major trans-shipment hubs in Asia. The maritime logistic
industry is growing but has not yet fully tapped many of the opportunities for trans-shipment and
249
e-commerce. With the initiation of the transshipment trade in the 1980s, Colombo port has witnessed
a threefold increase in container traffic, from 1.7 TEU in 2000 to 6 TEU in 2017 and is projected to
touch 8 TEU in 2020. However, the quality of Colombo port stays at the regional average (4.5 scales
of OECD), compared to the high-end ports in Singapore (6.7) and UAE (6.2), World Economic
Forum Report, 2017). The coastal wetlands in Sri Lanka act as a first layer of defense to control
floods (IUCN, 2007).
8.4.1.4 Energy Resources
Every nation requires energy for general use by its people, production by its industry and con-
struction activities for its development. Considering the rising demand for energy and the limited
supply of fossil fuels, environmental concerns due to extraction and emissions, shifting to alter-
native sources are unavoidable. A renewable energy source means energy that is extracted sus-
tainably. The most popular renewable energy sources harnessed from oceans are offshore solar
energy, offshore wind energy, ocean thermal energy conversion, tidal energy, and salinity gradient
energy.
The quantum of energy that can be harnessed from waves depends on the location, wave height,
and wave frequency, amongst other factors. According to the distinct wave resource parameters of
Sri Lanka, such as mean significant wave height, mean energy period, and mean omni-directional
wave power, there is a great potential to generate energy using ocean waves (Lokuliyana et al. 2020).
The ocean energy available in this region falls into the category of a moderate wave energy source
and its omni-directional wave power density ranges from 10 to 25 kW/m (Lokuliyana et al. 2020).
8.4.1.5 Climate Change
The average sea surface temperature of the ocean has increased by 0.6°C in the past 100 years.
This has increased the heat content of the water, leading to number of direct physical and biochem-
ical impacts that include thermal expansion, sea level rise, increased meltwater, reduced salinity,
increased storm intensity, and greater stratification of the water column. Strong stratification due
to elevated density differences affects nutrient availability and primary production due to changes
in the abundance of algal populations, plankton, and fish populations as well as benthic organisms.
This may restrict the annual productivity and abundance of individual species, together with the con-
comitant cascading changes and damage to food webs (Behrenfeld et al. 2006).
Climate change will have a range of effects, leading to reduction in food security and economic
distress. In the Indian Ocean the threat that this will pose to humans will be food scarcity, disrup-
tion to livelihoods, and extreme meteorological events. Loss of coastal habitats, such as mangrove
vegetations and wetlands through erosion and inundation will damage juvenile nursery grounds
hampering reproduction and recruitment (Techera, 2018). Ocean acidification due to elevated CO2
levels is a direct threat to marine organisms, especially reef-forming corals (Scleractinia) but also
protozoans, molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms, and some algae because of their calcium skeletons.
Climate change aggravates current issues and contributes to the degradation of fisheries; therefore, it
is an important factor when considering blue economy goals. Throughout many Indian Ocean coun-
tries, economic reliance on marine resources needs effective management (Techera, 2018). Climate
changes also have significant impacts on erosion and inundation that could lead to destruction of
coastal habitats, such as mangroves. This would not only be disastrous for the marine organisms, but
also for the people that depend on those coastal resources.
8.4.1.6 Pollution
Dumping of industrial and radioactive wastes was banned in 1993 by amending the 1972 London
Convention on ‘Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter’, there were more additions to this in 1996, combined with discharge, emission and losses
from land and sea. Though the intentional dumping at sea of industrial and radioactive wastes was
250
banned in 1993 by amendments to the 1972 London Convention, with more limitations added in
1996. The toxins already present, combined with the discharge, emission and losses from land
and sea, and ubiquitous plastics pollution, remain major challenges. However, 60 to 80% of ocean
pollutants originate from land-based activities that include fertilizers, pesticides, sewage, garbage,
plastics, radioactive and other hazardous substances, and oil. For an example, eastern Indonesia
which is a highly populated area contributes to more than 90% of the upper shore and strandline
(Uneputtey and Evans, 1997). Also, fisheries are being severely affected by marine pollution thus
destabilizing ecosystems, and negatively affecting the population of various marine species.
8.4.2 Policies and Regulations

Most of the Indian Ocean countries are parties to major international agreements pertaining to bio-
diversity and protection of ecosystems, including, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea, Convention on Biological Diversity, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention
on Biological Diversity. Except for the Maldives, all Bay of Bengal rim countries are parties to
the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention); and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora. All Indian Ocean countries are also parties to key international instruments concerning the
protection of the atmosphere such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
and the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate.
International environmental law evolves with an integrated legal approach to management
and solves environment related issues at regional and global levels. The negotiation of solutions,
suggestions or declarations in important international forums often carries normative weight and
facilitates their access to customary law. The ‘soft approach’ of a nonbinding framework or ‘umbrella
legislations’ becomes a step on the way to ‘hard law’ in the form of conventions, agreements, treaties
or protocols. State laws, bilateral agreements and national instruments play a complementary role
in developing a sustainable blue economy. There is considerable variance across the Indian Ocean
countries regarding their respective political, legislative, and administrative structures. They have
all enacted legislation that seeks to regulate activities in the Indian Ocean to ensure that the marine
living resources and critical habitats of the Indian Ocean are offered a certain level of protection
(Table 8.4) while benefiting sustainably.
The existing legal and policy framework among the Indian Ocean countries dealing with coastal
and marine resource management and the sustainable use of the Indian Ocean are, in general, com-
prehensive in their content and coverage. However, they are fragmented, sectoral in scope, and not
effectively implemented. Maritime security of the IOR countries is an issue of common interest,
regionally and extra-regionally as that impacts economic, environmental, energy, human, food, and
national security. In the maritime domain, the coastal states need regional leadership to cooperate in
the face of growing risks to maritime security (Cordner, 201).
Conservation, management, and development of all fisheries, including the capture, processing
and trade of fish and fishery products, fishing procedures, aquaculture, fisheries research, and the
integration of fisheries into coastal area are important fields to be controlled. The Code of Conduct
is supported by the FAO Compliance Agreement and specific International Plans of Action which
require the development and implementation of corresponding national plans of action. These
binding and non-binding international instruments jointly provide the framework for the implemen-
tation of sustainable and responsible fishing practices and sound marine environmental manage-
ment, including better management of fisheries, protection of migratory and threatened species,
ecosystem and biodiversity protection and marine pollution prevention. Key regional fishery
bodies relevant to the Indian Ocean are the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), the South
Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement (SIOFA), the Bay of Bengal Programme Inter-Governmental
Organization (BOBP-IGO), the Regional Commission for Fisheries (RECOFI) and the Regional
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TABLE 8.4
Status of Major Environmental Treaties of Some Indian Ocean Countries
Environmental
treaties Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Myanmar Bangladesh Sir Lanka India Maldives
Law of the Sea ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Convention (LOSC)
Convention on ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Biological Diversity
(CBD)
International Trade in
Endangered Species
(CITES)
Migratory Species
(Bonn Convention)
Ramsar Convention ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
on Wetlands of
International
Importance (Ramsar)
Stockholm Convention ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
on Persistent Organic
Pollutants
UN Framework ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Convention on
Climate Change
(FCCC) and Kyoto
Protocol
Basel Convention on ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
the Control of Tran
boundary Movements
of Hazardous Wastes
and Their Disposal
UN Fish Stocks ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓ ✓
Agreement
FAO Compliance ✗ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Agreement
Fund Convention ✗ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓
International ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Convention for (Annex (Annex I, (Annex (Annex (Annex (Annex (Annex (Annex I,
the Prevention of I-II) II, V) I and II) I andII) I - VI) I - V) I - V) II, V)
Pollution from Ships
(MARPOL 73/78)
Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA).
First, the limited coverage of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) and the Southern Indian
Ocean Fisheries Commission excludes various species unprotected in different geographical areas,
notably non-highly migratory, shared, and straddling fisheries resources in the high seas in the nor-
thern region of the Indian Ocean (Larik et al. 2017)
Only a few of the Indian Ocean countries have ratified the UN Fish Stocks Agreement and none
have accepted the FAO Compliance Agreement. Only a few Indian Ocean countries have developed
252
national action plans to implement the various FAO International Plans of Action, namely on cap-
acity, seabirds, sharks and illegal, unreported, unregulated (IUU) fishing, and the like.
The majority of the IOR states have some fisheries regulation and management practices in oper-
ation, but these are not standardized, informed by limited data, and inconsistently enforced, due to
capacity constraints (Techera, 2018). Analysis of the laws of individual Indian Ocean countries, in
the context of achieving the objectives for the Indian Ocean reveals that many of the laws do not
embody modern management concepts reflected in international instruments and sustainable marine
environmental management practices. Major gaps exist in relation to ensuring the objectives of
long-term sustainable use, the precautionary approach, and ecosystem approach to underpin govern-
mental actions in the marine sector.
There is a complex set of laws and regulations for aquaculture, coastal zone management,
environment, capture fisheries, forests, pollution, critical habitats and certain defined commer-
cially attractive and/or endangered species. The domestic legal and administrative structures are
largely sectoral, uncoordinated and need to be simplified, streamlined, and complement national
and regional efforts in managing the Indian Ocean effectively. Other constraints noticeable are inad-
equate budgetary commitments, lack of community stakeholder consultation and empowerment.
Some legislations are to protect the Indian Ocean to some extent from the main categories of
pollution, mainly in the form of controls on effluent discharges. Even if these controls are rigor-
ously enforced, controlled discharges can still destroy an ecosystem if there are enough of them.
The effluent control approaches do not consider the combine effects of pollutants in ecosystems, or
even if ecosystems are already polluted, physically damaged, or otherwise stressed. A shortcoming
of pollution-specific legislation in the region is the absence of a ‘polluter-pays’ rule and other fines
severe enough to ensure that breaking the law is a serious economic cost of doing business. It needs
to be more expensive to break the law than to comply with it.
In contrast to the governing systems of Indian Ocean Rim countries, all the governments are
encouraging economic growth and development, including through exploitation of living resources.
As a result, all the states have created impressive marine and freshwater production goals, which
TABLE 8.5
Some Marine-Related Legislations of Sri Lanka
Aquaculture (Monitoring of Residues) Regulations 2002, 2002.

Aquaculture Management (Disease Control) Regulations 2000, 2000.
National Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering Act (No. 36 of 1999), 1999.
National Aquaculture Development Authority of Sri Lanka Act, No. 53 of 1998, 1998.
Fish Products (Export) Regulations, 1998.
Export and Import of Live Fish Regulations, 1998, 1998.
Fish Processing Establishments Regulations, 1998, 1998.
Aquaculture Management Regulations of 1996, 1996.
Fishing Operations Regulations of 1996, 1996.
Inland Fisheries Management Regulations of 1996, 1996.
Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act 1996 (No. 2 of 1996), 1996.
Madel (Beach Seine) Fishing Regulations 1984, 1984.
National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency Act 1981 (No. 54 of 1981), 1981.
Foreign Fishing Boat Regulations, 1981, 1981.
Sri Lanka Ports Authority Act (No. 51 of 1979), 1979.
Inland Water Fishing Regulations, 1978, 1978.
Proclamation of the President delimiting the breadth of the maritime zones (unofficial title), 1977.
Spiny Lobster and Prawn (Shrimp) Regulations, 1973.
Fisheries Regulations, 1941, 1968.
253
in many cases do not consider the biological limits of the production of these renewable resources.
Also, most countries have well-developed legislative systems and polices in the different sectors,
but these policies are often not harmonized across sectors. Examples of these domestic legislations
implemented for management of marine related resources, particularly for the fisheries sector are
given in the Table 8.5.
8.5 CONCLUSION
This chapter discussed the contribution of the blue economy to the Sri Lankan economy, together
with the identification of potentials and challenges. As an island nation, our investigation shows
that the country is yet to reap the full possibilities of the blue economy. Geopolitically, Sri Lanka is
positioned in a strategically imperative place in the Indian Ocean, one of the vital oceans in the 21st
century. Sri Lanka’s Ocean is home to essential Sea lines of communications (SLOCs) and maritime
chokepoints, and about 100,000 commercial vessels are currently transiting across per year. 50%
of world container transportation, 30% of bulk cargo transportation, and 36% of crude oil transpor-
tation take place in this area. Energy demand will likely rise by a significant amount over the next
20 years, increasing the importance of Sri Lanka’s Ocean in global energy transportation.
The Indian subcontinent has around 20 important ports and 200 minor ports, including the ports
of the East Asian nations. The draught of most ports is in the range of 6 m -10 m, whilst some have
up to 14 m, and 4 -6 major ports can handle deep draught vessels catering up to 18 m. However, Sri
Lankan ports have deep water, Colombo with 19 m, Hambantota with 17 m, and Trincomalee with
25 m. These facilities have more potential to contribute to the blue economy of Sri Lanka.
Who dominates Sri Lanka’s or Indian Ocean, and shipping routes may dominate the world
economy by controlling the flow of oil, close to 90% of global trade? Being the nearest neighbor of
Sri Lanka, India will overtake Japan, UK, and Germany by 2050. India is to become World’s 3rd lar-
gest economy by 2050. The other two largest economies in Asia, Japan, and China, heavily depend
on trade traversing Sri Lanka’s Ocean and the Strait of Malacca.
Achieving the full benefits of the blue economy in Sri Lanka depends on many factors. Many
Indian fishers are crossing to Sri Lanka’s Ocean for illegal fishing, and to address this grave issue, Sri
Lanka needs a delicate diplomatic effort with India. How to engage with superpowers in the Ocean
is a big challenge for the country. Sri Lanka aims to be a ‘Wonder of Asia’, achieving high economic
growth and enhancing the wellbeing of the citizens in the years ahead. Sri Lanka already plans to
create five hubs, namely, (a) naval and logistics, (b) knowledge, (c) aviation, (d) commercial, and
(e) energy. All these planned hubs reinforce the additional development of the blue economy.
Sri Lanka needs very well-thought-out strategic plans and deals with three big countries in
Asia (China, India, and Japan), the US, and other countries as friendly and non-aligned countries.
Future actions or cooperation for the country involve the identification of areas and sectors of the
blue economy in consultation with stakeholders at different levels: the stakeholder include: (a) the
state (central and local governments), (b) markets, and (c) civil Society. The delicate balancing of
stakeholders, including local fishers, should be prioritised and
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259
9 Marine Ecosystem Services

SDGs Targets, Achievement, and
Linkages with a Blue Economy
Perception
Md. Nazrul Islam,1* Sahanaj Tamanna,2
S. M. Rashedul Islam,1 and Md. Shahriar Islam1
1
2
Bangladesh Environmental Modeling Alliance (BEMA), Non-Profit
Research and Training Organization, Mirpur, Dhaka, Bangladesh
*Corresponding author: Md. Nazrul Islam. E-mail: nazrul_[email protected]
CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 260
9.2 Marine Ecosystem Services and the Blue Economy Perspective.......................................... 261
9.3 Classification of Marine Ecosystem Services....................................................................... 262
9.3.1 Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystem Services............................................................... 262
9.3.2 Rocky Shore Ecosystem Services............................................................................. 264
9.3.3 Sandy Beach Ecosystem Services............................................................................. 264
9.3.4 Salt Marsh Ecosystem Services................................................................................. 265
9.3.5 Marine Deep Sea Ecosystem Services...................................................................... 265
9.3.6 Open Sea Ecosystem Services................................................................................... 265
9.3.7 Services from Marine Mangrove Ecosystem............................................................ 265
9.3.8 Services from Coral Reef Ecosystems...................................................................... 265
9.3.9 Services from Mangrove Forests............................................................................... 266
9.3.10 Services from Marine Biological Habitats................................................................ 266
9.4 Other Major Marine Ecosystem Services.............................................................................. 267
9.4.1 Fisheries Resources................................................................................................... 267
9.4.2 Services from Seaweeds and Reefs........................................................................... 267
9.4.3 Services from Ocean Energy..................................................................................... 268
9.4.4 Services from Coastal and Marine Tourism.............................................................. 269
9.4.5 Services from Shipping and Transportation.............................................................. 269
9.5 Valuation of Deep-Sea Goods and Services.......................................................................... 269
9.6 Major Maritime Activities and Services to Generate the Blue Economy............................. 270
9.7 Marine Services to Small Island Developing State (SIDS)................................................... 270
9.7.1 Economic Growth from Ecosystem Services............................................................ 271
9.7.2 Possibilities for Seaweed Cultivation, Blue Carbon and Management..................... 271
9.7.2.1 Blue Carbon Management.......................................................................... 271
9.8 Key Business Indicators in the Context of a Blue Economy................................................. 272
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-9 259

newgenprepdf
260
9.9 SDGs Targets, Achievement and Linkages with a Blue Economy Perspective.................... 273
9.10 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................278
Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................... 278
References....................................................................................................................................... 278
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Marine ecosystems can be defined as the interaction of plants, animals, and the marine environ-
ment (Atkins et al. 2011; Liquete et al. 2013). The term ‘marine’ refers to anything related to or
produced by the sea or ocean. The word refers to the Earth’s salty oceans, and it’s also known as
a salt water ecosystem (Adrianov, 2004; Kaiser et al. 2011; Martin, 2019). The marine ecosystem,
in general, refers to the oceans, seas, and other salt water environments as a whole; but, deeper
examination reveals that it can be separated into smaller, unique ecosystems (Fuhrman et al. 2015;
Barbier, 2017; Xu et al. 2021). Salt marshes, estuaries, the ocean bottom, the open ocean, the inter-
tidal zones, coral reefs, lagoons, and mangroves are examples of marine ecosystems (Barbier et al.
2011). Healthy marine ecosystems are important for society since they provide services including
food security, feed for livestock and raw materials for medicines (Wilson and Verlis, 2017). Also,
it has provided building materials from coral rock and sand, and natural defenses against hazards
such as coastal erosion and inundation (Larsen et al. 2016; Smail and Hasson, 2021). The sci-
entific evidence shows that the marine ecosystem includes: marshes, tidal zones, estuaries, the
mangrove forest, lagoons, sea grass beds, the sea floor, and coral reefs (Gullström et al. 2002;
Martin et al. 2020). Just like every other ecosystem in the world, the aquatic ecosystems rely on
each other for maintaining a balanced marine ecosystem (Klain and Chan, 2012; Pendleton et al.
2016). The marine ecosystems are important to the world, because without them, the marine life
would not have and protection from predators, which could eventually make the marine life go
extinct (Lele et al. 2013; Michael et al. 2018). Although there is some disagreement, several types
of marine ecosystems are largely agreed on: estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove forests, coral reefs,
the open ocean, and the deep-sea ocean. Recreation, tourism and water transport are familiar ser-
vices provided by many marine ecosystems (Palumbi et al. 2009; Lange and Jiddawi, 2009; Lillebø
et al. 2017).
Some unique estuarine, coastal, and marine habitats are also important stores of genetic
material and have educational and scientific research value as well (Beaumont et al. 2008; Martin
et al. 2020). Figure 9.1 shows the major maritime activities and marine ecosystem services that
generate the blue economy. But ecosystem services are not limited to the terrestrial space (Hattam
et al. 2015; Buonocore et al. 2021). On the contrary, the ocean plays a major role in climate regu-
lation. Many studies have shown that the seas absorb almost a third of the carbon dioxide emitted
annually.
Moreover, marine and coastal ecosystems are home to numerous plant and animal species,
which all produce various useful services for humans (Armstrong et al. 2012; Barbier, 2017). For
instance, mangroves help retain friable, or crumbly soil on the coast, and therefore help prevent
coastal erosion. Because the friability of soil refers to its crumbly texture, which is somewhere
between sand and clay, not so fine and grainy like sand, or so thick and mushy like clay. Friable soil
is organically rich soil. Friable soil is crumbly, and very fertile (Konar and Ding, 2020). It may be
able to hold up to 15 times its weight in water like a sponge, preventing erosion, and storing these
water deposits like a reservoir. They are also natural barriers to water currents, and as such constitute
a favored habitat for the birth and development of many species of fish. Mangroves therefore help
maintain the available fish stock (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983; Ajonina, 2008). Whale faeces, on the
other hand, contains high quantities of iron, which is an essential nutrient for photosynthesis. The
level of iron present in the ocean has a direct impact on the development of phytoplankton, a key
component of carbon storage (Lovelock, 2008).
261
Marine Ecosystem Services 261
FIGURE 9.1 Major maritime activities and marine ecosystem services to generate the blue economy.
FIGURE 9.2 Marine and coastal ecosystems produce various services, including: provisioning
services: fisheries, building materials and supporting services, etc.
9.2 MARINE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND THE BLUE ECONOMY PERSPECTIVE

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) defined four types of ecosystem services
(Hrabanski, 2017). Marine and coastal ecosystems provide various services, including: provisioning
services: fisheries, building materials; supporting services: life-cycle maintenance for both fauna
and local, element and nutrient cycling; regulating services (Figure 9.2) (Atkins et al. 2011; IPPC,
2019; Lubchenco et al. 2020), carbon sequestration and storage, erosion prevention, waste-water
treatment, moderation of extreme events and they also provide cultural services: tourism, recre-
ational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits (Van Jaarsveld et al. 2005; Atkins et al. 2011; Lau et al.
2020). Fish and shellfish for food (Lee et al. 2013), seawater for drinking, raw materials (such as
algae, salt, sand, and gravel), amber and other bio-items for decoration, space for delivering energy
262
from offshore wind farms, ship traffic routes, cultural services such as recreational opportunities for
local visitors and tourists, and biodiversity are all provided by marine ecosystems to the benefit of
society (Ashie et al. 1996; Guldner et al. 2007; Vincent, 2012; Zanoli et al. 2015).
Other services provided by the maritime environment include maintenance and regulatory ser-
vices, such as nutrient and hazardous material control, carbon sequestration, and climate regulation
(Ajonina, 2008; Ross et al. 2019; IPBES, 2019). The economic value of intermediate services is
enormous, despite the fact that they are more difficult to price and evaluate than other more tangible
services (Devassy and Nair, 1987; Beaumont et al. 2008). A few examples of final services that
have a direct impact on human wellbeing are food, raw materials, energy distribution, and recre-
ational activities (Liquete et al. 2013). Maintenance and regulatory services, on the other hand, are
examples of intermediate services that have an impact on wellbeing indirectly (Hasler, 2016).
9.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Components of marine ecosystem services benefit human health and provide beneficial commod-
ities and services (Summers et al. 2012; Abrantes et al. 2015). These services contribute to the eco-
nomic system’s growth. Because of the way marine ecosystems are structured and operate, they are
able to provide ecological production of ecosystem services (Benilli et al. 2008; Guerry et al. 2012;
Edward, 2017). Some of these commodities, services, and cultural advantages have a direct influ-
ence on human wellbeing, whilst others have an indirect impact on human wellbeing by sustaining
or maintaining significant economic assets and production activities (Ayompe et al. 2021). The
following Table 9.1 summarizes some of the services supplied by marine ecosystems. They include
a range of products and services, as well as cultural and other advantages. Marine habitats generate
a variety of things (Nash et al. 2020). The services provided by these environments include fish
harvesting and the conservation of wild plant and animal species (Beaumont et al. 2008; Obura,
20220). Among these marine ecosystem services, the extractive resources and the uses of large
bodies of water are quite important for developing the blue economy. Especially for most of the poor
countries in the world, these two main marine ecosystems services are very important (Buonocore
et al. 2020). The primary functions of marine life ecosystems often include both. Commercial and
‘informal’ gatherings on a modest scale help to support the livelihoods of indigenous peoples, for
example, via fishing, hunting, and fuel wood extraction (Biswas et al. 2014; Barbier, 2017). These
services can help to build a strong economic structure for Small Island Developing States (SIDS).
9.3.1 Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystem Services

Estuaries give a variety of resources, advantages, and services to us. Recreational activities, scien-
tific research, and aesthetic pleasure can all be found in estuaries (Martin et al. 2020; Stuchtey et al.
(2020).). Estuaries are a unique natural resource that must be carefully managed for the mutual
benefit of all those who use them and rely on them (Friedman, 1977; Martin, 2019). Thousands of
birds, animal, fish, and other wildlife species rely on estuarine ecosystems to survive, breed, and
feed (Friedman, 1977; MoFa (2014). Moreover, many marine organisms, including the majority of
commercially important fish species, rely on estuaries at some stage during their lifecycle (Lenanton
and Potter, 1987). Estuaries are good places for migratory birds to stop and recharge throughout
their lengthy trips since they are biologically productive.
Estuaries are known as the ‘nurseries of the sea’ because many kinds of fish and wildlife rely on
their protected breeding grounds in the sheltered waters of estuaries (Abrantes et al. 2015). Estuaries
are beneficial to the economy. Estuaries have significant commercial value, and their resources
support tourism, fishing, and leisure activities (Barbier, 2012; Brown et al. 2018). Estuaries maintain
significant public infrastructure by serving as harbors and ports, which are essential for shipping
and transportation (Potter and Hyndes, 1999; Ross et al. 2019). The natural beauty and wealth of
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TABLE 9.1
Marine Ecosystems Services and Enhancing Components of Blue Economy
Enhancing Components of Blue Economy

Type of Activity/ Marine Ecosystem
goods Services Industry Divers of Growth Source
Harvest of Living Seafood Fisheries Food Security Barbier (2017)

Resources
Aquaculture Demand for Protein Hrabanski (2017)
Marne biotechnology Pharmaceuticals, Healthcare and industry Ross et al. (2019)
chemicals
Non Living Minerals Seafood Mining Demand for minerals Lele et al. (2013)
Resources
Energy Oil and Gas Demand for Alternative Hattam et al. (2015)
Energy Sources
Freshwater Desalination Demand for Freshwater Barbier (2017)
Commerce and Trade Transport and trade Shipping Growth in Ross et al. (2019)
in and around the seaborne trade.
Oceans International regulations
Port infrastructure and Hrabanski (2017)
services
Tourism and recreation Tourism Growth of Global Barbier (2017)
tourism
Coastal Development Coastal urbanization Wang and Tang
(2010)
Domestic regulations
Response to ocean Ocean monitoring and Technology and RandO RandD in ocean Lele et al. (2013)
Health challenges surveillance technologies
carbon Sequestration Blue carbon Growth in Coastal and Hrabanski (2017)
ocean protection and
conservation activities
Water Coastal Protection Habitat protection and
restoration
Waste Disposal/ Assimilation of Ross et al. (2019)
Pollution Protection nutrients and wastes
Storm Protection Habitat regeneration Liquete et al. (2013)
Breeding and nursery Bequest for future
habitats generations
Source: After modified from Barbier, 2017; Ross et al. 2019 and above others mentioned sources.
estuaries are vital to the economies of many coastal communities. The livelihoods of persons who
live and work in estuary basins are jeopardized when natural resources are depleted (Lenanton and
Potter, 1987; Fox, 2012).
Coastal ecosystems contain unique and recognizable landforms like beaches, cliffs, and coral
reefs, all of which are extremely vulnerable to disturbances (Venkataraman and Raghunathan, 2015).
Coastal locations are home to some of the world’s most diverse ecosystems. In the Indian Ocean, the
biodiversity hotspot of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands can be found (Rajalingam et al. 2016). As
many distinct species of marine life, as in a tropical rainforest, can be found on the coral reefs there.
Sadly, coastal erosion is destroying habitat and causing lasting damage to coastal communities.
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Marine communities in coastal habitats are very biodiverse and vary based on topography and cli-
mate. Bays, estuaries, mangroves, salt marshes, and wetlands are a few examples of coastal habitats
(Ranjitkumar et al. 2020). Because of the abundance of food and the fact that they are protected
from some of the perils of the deep ocean, many fish, turtles, and migratory birds breed in coastal
areas. Disturbances have a high impact on these populations (Tittensor et al. 2009). The availability
of sunlight and a consistent supply of nutrients allows creatures that live in coastal environments to
thrive. The shallow seas of coastal habitats allow sunlight to reach the ocean floor, where nutrients
from dead species can gather and nourish life (Chen et al. 2020). Because sunlight can only reach
a depth of 50 to 100 m in the ocean, this type of nourishing environment does not exist in the deep
ocean, where nutrients sink to depths where most living species cannot survive (Duarte et al. 2008).
9.3.2 Rocky Shore Ecosystem Services

A marine ecosystem is any that occurs in or near salt water, which means that marine ecosystems
can be found all over the world, from sandy beaches to the deepest parts of the ocean (Hall, 2001;
Lenanton and Potter, 1987). An example of a marine ecosystem is a coral reef, with its associated
marine life including fish and sea turtles and the rocks and sand found in the area. The ocean covers
71% of the planet, so marine ecosystems make up most of the Earth (Roberts et al. 2003). Along a
rocky shore, you might find rock cliffs, boulders, small and large rocks, and tidal pools (puddles of
water that can contain a surprising array of marine life) (Kandasamy et al. 2022). You will also find
the intertidal zone, which is the area between low and high tide (Wilson and Verlis, 2017). Rocky
shores can be extreme places for marine animals and plants to live. At low tide, marine animals
have an increased threat of predation (Peterson, 1991; Lee et al. 2013). There may be pounding
waves and lots of wind action, in addition to the rising and falling of the tides. Together, this activity
has the ability to affect water availability, temperature, and salinity (Powell and Domack, 2002).
Specific types of marine life vary with location, but in general, some types of marine life you’ll
find at the rocky shore include (Ewing, 2012): marine algae, lichens, birds, invertebrates such as
crabs, lobsters, sea stars, urchins, mussels, barnacles, snails, limpets, sea squirts (tunicates), and sea
anemones, plus fish, seals and sea lions, and so forth. (Jackson and Sala, 2001).
9.3.3 Sandy Beach Ecosystem Services

Sandy beaches may seem lifeless compared to other ecosystems, at least when it comes to marine
life. However, these ecosystems have a surprising amount of biodiversity (Griffiths and Waller,
2016). Like the rocky shore, animals in a sandy beach ecosystem have had to adapt to the constantly
changing environment. Marine life in a sandy beach ecosystem may burrow in the sand or need to
move quickly out of reach of the waves (Adrianov, 2004; Palumbi et al. 2009). They must contend
with tides, wave action, and water currents, all of which may sweep marine animals off the beach
(Lee et al. 2020). This activity can also move sand and rocks to different locations (Shields et al.
2011). Within a sandy beach ecosystem, you’ll also find an intertidal zone, although the landscape
isn’t as dramatic as that of the rocky shore (Palumbi et al. 2009). Sand generally is pushed onto the
beach during summer months, and pulled off the beach in the winter months, making the beach
more gravelly and rocky at those times (Mauzey et al. 1968). Tidal pools may be left behind when
the ocean recedes at low tide (Wright and Mella, 1963). Marine life that is occasional to be found
on sandy beaches includes: sea turtles, who might nest on the beach, or pinnipeds, such as seals
and sea lions, who might rest on the beach (Eckert et al. 1986). Regular sandy beach inhabitants
are: algae, plankton, invertebrates (such as amphipods, isopods, sand dollars, crabs, clams, worms,
snails, flies, and plankton), fish (including rays, skates, sharks, and flounder) can be found in shallow
waters along the beach, birds (such as plover, sanderlings, willet, godwits, herons, gulls, terns, ruddy
turnstones, and curlews, and the like. (Fertl and Fulling, 2007; Schlacher et al. 2014).
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9.3.4 Salt Marsh Ecosystem Services

Salt marshes are areas that flood at high tide and are composed of salt-tolerant plants and animals
(Roman et al. 1984). Salt marshes are important in many ways. They provide habitats for marine
life, birds and migratory birds, they’re important nursery areas for fish and invertebrates (Power
et al. 1988). They also protect the rest of the coastline by buffering wave action and absorbing
water during high tides and storms. Examples of salt marsh marine ecosystem life are algae,
plankton, birds, fish, and occasionally marine mammals, such as dolphins and seals (Gibson
et al. 2011).
9.3.5 Marine Deep Sea Ecosystem Services

The term ‘deep sea’ refers to parts of the ocean that are over 1,000 m (3,281 ft). One challenge for
marine life in this ecosystem is light and many animals have adapted so that they can see in low light
conditions, or don’t need to see at all (Jones et al. 2020). Another challenge is pressure. Many deep-
sea animals have soft bodies so they aren’t crushed under the high pressure that is found at extreme
depths (Palumbi et al. 2009). The deepest parts of the ocean are more than 30,000 ft deep, so we’re
still learning about the types of marine life that live there (Marcus, 2004; Da Ros et al. 2019). Here
are some examples of general types of marine life that inhabit these ecosystems: invertebrates such
as crabs, worms, jellyfish, squid, and octopus, corals, and fish, such as anglerfish and some sharks,
and marine mammals, including some types of deep-diving marine mammals, such as sperm whales
and elephant seals (Balcombe, 2016).
9.3.6 Open Sea Ecosystem Services

The open ocean is by international convention the largest transboundary space, with ocean areas
beyond national jurisdictions covering about half of the surface of planet Earth (ocean areas under
national jurisdiction cover a further 20%), under the ultimate governance of the UN General
Assembly (Lee et al. 2013). Governance of the open ocean is mediated mainly through global inter-
national treaties based on particular themes (climate change, fisheries, pollution, biodiversity), as
well as some regional conventions.
9.3.7 Services from Marine Mangrove Ecosystem

Mangrove trees are salt-tolerant plant species with roots that dangle into the water. Forests of these
plants provide shelter for a variety of marine life and are important nursery areas for young marine
animals (Webber et al. 2014). These ecosystems are generally found in warmer areas between the
latitudes of 32° N and 38° S (Smardon, 2009). Species that may be found in mangrove ecosystems
include algae, birds, invertebrates such as crabs, shrimp, oysters, tunicates, sponges, snails, and
insects, fish, dolphins, manatees, reptiles such as sea turtles, land turtles, alligators, crocodiles,
caimans, snakes, and lizards (MoFa, 2014; Sheaves, 2017).
9.3.8 Services from Coral Reef Ecosystems

Healthy coral reef ecosystems are filled with an amazing amount of diversity, including hard
and soft corals, invertebrates of many sizes, and even large animals, such as sharks and dolphins
(Friedlander et al. 2008; Tittensor et al. 2009). The reef-builders are the hard (stony) corals. The
basic part of a reef is the skeleton of the coral, which is made of limestone (calcium carbonate) and
supports tiny organisms called polyps (Tittensor et al. 2009). Eventually, the polyps die, leaving
the skeleton behind. There are several major marine species that might live there. The invertebrates
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FIGURE 9.3 Mangrove Sundarbans Forest at the Coast of Northern Bay of Bengal in Bangladesh (BSS,
2017; https://farmsandfarmer24.com/worlds-largest-mangrove-forest-sundarban/).
include hundreds of species of coral, sponges, crabs, shrimp, lobsters, anemones, worms, bryozoans,
sea stars, urchins, nudibranchs, octopuses, squid, and snails. Vertebrate inhabitants might include
a wide variety of fish, sea turtles, and marine mammals (such as seals and dolphins) (Shields
et al. 2011).
9.3.9 Services from Mangrove Forests

Mangrove forests make up one of the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystems on the
planet (Figure 9.3) (Smardon, 2009). They grow in a variety of depths of salt water, their roots
sticking up out of the mud, with fish, crustaceans and a host of other species living between tree
trunks. These mangroves are a unique, diverse and complex ecosystem providing lot of natural
resources (Shamsuzzaman et al. 2017). They act as a coastal stabilizer as well as tempest defenders.
Almost 1.5 million people are protected by these mangroves against the effect of water interruption,
water contamination and siltation
9.3.10 Services from Marine Biological Habitats

Many ecosystems in coastal and open ocean areas benefit from the marine environment, which
supports biodiversity (Sink et al. 2012). Marine ecosystems produce various resources that benefit
humanity, and the seas and coasts are vital to the survival and well-being of a large section of
the world’s population (Raudsepp-Hearne et al. 2010). As challenges such as changes in land-
use, overfishing, climate change, the invasion of non-native species, and other anthropogenic
activities have an impact on biodiversity, the demand on marine ecosystems and the resources
they provide is increasing (Atkins et al. 2011; Liquete et al. 2013). Species must evolve and
adapt to changing environmental conditions as the world around them changes. Food security,
animal feed, raw materials for medications, building materials from coral rock and sand, and
natural defenses against threats such as coastal erosion and inundation are all benefits provided
by healthy marine ecosystems (Figure 9.4) (Hossain et al. 2021). Policymakers can respond to,
protect, and manage threatened ecosystems by using ocean observations to monitor biodiver-
sity and estimate species distribution and density in marine environments (Atkins et al. 2011).
Marine ecosystems are inextricably related to global climate, and scientists can better predict the
impact of climate change on biodiversity and human populations by monitoring and researching
them (US EPA, 2015).
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FIGURE 9.4 Promoting responsible and sustainable fisheries resources to enhancing the global blue economy.
9.4 OTHER MAJOR MARINE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

9.4.1 Fisheries Resources
Most of the coastal people of these areas live their lives with fishing providing the primary source
of food and nutrition to the teeming millions (Kurien, 2007). The coastal areas are over-crowded by
people, resulting in an average density of 80 people/km2, which is almost double the world’s average
(Moriarty, 2007). At least 41,500 large and small fishing craft are plying this area, directly operated
by approximately 3.7 million fishermen (Manson et al. 2005). These fishermen catch 6 million
tonnes of fish per year worth US$ 4 billion which is 7% of the world’s total catch (Harper et al.
2020). Around 185 million people live in the coastal areas of this region, with almost 3% of these
directly involved with fishing. This is approximately 4.4 million (BOBLME, 2015) people are dir-
ectly involved with fishing in the Bay of Bengal regions.
International fisheries play a critical part in ensuring food and economic security around the
world. Still, many fish populations are not managed according to scientific advice and best practices,
a reality that is taking a toll on many important marine species (Salomidi et al. 2012; Wilson, 2016).
Sustainably managing the world’s shared fish stocks, and securing the well-being of the habitats
and ecosystems on which they depend, requires effective governance at every level (Shamsuzzaman
et al. 2017). Policies should be implemented by the best available science and technology of the
countries and each government will have to commitments to enforce these compliance (Wilson,
2016). According to the suggestions of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Committee on Fisheries (COFI) it is important to ensure the policymakers of the small island coun-
tries take steps to reduce overfishing, protect sharks, combat illegal fishing, and safeguard marine
habitats and ecosystems. Here are 10 ways they can have a positive impact (Wilson, 2016):
9.4.2 Services from Seaweeds and Reefs

Seaweeds and other reefs, along with tropical rain forests, are one of the most ecologically diverse
ecosystems on the planet (Guldner et al. 2007). They are made up of sponges, crabs, mollusks, fish,
sea turtles, sharks, dolphins, and much more, in addition to hard and soft corals (Shamsuzzaman
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FIGURE 9.5 Scenarios of marine ecosystem services from coastal tourisms at Cox’s Bazar Sea beach in
Bangladesh (Islam et al. 2017; https://c.mi.com/thread-1665290-1-0.html).
et al. 2017; Sarker et al. 2018). The amount and diversity of creatures on a reef are mostly determined
by competition for resources such as food, space, and sunlight. Countless other plants, animals, and
organisms are dependent on and associated with each component of a coral reef. Less than 1% of
the earth’s surface is covered by these reefs providing shelter to 25 % of all marine fish species
(Michael et al. 2018). Approximately 0.7 million people are protected by coral reefs. The Bay of
Bengal large marine ecosystem region which represents almost 8% of the world’s coral reef with an
area of 22,602 km2 (Hossain, 2001; Shamsuzzaman et al. 2017), the Maldives, the Andaman and the
Nicobar Islands, Myanmar and the Andaman Sea area of Thailand are the main areas where corals
reefs are seen (Figure 9.5).
Moreover, coral reefs supply a wide range of ecosystem services and goods, such as:
• Coastal Protection
Coral reefs acts as natural wave barriers that protect coastal communities and beaches from
storm damage, help to control erosion, and help is sand formation.
• Food and Fishing
Seaweeds and coral reefs sustain the fish and shellfish population that provide protein for 1
billion people. Reefs are nurseries for many commercially valuable species.
• Medicine
Seaweeds and coral reef species provide new medical compounds and technologies to treat ser-
ious diseases. More than half of all new cancer drug research is focusing on marine organisms.
• Tourism and Recreation
Coral reefs attract millions of tourists every year, bringing important income to coral reef
communities. Some countries derive more than half of their gross national product from coral
reef industries.
9.4.3 Services from Ocean Energy

Marine renewable energy (MRE), also known as ocean energy or marine and hydrokinetic energy
(MHK), refers to the various ways of generating electricity from the world’s oceans, seas, and rivers
(Duarte et al. 2008). Movement of water occurs naturally in these bodies of water in the form of
waves, tides, and currents (Cassotta, 2021). All coastal areas consistently experience two high and
low tides over a period of slightly greater than 24 hours. For those tidal differences to be harnessed
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into electricity, the difference between the high and low tides must be at least 5 meters, or more
than 16 feet. There are only about 40 sites on the earth with tidal ranges of this magnitude (Liguo
et al. 2022). The Pacific Northwest and the Atlantic Northeast are locations with tidal potential in
the United States.
9.4.4 Services from Coastal and Marine Tourism

Tourism is one of the main sources of earnings for islands like the Maldives, Andaman and the
Nicobar Islands. There are a lot of fantastic beaches in these countries which are the obvious tourist
destinations and which provide a lot of revenue to these counties (Hall, 2001). Over the past decades
the number of tourists increased dramatically in this region providing ass important source of
wealth. But these extra tourists are creating extra pressure on the marine ecosystems by discharging
garbage, plastics, and the like, in these zones, leading to environmental degradation (Islam, 2003;
Shamsuzzaman et al. 2017). Cox’s bazaar, the longest continuous sea beach of the planet is heavily
polluted by plastics left by tourists. Because tourism is one of the pillars of various economies,
governments very often ignore the pollution aspect (Islam et al. 2017).
9.4.5 Services from Shipping and Transportation

Ships have to pass through BOBLME (Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem) before entering the
Malacca straits which remain busy throughout the year as more than 50,000 merchant ships cross
this strait which connects the two big oceans, the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. These ships
carry almost 25% of the goods traded by the world. Major ports like Colombo, Mumbai, Chittagong,
and Bangkok have become the shipping hub of the world.
9.5 VALUATION OF DEEP-SEA GOODS AND SERVICES

The deep sea, defined as water and seafloor areas below 200 m, accounts for 90% of the biosphere,
although humans understood little about it until recently (Van et al. 2005; Folkersen et al. 2018).
Because little or no light penetrates these depths, it was supposed that deep-sea life was limited
(Nellemann and Corcoran, 2009; George, 2013). However, life is rich and diverse, and the deep
marine habitats differ greatly from the uniform and desert-like plains recorded by pioneer voyages
(Salomidi et al. 2012; Folkersen et al. 2018). Though deep water is still a largely unexplored region,
national and international research initiatives are rapidly expanding our understanding (Van Dover
et al. 2014). Deep-sea ecosystems are critical to global biogeochemical cycles, on which much ter-
restrial life and human civilization rely (Colwell and D’Hondt, 2013). However, given its remote-
ness, the deep sea is far less clean and undisturbed than one might imagine. Deep-sea ecosystems
are under increasing pressures and threats. And our understanding of the deep-water is still patchy
and incomplete (Roberts et al. 2006).
There are still significant gaps in our understanding of the presence and operation of deep-sea
ecosystems, as well as their specific roles in global biogeochemical cycles (Frades et al. 2020). The
relationships of biochemical processes, habitats, ecosystems, and species are mostly unknown (Van
Dover et al. 2014). As a result, we know little about the resilience and vulnerabilities of deep-sea
commodities and services systems (Armstrong et al. 2012). As a result, understanding how these
deep-sea habitats work and the risks they face is critical. We also need a deeper understanding of
how deep-sea ecosystems work and how this contributes to the provision of ecosystem goods and
services to humans (Figure 9.6) (Tittensor et al. 2009). Measuring and valuing these functions and
marine ecosystem services is difficult since our understanding of products and services, as well as
the trade-offs between them, are so limited (Armstrong et al. 2012).
270
FIGURE 9.6 Classification and valuation of deep-sea goods, services and their functional characteristics.
9.6 MAJOR MARITIME ACTIVITIES AND SERVICES TO GENERATE THE BLUE

ECONOMY
Maritime activities and services play a vital role in generating the blue economy. The most important
sectors are the following (Hussain et al. 2017).
• Marine biotechnology: which is the use of biotechnology, molecular and cell biology, and
bioinformatics to create goods and processes from marine creatures.
• Carbon sequestration: which is a method of trapping and storing atmospheric carbon
dioxide. It is one way of decreasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere with the purpose
of slowing global climate change.
• Oil, gas, and mineral mining concerns all operations involved in the exploration, evaluation,
and extraction of minerals, metals, petroleum, and fossil fuels from the earth and these are
included in mining, oil, and gas research.
• Marine renewable energy: which is renewable energy that is installed and operated at sea
and necessitates access to offshore grid and distribution infrastructure. Offshore wind, tidal
stream, tidal range, and wave energy technologies are examples of this.
• Sea salt production: in the form of solar salt manufacturing is typically
accomplished by collecting salt water in shallow ponds where the sun evaporates the
majority of the water.
• Marine trade, shipping, and transport: where the transportation of commodities (cargo)
through waterways is known as maritime transport.
• Marine tourism: encompasses a diverse range of activities that take place in the deep
oceans.
• Maritime education and research: are distinct but vital components of the supply of skilled
and competent human resources to the connected businesses.
9.7 MARINE SERVICES TO SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATE (SIDS)

The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) seem to be the world’s most vulnerable group of
nations, both in terms of their ecologies and their economies (Ghina, 2003). Their problems and
limitations, which are tied to their ecological fragility and environmental sensitivity, are many and
complex. They must overcome these obstacles in order to achieve sustainable development goals
and their respective countries vision and missions (Ghina, 2003). Marine services with sustainable
blue economy would be the best solution to achieve these goals and vision.
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9.7.1 Economic Growth from Ecosystem Services

Although it is quite difficult to place a monetary figure on all of the ways in which the natural world
enhances our lives, there are several concrete advantages to living in a world where ecosystems are
robust and healthy (Frades et al. 2020). As a consequence of wildlife and natural ecosystems, we
have a stronger economy, a greater variety of food goods, and improvements in medical research to
our credit (Folkersen et al. 2018). Despite the fact that the benefits of nature have long been known,
it has only been in recent years that the idea of ecosystem services has been devised to represent
these many advantages (Luisetti et al. 2011). A good advantage that animals or ecosystems give
to humans is referred to as an ‘ecosystem service’ (Hattam et al. 2020). The advantages might be
either direct or indirect, and they can be either minor or enormous (Van Dover et al. 2014). There
are hundreds of advantages associated with marine ecosystem service that benefit not only human-
kind but also the economic structure. Economic development will be tremendous if SIDS take use
of the appropriate services (Liquete et al. 2013). In many cases, small island developing states
(SIDS) suffer from distinct disadvantages as a result of their size, insularity, isolation, remoteness,
and vulnerability to natural catastrophes (Ghina, 2003; Keen, et al. 2018). The combined effect of
these variables makes the economies of these countries very sensitive to forces outside their control
a situation that might occasionally jeopardize their long-term economic survival (Briguglio, 1995;
Clark Howard et al. 2018).
9.7.2 Possibilities for Seaweed Cultivation, Blue Carbon and Management

Despite the fact that the great bulk of seaweed production continues to take place in nations such
as China, Japan, and Indonesia, seaweed is gradually becoming more popular in the Western world
(Wenhai et al. 2019). In the United States and Canada, there are an increasing number of seaweed
farms (Heisler, 2008). However, the most difficult obstacle to overcome is the growing demand for
fresh, unprocessed seaweed as a dietary source (IUCN, 2017). If farming is ever to become a main-
stream type of aquaculture for SIDS, people will need to acquire a preference for seaweed as an
ingredient in their diet. Seaweed farming is also beneficial to the environment since it urges people
to protect and respect their ocean (Troell et al. 2022). Seaweed farming is a vital source of employ-
ment and local food supply in developing nations, particularly in the Caribbean. This alleviates
strain on local fish supplies and has the potential to minimize overfishing by lessening the economic
need for fishing for survival.
9.7.2.1 Blue Carbon Management

Blue carbon restoration and protection activities may potentially be used to provide market-based
carbon offsets (also called carbon credits). Coastal blue carbon accounting stock value is about
$180 million (Luisetti et al. 2013). Understanding carbon stocks and fluxes will speed up the con-
struction of solid non-market estimates. Blue carbon incentives may also help conserve and benefit
other ecosystem services offered by these areas, such as fisheries (Lau et al. 2020). This will have
advantages beyond carbon sequestration. For example, mangroves and tidal marshes offer eco-
logical services worth millions of dollars per hectare (Steven et al. 2019).
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) is an Australian
Government agency responsible for scientific research, the Blue Carbon cooperation cluster has
provided the most complete blue carbon sequestration estimations (Hossain, 2001; Islam et al.
2017). This research has influenced national reporting and emissions policies. The Blue Carbon
Initiative and the Blueprint for Ocean and Coastal Sustainability are multinational projects that
encourage blue carbon habitat conservation and restoration (Vanderklift et al. 2019). Quantifying
coastal carbon reserves in mangroves, saltmarsh, and sea grass is critical, but there are still challenges
(Shamsuzzaman et al. 2017). For example, the seasonal and geographical variability of certain sea
272
grass meadows makes estimating carbon reserves difficult. Thus, knowing blue carbon habitat limits
and carbon flows is critical for policy and market development (Steven et al. 2019).
9.8 KEY BUSINESS INDICATORS IN THE CONTEXT OF A

BLUE ECONOMY
The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is an organization which exists to ensure that corporate blue
economy sector firms and companies disclose their environmental, social and governance perform-
ance (Waddock, 2008). Companies need to follow these guidelines and report their performance.
The latest version of the guideline is G4. The GRI provides a framework by which companies pro-
vide reports publicly on sustainable issues (Koseoglu et al. 2021).
CDP (previously known as Carbon Disclosure Project) is an organization which provides com-
panies, states, cities, and regions a system to measure and manage environmental impacts and glo-
bally disclose the reports. These reports are important to inform decisions taken in business and
to enable countries to plan future steps to ensure a safe environment for everyone. The business
indicators in the context of the Blue Economy follow the GRI guidelines and CDP guidelines to
measure their performance and progress of their goals. Below are some business indicators and the
related guidelines used to measure this performance.
TABLE 9.2
Business Indicators with Corresponding Guidelines
Guidelines to measure
Business indicators performance References
Total Water Discharge: the total quantity and GRI G4 Sustainability Koseoglu et al. (2021)
quality is measured in every location Reporting Guidelines, Cisneros-Montemayor et al. (2021)
G4-EN22 CDP’s Water
Questionnaire, W1.2b
Effects of Organization’s water discharge: GRI G4 Sustainability Cisneros-Montemayor et al. (2021)
The impacts of the discharged water from an Reporting Guidelines, Waddock (2008)
organization on the biodiversity and surrounding G4-EN26
habitats of the water body is noted
Mining and Metal Sector Land: The total GRI G4 Mining and Metals Cisneros-Montemayor et al. (2021)
amount of land used for mining and metal sector Sector Disclosures, MM1
is calculated
Electric utilities sector impacts: The impact of GRI G4 Electric Utilities Cisneros-Montemayor et al. (2021)
the electric utility sector on the biodiversity of Sector Disclosures, EU13 Frades et al. (2020)
affected areas is compared to the biodiversity of
the adjacent non-affected areas.
Climate Change Information: Total number of CDP’s Climate Change Cisneros-Montemayor et al. (2021)
projects is noted, and which projects are at what Information Request,
stage of implementation is noted. Then CO2 CC3.3a
saving is calculated.
Source: After modified adopted from Cisneros-Montemayor et al. 2021 and Koseoglu et al. 2021.
273
9.9 SDGs TARGETS, ACHIEVEMENT AND LINKAGES WITH A BLUE ECONOMY

PERSPECTIVE
According to the World Bank, the blue economy is the ‘sustainable use of ocean resources for eco-
nomic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while preserving the health of the ocean ecosystem’
(Cicin-Sain, 2015). The European Commission defines it by saying that all economic activities
related to oceans, seas and coasts would be considered as a blue economy ((Binelli et al. 2008;
Biswas et al. 2014; Hossain et al. 2021). The blue economy is not just about market opportunities but
also provides for the protection and development of more intangible ‘blue’ resources such as trad-
itional ways of life, carbon sequestration, and coastal resilience to help vulnerable states mitigate the
often devastating effects of climate change (Islam and Shamsuddoha, 2018). To ensure that the SDG
can achieve the goals of the blue economy, some targets were set with certain timelines (Lee et al.
2020). It was decided that by 2020 the target was to achieve healthy and productive oceans. The blue
economy comprises the economic activities and supporting institutions, relationships, and choices
that create sustainable wealth from the world’s oceans and coasts (Le Blanc et al. 2017; Nash et al.
2020). The center examines ways that ocean and coastal resources can support economic devel-
opment that provides decent livelihoods and maintains, restores, and enhances the critical coastal
and marine ecosystems that provide the foundations for human wellness and prosperity (Frades
et al. 2020).
As per the article published, SDG-14 is one of the sustainable development goals that focuses
highly on the sustainable use of ocean, sea, and marine resources to achieve SDG (United Nations.
Economic Commission for Africa (2018-11); Obura, 2020).The global blue economy developing
countries include a large number of economic activities which include a total of 26 marine economic
functions (Hossain et al. 2021). Fishery, maritime trade, and shipping, energy, tourism, coastal pro-
tection, maritime monitoring, and surveillance are some of the notable economic activities to con-
tribute to the blue economy of the country helping to achieve the SDG and Society 5.0 factors
(Binelli et al. 2008; Biswas et al. 2014). In order to achieve a better and happy society, Society 5.0
focuses on technological and industrial advancement and makes use of potential digital transform-
ation for economic growth as well as giving a solution to the social issues with the coexistence of
nature (Luisetti et al. 2013). In achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) and Society 5.0
the holds a major significance (World Resources Institute, 2020). Many developing countries like
Bangladesh has set goals to reach the SDG and the concept of Society 5.0 to help in the economic
and structural growth of the country (Islam et al. 2018). In relation to the development process of
SDG the blue economies of developing nations have a crucial role to play as well (Cumming and
von Cramon-Taubadel, 2018). The appropriate use of the ocean, sea, and other marine resources will
contribute largely to the growth of the economies in both developed and developing countries hence,
moving a step forward to achieve SDGs mission and vision.
Ocean growth is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 objectives set by
the United Nations to be achieved by 2030 (Ferreira et al. 2021). Each target is significant in and
of itself, and each one is regarded as indivisible SDG 14, entitled ‘Life below water,’ consisting of
ten goals primarily focused on the health of the oceans and the living resources found within them
(Lee et al. 2020). Other SGD components such as poverty, food, economic development, cities,
production and consumption, and environment have strong links to this component. Seas, oceans,
and coastal areas are an integral and necessary part of the Earth’s environment, critical to long-term
sustainability. Oceans are crucial for global food stability and human health. As a result, ocean
resources are vital to society and the economy (Hasan et al. 2018). The blue economy is the use of
ocean resources to increase food security, improve nutrition and health, alleviate poverty and create
employment, and so forth (Lau et al. 2020). The notion of the blue economy has been supported to
generate alternative energy, improve seaborne trade and industrial profiles.
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TABLE 9.3
SDGs Targets, Achievement and Linkages with the Blue Economy Perceptions
Blue economy
sector or activity Relevant SDG 14 target (in addition to 14.7) Rationale
Fisheries Target 14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all Improved fisheries management will contribute to a reduction in sea-based
kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and pollution from fishing vessels, including in the form of discarded fishing
nutrient pollution gear, which will help reduce marine debris and ghost fishing
Target 14.2 By 2020, sustainably Improved fisheries management will build resilience of ocean ecosystems as a
manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse whole
impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their
restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans

Target 14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, Achievement of targets 14.7 and 14.4 depend on each other
unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and
implement science-based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks
in the shortest time feasible, at least to levels that can produce maximum
sustainable yield as determined by their biological characteristics
Target 14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which Achievement of targets 14.7 and 14.6 depend on each other
contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute
to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing
new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and effective special and
differential treatment for developing and large developed countries should be
an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation
Target 14.9 Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources Access to markets will allow artisanal fishers to benefit from the blue economy
and markets
Aquaculture Target 14.1 Sustainable aquaculture causes minimal pollution and in the case of seaweed
and mollusk culture is a net remover of nutrients from the aquatic
environment
Target 14.2 Sustainable, climate-smart aquaculture can help build resilience by increasing
incomes and diversifying livelihoods
275
Marine Ecosystem Services
Bioprospecting Target 14.8 Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer Capacity building and technology transfer are required for SIDS and developing
and marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic countries to participate in marine bioprospecting and biodiscovery activities
biotechnology Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology,
in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine
biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular Small
Island Developing States and Least Developed Countries
Target 14.10 Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their Benefit sharing from the use of marine genetic resources is tied to the
resources by implementing international law as reflected in UNCLOS, which implementation of international law, including the Nagoya Protocol for areas
provides the legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of under national jurisdiction; discussions are ongoing on a new international
oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of The Future We legally binding instrument under UNCLOS on the conservation and
Want sustainable use of marine biodiversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction.
Extractive Target 14.2 Deep-sea mining can undermine the resilience of marine ecosystems and
industries species and should thus be preceded by effective social and environmental
impact procedures
Target 14.8 Capacity building and technology transfer are required for SIDS and developing
countries to participate in extractive activities
Renewable Target 14.2 Ocean energy helps build self-sufficiency and reduce pollution, thus increasing
(offshore) resilience of SIDS and coastal countries
energy Target 14.8 Capacity building and technology transfer are required for SIDS and developing
countries to benefit from ocean energy and other renewables
Desalination Target 14.1 Desalination technologies may cause pollution in the form of brine and CO₂
(fresh water emissions, which will need to be reduced through appropriate technologies,
generation) including renewable sources of energy
Target 14.2 Desalination, together with water conservation and good water governance, can
help build self-sufficiency
Target 14.8 Desalination plants are expensive: financing, capacity building, and technology
transfer are required for SIDS and developing countries to benefit from
desalination
(continued)
275
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276
276
SDGs Targets, Achievement and Linkages with the Blue Economy Perceptions
Blue economy
sector or activity Relevant SDG 14 target (in addition to 14.7) Rationale
Maritime Target 14.1 Improved implementation of shipping regulations will reduce sea-based
transport, ports pollution
and related Target 14.2 Improvement in management of ballast water, biofouling, and other
services, transportation-related vectors of invasive species will improve overall
shipping and resilience of marine and coastal ecosystems
shipbuilding Target 14.8 Implementation of more-sustainable and low-carbon transportation systems
globally will require both capacity building and technology transfer

Target 14.10 Implementation of international law pertaining to the conservation and
sustainable use of oceans and their resources, including, e.g. shipping
Coastal Target 14.1 Coastal development can increase in increased sedimentation and pollution,
development which will need to be reduced through sustainable operations
Target 14.2 Sustainable coastal development and integrating climate change considerations
into planning and development can enhance economic, social, and
environmental resilience
Coastal and Target 14.1 Sustainable tourism reduces marine pollution both from land-based and ship
maritime based sources
tourism
Target 14.2 Sustainable tourism can help build ecosystem and human resilience
Target 14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, Sustainable tourism can provide financing for marine protected areas
consistent with national and international law and based on the best available
scientific information
Ocean monitoring Target 14.2 Ocean monitoring provides better data for sustainable management and
and surveillance protection
Target 14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including Monitoring ocean acidification is an important component of gaining better
through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels scientific understanding about acidification and its impacts
Target 14.4 Monitoring and surveillance are important components of sustainable fisheries
Target 14.5 Monitoring and surveillance are important for marine protected area
management
277
Marine Ecosystem Services
Target 14.8 Capacity building and technology transfer are required for SIDS and developing
countries to benefit from ocean surveillance technologies
Target 14.10 Ocean monitoring and surveillance will assist in implementing international
law, including UNCLOS
Coastal and Target 14.2 Coastal and marine area management, protection, and restoration are key
marine area components of Target 14.2
management, Target 14.3 While there are scientific uncertainties, marine protection may help provide
protection, marine ecosystems and species a better chance to adapt to the impacts of
and restoration ocean acidification
activities
Target 14.4 IMCAM, MPAs, and restoration activities help achieve more-sustainable
fisheries
Target 14.5 Marine protection will help achieve Target 14.5
Target 14.10 Implementing IMCAM, MSP, and MPAs is part of a number of existing
international agreements; area-based management tools, including MPAs,
are also being considered as part of United Nations discussions on an
international legally binding instrument under UNCLOS on the conservation
and sustainable use of marine biodiversity of areas beyond national
jurisdiction
Activities Target 14.2 Management of blue carbon ecosystems will not only maintain their capacity to
supporting store carbon and provide possible economic benefits, but will also strengthen
carbon their resilience
sequestration Target 14.5 Where blue carbon ecosystems are conserved via marine protected areas or
(blue carbon) other effective means, they would also contribute to achievement of Target
14.5.
Waste disposal Target 14.1 Waste disposal management is a key activity for reducing pollution of the
management coastal and marine environment
Target 14.2 Waste disposal management contributes to sustainable management of marine
ecosystems and builds resilience
Source: After modification and adopted from World Bank and United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2017. The Potential of the Blue Economy: Increasing Long-term Benefits
of the Sustainable Use of Marine Resources for Small Island Developing States and Coastal Least Developed Countries. World Bank, Washington DC. https://sustainabledevelopment.
un.org/content/documents/15434Blue_EconomyJun1; Pisano et al. 2015; Nash et al., 2020; Thomson, P., 2018; https://impakter.com/ocean-future-global-action-achieve-sdg-14/; Ritchie
et al. 2018.
277
278
9.10 CONCLUSION
Marine ecosystems are vital to the survival and well-being of a large section of the world’s population.
The benefits provided by healthy marine ecosystems are food security, animal feed, raw materials
for medications, building materials from coral rock and sand, natural defenses against threats such as
coastal erosion and inundation. The ocean, on the other hand, plays a critical role in climate regula-
tion to maintain the global carbon balance. Estuaries are known as the ‘nurseries of the sea’ because
of many kinds of wildlife such as fishes, birds, marine organisms, plants, and animals. Other services
we get from marine biological habitats are erosion prevention, waste-water treatment, moderation of
extreme events, for example, the impacts of tornados, and cyclones is reduced, and also cultural ser-
vices are provided, such as tourism, recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits. It is needed to protect
the marine ecosystem by achieving a blue economy because it acts as carbon sequestration, provides us
with oil, gas and mineral, it is a source of renewable energy, salt production, a route for transportation
and trade, it facilitates tourism, and it is a source of education and research. The export of Hilsha fish
and shrimp, seafood, sea plants such algae/seaweeds, and the like, adds to the economy of a country.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to all the anonymous authors and contributors whose articles
I reviewed on many occasions to produce this scientific chapter. I have also used many websites,
open access domains, blogs and other sources for reviewing the literature, concepts and ideas in order
to build the scenarios of marine pollution and challenges to developing sustainable blue economy.
Also, I would like to show my gratitude to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of
Bangladesh that have provided the funding support to the corresponding author of this chapter for
continuing his research on the global blue economy and seafood production and policies.
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10 The Blue Economy Paradigm

and Seafloor Massive Sulfides
along the Indian Ocean Ridge
Systems
Niyati Gopinath Kalangutkar,1* Ankeeta A. Amonkar,2
and Sridhar D. Iyer3
1
School of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science, Goa University,
Taleigao Plateau, Goa, India
2
Dnyanprassarak Mandal’s College and Research Centre,
Mapusa, Goa, India
3
Formerly with CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography,
Dona Paula, Goa, India
*Corresponding author: Niyati Gopinath Kalangutkar
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]
CONTENTS
10.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 285
10.2 Hydrothermal Mineralization and Morpho-Tectonic Controls............................................. 287
10.3 Morpho-Tectonics and Hydrothermal Sites of the IORS...................................................... 287
10.3.1 The Carlsberg Ridge (CR)......................................................................................... 292
10.3.2 Central Indian Ridge (CIR)....................................................................................... 293
10.3.3 South-East Indian Ridge (SEIR)............................................................................... 295
10.3.4 South-West Indian Ridge (SWIR)............................................................................. 295
10.4 The Blue Economy of Seafloor Massive Sulfides................................................................. 297
10.4.1 Exploration................................................................................................................297
10.4.2 Environment..............................................................................................................298
10.4.3 Exploitation...............................................................................................................299
10.4.4 Enrichment................................................................................................................300
10.4.5 Economics................................................................................................................. 300
10.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 301
References....................................................................................................................................... 302
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The 70,000 km long global system of mid-ocean ridges (MOR) manifest in the Indian Ocean as four
major ridge systems which are collectively called, the Indian Ocean Ridge System (IORS). The
ridge systems are the Carlsberg Ridge (CR) which trends in an NW direction and protrudes into the
Red Sea through the Gulf of Aden. The CR snakes towards the equator to form the Central Indian
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-10 285

286
Ridge (CIR) which bifurcates at the Rodriguez Triple Junction (RTJ, 25°S, 70°E) into the South
West Indian Ridge (SWIR) and the South East Indian Ridge (SEIR) (Iyer and Ray, 2003). This
inverted ‘Y’ IORS is less investigated relative to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) which is also a slow
to medium spreading ridge and has a comparable geology and tectonic architecture. Yet, the MAR
has tens of hydrothermal vent sites of variable dimensions with abundant seafloor massive sulfides
(SMS), also known as the volcanogenic massive sulfides (VMS) that are hosted by lava flow, basalt
outcrops and serpentinites.
The IORS was believed to be less favourable for hydrothermal metallogenesis until the dis-
covery of hot brine and metalliferous sediments in the Red Sea (Degens and Ross, 1969). In the
Indian Ocean, a number of low and high intensity hydrothermal sites have been reported. Among
the low intensity sites are some segments along the CR, regions near the Vityaz fracture zone and
areas between latitudes 24° and 37°S and longitudes 49° and 60°E; and along the SEIR. Under
the bilateral India-Germany collaborative programme GEMINO, several low intensity sites were
found (Herzig and Plüger, 1988). A few high intensity sites such as the Red Sea spreading centre,
the Sonne hydrothermal plume site (24°00.3’S and 69°39.6’E) and Geodyn plume site (19°29’S,
65°44’E) were located. The seafloor at the slow spreading Red Sea rift, representing an early stage
in the opening of an ocean basin, contains one of the largest deep sea mineral deposits. The Atlantis
II Deep (21°24’N and 38°03’E) is the most significant active hydrothermal site in the Red Sea,
consisting of a stratified pool of high temperature (~ 56°C) brine, about 10 times more saline than
the seawater. The metalliferous sediments have high concentrations of zinc (Zn 1.7%), copper
(Cu 0.43%), silver (Ag 0.18%), and cobalt (Co 0.14%). The best estimate suggests that Atlantis II
Deep deposits contain about 200 million tones (mt) of ore, including 3.2 mt of Zn and 0.8 mt of Cu
(Swallow and Crease, 1965; Scholten et al. 2000).
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) proposed a detailed legal
framework for rights and obligations of countries to access, use and reclaim marine resources from
territorial waters and open oceans. The UNCLOS document (Article 76) was signed on 10th Dec
1982 in Jamaica and implemented on 16 Nov 1994. The ocean space under the jurisdiction of a
country can be classified into several maritime zones. A coastal nation has full rights over resources
that can be derived from the air, the water column, the seabed, and sub-surface from its respective
coastal waters (5.55 km into the sea from the coast), its territorial sea (5.55 to 22.2 km) and its con-
tiguous zone (22.4 to 44.4 km). A nation can access resources from the water column, seabed and
sub-surface that occur within its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (44.4 to 370 km), while resources
only from the seabed and sub-surface strata can be exploited from the Extended Continental Shelf
(ECS/CS) 370 to 647.5 km).
The global coasts and oceans are repositories of placer minerals (coastal and nearshore),
phosphorites, fossil fuels (oil, gas, methane), SMS along the MOR, cobalt-rich crusts over seamounts
and polymetallic manganese nodules in the abyssal depth. The exploration, mining and allied activ-
ities for these resources can be sustainably carried out by applying the various features of the blue
economy (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2020).
The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) at the Rio+20 Conference
(Rio de Janeiro, June 20–22, 2012) emphasized the concept of the ‘Blue Economy’ (BE) as it
pertains to oceans and seas. The major sectors of the BE are food security, harnessing energy-
minerals-pharma products, climate change, increasing trade and investments, improving maritime
activities, tourism (leisure, recreation), employment opportunities, and socio-economic growth
(Pauli, 2010). It has been suggested that the BE could support sustained fiscal growth, enhance
social integration, and improve human welfare (UNCSD, 2018). During exploration and exploit-
ation of marine minerals there are opportunities to develop and utilize innovative technology and
further, there would be ample scope for skilled and unskilled workers, onboard and on land.
287
Seafloor Massive Sulfides along the IORS 287
During the first IORA (Indian Ocean Rim Association) Blue Economy Dialogue that was held
on 17th and 18th Aug 2015 in Goa (India) the sectors that were discussed were fisheries and aquacul-
ture, renewable marine energy, accounting frameworks, ports, shipping and related activities, and
explorations for marine minerals. The Dialogue was followed by the First Ministerial Blue Economy
Conference (Mauritius, Sep 2–3 2015) and the Second Indian Ocean Dialogue (Perth, Australia,
Sep 2015). In Mauritius, the Blue Economy Declaration was adopted and this sought to use ocean
resources to boost a country’s economy, create jobs, progress technologically, amongst others,
while simultaneously protecting the environment (www.iora.int). During the second ministerial BE
conference (Indonesia, May 8–10 2017) the IORA Secretariat identified major sectors: Fisheries
and Aquaculture; Renewable Ocean Energy; Seaports and Shipping; Minerals and Hydrocarbons;
Tourism; Marine Biotechnology; and Research and Development.
The BE paradigm envisages mining resources in the above-mentioned maritime zones in best,
efficient, responsible and workable ways. This is along the line of the UN’s Sustainable Development
Goal (SDG-14) that is concerned with conserving and a justifiable use of the oceans and seas. The
resources available beyond the ECS are reserved for the common heritage of mankind, and cannot
be mined by any country unless permitted by the UNCLOS (presently it is the International Seabed
Authority, ISA based in Jamaica).
Deep sea minerals have been recognised as principal sources of base metals that are useful in
high-and green-technology industries (Hein et al. 2013). In this chapter, firstly we synthesize the
studies made of the IORS hydrothermal vents in terms of their geology, mineralogy, composition
and other parametres. Secondly, this is followed by a discussion of the application of the BE to
recover the SMS.
10.2 HYDROTHERMAL MINERALIZATION AND MORPHO-TECTONIC

CONTROLS
According to Veizer et al. (1989) the modern seafloor hydrothermal ore deposits that are related to
the mineralization of base metals reflect the ~100 Ma geological history of the Earth. Sea water-rock
interaction leads to the leaching of metals and the sformation of hydrothermal convection systems
in areas of rifting, subsidence and thinning of the crust. Initially, hot mafic-ultramafic magma acts
as a heat source and initiates convective circulation of hydrothermal fluids that ascend within the
serpentinized mantle peridotite and deposits SMS (Franklin et al. 2005; Garuti et al. 2008). The
SMS is precipitated from the hot solution at ~600oC from aqueous solutions within the upper crust
(Barnes and Rose, 1998). The congenial sites for a variety of mineral deposits are active magmatic
arcs, continental margins, MOR, fore-arcs and back-arcs (Bierlein et al. 2009).
The formation and deposition of SMS are influenced by morpho-structural features such as
MOR, fracture zones with deep roots into the upper mantle (Kutina, 1983), syn-volcanic structures,
folds, faults, unconformities and shear zones, fault-bounded axial rifts, and seamount calderas adja-
cent to extensional structures submerged island arcs (Scott, 1992; Fouquet, 1997). Because these
structures are the pathways for the ascending hydrothermal solution and control the geometry of the
ore deposits, it is important to locate the economic mineral deposits through geological, geophys-
ical, and geochemical approaches.
10.3 MORPHO-TECTONICS AND HYDROTHERMAL SITES OF THE IORS

We provide a gist of the studies of the work carried out along the IORS, by the international commu-
nity and by India. Table 10.1 is a compilation of the hydrothermal areas that occur along the IORS
while some of the hydrothermal sites are shown in Figure 10.1.
newgenrtpdf
288
288
TABLE 10.1
Hydrothermal Vent Location and Work Carried out by Various Researchers
Sr no. Name of the Site Latitude Longitude Authors Studies Carried out
South West Indian Ridge
Western part 40°–60°S 10°–25°E Suo et al. (2017) Analysed spreading rate, bathymetry, gravity and geochemical data.
Eastern part 20°–45°S 49°–70°E
– 37°47′S 49°39’E Tao et al. (2011) Mineralogy and geochemistry of sulfide chimneys.
Segment 27 37°80’–37°50’S 50°80’–50°40’E Yue et al. (2019) Identified turbidity anomalies and oxidation reduction potential
values.
– 38°–38.4°S 48.1–48.7°E Chen et al. (2021) Bathymetry, normal faults, anomalous turbidity values and oxidation

reduction potential.
– 28°50′–26°50′S 63°–68°E Agarwal et al. (2019) Major, Trace and REE of RTJ and Mt Jourdanne samples.
Tiancheng 27°51′S 63°55′E Chen et al. (2018) Discovered 2 hydrothermal fields.
Tianzuo 27°57′S 63°32′E
Longqi field 37°47′S 49.6°E Ji et al. (2017) H2, CH4 and other chemical data of hydrothermal fluids.
Longqi 37°47’S 49.6°E Zhou et al. (2018) Investigated biodiversity and biogeographical relationship.
Tiancheng 27°51′S 63°55′E
Duanqiao 37°39′S 50°24′E
Kairei 25°S 70°E Han et al. (2018) Mineralogy and geochemistry of hydrothermal precipitates.
Pelagia 26°S 71°E 16S rRNA tags from different sites were analysed and compared
with other marine environments.
• SWIR from 49°E to 53°E 38°S 49°E Tao et al. (2014) REE, XRD of pyrite, silica, opal and sulfide deposits.
• Longqi 36°S 53°E
• 50°24’E 37°47’S 49.6°E
hydrothermal field 37°39’S 50°24’E
• 50°56’E carbonate field 37°37’S 50°56’E
• SWIR 63° field 27°57’S 63°32’E
– 43°S 40°E Ren et al. (2016) Analysis of topographic, geology, geophysics and metallogenic data.
Proposed a prospecting prediction model.
Longqi 37°47’S 49.6°E Wang et al. (2018) He-Ar-S isotopes
Tiancheng 27°51′S 63°55′E
Duanqiao 37°39′S 50°24′E
Yuhuang 36°–38°S 49°–52°E
Kairei 25°S 70°E
Edmond 23.8778°S 69.5973°E
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Seafloor Massive Sulfides along the IORS
Different sites 27°–38°S 46°–63°E Chen et al. (2021) Geochemistry of surface sediments and hydrothermal deposits.
Yuhuang-1 36°–38°N 49°–52°E Liao et al. (2019) Zn isotope compositions, element ratios of Zn, Fe, Cu, and Cd in
sulfides.
Yuhuang-1 36°–38°N 49°–52°E Liao et al. (2019) Major and trace elements, sulfur isotopes analysis.
Duanqiao 37°39′ S 50°24′ E Zhu et al. (2020) Elemental concentration and Hg isotope analysis.
Yuhuang 36°–38°S 49°–52°E
– Kalangutkar et al. Hydrothermal signatures in FeMn from SWIR
(2021)
Central Indian Ridge
Onnuri Vent Field 8°10.1’S 68°08.2’E Kim et al. (2020) Plume sample, water column, fauna of vent samples.
Segment 2 9°47’S 66°41.9’E
Segment 3 11°20’S 66°26’E
Edmond vent field 23°52.68′S 69°35.80E Wu et al. (2018) Mineralogy and geochemistry of sphalerite to identify different
textures and micro-environments.
A1A 20 o 20’S 68 oE Briais (1995) Analysis of segments between 20o 30’S and 25o 30’S (Rodriguez
A1B 26 oS 70 o 30’E Triple Junction).
A2A 23o23.56’S 69o14.53E Halbach et al. (1995) Sonne Field –First SMS in the Indian Ocean.
Yokoniwa 25°16’S 70°05’E Fujii and Okino (2018) Magnetization of hydrothermally altered zone and host lava flows.
Kairei 25°21’S 70°03’E
Solitaire field 19°33.410S 65°50.89’E Kawagucci et al. (2016) Fluid chemistry and microbial communities in chimney habitats.
Dodo hydrothermal field 18°20.190S 65°17.99’E
Between 10°18’S and 10°47.5’S 66°38.6’E Ray et al.(2020) Analysis of dissolved Mn and He
10°57’S
Yokoniwa 25◦16’S 70◦04’E Fujii et al.(2016) Magnetic studies using an AUV and manned vehicle.
Dodo 18°20’S, 65°17E Nakamura et al. (2012) Measured chlorine, dissolved gases (H2, CH4, CO2, and so forth.),
Solitaire 19°33’S 65°50E pH, fauna and flora, rRNA gene sequencing was done.
A1A 20o 20’S 68oE Briais (1995) Bathymetry, fracture zones, tectonics.
A1B 26oS 70o30’E
A2A 23o23.56’S 69o14.53’E Halbach et al. (1995) Massive sulfide mineralogy and chemistry.
MESO 23°23.56’S 69°14.53’E Halbach et al. (1998) Geology, mineral zonation, different sulfide types, stages of
formation and decay of a modern SMS.
MESO 23o23.63’–38o3.38’S 69o14.43’– Halbach et al. (2002) Hydrothermal sulfide impregnated and pure silica precipitates,
69o14.48’E sulfides chimney.
(continued)
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newgenrtpdf
290
290
Hydrothermal Vent Location and Work Carried out by Various Researchers
Sr no. Name of the Site Latitude Longitude Authors Studies Carried out
MESO 23°23.56’S 69°14.53’E Halbach and Münch Study of sulfide chimneys.
(1997)
MESO 21.5o–23o S 68.5o–69.25o E Herzig and Plüger Mapping, photography, sampling to locate fossil/recent hydrothermal
(1988) activity. Geochemistry of basalts, sediments, and water.
MESO 27o–28oS 65o20’–66o40’E Muller et al. Variation of oceanic crustal thickness using seismic velocity model.
(1999)
MESO 23o23.63’S 69o14.43’E Münch et al. (1999) Hydrothermal mineralization, structural control, mineralogy, and
geochemistry of sulfide chimneys.

MESO 23o23.63’ - 69o14.43’ - Lalou et al. (1998) Radiochronological investigation of hydrothermal deposits.
38o3.38’S 69o14.48’E
MESO 23°23.56’S 69°14.53’E Plüger et al. (1990) Geology
– 23o52.68’S 69o35.80’E Gallant and Von Damm Chemical composition of hydrothermal fluids.
(2006)
– 23.88oS 69.60oE Kumagai et al. (2008) Geology and tectonics.
Carlsberg Ridge
Wocan 6◦22’N 60◦31′E Wang et al. (2020) Sulfur and iron isotope analysis.
Wocan 1 6°21’40’– 60°31’45’–60°31’30’E Qiu et al. (2021) Mineralogy, chemistry, Pb–Sr isotopes.
Wocan 2 6°21’50’N 60°30’45’–69°30’15E
6°22’30’–
6°23’N
Carlsberg ridge 3°42′–3°41.5′N 63°40′–63°50′E Ray et al. (2012) Temperature anomaly, oxidation-reduction potential, dissolved Mn
and 3He were analysed.
Carlsberg 6°21.796’N 60°31.534’E Popoola and Akintoye Geochemistry of sediments and sulfides.
Wocan-1 6°21.866'N 60°30.372'E (2019)
Wocan-2 6°35.675’N 60°13.190’E
Ridge flank 4° 07.52’N 69°20.201’E
Core sediments
291
Seafloor Massive Sulfides along the IORS
Tianxiu 3.67°N 63.83°E Chen et al. (2020) Precipitation of calcite veins in serpentinized, Carbon and Oxygen
isotopes.
Wocan 6°22’N 60°31’E Popoola et al. (2019) Morphology, mineralogy and geochemistry of Fe-Si-Mn
oxyhydroxides, sulfur isotopes.
Daxi 6°48′N 60°10′E Wang et al. (2020) Mineralogy, chemistry, and bathymetry studies.
Along ridge segment 10°N 66°E Yu et al. (2016) Major element and REE of 30 sediments from 24 sites.
Wocan 6°22’N 60°31’E Wang et al. (2020) Mineralogy and chemistry of Cu -rich chimneys and massive
sulfides.
291
292
FIGURE 10.1 India’s exploration area for SMS along the SWIR (Modified after https://isa.org.jm/index.php/
map/government-india-0).
10.3.1 The Carlsberg Ridge (CR)

The Carlsberg Ridge is a slow spreading ridge with half-spreading rates between 11 and 16 mm/yr
(henceforth half-rate will be used). The CR is devoid of major transform faults and is segmented by
dextral, non-transform, and second-order discontinuities. Indications of weak hydrothermal activity
were earlier detected in the CR (Kempe and Easton, 1974) and this was confirmed by iron-rich
(28%) basal sediments from the DSDP Site 236 (1°40’S, 57°38’E) (Baturin and Rozanova, 1975).
During the maiden voyage in 1983 of ORV Sagar Kanya (India) from Germany to Goa, a segment
of the CR was dredged and the basalts (Banerjee and Iyer, 1991; 1993; 2003; Iyer and Banerjee,
1993) and geophysical aspects were reported (Ramana et al. 1993). Subsequently, the ridge section
between 2°30’S and 4°30’S and 62°30’ to 66°15’E was mapped and basalts and upper mantle rocks
were recovered (Mudholkar et al. 2002). Studies reported event plumes (Murton et al. 2006) and
identification of hydrothermal activities along the various segments of the CR. Ray et al. (2012)
reported hydrothermal plumes from unknown active vent(s) near 3°42′N/63°40E and 3°41.5′N/
63°50′E. The magmatic/hydrothermal chalcopyrite, pyrite, and magnetite in the basalts at 3°37’S/
64°07N (Banerjee and Iyer, 1993; 2003) are similar to sulfide -oxide minerals in the basalts at
5°23’N (Baturin and Rozanova, 1975).
During the 26th Chinese COMRA (China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development
Association) a hydrothermal activity field with SMS was located along the CR at 3.5° -3.8°N.
Evidence for two separate vent fields were identified, one near 3°42′N, 63°40′E (Wocan) and another
at 3°41.5′N, 63°50′E (Daxi). Prominent optical backscatter and thermal anomalies coupled with
chemical (for example, helium 3He, manganese Mn) signatures in seawater demonstrated the exist-
ence of hydrothermal sources on off-axis highs on the south wall of the CR. Although ultramafic
rocks have been recovered near these sites, the light-scattering and dissolved Mn anomalies indi-
cate that the plumes do not arise from a system driven solely by exothermic serpentinization (Ray
293
et al. 2012). It was suggested that the source fluids for these two active sites may be a product of
both ultramafic and basaltic/gabbroic fluid-rock interaction, similar to the Rainbow and Logatchev
fields, MAR.
i) Wocan Hydrothermal Field: During the Chinese DY28th cruise along the CR in 2013, the basalt-
hosted Wocan Hydrothermal Field (WHF) was found on the NW slope of an axial volcanic ridge at
a water depth of ∼3,000 m. The hydrothermal precipitates that were recovered were classified into
four groups: (i) Cu-rich chimneys; (ii) Cu-rich massive sulfides; (iii) Fe-rich massive sulfides; and
(iv) silicified massive sulfides (Wang et al. 2017). The mineralogy and geochemistry of metallif-
erous sediment were studied at the Wocan hydrothermal field active site (Wocan-1) and an inactive
site (Wocan-2). Based on the mineralogy and morphology of sulfide and non-sulfide grains, bulk
composition, and sulfur isotopes it was concluded that at Wocan-1 there is an intermediate -high
temperature hydrothermal discharge; while Wocan-2 shows a moderate -extensive oxidation and
secondary alterations by seawater in a low -intermediate environment (Popoola et al. 2019).
ii) The Daxi Vent Field: The Daxi Vent Field (DVF) is a basalt-hosted hydrothermal field located
on a rifted volcanic ridge along a non-transform offset between two second-order ridge segments. At
the DVF there are three hydrothermal sites, namely Central mound, NE mound, and South mound.
Eight black smokers were observed in the Central mound which hosts the largest sulfide chimney
‘Baochu Pagoda’ of ~24 m height. Another inactive silica-rich chimney was observed in the NE
mound. The sulfide chimneys are dominated by sphalerite and pyrrhotite with high Sn, Co and Ag;
and silica-rich chimneys have high SiO2 and Ba contents (Wang et al. 2020).
10.3.2 Central Indian Ridge (CIR)

The CIR with a half spreading rate of 20 -30 mm/yr has structures, spreading kinematics and iso-
tope geochemistry of erupted lava that are remarkably different from the other MOR (Drolia et al.
2003). Exploration related activities in the Indian Ocean commenced about four decades ago some-
time in early 1983. The initial results were encouraging with the finding of characteristics He and
Mn anomalies that indicated hydrothermal plume activities along segments of the CIR (Herzig and
Plüger, 1988). The discovery of two fossil hydrothermal vent fields, the Sonne Field, and Mount
Jourdanne Field, led to several new exploration programs in this region (Halbach et al. 1998; Munch
et al. 2001). These were followed by the detection of the active hydrothermal fields, Kairei, and
Edmond, where the first direct observations were made of active hydrothermal discharge, vent biota,
and shimmering water (Hashimoto et al. 2001; Gamo et al. 2001; Van Dover et al. 2001). Some
details of the hydrothermal sites found along the CIR are provided below.
(i) Sonne: Herzig and Plüger (1988) and Plüger et al. (1990) respectively reported the exist-
ence of Sonne (an inactive hydrothermal field, named after the famous German research vessel
FS Sonne), and a first indication of a hydrothermal plume site (24o00.3’S) along the CIR. The
Sonne field at 23°23.6’S and ~200 km NW of the RTJ, consists of hydrothermally influenced basalts
and sediments, layered FeMn precipitates, and blocks of massive sulfides. The Edmond and Kairei
hydrothermal fields were first recognized in 1993 and reported by Gamo et al. (1996; 2001) and
Hashimoto et al. (2001), whereas the Dodo and Solitaire hydrothermal fields were discovered later
(Nakamura et al. 2012).
(ii) Meso zone: The Meso zone is named after the RV Meteor and RV Sonne zone and is located at
23.3927ºS and 69.2422ºE. The Meso zone is at a distance of 270 km N of the RTJ on a neo-volcanic
intra-rift ridge and covers an area of ~0.6 km2. Three sites were identified with evidence of hydro-
thermal activity (Halbach et al. 1998). The sites are the Talus-Tips-Site (TTS) in the northern part,
the Sonne Field (SF) in the central part and the Smooth Ground (SG) in the southern part of the
mineralized zone (www.interridge.org). Hydrothermal mineralization and structural control in the
Meso zone region were detailed by Munch et al. (1999) and sulfide-impregnated and pure silica
precipitates of hydrothermal origin were reported by Halbach et al. (2002).
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(iii) Kairei and Edmond: The Kairei and Edmond hydrothermal fields are located ~6 km to the
east of the spreading axis on the eastern wall of the axial valley (Wilson, 1993). The Kairei field is
developed on shoulder of the west-facing slope of the abyssal hill of CIR-1 (Hakuho Knoll) with
flat or lobate lava flows, whereas the Edmond field has flat, partly wrinkled lava flows. Kairei field
is along a linear ridge which is perhaps an abandoned ridge axis formed during ridge jump and has
dunite and troctolite and a regional seafloor morphology that is distinctly heterogeneous within
30 km of the current ridge axis while regular ridge-parallel abyssal hills occur along the Edmond
field (Kumagai et al. 2008; Van Dover et al. 2001). Both the fields have large and complex chimney
structures with large massive sulfide mounds at their bases (Nakamura et al. 2012). But the mor-
phological contrast between the two fields might have influenced the pathway of the recharged vent
fluid, as evident from the composition of the fluids (Gallant and Von Damm, 2006).
Copper-rich chimney edifices and fragments rich in chalcopyrite, with pyrite, marcasite, wurtzite,
and sphalerite occur in Kairei. Granular chalcopyrite decreases in amount and grain size towards
the outer parts of the chimneys, while disseminated sphalerite and pyrite increase in the outer parts.
This fact indicates a fall in temperatures towards the outer parts of the chimney. Active chimneys
are nearly fresh and weathered products are present on the outer wall in contact with seawater or in
inactive vents (Han et al. 2018). At the Edmond site are native Cu and Cu-sulfides (covellite, digenite
and chalcocite), altered chalcopyrite, and outer walls have plentiful abundant sub-microscopic Au-
Ag alloys (Wu et al. 2018).
(iv) Dodo and Solitaire: The Dodo hydrothermal field with active vents (18°20.1′S, 65°17.9′E;
water depth 2,745 m) is located in the Dodo Great Lava Plain on the spreading axis of CIR segment
16 (Nakamura et al. 2012). The hydrothermal field is 10 km with smooth sheet flow lavas along
the axis that indicate high production rates of basaltic melt, a feature similar to the East Pacific
Rise (EPR). Potsunen, Tsukushi-1, and Tsukushi-2 are the three main chimneys. Black smoker
discharges occur at Tsukushi-1 whereas, active chimneys and several inactive chimneys are near
Tsukushi-2 (Nakamura et al. 2012). Extensive plume surveys using vertical and tow-yo hydrocasts
and an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) led to identify anomalous concentrations of methane
(CH4), Mn, and 3He (Kawagucci et al. 2008).
The Solitaire field (19°33.413’S, 65°50.888’E; at a depth of 2,606 m) is located on the Roger
Plateau on the western ridge flank of CIR segment 15. Plume signatures of hydrothermally derived
CH4, Mn and 3He abundance and a light transmission signal anomaly were evident (Kawagucci et al.
2008). In this field, three major chimney sites (Toukon-3, Tenkoji, and Liger) were identified with
chimneys <5 m in height. At the Toukon-3 chimneys the emissions are clear fluids and a few black
smoker discharges (Nakamura et al. 2012).
(v) OCC 1-1, OCC 2-1, OCC 3-1, OCC-3-2, OCC-4-1, and OCC-4-2: Strong hydrothermal
plume signals were measured over the Oceanic Core Complexes (OCCs) along long-lived detach-
ment faults that formed because of tectonic extension in the middle part of the CIR (8°S to 17°S)
which has a morphology typical of slow spreading ridges (Pak et al. 2017; Kim et al. 2020). The
OOCs are conduits for hydrothermal fluids which rise at off-axis regions. Pak et al. (2017) felt that
the serpentinization and latent/cooling heat of the underlying mantle and magma supply heat for
hydrothermal circulation, resulting in high-CH3 concentration in the plumes. The Onnuri Vent Field
(OVF) is located at the summit of OCC-3-2, and vents clear, low-temperature fluids, located on the
ridge flanks of typical abyssal hill structures of a symmetrical ridge section. Hydrothermal mineral-
ization is primarily silica-rich and disseminated sulfide with secondary Cu minerals, associated with
hydrothermal precipitates (Kim et al. 2020)
India commenced the investigations of the CIR (initially funded by the Office of Naval Research
and NSF, USA and later by the Indian government under the InRidge programme) and undertook
studies between 3ºS and 11ºS, and between 66ºE and 69ºE. The areas included the transform faults
(TF) Sealark, Vityaz, and Vema and the intervening ridge segments (Drolia et al. 2003). Later the
morphotectonic features and petrological variations between 20°30′S and 23°07′S were detailed
295
(Mukhopadhyay et al. 2015). The possibility of hydrothermal activity in certain segments of the
CIR was postulated by Banerjee and Ray (2013, 2015 and references therein). The magmatic and
tectonic processes that resulted because of the interaction between the Reunion plume and CIR
at the Vema Trench and along the Vema Fracture Zone was detailed (Dhawaskar et al. 2020). The
InRidge programme also included studies of the CR and Andaman Back Arc Basin (ABAB) which
are separately discussed.
10.3.3 South-East Indian Ridge (SEIR)

The SEIR is an intermediate spreading (30–35 mm/yr) and this is the fastest spreading rate of all the
IORS (DeMets et al. 1990).
(i) Antarctic Australian Ridge (AAR): The AAR with a series of ridge segments and transform
faults extending from 140°E to 180°E, has an intermediate spreading (∼39-30 mm/yr) and its axial
depth is relatively shallow (∼2,200 m) (Choi et al. 2013). The KR1 and KR2 are first-order segments
and bounded by transform faults. Hydrothermal activity has been noted at two first-order segments
of the AAR: KR1 and KR2. Optical and oxidation-reduction-potential anomalies indicate multiple
active sites on both segments (Hahm et al. 2015).
The KR1 segment (139.5°E, 122°W) shows large variations in its axial morphology that point
to a variable magma supply. Alkalic to tholeiitic magmatism along KR1 may be potential source
materials for alkaline basalts and are considered to be ancient, recycled oceanic crust (namely,
eclogite) as well as sub-KR1 depleted MOR basalt mantle (DMM). Whereas the main source
materials for the KR1 tholeiites are presumed to be the DMM-dominant lithology with minor
recycled material (Yi et al. 2021). An off-axis seamount chain intersects the ridge at 158.33°E,
where the ridge morphology changes from axial rift to axial high. Seventeen sites were identified
along the KR1 with the Mujin hydrothermal site, near the centre, having 3HeA of up to 3.8 fmol/kg
in water samples (Hahm et al. 2015).
KR2 is a 180 km long segment that progressively deepens from 2,200 m in the west to 2,500 m in
the east. An offset divides KR2 into two segments, an eastern rift valley, and a western axial high.
The variability of the magma supply is apparently lower than at KR1(Hahm et al. 2015).
(ii) Boomerang Seamount: This active seamount was discovered during a bathymetric survey in
1996. This basaltic seamount lies along the SEIR axis, 18 km NE of Amsterdam Island and marks
the site of the Amsterdam -St. Paul hotspot. The seamount rises to within 650 m of the ocean surface
and has a 2 km wide summit caldera that is 200 m deep. Rift zones that extend to the SE and N give
the seamount its arcuate shape. Water column temperature anomalies above the seamount suggest
the presence of hydrothermal activity within the caldera (Johnson et al. 2000).
(iii) Pelagia vent: Pelagia hydrothermal field (26°09.40’S, 71°26.26’E) is located within the
neovolcanic zone of the SEIR and near the RTJ at water depth of 3,690 m. Active smoking vents
in this site were found to be up to 20 m high on top of a mound of sulfide talus (Noowong et al.
2021). The chimneys have intricate intergrowth of different minerals, while weathered products
occur on the outer wall of the vent. The vent fluid flows towards the chimney walls because of abun-
dant pore spaces that have resulted due to aggregates of collomorphic pyrite/marcasite, and sphal-
erite surrounded by chalcopyrite, lath-shaped pyrrhotite, and amorphous silica, lined with traces
of sulfides. All these are evidence of the high-temperature environment prevalent in the area. An
inactive chimney depicts replacement of chalcopyrite-isocubanite by secondary copper minerals
(Han et al. 2018).
10.3.4 South-West Indian Ridge (SWIR)

The ultraslow-spreading SWIR represents one of the important end-member MOR types because
of its very slow and oblique spreading rate of 7-9 mm/yr. The first evidence of high-temperature
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hydrothermal activity was identified by German et al. (1998). Later a survey was carried out using
submersible Shinkai 6500 and temperature anomalies of ~0.1oC were recorded at 31°05’S, 59°00’E
and 27°54’S, 64°29’E (Sohrin and Gamo, 1999). The hydrothermal structures are related with E-W
trending graben and smaller fissures and cracks (Munch et al. 2000). Geophysical, optical back-
scatter and deep-tow side-scan sonar surveys of the rift-valley floor (54° -67°E) helped to detect six
sets of plume signals (German, 2003). A recent morphological and compositional study of the FeMn
crusts from a segment of the SWIR indicated distinct hydrothermal signatures from their formation
(Kalangutkar et al. 2021). Information about four hydrothermal sites that occur along the SWIR are
given below.
(i) Mount Jourdanne: The Melville fracture zone acts as a dividing line for two distinct morpho-
logical characteristics. The western side of Melville fracture zone is associated with the highest
number of volcanoes per segment indicating a shallower spreading centre (4,400 m) (Mendel et al.
1997). Abyssal tholeiites occur up to the Atlantis II fracture zone while to its east and until the RTJ,
the number of volcanoes are less, the spreading centres are deeper (4,800 m) and host sodic and
titaniferous glasses (Natland, 1991).
Hydrothermal precipitates in water depths of about 2,960 m close to the top of a neovolcanic
ridge (Mount Jourdanne) and weathered reddish-brown SMS of about 5 m are present as small
mounds along with small tube-like chimneys. The strongest temperature anomalies of ~0.1oC were
recorded at Mt. Jourdanne (27°50.97’S, 63°56.15’E) (Fujimoto et al. 1999). Due to a volcanic heat
source and conduits for fluid convection, several extinct hydrothermal sites occur within an area
of approximately 0.5 km2 at a water depth of about 2,941 m within graben or smaller fissures. The
chimney edifices rise for approximately 40 to 50 cm from the seafloor and are about 10 cm in diam-
eter. No hydrothermal activity, shimmering waters, chemical anomalies, or biological features were
recorded. The summit of Mt. Jourdanne is characterized by E -W trending graben and by basaltic
pillows and lava tubes whereas the shallower slopes are dominated by sheet flows (lobate, folded)
that are often covered by a thin sediment layer (Munch et al. 2000; Munch et al. 2001).
(ii) Tiancheng and Tianzuo: In Tianzuo hydrothermal field, two inactive, ultramafic-hosted vents
(Tiancheng and Tianzuo) occur in the ridge section 63° -64°E between the Melville fracture zone
and RTJ and southwest of the relict Mt. Jourdanne field (Tao et al. 2012). Hydrothermal signatures
in sediments reported from 63°E to 68°E (Agarwal et al. 2020)
(iii) Duanqiao and Yuhuang: The Duanqiao and Yuhuang hydrothermal fields are between the
Indomed and Gallieni fracture zones at the central volcano along the SWIR (Zhu et al. 2020).
Bouguer gravity results indicate the crustal thickness to be between 3 and 10 km (average: 7.5 km)
with the maximum crustal thickness of 10 km in the Duanqiao field. This is the thickest crust
discovered along the SWIR (Sun et al. 2018). The Duanqiao (inactive) (50.5°E) field lies on an axial
highland with a shallow depth of ~1,700 m and relatively flat surrounding terrain (Sun et al. 2018).
This field has relict chimneys, massive sulfides, opals, basalts, and metalliferous sediments (Tao
et al. 2012). As compared with other areas of the SWIR, abundant siliceous samples such as opals
have been recovered that are evident of low-temperature hydrothermal activity (Yang et al. 2019).
The Yuhuang (49.2°E) inactive field is located on the south rift wall of segment 29 of the SWIR,
approximately 7.5 km from the ridge axis and at water depth ranging from 1,400 to 1,600 m.
(iv) Dragon Horn: The Dragon Horn field with sulfide-bearing vent was identified along an OCC
and is located on the south flank of the SWIR segment 28 (~49.7˚E) and it exhibits high-temperature
hydrothermal vents that are associated with a major detachment fault system. Twin detachment
faults penetrate to a depth of 13 ± 2 km below the seafloor. Dragon Horn is a basalt-hosted active
vent field at water depths of 2,700 -2,900 m comprising of two sulfide-bearing vents: Longqi-1
and Longqi-3 (Tao et al. 2012). The Longqi-1 field is located at segment 28 (~49.7°E) along the
Dragon Horn region on the southern flank of the ultra-slow spreading SWIR. Three hydrothermal
vents, namely S, M, and N have been confirmed at the Longqi-1 field (Tao et al. 2012). The inactive
Longqi-3 field is a hydrothermal plume anomaly site with a possible linear mineralized zone along
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the detachment fault 2 in serpentinized peridotite along with carbonate sediments. The evidence
points to the presence of low-temperature to the east side of the OCC. At the hydrothermal field the
calculated Bouguer gravity shows a crustal thickness of ~3 km (Tao et al. 2012).
Considering the above reports it has been shown that areas where SMS occur in the Indian Ocean
can be classified into two types: (1) at or near the neovolcanic ridges of the rift valley floor, for
example, Meso (Halbach et al. 1998), Mount Jourdanne (Münch et al. 2001), Dodo (Nakamura et al.
2012), Solitaire (Nakamura et al. 2012), Wocan (Wang et al. 2017), Duanqiao (Yang et al. 2017),
and Pelagia (Han et al. 2018), and (2) elevated off-axis deposits on the rift valley wall, for example,
Edmond (Van Dover et al. 2001), Kairei (Van Dover et al. 2001), Longqi (Tao et al. 2012), 3.69°N
(Tao et al. 2013), Yuhuang (Liao et al. 2018), and several sites related with OCCs on the CIR (OCC-
3-2, OCC-4-1, and OCC-4-2; Pak et al. 2017).
10.4 THE BLUE ECONOMY OF SEAFLOOR MASSIVE SULFIDES

Although several countries have investigated and even discovered tens of hydrothermal vents in the
ocean, surprisingly, only a handful of countries are registered contractors with the ISA (erstwhile
UNCLOS). In contrast to the 19 contractors for polymetallic nodules in the Pacific and Indian
oceans, there are only seven contractors for exploration of the SMS. This is even though the SMS
deposits occur at relatively shallower water depths than the nodules (>5,000 m). The contractors for
SMS in the Indian Ocean are one each in the SWIR and CIR, and five in the MAR. These contractors
are India, China, Germany, and Korea. The three contractors along the MAR are Poland, France and
Russia.
The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR, Goa India) (erstwhile the National
Centre for Antarctica and Ocean Research) under the support of the Ministry of Earth Sciences
initiated a mission-mode multi-disciplinary program on exploration of the SMS along the SWIR
and CIR. In 2014, India obtained a 15-year licence from the ISA to explore 10,000 km of the CIR
and SWIR for SMS and in 2016 India signed a 15-year exploration contract which would expire on
25th March 2031. The first cruise was undertaken on 12th Jan 2017 along segments of the CIR and
SWIR. Multi-disciplinary efforts were made to locate potential SMS deposits. Seamounts are easier
to sample since these may occur at shallow water depth (500 m) and host ferromanganese (FeMn)
oxides with significant contents of cobalt (~1%). Such seamounts have been targeted for mining by
five contractors: Korea, Japan and Russia in the Pacific Ocean, Brazil in the South Atlantic Ocean
and China in the Western Pacific Ocean (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2018). In the Indian Ocean, the
Afanisy-Nikitin Seamount (ANS) has significant cobalt (Co 0.3-0.9%, average: 0.65%), rare earth
elements and platinum (200 -900 ppb) (Rajani et al. 2005; Balaram et al. 2012). But beyond this
preliminary work, the ANS has so far not been earmarked for exploitation by India.
Sustainable and profitable mining, either on land or from the deep-seas, involve one or more of
the 5Es: Exploration, Environmental studies, Exploitation, Enrichment and Economics. A successful
completion of all these 5Es could result in ‘Minerals to Market.’ We discuss the importance of the
BE for India (as a contractor) in her endeavour to comprehend the potential economic viability and
related issues of the SMS deposits.
10.4.1 Exploration
In the late eighties and early nineties, ridge research in India was mostly individual driven (for
example, Mukhopadhyay and Iyer, 1993) and there was an absence of integration. Hence, to have
a synergy at a national level, in 1997 the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research-National
Institute of Oceanography (CSIR-NIO), Goa initiated a major programme, ‘Tectonic and Oceanic
Processes Along the Indian Ridge System and Backarc Basins.’ Simultaneously, the InRidge
(India’s Ridge Research initiative) was formed and India became an Associate Member in the global
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InterRidge body. InRidge provided opportunities to individuals and institutions to collaborate, save
funds and resources, help avoid duplication of research efforts, share samples, ship time and train
researchers and students. The other reasons were lack of data pertaining to the IORS and their easy
accessibility from Indian shores.
The areas of studies chosen under the InRidge were the CR, CIR and ABAB, to understand tec-
tonic architecture, transform faults (TF), ridge-transform interaction (RTI), incipient triple junction
formation, interaction of the wide deformation zone, seamounts, petrological variations, and most
importantly, to search for hydrothermal vents. The Geological Survey of India (GSI) also conducts
its studies in the CR and ABAB. Although India started her ridge studies much later than other coun-
tries who have extensively studied the MAR, SWIR, EPR and other areas in the world's oceans, never-
theless much impact and many findings have resulted from the InRidge. Currently, investigations
are underway along segments of the CR, CIR and SWIR and plans are afoot to examine the SEIR.
The hydrothermal fields along the SWIR, SEIR, CIR and CR are generally sited within axial
rift valleys or rift flanks on segment centers, hence these need to be targeted to locate hydrothermal
vents. In the exploratory work, India could consider collaborating with the IORA countries such
as Sri Lanka, Maldives, Mauritius, Seychelles, and Madagascar who would assist to expedite the
expeditions to the IORS in a faster, easier and less expensive manner. This effort could lead to
training of personnel, job opportunities and development in scientific and port infrastructure and
economic growth in the collaborating countries.
10.4.2 Environment
Extracting the SMS deposits could be a challenging task. This is because mining will inevit-
ably affect the environment, but several metals from the SMS are required in technologies that
are vital to society to have a low-carbon future and to achieve the global sustainable development
goals (Lusty and Murton, 2018). It is mandated that under Regulation 32 the Contractors need
to undertake environmental baseline studies (ISA, 2013) as recommended and outlined by ISA’s
Legal and Technical Commission (LTC). The LTC stipulates that ‘the best available technology and
methodology for sampling should be used in establishing baseline data for environmental impact
assessments.’ Besides following the protocols, plausible solutions and mitigatory measures also
have to be outlined by the contractor.
Before, during and after mining, an array of complex environmental impacts need to be assessed.
These would include physical oceanography, sediment characteristics (physical and chemical), the
sinking rate of particles, the aggregation of particles, toxic discharges, biological studies (microbes
to mammals), biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, hydrodynamic plume modelling, noise and light
hazards, amongst others (Billett et al. 2019). Noowong et al. (2021) reported the molecular compos-
ition of dissolved organic matter (DOM) of Kairei (CIR) and Pelagia (SEIR) vents. The vent fluids
(>330°C) were extremely rich in dissolved Fe, Si, K, Li, Mn and Zn compared to the seawater. The
DOM from these fluids was different than that from diffuse fluids and plumes, which had a predom-
inant signature of the seawater DOM.
Hydrothermal vents shelter a variety of biota that rely on microbial chemosynthesis by using
hydrogen sulfide and methane in the hot vent fluid as sources of energy (Van Dover, 2000). Globally,
about 600 of such sites have been located (Beaulieu and Szafrański, 2020) and most of these are in
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Thaler and Amon, 2019). The active vent ecosystem is a rare habitat
and comprises an estimated 50 km2, that is < 0.00001% of the Earth’s surface area (Van Dover et al.
2018). Therefore, mining could potentially harm the biota that are endemic around the vents.
The deep-sea environment could also change in other ways during mining operations. For
example, a deep drilling operation at the Iheya North hydrothermal field (Okinawa Trough, Pacific
Ocean) revealed that the vent-clam/soft sediment habitat transforms into a crust with higher tem-
perature flow and the presence of bacterial mat and squat lobsters (Nakajima et al. 2015). On the
299
other hand, when drilling took place at ODP Leg 158 in the TAG area of the MAR there was hardly
any change in the nature of the shrimp-dominated vents (Copley et al. 1999, 2016). Under such
circumstances it is difficult to foresee the damage, or lack of it, at hydrothermal vents.
Both terrestrial and deep-sea mining influence the environment in different ways and more so
when sea-minerals are mined. This is because during mining the water column, bottom water, biota
(bottom-dwelling, surface and water column inhabitants) and bottom sediments would be altered.
Therefore, after exploration and prior to exploitation, an in-depth study is required concerning the
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environment Monitoring and Planning (EMP). The
EIA and EMP are multidisciplinary approaches to address the concerns that the stakeholders and
people would have once mining starts. Baseline data need to be obtained, namely, observations and
measurements of several parameters of geological, biological, physical, and chemical nature, of the
water, biota, and sediments. The data, samples, and observations must be validated, compared, and
checked for variations in reference (control) and test (experimental) areas. The investigations could
range from a few days to 2 -3 years and be a continuing process, even after mining.
Filho et al. (2021) reviewed the potentials and risks of deep seabed mining by considering the
legal aspects and environmental impact. During mining, the seabed could be significantly disturbed,
the creation of sediment plumes, and these together with light and noise pollution would affect the
surface, benthic, meso, and bathypelagic zones. A systems approach to adaptive management was
proposed by Hyman et al. (2021) that could help to guide and better manage the environmental
aspects deep-sea mineral extraction.
Except for routine geological, biological and seawater sampling at the licensed site of the SWIR,
India has not reached the stage where EIA/EMP tasks are being carried out. But the data so far
collected would help to undertake the detailed EIA work in the future.
10.4.3 Exploitation
During the mid-1970s successful pre-pilot mining and metallurgical testing operations were carried
out at the Atlantis II deep site. It was then presumed that very soon there would be a clamour to
mine for deep-sea minerals from the world’s ocean. To-date, this dream of the scientific commu-
nity is unrealised due to factors other than technological advancements in mining. Further we need
to allay the growing global fear for the marine environment, both by people and regulatory bodies
such as the ISA. Despite such concerns, there is now a renewed interest ini the exploitation of the
SMS deposits given the ever-growing global population, industrialisation, an enhanced demand for
metals, and geopolitical issues, amongst others.
Deep-sea mining is an expensive proposition as it is essential not only to have high resolution
mapping techniques but also to fabricate equipment that can withstand the erosive effect of the sea-
water and hydrostatic pressures. In addition, low-cost autonomous or remotely operated vehicles
(AUV/ROV) would be necessary to locate and evaluate SMS deposits. The mined materials that are
recovered by the mother ship must be transported to onshore processing laboratories using supply
vessels. Presently some limited mining systems exist but not for commercial operations as is the
case for nearshore placer deposits that are mined by a few countries, including India. Once the
mining lease and environmental clearances are obtained then the SMS deposits of the Solwara 1 site
in the Bismarck Sea (Papua New Guinea) could be the first to be commercially mined. The SMS
deposits are 50 km from land and at a water depth of 1,600 km. The inferred total mineral resource is
~1.54 million tonnes with a grade of 6% of gold grams/tonne and 8% copper (Lipton, 2008).
The other constraints to seabed mining are the availability of ore and mineral deposits on land
that are similar to the marine deposits, procurement of a license and its yearly renewal at a huge
price from the ISA to explore and exploit marine resources, and a large capital investment which
is usually only possible either by consortia or by governments or through partnerships. India has
developed a nodule mining system, a soil tester and an ROV (ROSUB 6000), all of which are
300
operable at 6,000 m water depth. Work is underway to develop a battery-operated manned submers-
ible that would have an endurance of 12 hours and dive at least 6,000 m (www.niot.org). Recently
the Indian government has approved the ‘Deep Ocean Mission,’ in which there are plans to develop
suitable mining systems for the SMS and polymetallic manganese nodules.
India could collaborate with some of the IORA or advanced countries that may have expertise to
jointly develop and produce deep-sea mining and other ancillary systems. The efforts would mutu-
ally benefit the countries in terms of exchange of scientific and technological ideas, the creation
of employment opportunities, a shared and reduced cost of manufacturing of machinery, and the
hastening of the process of mining the SMS deposits, amongst others.
10.4.4 Enrichment
The hydrothermal deposits are a concoction of various metals, oxides, sulfides and sulfates of iron,
copper, nickel, cobalt, zinc, lead, gold, silver, barium, silica amongst others. The extraction of a
particular metal from such a conglomeration is difficult unlike the processes that help to separate
3 (copper, cobalt nickel) or 4 metals (copper, cobalt, nickel, and manganese) from polymetallic
nodules. Several metallurgical techniques must be developed or existing ones need to be refined to
separate as many of the metals as possible from the SMS. This could involve the setting-up of large
metallurgical plants that would require extensive treatment and efficient disposal of their chem-
ical effluents so as not to contaminate the subsurface and groundwaters. The gangue that would be
produced during metal extraction needs to be either examinedto see if it could be put to some use
or disposed of. Noise and air pollution produced from the beneficiation plants must be alleviated as
much as possible.
Once the flow charts to recover the metals from the SMS are finalized then as a part of the BE
initiative, India could establish ore beneficiation plants in one or more of the IORA countries
that are near the area. This step would help to save the cost of transporting the SMS from the
SWIR which is located tens of kilometres from India, reduction in the carbon footprint, and help
to boost metal production. The host country could benefit by way of improved or new infrastruc-
ture, creation of jobs, advances in science and technology, and financial gain through foreign
investments.
10.4.5 Economics
The overall accumulation of the SMS in the MOR is estimated to be ~6 × 108 tonnes and of this, 86%
is accounted for by deposits present along slow-and ultraslow-spreading ridges (Hannington et al.
2011). It has been reported that a majority of hydrothermal fields with more than 1 million tonnes
are found along such ridges that have spreading rates between 20 and 55 mm/yr and <20 mm/yr,
respectively (Dick et al. 2003). So far, a little more than 20 fields have been found and confirmed on
ultraslow-spreading ridges (www.vents-data.interridge.org/) and among these, only for the Mount
Jourdanne deposit (SWIR), was the size reported. The estimated SMS is <3,000 tonnes, using the
area versus tonnage relationship for the Solwara-1 deposit as a reference, and this is much smaller
than expected (Hannington et al. 2011). Therefore, we need more data to demarcate the distribution
and content of SMS on ultraslow-ridges.
The Yuhuang-1 hydrothermal field (YHF), situated on the SWIR, has two SMS deposits that are
~500 m apart, one in the SW and other in NE. Calculations reveal that the total volume of SMS in
the YHF is ~10.6 × 106 tonnes, with at least ~7.5 × 105 tonnes of Cu and Zn and ~18 tonnes of Au.
Accounting for the coverage of layered hydrothermal sediment together with sulfide-rich breccias
and underlying massive sulfide deposits, the maximum total mass was estimated at ~45.1 × 106 tonnes.
Apparently, the YHF is one of the largest SMS deposits worldwide and reaffirms that ultraslow-
spreading ridges have the greatest potential to form large-scale SMS deposits (Yu et al. 2021).
301
It is tempting for a country or consortia to follow the above 4Es in the hope of extracting several
metals simultaneously from SMS deposits and make a handsome profit in the long term. Reportedly,
the metals in the SMS deposits may sometimes exceed terrestrial reserves that are now economic-
ally mined (Hein et al. 2013). After having been granted the license and strictly adhering to the ISA
guidelines to mine the SMS deposits, a critical analysis of the cost-benefit and the multiple issues
involved with it need to be worked out by the investors. The investors must account for factors
such as capital costs (mother ship, supply vessels), manpower, salaries, daily expenses, hiring/pur-
chase/replacement of mining equipment, transport of personnel and mined ores to land, establishing
an onshore facility for metal extraction by following all protocols of EIA and EMP, fluctuating
market values of the metals, import-export of the metals, and various other known/unknown factors.
Importantly, the profits could fluctuate depending on distribution and resource estimates of the SMS
deposits and whether active or inactive vents would be mined.
The investors must consider the fact that future discovery of new ore deposits on land could
substantially reduce their profits. In the above constraints we have not accounted for the vagaries
of nature that could hampher mining operations. Although it is predicted that by 2030 about 10%
of global minerals could be recovered from the ocean floor (European Commission, 2012), we still
have a long way to go to make deep-sea mining a profitable venture.
Considering a host of parametres (abundance, grade, topography, metal prices, infrastructure,
capital costs, and the like), it was estimated that by mining the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB)
polymetallic nodules (water depth 5,000 m) that profits could be made from the 8th year of a 25 year
life of the mine (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2019). In the case of shallow-seated SMS deposits perhaps
the profits could be realized much earlier provided that the other 4Es have been properly addressed.
10.5 CONCLUSION
Currently, the world is managing with its available land resources but a time could come when
it needs to turn to the oceans for mining useful metals and minerals. But the day is not far off
when countries will be able to recover marine minerals when technologies are developed, envir-
onmental concerns are addressed and mechanisms for sustainable marine mining are set in place.
These factors could be accelerated, and the cost reduced, if countries and global corporates worked
in unison instead of working in isolation. Regarding seabed mineral exploration, India is quite ahead
in the game with respect to its neighbouring countries and, indeed most IORA countries. This is
because the Indian Ocean is easily accessible, its availability of large quantities of human resources
(scientific, skilled, unskilled), technological advancements for exploration, environmental studies,
exploitation, and its ore beneficiation plants, amongst other favourable factors.
After the Goa Declaration (2015), the Indian government seriously took up several initiatives to
identify and boost blue economy sectors, with emphasis on marine minerals. The National Institute
of Transforming India (NITI) is working hand-in hand with different stakeholders and the Ministry
of Earth Sciences to successfully implement a sustainable use of several blue minerals (placers,
SMS, polymetallic nodules). This is in tune with the Government’s policy statement which is, ‘The
blue economy refers to the exploring and optimizing of the potential of the oceans and seas which
are under India’s legal jurisdiction for socio-economic development while preserving the health of
the oceans.’
Several recommendations were made by Nayak (2019) to the government of India. Some of these
are to expedite technology development for exploration, and the like, the setting up of a national
placer mission, financial and human resources, exploration rights for cobalt, a comprehensive study
of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, protecting marine biodiversity, and to establish an appropriate
institutional framework to implement the BE activities. It was estimated that the size of the BE in
India, measured in Gross Value Added (GVA), in 2016–17 was US$81.8 billion. Currently, the mag-
nitude of the BE is akin to several coastal nations although in some countries (like Malaysia and
302
Mauritius), the input of BE to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is quite significant. In India the GVA
steadily rose from 3% 2012 -13 to 10.5% in 2015 -16. The present contribution of BE to the GDP
is ~4% but this could surge if we consider outputs from all the marine sectors or marine-related
activities (Rajeevan, 2019).
We suggest that India could establish an independent Ministry of Blue Economics that would chalk
out programmes, outline work plans, take policy decisions and successfully implement the BE by
networking with the other sectors of the BE. By doing so, the blue minerals could be sustainably
resourced in an environmentally-friendly manner and thus substantially contribute to India’s projected
economy of US$10 trillion by 2030, despite the recent set-backs caused by the ongoing COVID-19.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge Prof. Dr. Md. Nazrul Islam for the invitation to contribute this chapter. We thank
Ms. Mansi Shinde during the preparation of Table 10.1. We also acknowledge the support of Goa
University and DM college during the preparation of the chapter.
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11 Global Scenarios of Seaweed

Cultivation
Science-Policy Nexus for
Enhancing the Seaweeds and
Algae Farming
Md. Nazrul Islam,1* Sahanaj Tamanna,2 Md. Shahriar Islam,1
and Md. Noman1
1
2
* Corresponding author: Md. Nazrul Islam. E-mail: nazrul_[email protected]
CONTENTS
11.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 310
11.2 Fundamentals of Marine Algae and the Value of Seaweeds............................................... 311
11.2.1 Brown Algae.........................................................................................................312
11.2.2 Red Algae.............................................................................................................312
11.2.3 Green Algae.......................................................................................................... 313
11.2.4 Algae in Aquariums.............................................................................................. 313
11.3 Global Importance of Marine Algae/Seaweeds.................................................................. 313
11.4 Blue Green Algae Biofuels................................................................................................. 315
11.4.1 Major Compositions of Microalgae Biomass....................................................... 316
11.4.2 Biological Importance of Marine Algae............................................................... 316
11.5 Fundamentals of Seaweed Farming: Mechanisms and Strategies...................................... 316
11.6 Various Seaweed Farming Techniques and Processes........................................................ 317
11.6.1 Horizontally Net Hauling Method........................................................................ 318
11.6.1.1 The Floating Bamboo Method............................................................. 318
11.6.1.2 Mangrove Posts and Net Method......................................................... 318
11.6.2 Method of the Bottom Monoline.......................................................................... 318
11.6.3 Seaweed Cultivation and Coastal Communities................................................... 319
11.7 Major Factors that Affect the Production of Seaweed........................................................ 320
11.7.1 Factors Affecting Production................................................................................ 320
11.7.1.1 Nutrition...............................................................................................320
11.7.1.2 Hydration.............................................................................................320
11.7.1.3 Limiting Factors................................................................................... 321
11.7.1.4 Salinity.................................................................................................321
11.7.1.5 Constraints........................................................................................... 321
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-11 309

newgenprepdf
310
11.7.1.6 Temperature......................................................................................... 321

11.7.1.7 Light.....................................................................................................321
11.7.1.8 Tidal Forces......................................................................................... 321
11.7.2 Monitoring Protocols for Seaweed Farming........................................................ 321
11.8 Global Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios: Country Case Studies.......................................... 322
11.8.1 African Countries: Kenya and Senegal................................................................. 322
11.8.1.1 Seaweeds Cultivation Scenarios in Kenya........................................... 322
11.8.1.2 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Senegal.......................................... 323
11.8.2 Asian Countries: China, Indonesia, Vietnam and Bangladesh............................. 324
11.8.2.1 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in China............................................. 324
11.8.2.2 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Indonesia....................................... 325
11.8.2.3 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Vietnam......................................... 325
11.8.2.4 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Bangladesh.................................... 326
11.8.3 Latin American Countries: Argentina, Mexico, and Venezuela............................ 327
11.8.3.1 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Argentina....................................... 327
11.8.3.2 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Mexico........................................... 327
11.8.3.3 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Venezuela...................................... 328
11.8.4 European Countries: Case Studies from Norway and Scotland........................... 328
11.8.4.1 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Norway.......................................... 328
11.8.4.2 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Scotland......................................... 328
11.8.4.3 Prospects, Challenges and Limitations of Global Seaweed
Cultivation...........................................................................................328
11.9 Application of the DPSIR Model for Identifying the Challenges of Seaweed
Cultivation...........................................................................................................................329
11.10 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................330
References....................................................................................................................................... 330
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Recent climate change impacts on the agricultural sectors as well as threatening traditional livelihoods,
and thus increases global concern for ensuring food security in the forthcoming days after Covid-19
impacts (Islam and Amstel, 2021). Seaweed holds enormous potential to transform food systems for
improved sustainability, equity, and nutrition (Benemann, et al. 2008; Fiorella et al. 2021). However,
seaweed’s current contributions and future potential are often overlooked by the global food systems
agenda (Short et al. 2021; Simmance et al. 2022). Civil society, researchers and academia must work
in collaboration to utilize seaweed to improve food and nutrition security and foster nature-positive
solutions to overcome the food system challenges. Global seaweed output increased from roughly
21 million tonnes in 2010 to 33 million tonnes in 2018. (Amosu et al. 2013; Hussain et al. 2020;
Karningsih et al. 2021). On average, farming accounts for 97% of total production. Production grows
at a rate of roughly 4% each year on average. The top three species are Japanese kelp, Eucheuma, and
Gracilaria (Munoz et al. 2004; Ferdouse et al. 2018; Cai et al. 2021). They account for around 70% of
total production in the contexts of global scenarios (Munoz et al. 2004; Roohinejad et al. 2017). Asia’s
largest producers include China, Indonesia, and the Republic of Korea (Muthayya et al. 2014). Because
of growing consumer awareness of the benefits of seaweed extracts, which are used as supplements
to nutrient food (as a staple diet), as flavor enhancers, in beauty enhancement, in diabetes control, and
as fertilizers, amongst other things. Consumption of seaweed has increased by 125% in the UK solely
(Midmore and Rank, 2002; Gupta and Abu-Ghannam, 2011). In 2017, 0.48 metric tonnes of seaweed
worth US$ 880 million were shipped internationally. Indonesia dominated the global export market
with a 21% share of the market, followed by Chile (9%), and Ireland (7%) (Wurmann, 2022). Their
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Global Scenarios of Seaweed Cultivation 311
contribution accounts for around 87% of world output. Growing seaweed requires no land, fresh water,
fertilizers, or pesticides, making it a resource-free process. It sequesters CO2, so mitigating the nega-
tive consequences of global warming (Michalak et al. 2017). Marine macroalgae, sometimes known
as seaweeds, are plant-like creatures that thrive in coastal locations adhering to rock and perhaps
other hard substrates (Manzelat et al. 2018; Sudhakar et al. 2018). Bioprospecting operations between
1965 and 2012 yielded a total of 3129 marine natural products (MNPs) or bioactive compounds from
seaweeds, according to scholarly publishing metrics. However, the transition from discovery to devel-
opment has been gradual (EI-Moslamy et al. 2017; Falkenberg et al. 2019).
There are around 1000 different types of seaweeds accessible all over the world. From 14.70 million
metric tonnes in 2005, to 30.40 million metric tonnes in 2015, production has increased (Region,
2014). The worldwide seaweed sector is valued around US$ 6 billion per year. The increasing com-
mercial market demand for seaweed extract is primarily driven by its use in nutritional supplements,
in food service, pharmaceutical, medical and healthcare-related businesses, and other industries
(Seaweed: An alternative protein source, Hossain et al. 2020). Producers, Fast Moving Consumer
Goods (FMCG) firms, research organizations, pharmaceutical and cosmetics makers, fertilizer pro-
ducers, and so on are key participants (Agarwal and Agrawalla, 2017).
11.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MARINE ALGAE AND THE VALUE OF SEAWEEDS

Algae are farmed commercially in the open air to take advantage of the ample sunshine (Bajhaiya
et al. 2010). As a result, information learned from algae activity in research facility labs must be
applied to efficiency in larger types of reactors that must cope with fluctuations in light and tempera-
ture at the manufacturing location (Acién et al. 2017; Wang et al 2021). It is possible to obtain lipids,
proteins, and carbohydrates from microalgae, which may then be refined into a variety of goods
(Chung et al. 2013; Malvis et al. 2019). Microalgae have lately aroused the interest of academics
all over the world due to their wide range of applications in the renewable power, pharmaceutical,
and nutritional industries (Muthayya 2t al. 2014). Seaweeds are a renewable, long-lasting, and low-
cost source of biofuel, bioactive medicines, and food ingredients (Khan et al. 2018; Bajpai, 2019).
Similarly, numerous microalgae varieties have been recognized as having promising possibilities as
value-added products due to their outstanding pharmacological and biological capabilities (Khan
et al. 2018; Sharma et al. 2022). Biofuels are an excellent replacement for liquid fossil fuels in
terms of price, renewability, and environmental concerns (Khan et al. 2018). On the other hand, the
,microalgae may convert atmospheric CO2 into useful substances including polysaccharides, lipids,
and other therapeutic molecules (Chung et al. 2011; Saeed et al. 2021).
Although microalgae are feasible sources of energy and biological products in general, consid-
erable limits and impediments must be addressed in order to progress the innovation from trial to
full scale implementation (Figure 11.1) (Nazir et al. 2020; Geremia et al. 2021). The most challen-
ging and crucial considerations include increasing algal growth rate and chemical synthesis, drying
the algae colony for biomass production, pretreating fodder, and enhancing the brewing process
in the example of algal production of bioethanol (Khan et al. 2018; Saad et al. 2019; Samsul et al.
2020). The current scientific literature review highlights the benefits of microalgae for the gener-
ation of biofuels and other bioactive chemicals, as well as reviewing the factors affecting its cul-
turing (Thanigaival et al. 2022). Cultivation, harvesting, extraction, and conversion are the four
primary stages of the production process (Abdelaziz et al. 2013). To begin, enormous amounts of
biomass must be grown under optimal conditions, where nutrients must be given. The biomass must
then be extracted from the medium. To extract the lipids, the cells in the recovered algae slurry must
be disturbed (Marrone et al. 2018).
Microalgae culture is intertwined with bivalve production and is greatly dependent on water
quality used for their production (Eljaddi et al. 2021). To avoid the introduction of contamination
(parasites that eat the microalgae, such as copepods, or are harmful for bivalves, such as pathogenic
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FIGURE 11.1 Basic classification of marine algae and major challenges for harvesting the algae and
seaweeds.
bacteria and viruses) in microalgae culture and consequently within aquaculture production during
feeding, the water used for phytoplankton growth must be treated (National Geographic Soceiety,
n.d.; Cordier et al. 2021). Seaweed is a phrase used to describe multicellular, sea algae that are large
enough to be seen with the naked eye. Some species can grow to be 60 m long. Seaweeds are made
up of red, brown, and green algae. They are not plants because they relate to the kingdom Protista
(Kandasamy, et al. 2022). They lack a plant’s circulatory tissue (internal transport system), as well as
roots, stalks, leaves, flowers, and cone. They use the pigment, chlorophyll for photosynthesis, just like
plants, but they also have other carotenoids that can be red, blue, brown, or gold (Chen et al. 2020).
Seaweeds are luminous, hardy, and adaptable, surviving in some of the most severe environ-
mental places on the planet. They are found in the intertidal zone, between the near shore and the
foreshore (Meneur et al. 2015). There are four tidal zones: low, mid, high, and spray, with different
seaweed species flourishing in each zone. When looking at low tide, you can use the growth of spe-
cific seaweed species as a reference to discern where one tidal zone stops and the next begins (Chen
et al. 2020).
11.2.1 Brown Algae
Brown algae, which belongs to the class Phaeophyta, is the most prevalent form of seaweed (meaning
‘dusky plants’). Brown algae, which can look brown or yellow-brown, is found in both temperate
and polar seas (Kandale et al. 2011). While brown algae lack actual roots, they do develop root-like
projections known as ‘holdfasts’ that are utilized to bind the algae to a contact.
Seaweeds can develop in both saltwater and freshwater, but kelp, a brown alga, can only grow
in saltwater, typically near rocky coastlines. Kelp comes in over 30 distinct varieties (Kandale et al.
2011; Radulovich et al. 2015). One source is the massive kelp beds off the California coast, while
another source is the drifting kelp beds in the North Atlantic Ocean’s Sargasso Sea. Kelp, one of the
most popular seaweeds, contains a variety of vitamins and minerals (Kandale et al. 2021).
11.2.2 Red Algae
Red algae are usually found all over the world, growing at the bottom of bodies of water or clinging
to hard surfaces. Herbivores such as fish, crabs, worms, and gastropods feed on them (Koss et al.
313
2011; Nagelkerken et al. 2018). Red algae are often slower growing than green algae and reproduce
both asexually and sexually. They have the most complex sexual cycles of any organism. Most red
algae store their carbohydrates as glycogen (Ball et al. 2011). Glycogen is a lengthy chain of glucose
molecules with numerous branching points. It is not the same as the starch stored by brown or green
algae (Ball et al. 2011). Rhodophyta feature three essential compounds in their cell walls in addition
to the standard cellulose cell walls seen in most algae. These substances are agar, carrageenan, and
mucusy sugars. Calcium carbonate is deposited in the cell walls of some red algae, such as coralline
algae (Mathew et al. 2019; New guidelines for sustainable European seaweed, 2021). This protects
them from being devoured while also providing them with strength and support. These algae play a
crucial role in the formation of coral reefs. Some red algae species can build a thin mat over rocks
and other hard surfaces and are referred to as crustose when they do so. Red algae, both upright and
crustose, link and infill coral skeletons to build vast sedimentary structures that can withstand wave
action and erosion (Kennedy, 2019).
11.2.3 Green Algae
There are around 4,000 distinct types of green algae on the planet. Green algae may be found in both
saltwater and freshwater environments, and such species can grow in wet soils (Milano et al 2016).
These algae are classified as unicellular, colonial, or multicellular. Oceanic lettuce is a kind of algal
species that grows in tidal pools. Codium is another type of green algae enjoyed by some sea slugs,
and the variant Codium fragile is also known as Dead Man’s Fingers (Kennedy, 2019).
11.2.4 Algae in Aquariums
Even though the stubby-tailed blue-green algae, called Cyanobacteria is not one of the fundamental
forms of algae, it is often classified as a sort of seaweed (Cai et al. 2021). These algae (also known
as Slime or Smear algae) are frequently found in household aquariums (Kennedy, 2019). While cer-
tain algae are a natural part of a healthy aquarium environment, if left unchecked, it will colonize
practically every surface in an astonishingly short period of time. Although some aquarium owners
employ chemicals to control algae, most prefer to introduce one or more algae-eating catfish also
known as suckerfish or snails into the tank (Kennedy, 2019).
11.3 GLOBAL IMPORTANCE OF MARINE ALGAE/SEAWEEDS

Microalgae are components of plankton and benthic communities and can live anywhere, in marine,
fresh or transitional waters. Seaweeds, which are non-flowering, primordial sea algae with no foun-
dation, stem, or leaves, play a vital role in marine habitats. This organism’s thousands of species,
which vary greatly in size, shape, and color, provide habitats for marine life and defend them from
dangers (Islam et al. 2021). Figure 11.2 shows the globally significant importance of seaweeds its
main sectors (Source: After modified from Anderson, 2001). Giant seaweeds generate kelp forests,
which are thick underwater forests that function as incubators for fish, snails, and sea urchins. Its
thallus is also consumed by herbivorous marine creatures. Seaweeds, for their part, obtain susten-
ance through the photosynthesis of sunlight and nutrients found in seawater (Cai et al. 2021).
The algae and sraweeds expel oxygen from all parts of their bodies (Sundararaju, 2021).
Some nutrients found in huge amounts of water are hazardous to marine life and can even kill it.
Seaweeds, which are usually found in the intertidal zone, shallow and deep-sea waters, estuaries,
and backwaters, absorb excess nutrients and help to balance the ecosystem (Islam et al. 2012; Islam
et al. 2013). They are also used as bio-indicators. When trash from agriculture, industries, aquacul-
ture, and households is dumped into the ocean, it generates nutrient imbalances that result in algal
blooming, which is a symptom of marine chemical harm (Mohan et al. 2022).
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FIGURE 11.2 Global significant importance of seaweeds in main sectors (after and modified from
Anderson, 2001).
FIGURE 11.3 Processing techniques and post-harvest management of seaweeds.
For photosynthesis, these aquatic creatures rely considerably on iron. When the concentration
of this mineral exceeds healthy levels and becomes harmful to marine life, seaweeds catch it and
protect it (Calvin, 1974; FPJ Bureau, 2021). Similarly, seaweeds trap and eliminate many heavy
metals found in marine ecosystems. Some nutrients found in huge amounts of water are hazardous
to marine life and can kill it (Boyd, 1970). The Figure 11.3 shows the cultivating and processing
techniques and post-harvest management of seaweeds and algae. The seaweeds, which are usually
found in the intertidal zone, shallow and deep-sea waters, estuaries, and backwaters, absorb excess
nutrients and help to balance the ecosystem (Islam et al. 2012). They are also used as bio-indicators.
When trash from agriculture, industries, aquaculture, and households is dumped into the ocean, it
generates nutrient imbalances that result in algal blooming, which is a symptom of marine chemical
harm (Newton et al. 2014).
For photosynthesis, these aquatic creatures rely considerably on iron. When the concentration of
this mineral exceeds healthy levels and becomes harmful to marine life, seaweeds catch it and pro-
tect it (Khandake et al. 2021). Similarly, seaweeds trap and eliminate the majority of heavy metals
found in marine ecosystems (Andersen, 2001; Stengel et al. 2011).).
The leftovers of antiquity algae’s photosynthetic products, which were later converted by bac-
teria, are oil and natural gas (Andersen, 2004). As a potential alternative for fossil fuels, many
companies have obtained oil from oil-producing microalgae cultivated in high-salinity ponds. As a
processed and uncooked food, algae has an economic worth of many billion US$ (Vedantu, 2022).
Algal preparations are widely used in the manufacture of meals and other goods, and direct intake
315
of algae has long been a part of the meals of East Asian and Western Pacific populations (Cai et al.
2021). The red seaweed, Nori, often referred as laver, is by far the most substantial business food
alga (Porphyra). In Tokyo exclusively, almost 100,000 ha of shallower sea and ocean is planted. The
life cycle of Porphyra is separated into two sections. This cycle is a tiny, coral stage that may be
deliberately replicated by growing on oyster shells attached to cables or nets and put in certain ocean
beds for growth (Andersen, 2001; Cai et al. 2021).
11.4 BLUE GREEN ALGAE BIOFUELS

With the help of light, cyanobacteria, often known as blue-green algae, can create oil from water
and carbon dioxide (Vu et al. 20220). A recent study from the University of Bonn demonstrates this.
The outcome is surprising: until today, it was thought that this ability was only reserved for plants
(Temperton et al. 2019). Blue-green algae may now be of interest as a source of feed or fuel, espe-
cially because they do not require arable land (Aizouq et al. 2020). Researchers at UC-Davis and
Sandia National Laboratories are investigating the use of cyanobacteria in the production of biofuels
(Anderson, 2015; Stanley, 2018). Cyanobacteria are also fuelled by sunlight, the energy source is
already plentiful (during daylight hours of course) (Richardson, 2013). Furthermore, they create
the material used to build fuel outside the cell, allowing it to be collected without destroying the
cell. Whereas in eukaryotic algae, the pre-fuel material must be taken from cells, which damages
them and prevents them from producing it again (Banhart, 2001; Smith, 2007). As a result, a fresh
generation of algae must be cultivated. Cyanobacteria can be used again. However, present yields
are insufficient to be commercially viable, therefore ruffing is being explored to increase them
(Motwalli et al. 2017). Figure 11.4 shows their conceptual biochemical and technological frame-
work for converting algae and seaweeds to biofuel and their business policy.
Microalgae are sustainable biofuel resources that may be grown on unsuitable land using salty or
salty water (Islam et al. 2012). One big benefit about using microalgae for fuels is that it eliminates
the need for farms to cultivate food supplies (Siddiki et al. 2022). As per the Energy Department,
microalgae have the capacity to offer at least 30 times the energy of existing land-based crops used
to make biofuels. Algae are also capable of successfully recycling carbon from the air (Singh and
Gu, 2010). Although algae account for less than 2% of global plant carbon, they capture and fix up
to 50 % of CO2 in the atmosphere, transforming it to hydrocarbons (Cheah et al. 2016).
FIGURE 11.4 Conceptual biochemical and technological framework for converting algae and seaweeds to
biofuel and their business policy.
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11.4.1 Major Compositions of Microalgae Biomass

Algae are eukaryotic organisms, which have cells with a nucleus and other components (organelles)
contained by membranes (Sagan, 1967). They dwell in damp, generally watery settings and contain
chlorophyll. Algae are not terrestrial plants since they have some attributes lacking. These are: i)
genuine roots, stems, and leaves, ii) vascular (conducting) tissues like xylem and phloem, and iii)
non-reproductive cells in reproductive structures (Shanks, 2014). Cyanobacteria are prokaryotes
with a single circular chromosome and no membrane-bound organelles. Algae is made up of half
carbon, ten% nitrogen, and two% phosphorus (Behera et al. 2019).
11.4.2 Biological Importance of Marine Algae

Marine organisms have the chance of being rich sources of essential bioactive metabolites, which
might lead to the development of novel pharmacological therapies (Zotchev, 2012). Algae are classified
into two types: microalgae (blue green algae), dinoflagellates, bacillariophyta (dinoflagellates),
and so forth, and macroalgae (seaweeds), which include greenish, brown, and red microorganisms
(Marine Algae (n.d); Suhanya et al. 2016). Microalgae phyla have been acknowledged for their
chemical and pharmacological variety and creativity (Hallmann, 2015). Microalgae are also known
to be the principal producers of certain highly bioactive compounds found in aquatic resources
(Jalilian et al. 2020). Red algae are regarded to become the main component of several physiologic-
ally active chemicals when compared to other algal types (Samarakoon and Jeon, 2012).
11.5 FUNDAMENTALS OF SEAWEED FARMING: MECHANISMS AND

STRATEGIES
There is hardly any mention of the world’s second largest aquaculture business, namely seaweed, in
the various aquaculture conversations that actually happen on Seafood Source (Engle et al. 2016).
With a worldwide production of 17.3 million metric tonnes, seaweed farming is second only to
freshwater fish farming in terms of volume (Verdegem, 2013). The vast majority is cultivated in
Asia, which amounts for 17.1 million metric tonnes, or 98.8% of total production, with China being
the main producer (Evans et al. 2020). Seaweeds of various species are well recognized in Asian
cuisine, and seaweed extracts such as carrageenans, alginates, and agars are utilized in a wide var-
iety of processed foods (Abbott, 1996; Holmyard, 2011; Mac Monagail et al. 2013). Each year, over
114,1000 tonnes of dry red algae are produced worldwide, the majority of which is used in the pro-
duction of industrial agar (Phi, 2014). However, many of these are harvested in the wild, and there
is an immediate need to supplement dwindling native populations with farmed ones (Fletcher and
Fletcher, 2022).
According to a World Bank study from 2016, annual global seaweed output might exceed 1.5
billion dried tonnes by 2050 if the industry can increase its collection by 14% per year (Hossain
et al. 2021). Increasing to 500 million would enhance the global food supply by 10% above present
levels, provide 50 million direct employments, and substitute around 1% of the fossil fuels used
to power automobiles as biofuels (De Fraiture et al. 2008; Glaros et al. 2021). The position of the
Worldwide Seaweed Aquaculture Industry (Net value) in thousand tonnes, 2018 and the positioning
rank of nation data base are shown in Table 11.1.
Large-scale seaweed production for dietary purposes, for animal feed, and for biofuels, according
to the research (Soleymani and Rosentrater, 2017), ‘may represent a fundamental transformation
in the global development formula as well as the way we see and utilize the seas.’ However, there
is a large initial outlay for starting a farm (Blikra et al. 2021). Producers could get up and operating
and start laying seaweed lines in the ocean for around $20,000 plus the cost of a boat (which
can vary greatly) (Watson and Dring, 2011). A farmer may make around $37,000 per year by
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TABLE 11.1
The Scenarios of Global Seaweed Aquaculture Production ((Net Weight) in Thousand
Tonnes) 2018 and the Positional Rank of Country Data Base
Production of Seaweed Aquaculture (2018)

(Net Weight) Expressed in
Country/area Thousand Tonnes % of Global Total
World 32,386.2 100

Asia 32,226.3 99.51
China 18,575.7 57.36
Indonesia 9,320.3 28.78
South Korea 1,710.5 5.28
Philippines 1,478.3 4.56
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea 553 1.71
Japan 389.8 1.20
Malaysia 174.1 0.54
Viet Nam 19.3 0.06
India 5.3 0.02
Africa 108.5 0.34
Tanzania 103.2 0.32
Madagascar 5.3 0.02
Americas 20.7 0.06
Chile 20.7 0.06
Oceania 14.04 0.04
Solomon Islands 5.5 0.02
Papua New Guinea 4.3 0.01
Kiribati 3.65 0.01
Europe 4.5 0.01
Russian Federation 4.5 0.01
Other producers 21 0.06
Source: FAO-SOFA, 2020; Mantri et al. 2022.
cultivating ten times the amount of kelp and 150,000 mussels per acre, according to GreenWave
(Fehrenbacher, 2021).
Because of expanding demand and a strong growth rate, seaweed output has increased in recent
years. Seaweed accounts for at least 27% of overall marine aquaculture output ( Langton et al. 2019)).
The revenue from brown seaweed in 1984 was US$ 737,400.9, whereas it was US$ 5,944,093 in
2017. (Bhuyan et al. 2021). In the case of red seaweed, US$ 751614.6 were made, which is equiva-
lent to US$ 5272332 in 2017 (Smith, 2017; Bhuyan et al. 2021). Red seaweed has recently emerged
as a promising candidate for the extraction of essential chemicals (for example, agar, carrageenan,
and the like). Consequently, red seaweed production increased over the previous year, while brown
seaweed production decreased (Khalil et al. 2018).
11.6 VARIOUS SEAWEED FARMING TECHNIQUES AND PROCESSES

The type of farming approach and its demonstration are critical to the success of seaweed farming.
These methods focus solely on agricultural systems that have been shown to be cost-effective,
simple to build, operate, and maintain (Sievanen et al. 2005).
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11.6.1 Horizontally Net Hauling Method

It was the first commercially successful Eucheuma technique. The sowing component is a 2.5 x 5 m
square net with diagonal meshwork and a bar length of 25 cm (Ford, 2021). The net is made of
braided nylon or conventional polypropylene lines for the margin (110–150 lb. test) and 30–
100 pounds. test for the crystalline lattice (Leisner, 1999). The nets are horizontally strung. Their
looping corners are attached to poles or wire strung between stakes (Doty, 1973). Each net unit has
127 mesh intersections. At these areas, soft plastic products should be used to tie Eucheuma shoots
together (tie–tie) (Alvarez, 1977).
Net farming gives the benefit of intense production since more crops may be cultivated in a
given space. It is divided into three types: the floating bamboo method, the mangrove posts and net
method, and the tubular net method (Juanich, 1988).
11.6.1.1 The Floating Bamboo Method

The basic concepts of the floating bamboo methods for seaweeds cultivation are the mainframe of
floating bamboo raft is of .5 x 5 m mesh. Usually, the four bamboo poles (each of 4’ length) are tied
diagonally in four corners of mainframe. Nearly 20 polypropylene-twisted ropes along with seed
materials are tied in the raft (Johnson et al. 2017). Around 150-200 g of seaweed fragments are tied
at a spacing of 15 cm along the length of the rope. A total of 20 seaweed fragments can be tied in
single rope. The total seed requirement per raft is 60-80 kg. Fish net of 4x4 m size is tied at the
bottom of the raft to avoid grazing (Johnson et al. 2017).
• Using a cable, tie each corner of a 2.5 x 5 m mesh to a big coral, ensuring that the net is
securely stretched.
• Cut one meter of bamboo and knot one to each side netting.
• Add additional net to the one you’ve previously constructed (Johnson et al. 2017)
11.6.1.2 Mangrove Posts and Net Method

Seaweed farming is an attractive livelihood for fishermen and a high yielding investment. Mangroves
provide numerous ecological functions and are instrumental in providing socioeconomic support for
the community.
• Methods for building mangrove posts and net method: Install mangrove stake bipod and tripod
6 meters apart in rows with 11 bipods or tripods in each row. The rows should be 6 meters
apart (11 rows can hold 20 nets) (Juanich, 1988; Nagelkerken et al. 2008).
• Attach 2.5 × 5 meters net to the bipods and tripods. Make sure all nets are stretched tightly
and are at least 2 feet above the bottom but below the lowest tide level (Juanich, 1988; Tengku
et al. 2020).
11.6.2 Method of the Bottom Monoline

This strategy is less costly to build, easier to handle, and less subject to ambient weather conditions
than the raft approach (Table 11.2). This method is comprised of units, which are hectare-scale
planting units. A module is made up of 28 monolines (single wires), each of which is 30 ft (9.8 m)
long. Up to 36 stems can be supported by a monoline. As a consequence, a hectare of 35 units has
35000 stems, with around 1000 plants in each module (Juanich, 1988).
Methods for building a monoline:
• Use a hammer to drive fence posts towards the bottom, 1 m apart in lines and 10 m across rows.
• Tie nylon monolines parallel to one another at both ends of the posts, 20–25 cm (8–10 in) from
the bottom.
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TABLE 11.2
The Sort of Farming Approach and Its Demonstration are Critical to the Success of
Seaweed Farming and World Production of Seaweed
Country/Area Seaweed (Fresh Weight Million Tonnes) World Production (%)
China 4.093 59
Korea 0.771 11
Japan 0.737 10
Philippines 0.404 6
Far East counties (total) 6.263 90
Norway 0.185 2.6
Chile 0.182 2.6
USA 0.116 1.6
France 0.079 1.1
European countries 0.302 4.3
Total 6.941 100
Source: Forster and Radulovich, 2015; Algo Rhythme, No. 31, CEVA, Pluebian, France, 2022.
While most seaweed collection inside the UK is still done manually at low tide, other nations
gather wild seaweed using boats and gear such as rollers or fishing vessels (Juanich, 1988; Morrison
et al. 2019). This is significantly faster than hand gathering, but if done excessively, it can harm the
ecosystem by removing other seaweeds and altering sea animal habitats (Rahman, 2015). Seaweed
harvesters, on the other hand, have given this subject a lot of care and consideration, which is a
positive thing. In Norway, for instance, the rake approach only eliminates the top drifting canopy of
seaweed, enabling it to regrow throughout the next two years while inflicting minimum damage to
the seafloor (Flora, 2019).
11.6.3 Seaweed Cultivation and Coastal Communities

Seaweeds are often grown in lagoons, coastal waters, and bays. Seaweeds get their nutrients straight
from the ocean, thus it’s critical to have waves that sweep the area where the seaweeds are growing.
Seaweed, as a term, can also include marine aquatic plants or spinach (Rahman, 2015; Harb and
Chow, 2022) and is a term used to describe marine macrophages. Seaweed is a major world marine
asset that is utilized as a raw material in a variety of nations for diet and commerce (Choudhary,
2021). Seaweed is widely consumed in the East, particularly in Japan, China, and South Korea, and
its consumption is increasing in South America, Africa, and Europe (Bixler and Porse, 2011). It was
initially called brown algae (66%), red algae (33%), and green algae (1%) of food , describing three
types of seaweed. It is commonly utilized as a raw material in manufacturing, in addition to having
been used as a food for humans (Buschmann et al. 2017). It has been utilized as jelly in the dairy,
pharmaceutical, textile, and paper sectors across the world. Furthermore, seaweed is utilized in the
manufacturing of fertilizer, animal feed, and salt in the field. Because of the abundance of minerals
in seaweed, it is used as an alternative cuisine (Kim and Venkatesan, 2015).
The requirement for seaweeds to produce phycocolloids for diverse purposes in the food, medical,
textile, paper, and other sectors has steadily increased during the last fifty years (Periyasamy et al.
2018). Because of increased demand for previously established industrial seaweed areas, particularly
in the last 20 years, new stations are being researched and inquiries are being made in ‘various coun-
tries of the Eastern and Western continents’ (Rao et al. 2019). Cultivation of microalgae is a good
potential process for making sustainable energy hydrocarbon feedstock for biodiesel because: i) the
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chosen species of algae can generate about twice as much oil for every acre than soybeans, ii) the
cultivation of microalgae does not necessitate arable land, and iii) the cultivation of microalgae can
use minimal water sources that are not fit for drinking or irrigation. Several factors influence algae
development and consequently biomass productivity (Gatamaneni et al. 2018). Excessive light,
excessive oxygen levels, and inadequate temperature all have a detrimental effect on development
(Melis, 1999; Diab, 2018). The extent to which these elements have an influence varies dependent
on the particular algae species with some developing well at relatively low temperature and light
intensity (for example, Chlamydomonas nivalis), whereas others are adapted to greater irradiation
(for example, Chlorella sorokiniana). For algae production, numerous emitter types and layouts are
available (Zheng, 2020).
At Bamfield, a seaside community in British Columbia, Ontario, Louis Druehl sails his boat, the
Kelp Train, a mile along the rugged beach. For the last 51 years, this boat has taken Druehl to the
serendipitously named Kelp Bay, where threads of kelp that Druehl has meticulously gathered for
years hang in the chilly Pacific water at the bottom the surface of the ocean (Godin, 2020).
Because of the lack of fishes, Blue Ventures aided people of Belo-sur-Mer and the outlying areas
in locating a business activity apart from fishing that would enable people to live off the sea in a
responsible way (Gardner et al. 2017). The community chose red seaweed farming. Durable cloth, a
red kelp, is an important tactile ingredient in the food industry (Ventures, 2021).
11.7 MAJOR FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRODUCTION OF SEAWEED

Seaweed is the foundation of life in the ocean and provides most of the oxygen on Earth. Understanding
how seaweed survives and flourishes is critical for the protection of Earth’s ecosystems (Mouritesen,
2018). The phrase ‘seaweed’ refers to a broad category of non-vascular aquatic plants, sometimes
known as algae. Seaweed comes in a variety of colors and sizes, ranging from microscopic plants
to enormous plants with lengthy fronds (Ecology of Seaweed and Its Environmental Significance |
CCBER, n.d.).
11.7.1 Factors Affecting Production

The many environmental conditions are required for cultivating different species of seaweed
are variable (Kerrison et al. 2015). In general, seaweed production requires areas with sufficient
nutrients and light for growth and salinity and temperatures that are not limiting to the species being
cultivated (Campbell et al. 2019)
11.7.1.1 Nutrition
For sustainable growth, seaweeds require essential nutrients (C, N, P) in species-specific ratios
(Duarte 1992). According to study by Duarte (1992 found that the percentage tissue carbon (per unit
tissue dry weight) is 10%–50% with a median value of 25%; tissue nitrogen range is 0.2%–4.2%
with a median range of 0.6%–2.2%, and phosphorous from 0.1% to 0.5% with a median of 0.1%.
The ratios of these elements (C:N:P) are often used to infer nutrient limitation (Roleda and Hurd,
2019). All types of seaweed, like terrestrial plants, employ sunshine, carbon dioxide, and water to
produce nourishment. As a result, to thrive, seaweed must grow at the ocean’s surface, within reach
of sunlight, and there must be an excess of carbon dioxide in the water (Martinez, 2019).
11.7.1.2 Hydration
Seaweed, like all living things, requires water to survive. Seaweeds absorb water through the surface
of their leaf and stem-like structures since they lack the genuine leaves, stems, roots, and internal
vascular systems that most other plants employ to take in water (Jessica, 2019). As a result, seaweed
must always be partially or completely submerged (Gambrel, 2019).
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11.7.1.3 Limiting Factors
Nitrogen availability is a significant limiting element in seaweed growth, particularly for green
algae (Doty, 1973). The rising discharge of fertilizer-related nitrogen from farms and streams into
the oceans has produced favorable circumstances for algae growth, particularly during the summer
when temperatures are high and the days are long (Mouritsen, 2018).
11.7.1.4 Salinity
The scientific evidences shows that the density influences salinity. This can harm organisms such as
fish and kelp due to the volume of salt ions. Even during the evaporation process, salt is left in the
water, and the salt may reach the organisms and destroy them (Dawes et al. 1998). All the extra sea-
weed hovering on the water surface is algae that has been damaged by even more salt. This simply
helps the customer by providing them with more excellent meals.
11.7.1.5 Constraints
Pressure is a density-related quantity. Many sea species can be killed by this element because they
are unable to withstand the pressure of diving so deep into the water (Dawson, 2006). Many sharks
utilize this to sink a large number of fish in order to kill them before devouring them (Shaikh et al.
2019). This increases the shark population as a benefit and decreases the fish population as a disad-
vantage, but that’s how life works.
11.7.1.6 Temperature
Temperature is an important variable of density. This component, like pressure, eliminates
microorganisms when the temperature is lower (Buckow et al. 2009; National Geographic Society,
n.d.). Squids, for example, dwell extremely deep and there aren’t many species down there with
them as a benefit, but fish that can’t survive in very cold temperatures will die down and even
become feed, just as if the pressure isn’t right.
11.7.1.7 Light
Light, like that visible in the sun, is an efficiency component. The producers of the maritime biome
rely on sunlight to obtain nourishment (Townsend et al. 2011). Phytoplankton absorbs energy from
the sun through photosynthesis and subsequently feeds the rest of the marine biome (Halsey and
Jones, 2015). Light has the advantage of feeding the primary producer of the marine environment
(Riebesell, 2004). One downside of light is that if phytoplankton don’t really perform photosyn-
thesis, the entire marine ecosystem may suffer.
11.7.1.8 Tidal Forces
Tides are indeed a variable that changes with density. Tides are classified into two types: high and
low. Small creatures, such as fish, might become stranded during high tide, making it easier for fish-
erman or predators to catch them (Langdon, 2006). This would be detrimental to the fish species
while benefiting humans and the shark population. Low tides would benefit fish by allowing them
additional time to hide, but predators would be helped to identify them. (Limiting Factors, n.d.).
11.7.2 Monitoring Protocols for Seaweed Farming

With all the world’s population predicted to exceed 9 billion by 2050, macroalgae can provide an
alternate food source, feed, fuel, and income for an ever-growing population if farmed sustainably
(Hossain et al. 2021). They also have a vital ecological function in coastal ecosystems, such as
supporting the food chain, avoiding shoreline erosion, and extracting nutrients from the environ-
ment (Barbier et al. 2011). Worldwide kelp production has almost doubled in the last 10 years.
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The principal source of seaweed production in Europe is wild stock collection (Naylor et al. 2000).
Increasing human activity, on the other hand, is placing a strain on these communities, with econom-
ically valuable species and critical coastal habitats falling in abundance in certain areas. (Mineur
et al. 2015).
Several varieties of kelp, for instance, which are used for food, livestock feed, and compost, are
disappearing from the most southerly areas where they typically grow (Morrissey et al. 2001; Pereira
and Cotas, 2019). Aquaculture (growing) is becoming more popular in order to protect these wild
seaweed reserves and fulfill consumer needs for seaweed mass (Buck et al. 2017). However, there
may be environmental and ecological implications, such as various ecosystem dynamics caused by
the introduction of non-native species or altered species interactions (Van den Burg et al. 2021).
Overcoming technological, commercial, and regulatory barriers, such as scaling up production and
streamlining legal procedures, is also crucial to the sector’s growth (Karltorp, 2014; Karningsih
et al. 2021). Because it is a new industry in the EU, there is presently no system in place to oversee
the expansion of European seaweed aquaculture that takes all of these variables into consideration
(Barbier et al. 2020; Van den Burg et al. 2021).
11.8 GLOBAL SEAWEED CULTIVATION SCENARIOS: COUNTRY CASE

STUDIES
More than 300 years ago, China, Japan, the Philippines, Australia, Indonesia, and many other coun-
tries focused on the marine business (Ferdouse et al. 2018). Now, coastal fish and plants provide
15–16% of the protein ingested by the globe’s 4.3 billion people (Henchion et al. 2017). There are
many countries has started to cultivate the seaweeds commercially in developing nations but it is
very low in developing and least developed countries. Currently, in this chapter we discuss seaweed
cultivation scenarios in some developing countries with comparing other countries. Such as:
11.8.1 African Countries: Kenya and Senegal

11.8.1.1 Seaweeds Cultivation Scenarios in Kenya
Kenya has a US$ 2.4 billion portion in the Western Indian Marine sector. Coastal tourism accounts
for the majority of the revenue, amounting to around US$ 1.5 billion each year (Figure 11.5)
(Potgieter, 2018). In comparison to the country’s yearly GDP of around US$ 60 billion, this is
FIGURE 11.5 Approximate seaweed export values in Kenya from 2008 to 2020 and the company primarily
exports to the United States and Asia, where demand is increasing.
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FIGURE 11.6 Approximate seaweed export values in Senegal.
merely a 4% contribution to GDP. Kenya is in a profitable tuna region. Kenya’s wide 200,000
nautical mile Special Economic Zone is expected to have 150,000–300,000 metric tonnes of
fish (Kennedy, 2019). As part of the Kenyan government’s blue economy vision, more efforts
should be devoted toward encouraging investment development and management of offshore tuna
resources.
In Kenya’s coastal communities, such income diversification is critically required. Many of them
are the most impoverished in the country and depend on fishing for a living (Geheb and Binns,
1997). According to statistics from Kenya’s Central Bureau of Statistics, Kwale County, which is
situated just south of Mombasa, has a gap between the poor (which measures the depth and level of
poverty) of 41.8%, compared to a national average of 12.2% (County, 2014). The organization offers
raw seaweed and makes money by providing value to goods such as soaps, beverages, lunches, and
beauty (Mouritsen et al. 2013). Because of its high fiber and vitamin content, seaweed may also
double as a natural fertilizer and nutrient. Most of the company’s seaweed exports go to the United
States, where demand is growing. As an outcome of these activities, the living standards of the com-
munities have improved (Msuya, 2006).
Kenya Seaweed is expected to cost between US$ 0.40 and US$ 0.21 per kg or between US$ 0.18
and US$ 0.10 per lb. in 2022. The price per kilogram is KES 43.57 in Kenyan Shillings. In Mombasa
and Nairobi, the average price for a tonne is US$ 400 (Selina Wamucii, 2020). Farmers can currently
only manage the growing of between 100 and 200 ropes of seaweed. Only a few of them have been
able to reach the desired 300 ropes for optimum yield and earnings (Mirera et al. 2020). ‘This is
because farmers need a lot of personnel to raise 300 ropes of seaweed,’ Mirera explains, implying
that a bigger staff is required. Prices for a kilogram of dry seaweed range from US$0.22 to US$0.25,
implying that a farmer may profit approximately US$250 from a tonne of seaweed. Growing sea-
weed also has another significant advantage. It serves as a nursery for fish (Kamadi, 2020).
11.8.1.2 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Senegal

A survey of the literature, as well as specimens collected in December and February 1993–94, were
utilized to describe the shallow coastal algae vegetation of northern Senegal (Figure 11.6) (Harper
and Garbary, 1994). Northern Senegal now has 242 species categorized, 80 of which were identi-
fied in this research (16 Chlorophyta, 12 Phaeophyta and 52 Rhodophyta). This includes 29 previ-
ously unknown Senegal seaweed species as well as 8 completely undiscovered West African species
(Marquez et al. 2014). Senegal’s physiographic affinities are mostly with warm floras to the north,
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with a significant difference in species diversity between northern Senegal and locations towards
the south (Bianchi et al. 2012). The lack of tropical species is defined by the existence of huge
stretches of brackish water and mangrove ecosystems to the south, as well as southward-flowing
ocean currents (Harper and Garbary, 1997). Senegal exported 0.05 million US$ of seaweed in 2019,
a 36.71% reduction from the total seaweed export of 0.079 million US$ in 2018. The yearly change
in exchange rate of Senegal seaweed was -11.236% from 2017 and 2018. The yearly change in the
amount of Senegal’s seaweed trade was -43.33% between 2017 and 2019, comparing to a fluctuation
of -32% throughout 2018 and 2019 (Selina Wamucii, 2020b).
11.8.2 Asian Countries: China, Indonesia, Vietnam and Bangladesh

11.8.2.1 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in China
Laminaria is the most significant commercial seaweed in China. Laminaria fisheries on artificial
movable rafts started in 1952, and output steadily increased until 1980, when 252,907 tonnes of
dry sample was reported as the highest production (Yang et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2021). Laminaria
cultivation areas and total output have dropped in recent years because shellfish growth has evolved
so quickly that farmers have begun to prefer farming mussels over Laminaria (Troell et al. 2006).
The yearly production of Laminaria is approximately just over 200,000 tonnes. Undaria is farmed
in Qingdao and Dalian using the same raft technique as Laminaria and is commonly co-planted on
a same flowing raft (Limiting Factors (n.d.). Each year, just a few metric tonnes are produced. It
is being used to nourish abalones, but some is delivered to Japan. Porphyra is largely grown in the
provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Fujian in China. It is used in the manufacture of food and also
the distillation of agar. Gracilaria and Eucheuma are grown in Guangdong Province and are used for
phycocolloid separation (Feijiu, 2019).
Seafood is a major industry in this seaside Chinese city on the Yellow Sea, where seaweed is
the prize of each day. Outside of a small group of caterers, horticulturists, and pharmacists, few are
fascinated in the flora whose all-too-familiar pungent ‘rotten egg’ stink repels people on the beach
and surfers, and even less are conscious of its economic value (Figure 11.7). As per market research
company World Market Analytics, per capita seaweed demand in China is up to 2.5 kilograms annu-
ally, ranking it one of the world’s highest (Wijsman et al. 2019).
The appetite suppressor for the seaweed has propelled China to the forefront of a multibillion-
dollar business, backed by a boom in the world market as more health-conscious individuals include
seaweed in their meals (Behera and Varma, 2017). Seaweed’s versatility and contribution to a range
FIGURE 11.7 Seaweed exported from China in 2009–2020.

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of sectors are expected to increase future demands. Grand View Research estimates that the global
trading market for packaged algae was valued at US$ 10.31 billion in 2015 (Insights, 2021). China,
whose long-standing need for seaweed has nurtured superior scientific knowledge in its production
and marketing, has been following the trend of the algae industry’s positive prognosis (Klinkhamer
et al. 2020). Marine industries accounted for more than half of Qingdao’s GDP in 2016, the year
that the city entered the elite ‘trillion-yuan club,’ a growth of more than 220% from 2012 (Diab,
Wang, 2018).
11.8.2.2 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Indonesia

After China, Indonesia is the approximately world’s second largest producer of seaweed, accounting
for 38% of the worldwide seaweed market (Ferdouse et al. 2018). In Indonesia, seaweed cultiva-
tion is primarily concerned with the manufacturing of carrageenan. This by-product is extracted
from edible seaweeds and is commonly utilized as a natural gelling agent in the food and cosmetic
sectors. Contrary to the ever-increasing prospects and demand for seaweed, production in Indonesia
has been dropping over the last ten years. Rapid tourism expansion, the destruction of seaweed
wetland ecosystems, and pollution issues all pose threats to the national market (Vu et al. 2020).
To secure a steady income for seaweed growers, seaweed production must be restored (Seaweed/
Rikolto in Indonesia, 2021).
Nevertheless, seaweed production is not really a common source of income in Indonesia. Farmers
usually have difficulty drying their seaweed, particularly when it rains. Because seaweed condi-
tion (and price) is so closely linked to water content and the presence of contaminants, insufficient
drying equipment and methods can severely reduce seaweed grade (Langford and Waldron, 2020).
Furthermore, weather patterns influence seaweed development, and disease can destroy productivity.
Farmers are also struggling to maintain the growing power of their seaweed crops after a few harvests.
Even if farmers can produce high quality seaweed, they seldom receive a similarly high price. The
current crude seafood marketing system commonly combines higher and poorer grade seaweeds,
which are marketed at a range of average prices (Figure 11.8). This, in turn, diminishes incentives for
growers to produce the higher-quality seaweed sought by manufacturers. Despite these challenges,
the seaweed industry has immense promise (Langford et al. 2020). In 2019, Indonesia traded around
US$ 324.85 million in seaweed. This is the largest amount for Indonesia in recent years.
11.8.2.3 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Vietnam

Because of their nutritional and therapeutic value, Vietnamese edible marine macroalgae are of curi-
osity (Tanna and Mishra, 2018). Seaweed species have long been utilized as a dietary supplement
FIGURE 11.8 Seaweed exported scenarios from China in 2008–2020.

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and herbal remedies by Vietnamese coastal inhabitants. They ate seaweed uncooked as salads
and vegetable, fermented with vinegar, pickle or honey flavored jellies, and cooked for vegetable
soup (Hickling, 1971). Seaweed is often used as an herbal medication to cure coughs, asthma,
hemorrhoids, sores, goiters, gastrointestinal discomfort, urinary infections, and to reduce the
occurrence of tumors, ulcers, and headaches (Hu et al. 2021). Although Vietnam does have a wealth
of algal blossoms, the total number of species is expected to be close to 1000 spp. with 638 marine
algae species identified (Seaweed harvesting and cultivation | Scotland’s Marine Assessment, 2018).
However, there has been no comprehensive investigation into alterations in the chemistry of marine
algae. This study looked at fifteen edible seaweed species, including green, brown, and red algae
(Hong and Hien, 2004). Vietnam now has 10,000 ha of seaweed, with an annual production of much
more than 101,000 tonnes of natural seaweed. The majority of seaweed is grown around the north
Vietnam coastline (6,600 ha), the north central long coastline (2,000 acres of forest), and the south-
central south coast (2,000 ha). Sea grapes, a species of seaweed, has indeed been cultivated in central
province Khanh Hoa state since 2004 (Nguyen Van, 2014), and the plant’s native territory has
been expanded to generate enough for exports. Sea grape has been delivered to Japan and the EU
for 110,000 VND per unit of mass of fresh sea grape, but dried sea grape gets three times the cost of
fresh sea grape (Algaeworldnews, 2017).
11.8.2.4 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Bangladesh

The term ‘seaweed’ refers to the popular name for primarily microscopic and gregarious algal
species that lack roots, flowers, leaves, stalks, fruits, and seeds and grow and live by adhering to
stones or other hard sedimentary layer underneath a high point or drifting in the oceans (Ahmed
and Taparhudee, 2005; Towhidy and Alfasane, 2018).) Many seaweeds and plants are also said to
have medicinal properties. Taking all these considerations into account, the current approach has
been carefully crafted. Until now, fish and other sea creatures have been mostly exploited (Hossain
et al. 2019). Around 230,000 marine plant and animal species have been scientifically described all
around the world (Sun, 2019).
The majority of seaweeds are present in the tidal and interbreeding zones of Bangladesh’s
Sathkhira, Bagerhat, and Pathuakhali areas, as well as along the Teknaf and Cox’s Bazar coasts of
the Bay of Bengal (Rahman, 2013; Islam et al. 2018)). There are some areas where seaweeds can
be grown. In general, seaweeds, salad, and chattinis have been eaten in Cox’s Bazar, Rakhain, and
other tribal tribes in salty locations. Seaweed is referred as ‘Hijala’ in the local language (Islam et al.
2021). Although there was no information about commercially produced seaweed in the country,
locals in coastal areas assumed that the waste would be given to Myanmar dealers for a nominal
price (Hossain et al. 2020). It has a high international demand; thus export will make thousands of
crores every year. It will strengthen the country’s economy. The Seaweed Research Team found
84 seaweeds, 50 of which are marketed at high prices in various nations throughout the world
(Reporter, 2020). Due to increased demand in the local and worldwide markets, the coastal popu-
lation in Bangladesh is gradually adopting seaweed cultivation as a new source of income (Success
through Seaweed in Bangladesh, 2020).
Presently, minority groups in Cox’s Bazar and the Chattogram Hill Tract are the nation’s major
consumers of seaweed (Mamun, 2022). Bangladesh, according to scientists, experts, and farm
owners, might be amongst the world’s top seaweed growers in the future owing to inexpensive labor
and a wide coastal area with 480 km of shoreline and 25,000 square km of coastal land (Khan et al.
2016). Seaweed production is one of the fastest developments in the world’s aquaculture industries,
according to Food and the Food and Agricultural Organization, with a yearly output of around 33
billion metric tonnes, worth US$ 11.8 billion. In the following two years, this is likely to triple
(Mohamed et al. 2012; Mamun, 2022).
In search of a new revenue source, fishermen have begun cultivating seaweed in the developing
nations as well as Bangladesh. Growing seaweed is less difficult than fishing since the methods are
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smoother, the technology is less costly, and the seaweed varieties require no feed, grow fast, absorb
carbon, and are simple to collect (Alaswad et al. 2015).
11.8.3 Latin American Countries: Argentina, Mexico, and Venezuela

11.8.3.1 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Argentina
Subantarctic seaweeds grow in Argentina’s coldest regions, near the coasts of Patagonia and Tierra
del Fuego (Mystikou et al. 2016). Only in the southern provinces of Patagonia (Chubut and Santa
Cruz), along the parallel 42°S, where seaweed is collected commercially, have environmental
conditions and seaweed taxonomy been researched systematically (De Zaixsoa et al. 1998; Selina,
2020b). Gracilaria plants are picked by hand from stranded algae, whereas Macrocystis pyrifera
is typically harvested from boats (Castro et al. 2022). Private firms collect and trade in specified
areas, which are granted permission by provincial governments. Chubut, a province in Argentina’s
Patagonia noted for southern whale sightings, sheep breeding, and ubiquitous winds, is home to
the world’s first hamlet dedicated solely to collecting marine algae (Ciancia et al.2020). Top-
quality seaweed, located in Bustamante’s clear waters or on the beach, was traditionally picked by
algueros (seaweed harvesters), who were frequently ex-convicts just out of prison (Selina, 2020).
After being boiled and rinsed, the seaweed was sun-dried to help retain minerals such as vitamins
A and C, calcium, iron, and iodine. Bustamante had 400 employees at its peak in the 1960s and
1970s, sourcing 5,000 tonnes per year (Rebours et al. 2014). An astounding 220 lb. of fresh sea-
weed are required to generate just over two lb. of the sought-after agar (Moseley-Williams, 2014).
Algueros first collected algae species specific to the Argentine Sea, such as Ulva (also known as
sea lettuce), a bright green, edible kind; Gracilaria, which resembles a mane of auburn hair and
contains a large amount of agar; and kelp (Hayashi et al. 2014). However, the varietals gathered
have shifted over time. Japanese species such as nori and wakame, which arrived in Argentina on
the bottoms of foreign fishing boats, are now part of Argentina’s repertoire (Hayashi et al. 2014;
Croce et al. 2015).
Seaweed and its derivatives may be found in anything from Japanese rolls and stews to desserts
gelatin and chocolate pudding. La Proveedura, Bustamante’s lone restaurant, goes a step further,
incorporating raw ulva, nori, and wakame throughout all its cuisine (Perez et al. 2011; Kilinc et al
2013). The prices of seaweed in Argentina per tonne for the years 2016, 2017 and 2018 were US$
5,368.16, US$ 4,041.67 and US$ 3,947.37 respectively (Selina, 2020). The total values in export for
seaweed in Argentina were US$ 1,079,000, US$ 679,000 and US$ 675,000 for the years 2016, 2017
and 2018 respectively. Unfortunately, the seaweed exports from Argentina have declined remark-
ably between 2017 and 2019 (Selina Wamucii, 2020c).
11.8.3.2 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Mexico

The Mexican beaches feature a diverse marine macroalgae community, including numerous indi-
genous species (Aguilar-Rosas et al. 2013). The north Coastal region and the Mexican Caribbean
coastline have received the most interest in terms of seaweed research in Mexico, with less attention
dedicated to other places. The country’s utilization of seaweed supplies has primarily been focused
on artisan collection of wildlife species, primarily as polysaccharide removal, cleansers, natural
resources for livestock feed, and cosmetic items (Vázquez-Delfn et al. 2019). Most exploitation has
occurred around the Baja California peninsula’s beaches, with a concentration on a few varieties.
Harvesting has increased to around 11,500 moist tonnes annually (2013–2016) due to the proper
policies and government management rules in Mexico. Nevertheless, seaweed trade volume has
increased (5302 tonnes per year typically) in Mexico in recent years (2014–2016), outweighing
export volume (2156 tonnes per year on average). As a results, day by it is expanding seaweed
recultivation and many commercial companies are interested to cultivate the seaweeds (Iqbal, 2022).
Numerous initial studies on seaweed cultivation in Mexico imply that sustainable and responsible
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techniques might replace natural population harvests while also providing long-term homogeneous
production of high quality (Vázquez-Delfn et al. 2019).
11.8.3.3 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Venezuela

Because of the concerns and risks to the ecology and biodiversity, the introduction of exotic species
has become a contentious topic amongst environmentalists and aqua culturists. As a result, we have
implemented a responsible Seaweed Mariculture Program in Venezuela (Ask et al. 2003). There
is a scarcity of data on the detrimental effects of intentional seaweed invasions for aquaculture
reasons. Venezuela sold garbage and waste to Trinidad for US$ 99.82 thousands in 2013, as per the
United Nations COMTRADE (Common format for Transient Data Exchange for power systems)
statistics on international trade. Various clinker and debris (including seaweed ashes) shipments
from Venezuela to Barbados and Trinidad –data, historical graph, and stats –were last modified in
January 2022 (Trading Economics, 2022).
11.8.4 European Countries: Case Studies from Norway and Scotland

11.8.4.1 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Norway
Norway does have the capacity to develop seaweed harvesting into a new and massive industry.
Commercial production of macroalgae opens opportunities for the conversion of biofuel, which may
be used to make a number of goods and help Norway become much more prominent in food, meal
components, and biofuels (Shudakar et al. 2018). Norway has vast stretches of coastline that are
ideal for seaweed farming. Seaweeds are principal sources that may be cultivated without the need
for arable land, manure, clean water, pesticides, or medicines in the sea (Skjermo, 2020). Because
kelp aquaculture is a young sector in Norway and many other parts of Europe, there are numerous
obstacles to overcome before output can rise and become commercially sustainable (Araujo et al.
2021). Norway’s active cultivation locations are limited and confined to the southern and mid-coastal
regions; however, kelp farming has significant promise in northern Norway (Broch et al. 2019). As
a result, Nofima experts are currently working on creating long-term value from kelp production in
northern Norway (James et al. 2021).
11.8.4.2 Seaweed Cultivation Scenarios in Scotland

There is a significant seaweed supply, which is especially abundant in three geographic locations: west of
the Trobriand Islands, the Isle of Wight, and the northern coast of Orkney (Sanderson et al. 2008; Hiatt,
2016). The Outer Hebrides have the best commercial wild seaweed collection in Scotland, focusing on
egg or knotted wrack. The wild seaweed harvesting sector is mostly small-scale, with a wide range of
brown, red, and greenish macroalgae gathered (Al-Dulaimi et al. 2021). Seaweed is utilized all over the
world as a supply of nutrition, animal feed, and fertilizer, as well as in several sectors such as skincare,
cosmeceuticals, and medications (Polat et al. 2021). As the properties of various kinds and potential
applications in various goods are understood, there is substantial economic interest in Scotland’s sea-
weed potential. The Scottish Government is expanding its scientific basis, and in 2019 began an algal
review to collect evidence on the sustainable growth of current and future seaweed farming activities, as
well as to appropriate amount for larger business growth (Al-Dulaimi et al. 2021)
11.8.4.3 Prospects, Challenges and Limitations of Global Seaweed Cultivation

Many south-east Asian countries have advanced their seaweed production. However, it is still in its
early stages in many countries. People in developing countries are largely unaware of the benefits of
seaweed growing (Ahmed and Taparhudee, 2005). In general , seaweed culture in areas appropriate
for cultivation by familiarizing poor farmers with cost-effective technologies could open up a new
channel for the country’s seaweed business to flourish. The production of seaweeds utilizes natural
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materials such as bamboo and rope (Shomrat, 2021). The primary culture methods involve either
vegetative propagation utilizing pieces from mother plants or spore propagation using various types
of spores such as zoospores, monospores, tetraspores, and carpospores, amongst others (Msuya and
Hurtado, 2017). Adult plant fragments, juvenile plant fragments, and spores are sown onto ropes or
other substrata, and the plants grow to maturity in the sea. Seaweeds should be prioritized as part of
an integrated coastal and national development strategy. Seaweed polyculture in conjunction with
molluscs, shrimp, mud crabs, and fish appears to have promising potential for increasing harvest and
earnings (Ahmed and Taparhudee, 2005). As there is no culture-based production and no processing
is done, the limitations at this stage are not identifiable. In coastal areas, seaweeds used in shrimp
farming can help detoxify effluent water (Phang et al. 2015). Markets and marketing organizations
must be built near agriculture regions to maximize resource use and profit.
11.9 APPLICATION OF THE DPSIR MODEL FOR IDENTIFYING THE

CHALLENGES OF SEAWEED CULTIVATION
The proposed DPSIR framework for seaweed cultivation in many developing countries would make
it possible to overcome the many hurdles to producing seaweed. This model uses: Driver, Pressure,
State, Impact, and Response (Figure 11.9). Where, driver contains alternative food, bioenergy pro-
duction, Carbon sequestration, climate benefits of circular, nutrients management. Pressure mainly
portraits dumping, waste disposal, pesticides, change in ecosystem, emissions of chemical, loss of
species due to diversity, increased sedimentation, and destruction of coral reef. State contains degrad-
ation of water quality, utilization of coastal resources, greater abundance of fish, and higher diversity
of herbivores. Impact of this model implies water pollution, increased turbulence, coastal erosion,
loss of underwater species, health hazards, and acidification. Response in this model requires simple
farming, ensuring workers safety, marine resource management, application of modern technology,
arrangement of subsidies, provision of funding for workers, and the development of a cost-efficient
farming system, especially in developing nations.
FIGURE 11.9 Identifying the major Driving Forces, Pressure, State, Impact and Response and Challenges to
take the future policies and targets.
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11.10 CONCLUSION
The businesses of the seaweed sector in developing countries are currently thriving, however the
current status of output from local areas is falling significantly. However, numerous studies have
revealed that the resources to produce seaweed by residents along the coast, are vast. There are also
plenty of seaweed reserves in the intertidal and subtidal zones. Such tools offer a high potential for
advancing seaweed-based enterprises.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to all the anonymous authors and contributors whose articles
free domains, blogs and other sources for reviewing the literature, concepts and ideas to build the
scenarios of marine pollution and the challenges to developing sustainable blue economy. Also,
I would like to show my gratitude to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of
Bangladesh that have provided the funding support to the corresponding author of this chapter for
continuing his research on the global blue economy and seafood production and policies. Also,
I would like to show my gratitude to the Sumitomo Foundation in Japan who have provided the
funding support to the author of this chapter for continuing his research on the global blue economy
and seafood production techniques emanating from the Japanese tradition.
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12 Deep-Sea Mining and

Potential Risks, Opportunities,
and Challenges
Nezha Mejjad*1 and Marzia Rovere2
1
Faculty of Sciences Ben M’sik, University Hassan II Casablanca, Morocco
2
Institute of Marine Sciences, National Research Council, Bologna, Italy
*Corresponding author: Nezha Mejjad.
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
CONTENTS
12.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 341
12.2 Deep-Sea Mining: Problem Context................................................................................... 343
12.3 PESTLE and SWOT Analyses (Brief Overview)............................................................... 344
12.3.1 PESTLE Analysis Results.................................................................................... 345
12.3.1.1 Political Factors................................................................................... 345
12.3.1.2 Economic Factors................................................................................ 348
12.3.1.3 Social Factors....................................................................................... 348
12.3.1.4 Technological Factors.......................................................................... 349
12.3.1.5 Environmental Factors......................................................................... 352
12.3.2 SWOT Analysis Results....................................................................................... 353
12.4 Conclusions......................................................................................................................... 355
References....................................................................................................................................... 355
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Deep-sea mining or seabed mining in areas beyond national jurisdictions refers to the extraction of
three types of seafloor mineral deposits: polymetallic or manganese nodules (Mn nodules), polymet-
allic/hydrothermal/seafloor massive sulfides (SMS deposits) and ferromanganese/cobalt-rich crusts
(Figure 12.1). These deposits are supposed to compensate the depletion of terrestrial deposits of
high economic interest. Deep-sea mining is expected to become operational in the whole world’s
oceans within the next 25 years (Wedding et al. 2013; 2015). The commercially-viable deposits are
located on the international seabed, named ‘The Area’, while all operations related to these min-
eral deposits are regulated by the International Seabed Authority (ISA). The ISA was established
in 1994 under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the
1994 Agreement relating to implementing Part XI of the UNCLOS. As at March 2022, the ISA has
finalized initial 15-year contracts, nineteen of which are for the exploration of Mn nodules in the
Pacific Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCZ) and one in the Central Indian Basin (ISA, 2021).
Seven contracts entered into force to explore polymetallic sulfides in the South West Indian Ridge,
Central Indian Ridge and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and five contracts for cobalt-rich crust exploration
in the Western Pacific Ocean. Many contracts for exploring polymetallic nodules have been awarded
further temporal extension, exceeding five years from the original duration.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-12 341

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FIGURE 12.1 Deep-sea mineral deposits formation. (A) Polymetallic or manganese nodules (Mn nodules), (B) ferromanganese/cobalt-
rich crusts, and (C) polymetallic/hydrothermal/seafloor massive sulfides (SMS deposits).
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Deep-Sea Mining and Potential Risks 343
The growing demand for raw materials such as metals and Rare Earth Elements (REEs) used for
electronic devices, construction materials, and renewable energy technologies, together with the
growing depletion of these resources on land, have led to the exploration of the seafloor so that such
minerals remain available to industry. The path to responsible and sustainable sourcing of minerals
has highlighted the need to strengthen the governance of global mineral supply (Ali et al. 2017),
envisaging regulating frameworks, such as those implemented by the ISA, as a pre-requisite for
future operations in the deep sea. Therefore, to meet the unstoppable increase of mineral demand
and the rapid development of technology requiring such raw materials, the exploitation of seabed
minerals is seen as a possible alternative to land sources (Koschinsky et al. 2018). This is especially
true given that the production of electronic items and green technology relating to many important
areas such as energy, transport, digitalization and agriculture depend on metals like cobalt, copper,
lithium, platinum and REEs (Takaya et al. 2018; Herrington et al. 2021; IEA, 2021), which are
relatively abundant in marine mineral deposits. Furthermore, the comparative analysis showed a
substantially lower footprint when processing polymetallic nodules than land ores (Paulikas et al.
2020), although this remains highly questionable in terms of carbon footprint and pollution for an
actual scale production scenario (Heinrich et al. 2020).
However, deep-sea mining will have adverse impacts on the environment, different from land
mining impacts or even worse (Ramirez-Llodra et al. 2010). Several studies carried out to define
the impacts of deep-sea mining have reported a potential impact of deep-sea mining operations on
biodiversity and associated ecosystem services (Mejjad and Rovere 2021; Armstrong et al. 2012).
A lack of knowledge regarding deep-sea ecosystem functions and components (Danovaro et al.
2017) is among the major challenges and principles against the awarding of exploitation contracts in
the deep-sea, as the technology is not sufficiently developed to extract these minerals harmlessly and
sustainably (Ribeiro et al. 2018; Niner et al. 2018; Smith et al. 2020; Levin et al. 2020).
Furthermore, it is equally important to recognise that environmental conditions can also impact
the progress of exploration and exploitation activities in the deep seabed. Environmental conditions
such as seafloor topography, atmospheric and hydrographic conditions, and mineral characteristics
do influence the mining system design, performance, and operation. Thus, such data would help
better assess the overall deep-sea mining impact and allow for a more accurate design of the mining
system and reliable planning of the mining operations (Sharma, 2011).
This chapter analyses the main opportunities and challenges facing deep-sea mining. For this reason,
we applied a Political-P, Economic-E, Social-S, Technological-T, Legal-L, and Environmental-E
(PESTLE) analysis tool combined with SWOT analysis (the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,
and Threats) powered by an accurate literature review of available data and information related to
deep-sea mining.
12.2 DEEP-SEA MINING: PROBLEM CONTEXT

The development of technology and the global transition to a sustainable and green economy in
response to climatic change challenges has grown the demand for metals that serve as raw materials
for high technology. At the same time, the depletion of land mineral resources is driving the mining
sector towards new frontiers. Terrestrial-based mining industries have caused much damage to bio-
diversity, natural habitat, and the environment with toxic waste and polluting emissions (Farjana
et al. 2018; Agboola et al. 2020). Since the discovery of polymetallic nodules, deep-sea mineral
exploration has been conducted to investigate and value the associated resources (Petersen et al.
2016), mainly because the deep-sea industry has been sometimes considered less harmful to the
environment compared to land-based mining in a scenario of transition from fossil to non-fossil
energy resources (Cathles, 2014). The deep-sea is the vastest ecosystem on earth, and little know-
ledge is available regarding both its biodiversity (Danovaro et al. 2010) and its ecosystem as a
whole. Additionally, the lack of information concerning the extent of the deep-sea mineral resources,
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their composition, global distribution and effects of their extraction on the deep-sea ecosystem has
made the exploitation of deep-sea mineral resources uncertain in terms of cost and benefit analysis
(Beaulieu et al. 2017).
12.3 PESTLE AND SWOT ANALYSES (BRIEF OVERVIEW)

A PESTLE analysis is a framework to assess the key external factors and forces influencing a sector
of activity (Political-Economic-Sociological-Technological-Legal and Environmental). This ana-
lysis allows defining the ‘business environment’ and relevant factors and forces that could impact
a project (for example, the biofuels energy industry; Achinas et al. 2019). The PESTLE analysis
is often used in combination with the SWOT Analysis (Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and
Threats) because it enables the determination of internal parameters related to a project and its
organization into the different PESTLE categories. SWOT analysis has been widely used since
the 1960s as an important basis for business management (Porter, 1979). This approach is used
to evaluate internal (Weaknesses and Strengths) and external (Opportunities and Threats) factors
to identify and guide the present and future industry potential. Numerous studies have applied the
combined approach PESTLE/SWOT to identify external and internal factors that have an impact,
positive or negative, on a project (Vardopoulos et al. 2021; Mostafa et al. 2020; Christodoulou and
Cullinane, 2019; Koshesh and Jafari, 2019; Ahmadzai and McKinna, 2018; Islam et Mamun, 2017;
Srdjevic et al. 2012).
In the present study, we applied the combined SWOT/PESTLE analysis to identify the key
internal and external factors which may influence the deep-sea mining industry and define the main
opportunities and challenges that deep-sea mining could present.
The PESTLE framework analysis has been widely used for data collection and decision-making
while covering various business and related external issues. In the present chapter, PESTLE ana-
lysis is applied to provide data and produce information related to deep-sea mining and the oppor-
tunities and challenges of this industry sector. Every component of PESTLE are described below
(Figure 12.2):
• Political factors comprise decision-makers, stakeholders and government interventions in

economic issues. They also include geographical location, international relationships, and
corruption.
• Economic factors include the gross domestic product (GDP), economic stability, inflation
rate, exchange rate, and local and foreign investment.
• Social factors include demographic growth and increasing demand for new devices (for
example, electronic devices), which depend mainly on nickel, copper, REEs, silver, gold,
and others. Additionally, the demand for clean energy and the adaptation to a green economy
depends mainly on metals and minerals that could be mined from the deep sea and serve as
raw materials for new technologies (for example, tellurium, that is currently used as the main
conductivity element in solar panels; USGS, 2015).
• Technological factors are mainly related to the advancement and development of sustain-
able deep-sea technology, which is one of the main issues that hampers the commencement
of full commercial-scale exploitation of deep-sea minerals. Thus, we mainly focused on the
aspects of technology related to monitoring, control, and research facilities for exploring the
deep sea.
• Legal factors are related to laws and policies governing the deep-sea mining sector. In this
case, we will investigate the laws provided by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) that
have an impact on economic and social factors.
• Environmental factors are related to the environmental impacts of the exploitation activities
on the deep-sea ecosystem and blue economy.
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FIGURE 12.2 PESTLE analysis and SWOT analysis.
12.3.1 PESTLE Analysis Results

The global PESTLE analysis is shown in Figure 12.3, where the PESTLE analysis factors are divided
into sub-factors for deep-sea mining, highlighting the main opportunities and challenges this sector
is facing. These factors are also explained in detail in the following sections.
12.3.1.1 Political Factors
In response to the depletion of natural resources on land, referring in this case to metals and minerals,
the deep sea is seen as an alternative source for the supply of these resources that play an important
role as raw materials for the new and green technologies that are promising to meet human needs
and ensure economic growth in a climate change scenario. However, many stakeholders, including
environmentalists, governments, and NGOs, argue against developing this industry in the deep sea
as the environmental impacts are still largely unknown. Although the ISA has already granted thirty-
one contracts to twenty-two contractors, there are repeated calls from the scientific community for
a deep-sea mining regulatory framework to become more stringent in terms of environmental pro-
tection and mitigation strategies (for example, Van Dover et al. 2017), placing deep-sea mining at a
threshold of law, where the legal governance of the deep ocean space is considered to be an ongoing
project (Hannigan, 2016; Ali et al. 2017).
168 countries are Member States of the ISA, whose governance is organized by different bodies,
the most important of which are the Council and the Assembly. In these member states are organized
into regional groups following United Nations (U.N.) criteria. Members of the ISA have different
views on deep-seabed mining implementation, opportunities, and threats. Broadly speaking, several
countries have strong environmental concerns, especially those facing the eastern Pacific coast,
which will be potentially most seriously affected by the adverse effects and impacts of deep-seabed
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FIGURE 12.3 The results of the PESTLE and SWOT analysis applied to deep-sea mining are summarized
per subcategory.
mining in the CCZ. These states include Argentina, the Bahamas, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, the
Dominican Republic, Guyana, Jamaica, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago who collectively sub-
mitted a document in late 2021 (ISBA/26/C/47) concerning the letter sent by the Government of
Nauru on June 25 2021, through which it notified the Council that Nauru Ocean Resources Inc.
(NORI), a Nauruan entity, sponsored by Nauru, intended to apply for approval of a plan of work for
exploitation (www.isa.org.jm/news/nauru-requests-president-isa-council-complete-adoption-rules-
regulations-and-procedures). The document expressed concern about the crucial pending issues that
need to be discussed and agreed upon before any plan of work should be considered by the Council
of the ISA. These members of the Latin-American and Caribbean Group to the ISA agreed that
issues such as the establishment of regional environmental management plans, rules for inspection,
compliance and enforcement, and adoption of standards and guidelines relating to environmental
protection must be resolved in advance of the commencement of any exploitation activity in the
“Area”.
Indeed, the above-mentioned request made by Nauru triggered section 1, paragraph 15, of the
annex to the 1994 Agreement, which binds the ISA to complete the adoption of rules, regulations,
and procedures necessary to facilitate the approval of plans of work for exploitation in the area
within a two-years’ period. Pacific Small Island Developing States (PSIDS) have enthusiastically
adhered to the seabed mining prospects for polymetallic nodules since the mid-2010s. Many small
island states are now sponsoring exploration contracts in the CCZ, notably the Cook Islands (2016),
Kiribati (2015), Tonga (2012), and Nauru (2011). Nauru, in particular, a 12,000 population country,
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adopted the International Seabed Minerals Act in 2015, a national legislation that enables effective
control over the activities undertaken by their sponsored contractor, NORI. Nauru, in its letter,
citing the IPCC’s Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C (IPCC, 2018), claimed there is no
hope of combating climate change without an industrial revolution based on renewable energies.
Nauru complained about the impact of rising seas and salt-water intrusion, frequent droughts, and
land mining done by colonial powers making over 80% of the island uninhabitable. On this premise,
Nauru intended to promote the responsible collection of polymetallic nodules from the seafloor to
deliver a carbon-neutral future to the next generations. On the other hand, other small island states
have opposing visions on deep seabed mining. In particular, in June 2022 at the United Nations
Ocean Conference in Lisbon, the Government of Palau and Fiji joined the Deep Sea Conservation
Coalition and the World Wildlife Fund in officially launching the Alliance of Countries Supporting
a Deep-Sea Mining Moratorium. In July 2022 also the Federated States of Micronesia joined the
Alliance. The Asian States are one of the largest groups of investors, contractors and sponsoring
states (China, Republic of South Korea, Japan, Singapore, India), totaling 12 exploration contracts
over the three categories of deep seabed mineral resources. The Western European and Others
Group are the second-largest investor group, with France, Belgium, U.K. and Germany granting
sponsorship to national contractors. Overall, the WEOG have a balanced approach between indus-
trial development and marine environmental protection. In addition, several WEOGs belong to the
European Union. The E.U. Parliament, on June 9 2021, recalling its resolution of January 16 2018,
on international ocean governance, called on the Commission and the Member States to promote
a moratorium on deep-seabed mining until its effects on the marine environment, biodiversity and
human activities at sea have been researched in depth (European Parliament, 2021). Furthermore,
the European Parliament has emphasized the need for the Commission to cease funding for the
development of seabed mining technology in line with a circular economy based on minimizing,
reusing, and recycling minerals and metals and to work through the ISA to ensure transparency in
its working methods as well as the effective protection and preservation of the marine environment
from harmful effects. During 2021, at the IUCN (The International Union for the Conservation of
Nature) World Conservation Congress, over 81% of government and over 94% of civil society/NGO
membership approved a motion calling for a moratorium on deep-sea mining.
Civil society and NGOs are collectively against the initiation of deep seabed mining in areas
beyond national jurisdiction. For example, in a letter sent to the Secretary-General of the ISA, dated
November 9 2021 (http://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/20211109_DSCC-let
ter-re-NORI-EISEIA-1.pdf. Accessed November 22, 2021), the Deep Sea Conservation Coalition
expressed concern in respect of the NORI environmental impact assessment (EIA) and statement
(EIS) that are preliminary steps toward the request for a plan of work for exploitation in the area,
citing the absence of environmental baseline data in the study and a general lack of transparency in
the decision-making process.
Another important stakeholder is the Enterprise, an organisation of the ISA, which can carry
out activities in the area, pursuant to article 153, paragraph 2(a) of the UNCLOS, together with the
shipping, processing, and marketing of minerals recovered from the area. As it recalls the Special
Representative of the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority for the Enterprise
(ISBA/26/C/15), there is general support for the operationalization of the Enterprise, despite the
many challenges and issues behind it. The African group, reacting to Nauru’s letter (ISBA/26/C/
40), emphasized the need to operationalize the enterprise to fully implement the common heritage
of mankind principle in the area because the Enterprise is the only means of participation in activ-
ities in the area for most developing states. In the same document, the African group expressed their
concerns regarding the mechanism for equitably sharing benefits derived from seabed mining and
the financial regime that properly compensates humanity for its resources and land-based miners for
their losses and, therefore, the impact on terrestrial mining economies.
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12.3.1.2 Economic Factors
The growing consciousness about the depletion of land-based mineral resources and the economic
potential of deep-sea minerals such as manganese nodules and ferromanganese crusts (Rona, 2003;
SPC, 2013) increased the interest in exploring and exploiting deep-sea metals. Furthermore, the new
economies are highly dependent on metals such as copper, nickel, and REEs, meaning that mining
deep-sea minerals and metals appear like an attractive commercial opportunity. Nevertheless, the
main economic and environmental challenges facing this emerging industry are the high costs for
the initial investment in pilot mining tests, marine robotics and new technologies for the exploration
and sustainable collection of minerals (Rovere, 2018). Although uncertainties related to deep-sea
resource estimation and mining profitability prevail (Petersen et al. 2018), other studies (ISA, 2008a;
ISA, 2008b; Sharma, 2011; Hein et al. 2013; Cathles, 2014) highlight the economic viability of
deep-sea mining compared to terrestrial mining operations, especially in the processing of manga-
nese nodules, notwithstanding their high phosphorous content compared to terrestrial ores. Lehnen
et al. (2019) investigated the economic feasibility of deep-sea mining as an emerging industry that
could provide the E.U. with a new strategy for supplying raw materials of economic importance. In
particular, the study highlighted a positive economic assessment of SMS deposits due to their high
metal grades and the lack of overlying material. Similarly, manganese nodules exhibit high eco-
nomic potential, mainly due to the production and marketing of their concentrated metals (Mn, Ni,
Cu and Co) (Friedmann et al. 2017).
Numerous studies have analyzed and assessed the deep-sea mining economic value (Cameroun
et al. 1981; Folkersen et al. 2018; Volkmann et al. 2018; Volkmann et al. 2019; Dacey, 2020).
All the Authors agreed that deep-sea mining resources are important for providing rare metals
for technologies such as solar panels, wind turbines, and electric vehicle batteries. Therefore,
the deep sea can offer novel opportunities for industrial development, particularly for the green
economy. However, the limitations related to the knowledge gaps regarding the deep-sea eco-
system result in uncertainties about this industry’s economic value and feasibility (Mejjad and
Rovere, 2021).
12.3.1.3 Social Factors
World population growth leads to rising demand for resources, life quality, and enhancement of
living standards (Ali et al. 2017). Currently, access to raw materials is crucial for societal wealth
and human well-being (Blue mining, 2018). The current global improvement of living standards, in
terms of access to health care, education and social mobility, can be facilitated by the transition to
carbon-neutral energy and innovative and digital technologies that all require metals such as copper
and cobalt. Thus, in response to a human need for well-being and sustainable economic growth,
governmental agencies and private companies are investing in the exploration, research and devel-
opment of technology, and knowledge to explore, assess and mine deep-sea mineral resources (ISA,
2017; Blue nodule, 2019; JPI oceans, 2019).
Social factors also include cultural values. Advancement in education and scientific understanding
of the ocean ecosystem is essential for the sustainable use of deep-sea mineral resources for future
generations. According to the U.N. ocean science accounts for only between 0.04 and 4% of total
research and development funding worldwide (UNESCO, 2019). The United Nations Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) intends to push the world to come up with
a common agenda on how ocean science can help countries achieve the U.N. sustainable develop-
ment goals (https://sdgs.un.org/goals).
Deep-sea mining exploration opened opportunities for overcoming the gaps in deep-sea ocean
knowledge. For example, the Joint Programming Initiative, Healthy and Productive Seas and Oceans
(JPI Oceans), which was established in 2011 as an intergovernmental platform, open to all E.U.
Member States and Associated Countries who invest in marine and maritime research, supported
an action (2013–2022) to study the ecological aspects and risks of deep-sea mining through the
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realization of two projects (Mining Impact 1 and 2). During the development of the projects,
scientists from academia and contractors to the ISA (namely GSR of the Belgian DEME group and
BGR of the German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources) joined forces to inves-
tigate the impact of sediment plumes and dredge trails on the biodiversity of the CCZ.
Furthermore, deep-sea mining exploration and exploitation can also impact cultural traditions and
norms (Wakefield and Myers, 2016). These authors identified four main potential cultural changes: i)
concession of traditional land ownership, ii) modifications in societal norms, iii) changes in employ-
ment patterns and iv) loss of access to subsistence fisheries. On the other hand, they concluded
that deep-sea mining could improve the well-being of the host country's people. The revenue from
the exploitation of deep-sea minerals could contribute to developing countries’ infrastructures (for
example, roads, schools, and hospitals) and allow the creation of new jobs (SPC, 2013), which posi-
tively affects human well-being.
12.3.1.4 Technological Factors
The deep-sea is the largest ecosystem on earth; however, knowledge about this environment is still in
its early stages as the technology is not well advanced to allow a better understanding, and its study
requires a large financial capability and human resource capacity. Indeed deep-sea knowledge needs
remarkable investment, such as the construction of oceanic vessels and large ship-time availability,
remote monitoring vehicles and tools, and an extremely specialized workforce that not all states
can sponsor (Ribeiro et al. 2018). Nevertheless, the development of deep-sea and ultra-deep-sea
technology is well underway. Various techniques are being employed to explore deep-sea minerals,
including ship-based swath sonar bathymetric mapping, autonomous underwater vehicles, geo-
physical surveying, and remotely operated vehicles. Exploring deep-sea mineral resources involves
reconnaissance, mapping, sampling, and drilling (Figure 12.4). The exploration phase, its value
chain, and techniques have been described in detail by Ecorys (2014). As shown in Figure 12.4, the
equipment and techniques strongly depend on the type of mineral deposit.
12.3.1.4.1 Exploration Phase
12.3.1.4.1.1 Reconnaissance and Mapping A range of techniques is used to locate, assess, and map
the deep-seabed mineral deposits, including geochemical and geophysical surveys. These techniques
are all operated from vessels with oceanic capacity and equipped with dynamic positioning systems
FIGURE 12.4 Used equipment and techniques for deep-sea minerals exploration.
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to ensure reliable and efficient deployment and positioning of various geophysical and geochemical
devices and probes. These instruments and techniques include, but are not limited to: sonar technology
(single beam, multibeam, side scan), electromagnetic methods, water- chemistry sampling and
testing, possibly operated from Remotely-Operated Vehicles (ROVs) and Autonomous Underwater
Vehicles (AUVs) (Ecorys, 2014). Indeed, the advance in autonomous underwater technology,
comprising of improved autonomy, enhanced hovering capabilities, and novel geophysical and
geochemical sensing tools is believed to be crucial to more efficiently locating and mapping seabed
resources (Wynn et al. 2014).
12.3.1.4.1.2 Sampling
The available technology for sediment and nodule sampling includes freefall
devices. They have been used since the 1970s for sampling manganese nodules in the deep-sea and
consist of various devices, including box-corers, grabs, and dredges. These devices can be used
where the sea bottom is covered by sediment, which they reach by gravity falling from the ship’s
stern and are designed to collect sediment samples and nodules. They may be further equipped with
cameras and be cable-operated during the sampling operations (ISA, polymetallic nodules).
12.3.1.4.1.3 Drilling
The technique used for drilling includes drill rigs and ship-based drills but
is used only in the case of SMS deposits, which can be firmly attached to the rock substrate, may
consist of moderately hard deposits and usually are thicker compared to the nodules, which are large
pebbles lying on the deep-seabed.
12.3.1.4.2 Estimation and Assessment Phase

This phase consists of assessing the viability and economic feasibility of a potential mining project
based on several assumptions and evaluations, comprising technological and metallurgical, eco-
nomic, marketing, social, legal, governmental, and environmental factors. The data can be input
to a numerical 3D resource model, and its uncertainty is evaluated (Ecorys, 2014). Potential mod-
elling techniques include the 3D Geometallurgical Modelling technique for polymetallic sulfide
deposits and the 2D Multivariate Modelling technique for nodules and cobalt-rich crust deposits
(Ecorys, 2014).
12.3.1.4.2.1 Extraction Phase

Extraction of seabed mineral deposits is conceived in a similar fashion
to land mining: scrapping the mineral deposit from the surface or digging and tunnelling to an under
seabed deposit or drilling from the seabed. The extracted resource must always be shipped to shore
to be processed into a saleable final product.
Seabed collector systems are cable-operated robots that will detach deposits from the seabed
through pressurized or mechanical water drills. These operations face many challenges due to pos-
sible communication and mechanical failures, high-pressure conditions, and weather constraints.
Therefore, new deep-sea technologies are partially borrowed from more mature sectors operating in
the deep and ultra-deep sea, such as the offshore oil and gas industry and the dredging and ocean-
cable laying sectors.
The polymetallic nodule extraction is projected to be performed through remotely operated
collectors or harvesters that will plough, scrape, and vacuum the seafloor over vast areas (300 -
800 km² of deep-sea per mining process per year). The nodules will be transported on board the
mining vessel using a pipe string (riser), which might be several kilometers long due to the great
average depth of abyssal hills where nodules concentrate (4 -6,000 m) (Figure 12.5). The SMS
deposits will require a further mechanical removal from the substrate compared to nodules and
sophisticated mineral processing to extract valuable metals, while the recovery of ferromanganese
crusts is the most challenging from a technological point of view and the reliability of prototyped
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Deep-Sea Mining and Potential Risks
FIGURE 12.5 A schematic indicating the processes involved in mining in the deep-sea of the three types of ore deposits (representation not to scale).
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equipment in ~ 5,000 m water depths still is far from being tested in the field (Paul et al. 2018). In
summary, removing cemented crusts from hard substrates is technologically complex, very expen-
sive, and environmentally destructive (Hein et al. 2009).
Up to date, none of the designed and prototyped harvesting systems has reached industrial prac-
ticability. For this purpose, projects like the EU Horizon2020 research and innovation programme
Blue Nodules (Grant Agreement no. 688975) have attempted to develop and improve techniques
used for sustainably harvesting polymetallic nodules, to reduce the environmental impact while
maintaining and ensuring efficient production (Blue Nodules, 2020).
12.3.1.4.3 Legal Factors
Laws and policies that govern the sector of deep-sea mining beyond national jurisdiction are collect-
ively provided by the International Seabed Authority (ISA), which, through its many mandates, has
the overarching goal of administering the mineral resources of the seabed of the area as the common
heritage of humankind, as first proposed by the late Ambassador of Malta Arvid Pardo in his speech
to the U.N. General Assembly (UNGA, 1967). The ISA is responsible for the activities carried out
in the area to promote the economic and social advancement of all peoples in the world, with due
regard for the most vulnerable communities, such as developing and landlocked countries. At the
same time, the ISA must encourage marine scientific research, coordinate its dissemination, and
protect the marine environment and human life in the area. Therefore, the authority is at the core of
a sophisticated architecture entailing legal, political, economic, and social aspects.
Notably, Article 150 of the UNCLOS protects developing land-based producers from the possible
adverse effects on their economies resulting from a reduction in price or the volume of exports caused
by minerals extracted in the area. Furthermore, the 1994 Agreement, relating to the Implementation
of Part XI of the UNCLOS, provides that before the approval of the first plan of work for exploit-
ation, the authority must concentrate on the study of the potential impact of mineral production from
the area on the economies of developing land-based producers. The first study of such, published by
the ISA in 2020 (www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/impactstudy.pdf), concerns polymetallic nodules, the
most likely resource to be exploited in the area, which carry copper, nickel, cobalt and manganese.
The market position of polymetallic nodules and how much impact seabed minerals mining will
produce on land-based mining will depend on several factors, including the costs and viability of
their processing and the projected growth rate of metal consumption in the future years. At the same
time, a decrease in prices for one or more of the four affected metals would automatically reduce
the profitability of the market of polymetallic nodules. Therefore, it is difficult to strike a balance
between the economy of deep-seabed mining and its global market placement.
To give some figures, the ISA impact study gave a copper projection of annual growth of 1.8 -4%
due to several green-technology applications. Nickel consumption growth estimates range from 4
to 14 times increase by 2030 due to the high demand for the electrification of motor vehicles and
the production of high-capacity batteries. Cobalt, often a by-product of copper and nickel extrac-
tion, is linked to the lithium-ion batteries sector, which aims at a complete metal replacement in
the coming years; therefore, projections for global cobalt consumption growth vary significantly
from around 5% to 9%. Manganese consumption is highly dependent on the dynamics of the steel
industry, which, in turn, depends on the global economic situation as a whole and China in par-
ticular. Therefore, manganese consumption is expected to increase by 1 -3% per year.
12.3.1.5 Environmental Factors
Deep-sea mining of minerals is considered to be a possible mitigation factor for the climate crisis
that the world is experiencing. The global transition to clean and green energy implies a huge influx
of raw materials such as cobalt, copper and REEs used for batteries and generators. The land-
based resource depletion increased the interest in deep-sea minerals exploitation. In contrast, the
lack of knowledge about deep-sea ecology and the possible impact of mining operations on the
353
seabed environment encouraged some governments and non-governmental organizations to call for
delaying deep-sea mining activities until the environmental impacts are entirely understood (e.g.
European Parliament, 2021). Although the technology related to the environmental assessment and
monitoring of seabed mining has been largely developed, the lack of data in the deep sea (e.g. habitat
distribution, species identities, ecosystem function, and the like) made the prediction of the potential
impact of seabed mining on the environment and biodiversity of the area unachievable (SPC, 2013).
Several studies have been developed in the framework of international projects such as JPI
Oceans related to studying the environmental impacts and associated risks of mining the seabed.
These studies have reported the need for the development of strategies, standards, and regulations
associated with the environmental management of mining in the area and to ensure adequate pro-
tection of marine life (Amos and Roels, 1977; Boschen et al. 2013; Levin et al. 2016; Durden et al.
2017; Kaikkonen et al. 2018; Weaver and Billett, 2019; Tunnicliffe et al. 2020; Jaeckel et al. 2020;
Christiansen et al. 2020).
Furthermore, scientific studies on the biological effects of dredge trails left by exploration
carried out in the mid-1990s have shown adverse biological effects characterized by a significant
decrease of suspension-feeding populations in areas directly disturbed by polymetallic nodule
dredging. Seabed mining for nodules is, therefore, likely to cause a loss of the main ecosystem
functions (Simon-Lledó et al. 2019). Similarly, Vonnahme et al. (2020) showed that exploration
and dredging of the deep-sea floor had caused a reduction of microbial activity even after 26 years
had passed. They also found that the number of microbial cells was reduced by about 30% ~ 50%.
Significant negative alterations in the diversity and density of benthic communities were also
found in eleven areas of the nodule mining test simulation using meta-analysis techniques (Jones
et al. 2017).
The nature and timescale of the impacts of seabed mineral exploitation remain unclear and
depend on the type of resource, its related ecosystems, and the employed technology for mineral
recovery. According to current knowledge, the main impacts of the operations on the deep-sea floor,
which may harm biodiversity and ecology, are as follows (Figure 12.6):
• Seafloor disturbance: The scraping of the seafloor using mining equipment can cause habitat
alteration and fragmentation, leading to species loss and ecological function destruction or loss.
The machines used for harvesting nodules can wipe out entire species (Cuyvers et al. 2018).
• Sediment plumes: These are identified as the greatest ecological threat deep-sea mining poses
to marine life. It is not fully understood how far these plumes can disperse from the mined area
and to what extent they may influence species and the whole ecosystem or injure filter-feeding
species that depend on clean and clear waters to feed (for example, krill and some marine
mammals) (Cuyvers et al. 2018).
• Pollution: Vibration, noise, and light resulting from mining operations in the deep sea can
harm species such as tuna, whales and sharks if these operations scale up. Additionally, these
activities in the deep sea can lead to toxic products, fuel spills, and smothering of benthic com-
munities (Cuyvers et al. 2018).
Therefore, the impact review of deep-sea mining should consider the nature and the short and
long-term environmental consequences of the whole process on marine biodiversity and ecosystems.
12.3.2 SWOT Analysis Results

The purpose of applying a SWOT analysis system is to define deep-sea mining minerals' posi-
tive and negative aspects. This analysis describes and assesses external factors (S-strengths and
W-weaknesses) and internal factors (O-opportunities and T-threats). The SWOT analysis was used
for evaluating the factors connected with the deep-sea mining value chain of polymetallic nodules,
354
FIGURE 12.6 Potential impacts from deep-sea mining (adapted from Secretariat of the Pacific Community
(SPC, 2013)).
355
as presented in Abramowski and Balaz (2017). The results showed common strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats from resource, technological, economic, and environmental viewpoints.
As presented in Figure 12.3, we highlighted the main strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats. Deep-sea mining of ore deposits may present some strengths and many opportunities
for combating climate change and the natural resources depletion that the world is experiencing.
However, the analysis also underlines common weaknesses and threats at all levels, for all analyzed
factors and also during the whole process of the mining operations.
12.4 CONCLUSIONS
The deep-sea mining sector has attracted attention because of the discovery of deposits presenting
significant amounts of metals of economic interest, such as nickel, copper, cobalt, manganese and
rare earth elements. The transition toward clean energy and a low to zero-carbon economy increased
the demand for such metals, which serve as raw materials for renewable energy infrastructure and
green technology.
However, knowledge gaps about life in the deep sea and uncertainty regarding the methods and
techniques of deep-sea mining and their potential risks and impacts on marine ecosystems are the
main challenges facing the commercial activities of these minerals.
This chapter analyzed the main opportunities and challenges facing deep-sea mining. For this
reason, we used a Political-P, Economic-E, Social-S, Technological-T, Legal-L, and Environmental-
E (PESTLE) analysis tool combined with SWOT analysis (the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,
and Threats) powered by a literature review of available data and information related to deep-sea
mining.
Every pillar of the PESTLE analysis showed opportunities and threats/weaknesses, strengths and
threats/weaknesses indicating that this blue sector presents more challenges than opportunities. The
uncertainties around economic feasibility, technological constraints and the scientific data gaps of
the deep sea call us to focus on the challenges facing the growth of this emerging industry and to
prioritize the assessment of the nature and scale of the possible impacts on deep-sea ecosystem ser-
vices from seabed mining.
Future investigations and studies must consider combining all analyzed factors to provide a solid
basis for effective and informed decision-making.
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13 Modern Seafood Production

to Enhance the Blue Economy
A Proposed Sustainable Model for
Bangladesh
Md. Nazrul Islam,1* Sahanaj Tamanna,2 and
Khaled Mahamud Khan1
1*
University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh
2
Corresponding author: Md. Nazrul Islam. E-mail: nazrul_[email protected]
CONTENTS
13.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 362
13.2 The Global Demand for Seafood Production...................................................................... 363
13.2.1 Exporting Seafood to Enhance the National Economy........................................ 364
13.2.2 Frozen Fish Subsectors and the Blue Economy................................................... 364
13.2.3 Shrimp and Crab Subsectors................................................................................ 365
13.3 Global Seafood Harvesting Methods and Challenges........................................................366
13.3.1 Traps..................................................................................................................... 366
13.3.2 Bottom Culture and Seafood Cultivation............................................................. 366
13.3.3 Bottom Trawl and Seafood Harvesting................................................................ 367
13.3.4 Large Metal-Framed Baskets or Dredges............................................................. 368
13.3.5 The Suitability of Hook and Line Fishing............................................................ 369
13.4 The Challenges of Global Seafood Production................................................................... 370
13.4.1 Global Warming, Climate Changes and Seafood Harvesting............................... 370
13.4.2 Climate Change and Ocean Biological Productivity............................................ 370
13.4.3 Overfishing and Habitat Destruction.................................................................... 371
13.4.4 Coastal Development and Market Expansion....................................................... 371
13.4.5 International Framework for Ocean Governance................................................. 372
13.4.6 Seafood Marketing Policies and Business Techniques......................................... 372
13.5 Seafood Cultivation, Processing and Marketing Scenarios in Developing
Countries............................................................................................................................. 372
13.5.1 Case Study: Bangladesh....................................................................................... 372
13.5.2 The History of the Maritime Boundary of Bangladesh........................................ 375
13.5.3 Importance of Seafood Sector for Bangladesh..................................................... 375
13.5.4 Frozen fish subsector............................................................................................ 376
13.5.5 Shrimp Subsector.................................................................................................. 377
13.5.5.1 Production............................................................................................377
13.5.5.2 Export...................................................................................................377
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-13 361

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13.5.6 Challenges to Seafood Production in Bangladesh................................................ 377

13.6 Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD) Model Parameters....................................... 378
13.6.1 Definitions of Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD)
Model Parameters................................................................................................. 379
13.6.1.1 Sea Food...............................................................................................379
13.6.1.2 Food Security.......................................................................................379
13.6.2 Boundary Conditions and Model Assumptions.................................................... 379
13.6.3 Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD) Model Build-Up
and Explanation.................................................................................................... 380
13.6.3.1 Future Scenarios and Model Predictions.............................................382
13.6.3.2 Model Validation and Sensitivity Analysis.......................................... 382
13.7 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................385
References....................................................................................................................................... 385
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Seafood production is very important for now-a-days to meet the additional food demand of the
increasing population worldwide. The major kinds of seafood are shellfish like lobsters, mussels,
and crabs, and now and then other ocean animals that you can eat (Liu and Ralston, 2021). The
seafood shops serve plates of fish including mussels, crabs, and calamari (Hicks, 2016; Niiler,
2018). Particularly, in developed countries, seafood serving restaurants spend significant time
selling fish and shellfish but currently many small island countries are also serving seafood in many
restaurants (Szuwalski et al. 2020; Gómez and Maynou, 2021). The ingredients in the seafoods
soup are shrimp and crab (Nguyen et al. 2019; Adeli et al. 2021). It contains every hard fish and the
more crude sharks, skate, beam, sawfish, sturgeon, and lampreys; scavengers like lobsters, crabs,
shrimps, prawns, and crawfish; molluscs, including shellfish (Pauli, 2010), clams, cockles, mussels,
periwinkles, whelks, snails, abalones, scallops, and limpets; the cephalopod molluscs and so on
(Sornaraj, 2014; Venugopal and Gopakumar, 2017; Klarin et al. 2019) also, sea-growing plants,
generally green growth, utilizing or growing in fresh water, ocean water, harsh water and inland
saline water (Oranusi et al. 2018; FAO, 2020). The worldwide production of seafood has expanded
over recent years. Seafood accessible in the ocean in both farm raised and wild varieties of fisheries
and others food resources (Funge-Smith and Bennett, 2019). Fish like catfish, tilapia, and salmon
are regularly farm raised while swordfish, fish, and sharks are gathered from nature as a seafood
(Lin et al. 2016). Fish is the most significant food, after cereals, providing around 15% of the total
population’s protein. The fish has been compared to meat or poultry yet is a lot lower in calories
(West WQB, 1973; Mishra, 2020). In fish, one gram of protein is available for 4 to 10 calories,
as opposed to 10 -20 calories for each protein gram for lean meats and up to 30 for greasy meats
(Comerford and Pasin, 2016). In excess of 50% of all fish created for human consumption are farm
raised, and this number is simply expected to expand currently (Villicana et al. 2019).
By 2030, the World Bank assesses that almost 66% of fish will be farm raised. It is not just that
the total population has dramatically increased over this period, but that individuals currently eat
twice as much seafood as 50 years ago (Ritchie and Roser, 2021). So, the seafood is overexploited
to meet our needs. Because of the increased population and the increased amount of seafood con-
sumption it is needed to develop some innovative ideas to cultivate seafood rather than depending
on nature to make it sustainable (Venugopal and Sasidharan, 2021). One innovation has assisted
with mitigating a portion of the strain on wild fish catch: aquaculture, the act of cultivating seafood
and fish (Neori, 2008). The difference between cultivated fish and wild catch is like the distinction
between raising animals rather than hunting wild creatures (Ritchie and Roser, 2021). FAO
suggested that the percentage of wild fish catches has been almost stable in the last 50 years with
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Seafood Production and the Blue Economy 363
+14% +527%
Rise in global capture wild fisheries Rise in global aquaculture
production from 1990 to 2018 production from 1990 to 2018
FIGURE 13.1 The percentage of wild fish catches has been almost stable in the last 50 years with a rise of
just 14% whereas, the percentage of aquaculture has seen a massive expansion of 527% (approximately) within
the same period (FAO, 2020).
a rise of just 14% whereas, percentages coming from aquaculture has seen a massive expansion of
527% within the same period (FAO, 2020) (Figure 13.1).
American Samoa, Guam, Hawaii, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the other Pacific Islands
are surrounded by a diverse range of marine life that is essential to the stability of our culture and
economy (Cheer et al. 2018). We aim for sustainable seafood. It is the key to our health and well-
being (Kleisner et al. 2013). It also benefits from recreational and commercial fishing, bringing
nearly US$ 1 billion in revenue and approximately 10,000 jobs to the economy (Blamey and
Bolton, 2018; NOAA, 2022). The US fishing department or sector is a very powerful for gener-
ating blue economic and to contribute to GDP also. Nationally, it created jobs for almost more than
1.2 million people in 2017 and increased GDP by US$ 69.2 billion (Penn, 1983; Akinyoade, 2019).
Commercial harvesting, agriculture, processing and retail are also important factors for both the
local and national economies (Farmery et al. 2021). But ultimately, as consumers of fish and shell-
fish products, we and the retailers determine the future of fishery (Ziegler et al. 2013; Johansen
et al. 2019). The consumers need to make responsible purchase choices and retailers need to operate
with a responsible sustainable seafood portfolio (Roheim et al. 2018). The greater demand for sus-
tainable products and the diversity of supplies in stores and fish markets will support the transition
to more responsible and sustainable fishing and aquaculture (Haby et al. 1993; Vega et al. 2014).
The sustainable fish production supports the supply of sufficient fish to the growing world popula-
tion and secures the long-term livelihoods of millions of people in nations that are developing and
least developing. The processing of seafood involves the preparation of seafood for delivery to con-
sumers after harvesting. This includes tasks such as gutting, freezing, canning, and product pack-
aging (Willer et al. 2021). The sustainable seafood processing system helps to reduce food loss and
waste, reduces pressure on fishery resources, and promotes sustainable blue economy the country.
Processing often produces large amounts of by-products such as heads, bones, internal organs, and
shells (Islam and Peñarubia, 2021).
13.2 THE GLOBAL DEMAND FOR SEAFOOD PRODUCTION

For seafood exporters in Europe which is the significant market that provides promise. According
to recent data, it is seen that due to the spread of coronavirus, the European fish market and
imports from emerging nations fell marginally (Abbott et al. 2021). In general, interest in seafood
has remained stable all through 2020. With high demand for seafood, the southern part of Europe
presents the greatest chance for trading your seafood products (Figure 13.2) (Lin et al. 2016). Total
European seafood imports in 2020 was US$ 54.8 billion. Seafood imports have been on the rise
since around 2015, exceeding US$ 58 billion in 2018. In 2019, earnings were down 4% (Feher et al.
2021). However, this top-down pattern continued in 2020, with imports declining only 1% in 2020
(Seafood TIP, 2021). Imports from emerging countries reached US$ 14.4 billion in 2020. It also
peaked at US$ 16.6 billion in 2018, declining 6% in 2019 and 8% in 2020 (Seafood TIP, 2021).
Europe is the world’s second largest seafood importer. In 2020, Europe imported US$ 19.8 billion
from outside Europe, following the US with US$ 22.5 billion. Japan came in third with US$ 12.8
364
FIGURE 13.2 Scenarios of EU’s seafood export 2007–2020 (Seafood TIP, 2021); EUMOFA, based on
EUROSTAT (online data code: fish_ld_main) and national sources’ data. More details on the sources used can
be found in the methodological background.
billion (Moore et al. 2021). China imported US$ 12.7 billion. Imports from these top four seafood
markets declined from their 2018 highs, with the exception of China, where imports peaked in 2019
(Seafood TIP, 2021). In 2020, Europe was the largest importer, with US$ 14.4 billion in imports
from emerging nations. The United States imported US$ 13.1 billion (Tomascik, 1997). Japan and
China imported US$ 7.2 billion and US$ 6.2 billion, respectively. This indicates that Europe is the
most important market for fish from developing countries (Seafood TIP, 2021).
13.2.1 Exporting Seafood to Enhance the National Economy

If the ocean is healthy then it gives occupations and food, supports monetary development, controls
the environment, and provides prosperity for waterfront societies (Fleming et al. 2019). Globally,
billions of individuals particularly the world’s most unfortunate depend on sound seas for the provi-
sion of occupations and food, highlighting the pressing need to prudently utilize, oversee and safe-
guard this natural asset (Cisneros-Montemayor et al. 2019). If seafoods and other fisheries resources
(as a resource item for fishing families) provides food security (Francisco, 2018), then its provision
of livelihoods can also support food security (Howson, 1995; Francisco, 2018). As example, the
U.S. seafood fish industry is a strong financial driver in the world. Broadly, it upheld 1.2 million
positions of employment and added US$ 69.2 billion to the GDP in 2017 (Asusa, 2017). Businesses
collecting, cultivating, handling, and retailing are significant resources for nearby and provincial
economies. Likewise, in Bangladesh there are 162 fish handling plants in the country. Out of 162
plants European Commission has endorsed 74 plants (Honma and Hayami, 2009). The Hazard
Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) guidelines have effectively been adopted in fish hand-
ling organizations (Reilly and Käferstein, 1997). Significant adopting nations are European nations,
USA and Japan. Around 98% of complete fish items are sent out to those nations (Clarke, 2004). The
remaining are traded to the nations in Southeast Asia and the Middle East (Visbeck et al. 2014).
13.2.2 Frozen Fish Subsectors and the Blue Economy

The worldwide frozen fish market is enjoying significant development and is expecting to see
impressive development over the next couple of years as it is becoming popular among con-
sumers. (Nguyen et al. 2019; Adeli et al. 2021).The key factor contributing towards the develop-
ment of the frozen fish market is the increase in consumption of frozen oceanic items in domestic
365
households (Potts et al. 2016). The rise in consumption of frozen fish is because of specific
advantages like value, comfort, and taste. Frozen fish is less expensive than fresh fish (Lin et al.
2016; Le Manach et al. 2020; Blandon and Ishihara, 2021). As the pandemic happens, the offer
of frozen fish has declined because of the limitation of access of the general population to their
neighborhood markets and grocery stores (Hobbs, 2020). It became important for the providers
to handle the unsold supply of fish in the fridges so the fish stays firm and fresh till it is sold
(Harmsen and Traill, 1997). The European frozen fish market arrived at a value of US$ 22.4
billion at the end of 2020. Looking forward, IMARC Group anticipates that the market should
arrive at a value of US$ 27.8 billion by 2026 (Abila, 2003; Market, 2021). The value of frozen fish
items under HS0303 imported from non-industrial nations has expanded by 2% per year. These
items incorporate a wide scope of fish, sardines, anchovies, and other species. The overall imports
from agricultural nations is around US$ 900 million (Lin et al. 2016; Le Manach et al. 2020;
Blandon and Ishihara, 2021).
13.2.3 Shrimp and Crab Subsectors

In 2020, ready and canned shrimp accounted for around 18% of Europe’s net imports of warm water
shrimp, with an absolute worth of US$ 750 million from developing nations (Suresh et al. 2018).
This product group has grown in imports from developing countries by 2.5% per year (Lin et al.
2016; Fletcher, 2021). Worldwide shrimp imports declined imperceptibly in 2020 contrasted with
2019. Total imports from the best four business market sectors, the European Union, United States
of America, China and Japan, were 2.4% lower in 2020 from 2019 at 2.485 million tonnes, with an
80 -82% portion of the global shrimp exchange (FAO, 2020;Lin et al. 2016; Le Manach et al. 2020;
Blandon and Ishihara, 2021).
Worldwide shrimp production levels in 2021 are set to be a minimum of 8.9% higher than they were
in 2020, while an increase in value of 5% is suggested for 2022 painting an exceptionally positive
story for shrimp cultivating areas (Fletcher, 2021).
Shrimp is one of the biggest fish products, addressing around US$ 19 billion or 15% of the abso-
lute worth of globally exchanged fishery items 2012 (Bjørndal and Guillen, 2016). Fundamentally
created in shrimp growing districts, most shrimp is bound for global business sectors (FAO, 2020).
The production of Salmon, which has been developing throughout the last ten years because
of the extension of aquaculture creation in northern Europe and North and South America,
represented US$ 18 billion, a 14% portion of absolute worldwide exchange (FAO, 2020; Pilleron
et al. 2019).
Ground fish such as cod, hake, pollock, tilapia and pangasius represented US$ 13 billion in 2012,
accounting for 10% of international fish trade. Cod holds the position of being the most expensive
bottom fish (Nguyen et al. 2019; Green, 2011). An important source of cheaply traded fish, pangasius
entered the global market relatively recently and is mainly produced in Vietnam for the international
market. The main suppliers of tilapia are countries in Asia and Central America, mainly targeting
the US market. Production of tilapia is increasing in Asia, South America and Africa (FAO, 2020).
In 2012, tuna represented US$ 10 billion or 8% of total fish exports (FAO, 2020).
The tuna market has been volatile over the past 3 years due to fluctuations in catches, sustain-
ability matters and the introduction of environmental labels. Japan is a major importer of sashimi
grade tuna, and canned tuna is normally directed to the US, European and Asian markets.
Fish dinner (generally produced using little pelagic fish) represented US$ 4 billion or 3% of
the world fish exchange (Yao et al. 2019; FAO, 2020). Peru is the world’s biggest maker of fish
supper, having the biggest fishery delivering the highest yielding species on the planet, the Peruvian
anchoveta. The Peruvian fish supper commodity to China is probably the biggest exchange fish
and records for roughly US$ 500 billion per year (Abbott et al. 2021), serving generally to help the
Chinese aquaculture industry.
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Bottom
Culture
Traps Dredges
Seafood
Harvesting
Methods
Lift Long
Nets Lines
Hook
and
Line
FIGURE 13.3 Several methods of harvesting seafood in the world such as Traps, Bottom culture, Large
Metal-Framed Baskets or Dredges, hook and line fishing are some of the most used and popular methods of
seafood harvesting (Nguyen et al. 2019).
13.3 GLOBAL SEAFOOD HARVESTING METHODS AND CHALLENGES

General dredges have large iron teeth to dig the seabed to move the catch into a basket
(Cisnerosmontemayor et al. 2019). Hydraulic dredges shoot jets of water to disturb the seabed and
release their catch. Traditional fish catching techniques include: Ring Seine, Steak Net, China Mesh,
Cast Network, Seine River, Trammel Net, Mini Traws, Hook and Line, Trap and Pot (Gudmundsson
and Wessels, 2000; Gopal et al. 2017). The world’s collected seafood is captured using a variety of
fishing gear (Nguyen et al. 2019). Some types of equipment are known to be detrimental to marine
health because they are indiscriminate, indiscriminately killing species and damaging habitats (Misund
et al. 2002). Up to 10.3 million tonnes of marine animals are unintentionally caught by nets, lines, and
other equipment worldwide each year. Fishing is a devastating and wasteful practice that harms many
species, including endangered species such as seabirds, sharks, sea turtles, whales, and fish.
There are numerous methods of harvesting seafood (Figure 13.3). Some of the methods are
mentioned below along with their procedures and impact on the environment. Traps, Bottom cul-
ture, Large Metal-Framed Baskets or Dredges, hook and line fishing are some of the most used and
popular methods of seafood harvesting (Nguyen et al. 2019). These methods are used, based on the
area and the kind of oceanic patterns of each individual location.
13.3.1 Traps
The name of this method itself explains what it is. It is basically a method where fish are trapped
using different trapping systems using the flow of water (Figure 13.4).
A variety of materials using barriers, stakes, mesh, stakes, and the like are used to trap fish but
with mesh sizes that allow undersized fish to escape. These techniques are mainly used in the marine
intertidal zone or in waterways or streams (Nguyen et al. 2019; Le Manach et al. 2020; Blandon and
Ishihara, 2021).
As the tide determines the fish movement that’s why it is usually used in the intertidal zones to
get the best advantage of the fish movement in a particular direction. Salmon, eel, perch, whitebait
are some of the most harvested fish using this method of seafood harvesting.
13.3.2 Bottom Culture and Seafood Cultivation

‘Bottom’ indicates the sea floor. Thus, a bottom culture technique implies the seafood is cultivated
on the seafloor (Connie Lu, 2015; Le Manach et al. 2020; Blandon and Ishihara, 2021).
367
FIGURE 13.4 Popular seafood production methods TRAPS and its characteristics.
FIGURE 13.5 Traditional techniques of enclosed, bottom, and closed methods for seafood harvesting.
In other words, it is a strategy for aquaculture wherein bivalves (for example, clams or oysters) or
seaweeds are grown on the seabed. Bottom culturing is the closest technique for developing seafood
as it would grow in the wild (Figure 13.5). In spite of the fact that cultivated shellfish do not set on a
surface like their wild counterparts, and assuming that they are spread out on a base, they are similar
to their local cousins in that they are sifting the water and growing on the base that influences the
color of their shell (Connie Lu, 2015). Bottom culture is of two types. One is called enclosed bottom
culture and the other is known as open bottom culture.
In the enclosed bottom culture technique, living specimens are enclosed inside or underneath nets
or some other sorts of enclosure set on the ocean floor that can be controlled.
In the open bottom culture technique, the specimens are not enclosed in nets or underneath nets
or in any form of enclosure set on the ocean floor that can be controlled.
Every technique has its pros and cons. The primary advantage of bottom culture is the capacity to
create strong and generous shells (Le Manach et al. 2020; Blandon and Ishihara, 2021).
There are various theories for bottom culture for aquaculture and fisheries in the oceans. Some
consider that it is due to the fact that they retain minerals from the mud, whilst others consider that
it is due to the fact that they receive maximum wave activity during the periods of change of the tide
and during bad weather (Kaiser et al. 2011). In any case, the main disadvantage is that producers can
lose many products to the compelling force of nature (Connie Lu, 2015).
13.3.3 Bottom Trawl and Seafood Harvesting

The term of bottom trawl is a method of fishing that involves gathering and catching specific
organisms, like catching crabs through towing a net on the seabed (Martin et al. 2014). In this
harvesting method floats are joined to a head rope, with the top part of the net open, while weights
are appended to the footrope to hold the net down as it travels along the sea-floor (Office of Protected
Resources, 2021). Red hake, Dogfish, Crab and Shrimp are mainly harvested using this method.
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FIGURE 13.6 Bottom trawl and seafood harvesting techniques and its impact to the marine biodiversity
(Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), 2020).
a) Fish Trawls: A single net is towed at the back of the boat. Some trawl boats have ramps at the
stern of the boat to set up and transport nets, while others have separate boats (Figure 13.6)
(Dickison, 1973; AFMA, 2022). Fishing trawls have long metal cables called trawls that
connect the trawl gates to the net, allowing the gates to spread much wider than the full width
of the net. The fishers ‘swarm’ the fish until they are exhausted and fall back into the nets,
where they are finally caught (Kirmani et al. 2018). Trawl nets are equipped with reels or
rollers on ground equipment so that the nets can travel across the seabed without jamming
and so that contact with the bottom is minimized (AFMA, 2022). The size of the trawl net-
work varies. Nonetheless, there is a minimum limit to the grid size in the nets.
b) B) Shrimp Trawls: The shrimp trawl has two, three to four otter trawls, towed by outriggers.
The net has one large hole and larger species, such as sea turtles are guided to this hole so
that they can escape. Trawling shrimp nets use ground chains, so that they can penetrate the
seabed and encourage shrimps living on the sea floor into the mouth of the trawl (AFMA,
2022). The trawling mesh for shrimp has no long sweep, and the grid has a smaller mesh
than the fish trawl.
Like all other harvesting methods it also has some flaws (Yao et al. 2019). For instance, when we
use bottom trawls over a certain type of habitat, this technique can prompt the annihilation of actual
constructions like corals and wipes. The effect of trawls can be limited by adjusting nets (FAO,
2020). Numerous ocean turtle species rest, forage on the bottom, and are in danger of being caught
in bottom trawls (Office of Protected Resources, 2021). The seafood harvesting techniques bottom
trawling, a fishing training that hauls weighty nets along the ocean bottom to collect species like
shrimp and plaice, is a disastrous and indiscriminate type of fishing, the effects of which are very
detrimental to ocean marine conservation and biological systems (Victorero et al. 2018).
13.3.4 Large Metal-Framed Baskets or Dredges

The dredging is a fishing method that uses a dredge (Figure 13.7) which is a shovel shaped metal
frame for capturing bivalve molluscs such as, oysters, clams and scallops from the seabed, and
which is also used for collecting sea urchins (Elias et al. 2011). Previously, we used rakes and
tongs to collect large quantities of mussels and extend the collection work to deeper bodies of water
(Singh, 2021; Poisson et al. 2022). A dredge is a seafloor scraping or suction device used for digging
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FIGURE 13.7 Dredging is a fishing method that use dredge, which is a shovel shaped metal frame for
harvesting seafood.
(Singh, 2021). A dredger is a boat equipped with a dredge. The seafood harvesting tools excavators
are typically developed from heavy steel containers such as buckets (Stachowitsch, 2019). The brim
is covered with a chain-net with a front that can be pulled open by the chain. Early dredgers had
teeth on the bottom called tynes. They have large iron teeth that dig into the ocean floor to lift the
mud and sand-covered shells. Dredges are of three types. They are:
i) Hand dredges: which are small, lightweight, handheld, with metal contours or mouth
contours connected to a retaining sac consisting of a metal ring or net that is dragged across
the seafloor (Pokines and Higgs, 2022). They have teeth that are made of iron and large in
size that bite into the seafloor to get mud and sand-covered shells.
ii) Mechanical dredgers: which are devices specially designed to detect and clean the
organisms attached to the seabed. The harvester separates the organisms from the water by
limited filtration or pumping (Pokines and Higgs, 2022).
iii) Vessel towed dredges: which are mainly of two main types. One which is known for
scratching the outer layer of the bottom and other one that digs into the ocean floor to a
30 cm or more to collect specimens (Gaspar and Chícharo, 2007).
These methods of harvesting can cause huge damage to delicate natural surroundings and, as it is an
unselective type of collection that can have a large bycatch. Restricting the regions where dredges
are allowed and focusing on sandy, rather than hard bottoms can limit the harmful effects (Office of
Protected Resources, 2021).
13.3.5 The Suitability of Hook and Line Fishing

The seafood cultivation and production tools and techniques namely, hook and line fishing involves
placing a fishing line in water, normally with a baited hook, by hand or with a rod and reel or longline
(Gabriel et al. 2008; Aneesh Kumar, 2013). In large commercial and marine fisheries, it primarily
involves long line fishing. Long line fishing consists of long fishing lines (up to a few kilometers)
with various guy lines with baited hooks. Longline materials can be placed in the water or on the
seabed to target pelagic or demersal fish species (Poisson et al. 2022). Baited hook fishing is viewed
as being relevant to a greater number of animal types and is more size-specific than different sorts of
fishing, for example, fishing thus might catch less quantities of non-target species and undesirable
smaller fish (Swimmer et al. 2020) Furthermore, the survival rates of undesirable fish caught might
likewise be higher after having been caught by hook and line and this strategy for fishing might not
affect the seabed and fish territories (Taylor et al. 2021).
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13.4 THE CHALLENGES OF GLOBAL SEAFOOD PRODUCTION

Covering about 70% of Earth’s surface, the oceans have a strong relationship with the weather and
climate. Changing climate can affect the properties of the oceans (EPA, 2021). In this section of the
chapter, we are going to discuss the changes of oceanic properties over time due to climate change.
13.4.1 Global Warming, Climate Changes and Seafood Harvesting

When the greenhouse gases which cause global warming are being trapped within the ozone layer
then the layer absorbs more heat from the sun, making the earth, and its oceans, warmer (Heuzé et al.
2015). These changes in ocean temperature will make further changes to the major properties of
ocean resulting in damage to world climatic patterns (Wilson and Coles, 2005). The ocean chemistry
is being changed by the increased amount of dissolved carbon dioxide and this results in damage
the life of the organisms living in the ocean. Storms become more frequent and are stronger in the
tropical regions (Tabata, 1989). Ocean heat, sea levels rising, ocean acidity, and so forth, are some
of the major properties of the ocean that are being changed due to global warming (Figure 13.8).
The irreparable damage to marine life, presented by environmental change, are expanding
temperatures of water and sea fermentation. The sea absorbs the heat from the air and ozone harming
substances like carbon dioxide (CO2) (Khadka, 2020). Over the last decade, our seas have retained
90% of the extra warming because of the initial impact and one quarter of human CO2 output
(Khadka, 2020).
13.4.2 Climate Change and Ocean Biological Productivity

The marine ecosystem and its functioning depend on climatic conditions. When these conditions
are changed, it creates major changes in the ecosystem structure and function (Sattar et al. 2021).
The most noticeable effect is seen in primary production, sea temperature and species dispersion
(Singh, 2021).
More than two hundred million individuals from all over the world depend on the ocean for
proteins, yet in-spite of this the sector is flimsy (Heuzé et al. 2015). Aquaculture is progressively
filling the hole, and this might further develop water quality and decrease the overabundance
of nutrients which can cause destructive algal blooms (Islam et al. 2012; Kumar et al. 2021).
Nonetheless, as water turns out to be more acidic and as the warming water adjusts microscopic
fish development, hydroponics and mollusc creation are undermined. Risk assessment predicts that
FIGURE 13.8 Global warming, climate change and anthropogenic inputs and land based pollution in the
marine ecosystems and challenges of seafood harvesting.
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mollusc aquaculture will start to decrease around 2060, with certain nations affected significantly
sooner, especially developing and least developed countries (Riskas, 2020).
13.4.3 Overfishing and Habitat Destruction

In terms of defining overfishing it can be said that when we capture or harvest fish at a rate that
is greater than its ability to reproduce then as a result the total amount of that particular species
starts to decline (wikipedia, 2021b). As a development of worldwide fishing undertakings after the
1950s, serious methods of fishing began only from a couple of highlighted regions. Moreover, the
different methods of harvesting seafood around the world have created a significant destruction
of the seafloor and the physical-chemical properties of the ocean (Figure 13.9). This obliteration
changes the working of the environment and can modify species’ arrangement and conservation
permanently (wikipedia, 2021b).
13.4.4 Coastal Development and Market Expansion

In the name of the development of the coast is characterized as the human-initiated change in what
can be seen on the shoreline (Sattar et al. 2021). This incorporates building structures that are on
or close to the coast overall for assurance, trade, correspondence, or entertainment. These designs
support financial and social exercises that can contribute, with positive or adverse consequences, to
the seaside climate (Sevilla et al. 2019)
At the Conference on Environment and Development organized be the UN, it is clearly stated
in section 17 of ‘Agenda 21’ that seas, oceans, coasts, and marine assets should be appropriately
managed for generations to come. Which is reinforced recently in the recent SDGs proposed by
the UNDP (Sevilla et al. 2019). The coast is the boundary between landmass and sea that includes
around 4% of the earth’s overall land mass, which has given jobs to a large number of people for
millennia (Raghunathan et al. 2019).
Around the world, 2.5 billion individuals (40% of the total population) at present live within
100 km of the coast, adding increased strain to seaside biological systems (FAO, 2020). Beachfront
Under Overfishing
Exploited
Moderately 3%
Exploited
20%
Recovering
1% Fully
Depleted Exploited
7% 52%
Over
Exploited
17%
FIGURE 13.9 Sector-wise global overfishing scenarios and capture or harvest fish at a rate in which it cannot
cope up through reproducing and as a result the total amount of those particular species starts to decline
(Wikipedia, 2021b).
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improvements connected to human settlements, industry, hydroponics, or various structures can have
serious effects on biological systems that are close to the shore, especially coral reefs (Chauhan,
2019). Waterfront advancement effects might be immediate, for example, land filling, digging, and
coral and sand digging for development, or backhanded, like expanded spillover of silt and poisons
(Sridhar et al. 2019). Fishing is common among individuals living in the coastal regions and on
islands since there is a lot of water in their areas and the majority of what they eat is fish. It is simple
for them to get fish by fishing and some people sell fish to bring in cash so it is a significant occupa-
tion (Chauhan, 2019).
13.4.5 International Framework for Ocean Governance

Ocean governance is defined as the coordinated conduct of the approaches, acts and affairs regarding
the world’s oceans to protect the environment of the ocean, its sustainable use and the conservation
of coastal and marine resources as well as biodiversity (Haas et al. 2021). The course of ocean
governance ought to be coordinated on a level plane since it requires the support of administrative
foundations, the private area, NGOs, scholastics, researchers, and so on, just as in an upward dir-
ection across all of levels of administration inside an incorporated framework with proportional
cooperation and coordination.
However, it is complex. The ocean is not ‘owned’ by anyone or any one nation thus causing a
difficulty in ocean governance (Haas et al. 2021).
We can address three major risks from ocean governance:
• The effect of overfishing of marine assets

• Out of line marine environment administration
• Lacking or unseemly responses to changing ocean conditions
Successful ocean governance requires strong global agreements. To put it plainly, there is a require-
ment for some type of administration to keep up with the ocean and its different uses, ideally in a
manageable way. In the long term, various global settlements have been endorsed to control world-
wide ocean administration (wikipedia, 2021a).
13.4.6 Seafood Marketing Policies and Business Techniques

Fish customers are a little contrasted to people who purchase hamburger, pork and chicken (Yapanto
and Musa, 2018). Nonetheless, they are likewise a worthwhile group that spends more cash on
regular food items every week and are in this way worth seeking, as indicated by a new Food
Marketing Institute report (Aday and Aday, 2020). Fish is famous everywhere. With present day
transportation and refrigeration frameworks, individuals can appreciate fish that comes from any
place on the planet directly in their own localities (Grema et al. 2020). How could you showcase
fish to your clients? This shifts to some degree contingent upon your area and your chosen item
(Table 13.1).
13.5 SEAFOOD CULTIVATION, PROCESSING AND MARKETING SCENARIOS

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
13.5.1 Case Study: Bangladesh
Amongst all of the leading fish producing countries Bangladesh plays a major role. Besides,
Bangladesh has about 12,88,222 ponds which provide a total water area of about 1,46,890 hectares
(BFRSS 1986) and the average pond size is 0.011 hectares (Paul and Vogl, 2011; Ghose, 2014;
373
TABLE 13.1
Global Seafood Marketing Policies and Business Techniques
Marketing and Business Techniques

Pre-marketing Policies Marketing Policies Post-marketing Policies
Know your customers: Optimize with Search Engine Do not forget about local Check your emails daily and
Male/female, Optimization (SEO) to search. remind your customers of
local/foreign, increase chances. your service.
Find out your uniqueness that Engage in all kinds of social Always keep a good Analyze your marketing
makes you different from media to reach out to more relationship with your polices using the digital
others. people. existing customers. data.
How your product is Create interesting content. Sponsor different social Pay attention to which ad or
beneficial for their health. programs. promotion is working best
Make your own website Promote with ads Reach out to people with Modify the things that are not
and other social media campaigns. working for you
accounts.
Source: Flower, J (2020) 15 Tips For Marketing Your Seafood Business Online, Retrieved on August 8, 2022, Available
from https://oscwebdesign.biz/15-tips-for-marketing-your-seafood-business-online/; Bender and Fish, 2000;
Jacquet and Pauly, 2008.
Babu et al. 2020). Bangladesh is bounded by the Bay of Bengal on its southern limit. The coastline
of the country is about 480 km in length. The area of the sea that makes up the Bangladesh
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is estimated to be about 1,25,000 sq km (Hussain et al. 2017).
The area is vast, but the resources are limited and need proper exploration, exploitation, conser-
vation and management for sustainable yields, a huge marine fishery wealth is growing.
Traditionally, these inshore, coastal, and ocean waters have been the origin of fish (DoF, 2018).
The blue economy debate is a fairly recently developed issue in Bangladesh, beginning very
shortly after the maritime demarcation dispute between Myanmar and India (2014) was resolved
(Hussain et al. 2017).
Only after this agreement did the authority work with stakeholders in terms of taking steps
to introduce the blue economy, along with sustainability policies and plans. (Hasan et al. 2018).
The goal is to take advantage of undiscovered capability of the marine climate involving helpful
arrangements and advancements for expanding food security, mitigating destitution, further
developing sustenance and wellbeing, creating jobs, lifting exchange and modern techniques, and
so forth. (Hassan et al. 2014; Hossain et al. 2021). Marine-related issues such as expanding world
trade, utilizing resources of ocean mineral for long-term energy certainty, proper management of
marine fish resources, and protecting marine weathers and habitat are the future developments for
Bangladesh (Table 13.2). There is no doubt that it will determine economic growth. (Hussain et al.
2014; Babu et al. 2020).
The Bay of Bengal’s (BoB) fish inventories and other mineral assets can make a significant con-
tribution to the country’s economy (Department of Fisheries, 2018). We have to ensure that this is
administered by the standards of the policies of the seas, including biodiversity, biological capacity
and supporting ecological administrations (Mustafa and Halls, 2007;Ghose, 2014). Nations like
Bangladesh, which as of now have immature blue economies, are located in order to foster certain
areas (Hasan et al. 2020). For instance, fisheries and seaside hydroponics offer gigantic potential
for the arrangement of food and livelihoods, regarding biological boundaries, making maintainable
work and delivering high value species for the worldwide product markets (Figure 13.10) (Hussain
374
TABLE 13.2
Fisheries Sectors, Their Area and Production of Bangladesh
Fisheries Sectors, their Area and Production of Bangladesh

Inland open water (captured) Inland closed water (cultured) Marine fisheries
Sector Area (HA) Sector Area (HA) Sector Area (HA)
River and Estuary 853863 Pond 397775 Industrial 107236

Beels 114161 Seasonal Cultured 144217 Artisanal 552675
Floodplain 2675758 Baor 5671
Sundarbans 177700 Shrimp/Prawn 258553
Kaptai Lake 68800 Crab 9377
Production =1,235,709 MT Production =2,488,601 MT Production =659,911 MT
Total Fish Production =4,384,221 MT
Source: Islam et al. 2016; Shamsuzzaman et al. 2017; DoF, 2019; Hasan et al. 2021.
Capture, Culture and Marine Fisheries

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Marine Culture Capture
1983-84 2007-08 2018-19
FIGURE 13.10 Ratio of catch, aquaculture and sea fishing to total fish production in Bangladesh (after and
modified from FAO, 2018; Shamsuzzaman et al. 2020; Rashid and Sarkar, 2020).
et al. 2017; Parven et al. 2021). In any case, an essential methodology, upheld by an administration
structure is basic to fostering the blue economy. Fisheries and waterfront hydroponics improvement
could easily lead to an abuse of assets, such as damaging biodiversity and eventually loss of envir-
onmental capacity (Hassan et al. 2014; Babu et al. 2020).
The target of this survey article is to feature the significant chances of monetary areas connected
with the improvement of the oceanic economy in Bangladesh and addresses the limitations and
difficulties in accomplishing this objective (Islam et al. 2017). Two new decisions on the maritime
boundaries between Bangladesh and Myanmar and India have allowed Bangladesh to exercise sov-
ereignty over 118,813 km² of water, 12 nautical miles from the region’s seas (Mostofa et al. 2018).
A more exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 200 nautical miles to the sea and continental shelf,
extending from the Chittagong coast up to 354 nm (Mostofa et al. 2018). It is clearly a huge region
with business and financial interests along with ecological stakes (UNCTAD, 2014). Henceforth, it
warrants an appropriate assurance and security and this affirmation is a remarkable accomplishment
for Bangladesh (Babu et al. 2020).
For ensuring the earning sources from blue economy in Bangladesh, it is needed to expand the
awareness and build the programs for sustainable fish and shrimp aquaculture technology, protection
375
FIGURE 13.11 History of maritime boundary trajectory of Bangladesh and its characteristics for enhancing
the blue economy in Bangladesh.
and organization of all sorts of fisheries in the open ocean in northern Bay of Bengal. The fishery
sector was a coveted goal (Department of Fisheries, 2018).
13.5.2 The History of the Maritime Boundary of Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a uniquely inward shoreline. Its two chief stretches of coast meet nearly at right
angles. Bangladesh, in this way, risks having the outside location of its oceanic zones reduced by its
neighbors, India and Myanmar (Mitra and Zamman, 2015). The number one discussion on ocean
restrictions between Bangladesh and Myanmar were held in 1974, shortly after Bangladesh`s inde-
pendence (Bissinger, 2010).
In 1974, Bangladesh described a boundary from the Hariabhanga River with the enclosed west
area and the Naaf River with the enclosed easy area, for two hundred nautical miles, bringing the
whole internal area within its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (Figure 13.11) (Haque, 2016). This
was questioned by the India and Myanmar, who drew their own lines that incorporated an enor-
mous ocean region guaranteed by Bangladesh. After a wait of more than twenty years, talks at last
continued in November 2007 and proceeded all through 2008 (Haque et al. 2021).
In 2008, India and Bangladesh held much awaited sea limits conversations, which remained by
and by uncertain as the two players maintained their prior claims (Bissinger, 2010). The UNCLOS’s
proposition to apply the equidistance rule with the end goal of sea limit boundary is upheld by India,
yet dismissed by Bangladesh because of the size of the associated losses (Hoque, 2006). On 7 July
2014, the United Nations Permanent Court of Arbitration (UNPCA) conveyed a decision on this
long standing oceanic question of 43 years between Bangladesh and India (Rosen, 2014). In 2012,
the settlement of the oceanic limit delimitation question with Myanmar was likewise finished.
13.5.3 Importance of Seafood Sector for Bangladesh

As being one of more important agricultural products in Bangladesh, fish plays an important role
in the jobs and occupations of millions of people (Islam, 2011). Thus, the lifestyle and use of fish
has a significant impact on social income and food security. Bangladeshis often say, ‘Mache Bhate
Bangali’ or ‘Make Bengali with fish and rice’ (Department of Fisheries, 2018). The fishing sector
is an important part of the national economy as it has become home to a large fishing and aquacul-
ture sector. According to the FAO World State of Fishing and Aquaculture Report 2018, Bangladesh
is ranked 3rd in the creation of vast inland waters and 5th in the world in hydroponics development
(FAO, 2020). Bangladesh is currently the fourth largest tilapia-growing country in the world and the
third-largest tilapia-growing country in Asia (Islam, 2003). The State Hillsa fish (Tenualosa ilisha) is
the sole species and has the highest participation rate (12.15%) in terms of absolute fish production
in the country (Department of Fisheries, 2018).
The fisheries and livestock sector plays a vital role in the socio-economic development of
Bangladesh. This sector also has high potential from the perspective of economic development of
376
the country (Ghose, 2014). The contribution of the agricultural sector to gross domestic product
(GDP) is very important (Paul and Vogl, 2011). The fisheries and livestock sub-sector alone accounts
for 35 -40% of the total agricultural sector. This contribution is about 78% of total GDP, of which
about 3.57% is the fishing sector and 1.53% is the livestock sector (Azim et al. 2017; DoF, 2018).
Additionally, this sub-sector provides over 90% of animal protein. According to FAO of the United
Nations report, Bangladesh ranked third in inland open water capture production and fifth in inland
aquaculture production in the world (FAO, 2020). Already, Bangladesh has achieved self-sufficiency
in fish and meat production.
Following 51 years of autonomy, Bangladesh is emerging as an independent fish producer with
a target of 62.58 g per capita fish consumption of 60 g/day (Shikder, 2020). In the fiscal year 2017,
Bangladesh supplied a total of 4,277,000 tonnes of fish and aquaculture accounted for 56.25% of
total fish production (DoF, 2019). Aquaculture shows a solid and steady development, with a normal
development rate of just about 10% during the equivalent time span. The Government is attempting
to support this development, which ultimately guarantees to accomplish the projected target of pro-
ducing 4.55 million MT by 2020 -21 (Depattment of Fisheries, 2018).
13.5.4 Frozen fish subsector

In Bangladesh frozen seafood will acta as one of the important sub-divisions if the government and
policymakers have taken some sustainable measures to ensure the production of good quality sea-
food (Asaduzzaman, 2015). The frozen seafood products account for about 23% of the total exports
of agricultural and industrial complexes, and shrimp account for about 90% of the absolute exports
of frozen products, which account for 23% (Table 13.3) (Rahman, 2014; Robayet Ferdous and Syed,
2015).According to Bangladesh Frozen Fish Export Association, among frozen fish the following
items are exported all around the world.
In terms of exported seafood products, frozen fish has been playing a most important role in
Bangladesh as well as South Asian countries, however along with this fresh fish exporting is also
going hand to hand with it by sharing rapid popularity and with the help of advancements in tech-
nology (Suresh, 2016). As referenced, the complete worth of frozen fish trades in 2011 was over
US$ 80 million. For frozen fish, the main business sectors are the UK, Saudi Arabia, the US, and
to some degree, Italy and China (Rothuis et al. 2013; Shamsuzzaman et al. 2017). For new fish, the
main business sectors of seafood cultivation and production are India, China, Germany, and Oman.
The major seafood production sectors incorporate entire fish (40%), filets (5%), cuts (20%) and head
TABLE 13.3
Exported Frozen Fish Items from Bangladesh to Other Countries
Si No. Items
01 Frozen Shrimp and Prawn

02 Frozen Fish
03 Fresh and Chilled Fish
04 Frozen Fillets and Steaks of Fish, Sharks Shells Skates and Rays
05 Shark Fins and Fish Maws
06 Salted and dehydrated Fish
07 Dry Fish
08 Live Crabs and Tortoises
09 Fish meals and Crushed Fish
10 Value Added Shrimp and Fish Products
Source: DoF, 2019; Hasan et al. 2021.

377
and tailless filets (35%). This demonstrates that Bangladeshi frozen and fresh fish is at present pri-
marily heading towards the low-end of market (Van der Pijl and van Duijn, 2012).
13.5.5 Shrimp Subsector
13.5.5.1 Production
Though there are very little state policy obligates the land owners to culture shrimp themselves or
lease their land on a long-term basis, which forces the lease holders to undertake land development
work for improved farming in the coastal areas in Bangladesh (Rahman and Hossain, 2011; Saha,
2017). Shrimp development in Bangladesh has sped up rapidly following immense interest, since
the mid-1980s on the global market. Shrimp have been an important part of Bangladesh’s economy
(Didar-Ul Islam and Bhuiyan, 2016). This is due to great climatic conditions that are helpful for aqua-
culture, adequate water assets, modest work, and worldwide benefactor organizations. Countless
areas where there are shoreline domains have been included in shrimp development (Shahriar and
Dhrubo, 2019).
Cultivating shrimp in the seaside regions has become a popular aquaculture in regions like the
Asia-Pacific, offering more than 85% of the world’s developed shrimp, where Bangladesh is the fifth
greatest producer (Hossain et al. 2014; Shameem et al. 2015). After jute and the garment sector it
is the third remote exchange winning product. Nowadays, in Bangladesh shrimp is the second most
exported item in this sector.
Important shrimp producers are Bagerhat, Sathira, Pirojpur, Khulan, Cox’s Bazar and Chittagong.
Besides Bangladesh, countries like China, India, Pakistan, Japan, Vietnam, Germany, and the
Netherlands are involved in shrimp exports to the world market. India is the world’s largest exporter
of shrimp, accounting for about 25 percent of the world’s demand, and Ecuador is the second lar-
gest exporter at 21.1 percent (Hossain, 2021). As an Asian country, Vietnam exports 11.1 percent,
Indonesia 8.3 percent and Thailand about 4 percent. On the other hand, Bangladesh ranks 9th in the
world with 2.1 percent shrimp exports (Hossain, 2021). A lot of people directly or indirectly depend
on shrimp and their development (Shahriar and Dhrubo, 2019).
13.5.5.2 Export
Bangladeshi fish and fishery items are traded to over 50 nations counting the European Union
(EU) as a whole and other advanced countries like USA, Russia, Japan, China and so forth
(Baldwin and Lopez-Gonzalez, 2015). EU nations are significant merchants of fish exported
from this developing country. Among the most important fisheries items the marine and non-
marine fish are vital. Different types of shrimp play a most important role here (Department of
Fisheries, 2019).
13.5.6 Challenges to Seafood Production in Bangladesh

Seafood cultivation, production, processing and marketing will significantly profitable in Bangladesh
due to exclusive economic zones in Bay of Bengal and cheap labour forces. But due to the lack of
modern technology for cultivating and processing the seafood in Bangladesh this sector is facing
many challenges now-a-days. Figure 13.12 shows the bottlenecks mentioned that suggest that
the lack of raw materials along with a lack of skilled labor results in the inability to supply high
quality fish.
Coordination is especially crucial to every one of the formative issues connected with the blue
economy. A part of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs known as the Sea Affairs Unit would assume
an essential role for creating this harmony as quickly as time permits (Hossain et al. 2014;DoF,
2019). Whilst India, Myanmar and other financially balanced countries are taking monetary benefits
through the BE idea, at the same time Bangladesh is falling behind (Figure 13.13).
378
Lack of
Raw
Material
Low Lack of
Quality Bottlenecks Skilled
Fish Labor
Lack of
Supply
FIGURE 13.12 Some of the bottlenecks mentioned in the above figure that suggest that the lack of raw
materials along with lack of skilled labor result in the inability to supply high quality fish.
FIGURE 13.13 Major steps to be taken to enhance the blue economy in Bangladesh.
13.6 SEAFOOD FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SSD) MODEL

PARAMETERS
Bangladesh a great potential to cultivate and marketing the seafood considering the large number
of marine resources in Bay of Bengal. But lack of proper management and shortness of building
the social awareness still the seafood industry is not flourished at all. A suitable set of guidelines
and model could be the pathways to enhnace the seafood production in the country. For considering
these, in this chapter a Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD) Model has been proposed which
will build an awareness to the citizens, countrymen and policymakers for strengthening the seafood
production processes (Mulligan and Wainwright, 2004; Perrin et al. (2001). For developing a suit-
able model it is important to explain modeling approaches to build the process based model. In the
SSD model, the parameters are the challenges and prospects in production and marketing of seafood
in Bangladesh as well as the possible outcome if we can utilize the prospects and overcome the
challenges.
379
13.6.1 Definitions of Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD)

Model Parameters
13.6.1.1 Sea Food
The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) defined seafood on 28th January 1995 as follows, saying
that the term ‘seafood’ equals ‘fish’. Seafood tends to refer to animals (rather than plants such
as seaweed) which are considered edible (Oktariani et al. 2022). Mammals are also specifically
excluded because no aquatic mammals are processed or marketed commercially.
13.6.1.2 Food Security
According to FAO, Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic
access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for
an active and healthy life (Figure 13.14) (de Wit and Pebesma, 2001).
13.6.2 Boundary Conditions and Model Assumptions

A model is a combination of some assumptions which can be right or wrong. But it is important to
know which assumptions more appropriate and which ones are are wrong. Knocking out or giving
less priority to the invalid assumptions and working along the appropriate assumptions will result
in a very successful model (Galloul et al. 2020). Easy and understandable assumptions will deter-
mine how far your model will be accepted by others. The following figure explains very clearly
how model assumptions and complexities are interrelated with each other (Figure 13.15). The easy
equation between these two terms is that simple equals complex (Ahmad et al. 2017). If the model
is simple, then the assumptions must be complex and if it’s the model that is complex then the
assumptions must be simple. So, it can be said that they are vice-versa. Simple models are both cost
and time effective.
The first step in modeling is to set the boundary of the space in time so that the we can have a
clear idea of our data in terms of time and space. As these data are found after the settlement of
boundaries, they work to present a spatial domain (Mulligan and Wainwright, 2004). The proposed
boundary conditions and assumptions of the SSD model: of the SSD Model:
• Here food security only indicates production of protein type food or availability of food. The
accessibility and utilization of food cannot be ensured by this model.
• Two elements of sustainable development (environmental and economic) are considered. The
other element, social development is not included in the model.
FIGURE 13.14 Physical availability of food, economic and physical access to food, food utilization and
stability of the other three dimensions over time.
380
FIGURE 13.15 The selected parameters are the challenges and prospects in production and marketing of
Seafood in Bangladesh as well as the possible outcomes of Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD) Model.
FIGURE 13.16 Steps to Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD) model build-up, explanation, and
future prediction.
As the aim of this task is to develop a model to see the blue economy insights of seafood production
the primary parameters are the seafood production, its prospects, challenges, and the outcome,
as mentioned in the model name, sustainable development. To comply with the primary parameters
some other secondary parameters also come to light under four sub-sectors, namely, the economic
sub-sector, the social sub-sector, the development sub-sector and the environmental sub-sector
(Figure 13.16). Then the activities under each of these sub-sectors are pointed out in the model to
reach the goal.
13.6.3 Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD) Model Build-Up and Explanation

A conceptual model of the ‘Blue Economy Insight of Seafood Production Prospects and Challenges
in Bangladesh’ has been developed under the task. The model has been named as an SSD Model
where SSD stands for ‘Seafood for Sustainable Development’. The model has two primary
regimes: (i) Prospects for seafood production and (ii) Challenges of seafood production. Both the
regimes have three/four sub-sets listed sector wise (economic, social, development and environ-
mental). Some sub-sets have one or more outcomes and some further issues to handle. For example,
increased productivity under the economic sub-sector will lead to a market expansion primarily
(filled line arrow →) and foreign investment ultimately (when the market will be expanded). But this
expanded market may lead to over exploitation of seafood production thus threatening the ecosystem
381
FIGURE 13.17 Proposed Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD) Model.
sustainability (dashed line arrow --->). To address this issue further development of policy and
regulations will be required. Considering all the parameters analytically, as in the example, the
further possible effects of each of the parameters have been identified and sighposted in the model
(Figure 13.17). Then the final model has been developed showing the inter-relationships between
each of the parameters and their effects.
382
13.6.3.1 Future Scenarios and Model Predictions

It is expected that the model will help to enhanced seafood production options, which in turn will
create new livelihood opportunities for the coastal people. This in turn will attract investment and
strengthen the coastal economy. Further detail is discussed in Section 4.2.
13.6.3.2 Model Validation and Sensitivity Analysis

Once a model is developed, it needs to be validated. Sensitivity analysis is also necessary. The
boundary values and presumptions of any model are liable to change and mistakes. Awareness
examination (SA), comprehensively characterized, is the examination of these expected changes
and mistakes and their effects on outcomes to be drawn from the model. In principle, sensitivity ana-
lysis is a simple idea: change the model and observe its behavior. In this model, decision variables
(prospects and challenges) are variables over which the decision maker has control as almost all
the possible supporting variables have been considered, whereas the strategies (alluding to a set of
values for all the choice factors of a model) are also organized properly keeping in mind the goals
of the model.
Thus, it can be said that the strategies are optimal [an ideal technique is the system which is
best according to the perspective of the chief -it enhances the worth of the leader’s goal work (for
example benefit, social government assistance, anticipated utility, ecological outcome)]. For this
situation, the modelers know the target of the chiefs who will utilize the data produced by the model.
The modelers will want to frame abstract convictions (interior convictions, hunches or surmises)
about the exhibition of various methodologies according to the point of view of the chiefs. Yet, as the
modelers’ emotional convictions are affected by the model and furthermore by different variables;
these convictions might be near the objective truth.
13.6.3.2.1 What to Vary for the Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD) Model
One could decide to vary any or all of the following:
• productivity
• employment
• market development
• introduction of proper technology
• absence of implementation policy and regulations.
Normally, the methodology is to shift the value of a mathematical boundary through a few levels. In
different cases there is vulnerability around a situation with just two potential results; either a spe-
cific occurrence will happen, or it will not. Models include:
• Imagine a scenario where the public authority enacts to boycott a specific innovation for nat-
ural reasons
• Imagine a scenario where another info or fixing with exceptional properties opens up.
Regularly this kind of inquiry requires a few underlying changes to the model. When these
progressions are made, yield from the overhauled model can measure up to the first arrangement, or
the modified model can be utilized in an awareness examination of unsure boundaries to research
more extensive ramifications of the change.
13.6.3.2.2 Recommendation for Integrating the SSD Model with other Issues

in Bangladesh
Whichever things the modeler decides to shift, there are a wide range of parts of a model outcome
to which consideration may be paid:
383
i) Food security and market expansion might slow down

ii) Impact on sustainable livelihood
iii) Market expansion might not take place at a rate that was expected
iv) Impact on rate of production, storage, and marketing
v) Ecosystem threatened.
This model is a conceptual model developed during classwork and thus there was no scope to have
a real simulation of the model. Moreover, to develop the model and to consider some more complex
parameters related to the study site could only happen if there was scope to visit the relevant com-
munities and chalk out their livelihood activities. The final expected model output of this model is
sustainable development achieved through i) increased food security; ii) sustainable economy; and
iii) sustainable ecosystem. To achieve the output, the strategies need to be integrated with all pos-
sible stakeholders. It will require the involvement of the local community to build their awareness
of ecosystem sustainability and avoid over exploitation of seafood produce. It will need to involve
local and foreign investors and legislative authorities to enhance investments with a proper legisla-
tive guideline to avoid possible economic collapse.
As observed from the model, the variables or parameters of the model are broadly categorized
into two separate sections: prospects and challenges. Then the impacting parameters are organized
within four subsectors (Hossain, 2001). The model predicts that the economic prospect will lead to
food security and market expansion. This market expansion will lead to further domestic foreign
investment and then will have impact on social sub-sectors increasing employment opportunities.
On the other hand, with the increase in production, an expanded market development of physical
infrastructure will be inevitable.
Nevertheless, all these outcomes may lead to food security through increased seafood production
and increased livelihood options. But it will require public awareness to accept seafood over trad-
itional food supplies (E-Jahan et al. 2010).
On the other side, if we look at the challenges of seafood production, supply of the produce is
unpredictable. It is not at all aware about the total stock of the seafood within our territory (Crona
et al. 2020). It will require new technology to estimate the stock; improved industrial facilities to
capture adequate amounts of seafood, and cold storage to keep stock and to process seafood for
greater market value and increased profit. Once all these challenges can be addressed, it is expected
that the economy of the coastal community can be made sustainable.
Nevertheless, with an increased market, there will be competition among the people of a coastal
community to maximize their profit. This will lead to trade associations as well as a chaotic social
system in the end. Moreover, the profit maximizing drive of the people may increase the threat to
ecosystem sustainability.
To address all these issues policy and regulations will need to be developed and implemented
so that ecosystem sustainability can be restored (Figure 13.18). People living in the coastal area
of Bangladesh are at risk to natural calamities (cyclones) at present and with the changing climate
(increased frequency and intensity of cyclones) in future and thus need to build resilience (Saha,
2015). The model also has its focus on this issue under social challenges. With all these parameters
and strategies, the model predicts sustainable development as the final outcome through seafood
production achieved by:
• increased food security

• sustainable ecosystem
• sustainable economy.
The recent verdict over the dispute resolution on the maritime boundary by the International
Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) and Permanent Court of Arbitration increased the
384
FIGURE 13.18 The SSD model also has its focus on this issue under social challenges. With all these
parameters and strategies, the model predicts Sustainable Development as the final model out come through
seafood production achieved in the above figure.
horizon and hopes to develop its fisheries within the now undisputed area in future (Alam, 2021).
Bangladesh, in the meantime, has instituted several conservation and management measures
within the artisanal and industrial fisheries considering the welfare of the small-scale fishers,
comprising of gear, temporal and spatial restrictions as well as compensation during the closed
season (Mozumder et al. 2019). To explore enhanced economic return from ocean based natural
resource, fisheries could be a priority sector where multifaceted and confronting issues as well
as opportunities exist which are addressed for future times from its own resources and foreign
assistance.
Digital Marine Fisheries Resource Mapping (DMFRM) is a fundamental device for productive
and reasonable collection of marine assets. Notwithstanding, in all SAARC nations this is either
missing or not in a working condition (Rahman, 2013). Assuming a typical situation, a DMFRM can
be produced for the SAARC nations, which will be extremely helpful for every one of the nations
and simultaneously will gain the expected interest in this regard.
13.6.3.2.2.1 Managing trans-boundary fisheries resources

There are numerous trans-limit significant
fisheries assets that should be overseen on territorial premise. This might be done under the UN
settlement on the riding and exceptionally transient fish stocks, which give the two nations to
work under the sponsorship of the UN to oversee and preserve these fisheries for ideal advantage
(FAO, 2020).
13.6.3.2.2.2 Long-term information generation on ocean dynamics and climate change Sea elements
extraordinarily impact the conduct and life procedure of marine species and add to the environmental
change (Wells et al. 2015). Thus, a long term continuous review ought to be directed to produce data
on sea elements and changes in environmental factors.
term study on fish behavior and fishing technology

13.6.3.2.2.3 Long- Long haul study on fishing
conduct, location of producing, nursery and fishing grounds and fishing innovation to create new
climate amicable and asset agreeable collecting advances (Reddy et al. 2022).
13.6.3.2.2.4 Information sharing and database management Data sharing between the territorial bodies
and researchers is vital for feasible innovation and all data should be shared and overseen through
an online data set framework.
13.6.3.2.2.5 Skilled manpower development Marine areas in Bangladesh are amazingly short in
skilled labor supply and this deficiency should be satisfied through preparation, higher review and
new enlistments (Kabir, 2014).
385
13.7 CONCLUSION
In Bangladesh, marine catch addresses around 22% to 15% of total fish during 1983 to 2019.
Alongside floodplain fisheries the marine culture or seafood creation is additionally in danger of
increasing salinity and overfishing, overexploitation, water contamination and so forth. As per FAO,
universally, around a quarter of all fish stocks are overexploited and a big portion of them are com-
pletely taken advantage of (FAO, 2020). Scientists have shown that ineffective administration of
prawn and shrimp culture is e affecting the Sundarbans (the biggest mangrove forests on the planet)
where an expected 9700 ha of the backwoods mass has been lost because of extraordinary shrimp
cultivating. Changes of numerous regular wetlands to prawn farms has brought about hindrance
of water streams and furthermore diminished the extent of movement for some fish species. In
Bangladesh because of the absence of execution and authorization of the board measures, numerous
open doors in marine assets improvement stay undiscovered. In this context, the proposed Seafood
for Sustainable Development (SSD) Model could be a pathway to enhance the blue economy in
Bangladesh and other developing countries as well.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We have reviewed many books, articles, blogs, and websites, I would like to express my gratitude
to all the anonymous authors and contributors. I would like to show my gratitude to the Ministry
of Science and Technology, Government of Bangladesh that have provided the funding support
Research Allocation Project Year 2019–2020 to the first author of this chapter for continuing his
research on the global blue economy and seafood production and policies. Also, I would like to
thank the Faculty of Social Science, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka-1342, and University
Grants Commission (UGC) of Bangladesh for their financial support to continue my research on the
blue seafood cultivation and enhancing blue economy in Bangladesh.
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395
14 New Challenges for

Sustainable Plastic
Recycling in Japan
Jeongsoo Yu,1* Shiori Osanai,2 Kosuke Toshiki,3 Xiaoyue
Liu,4 Tadao Tanabe,5 Gaku Manago,6 Shuoyao Wang,7
Kevin Roy B. Serrona,8 Kazuaki Okubo,9 and Ryo Ikeda10
1
Tohoku University, Japan, [email protected]
2
3
University of Miyazaki, Japan, [email protected]u.ac.jp
4
5
Shibaura Institute of Technology, Japan, tanabet@shibaura-it.ac.jp
6
7
Shanghai SUS Environment Co. Ltd, China, [email protected]
8
Prince George’s County Government, USA. [email protected]
9
10
* Corresponding author: Jeongsoo Yu. Email: jeongsoo.yu.d7
@tohoku.ac.jp
CONTENTS
14.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 396
14.1.1 Marine Waste in Japan.......................................................................................... 396
14.1.2 Plastic Containers and Packaging Recycling Law in Japan................................. 397
14.2 Cooperative Behaviour for Collecting Containers and Packaging Waste........................... 397
14.2.1 Stakeholders’ Cooperative Behaviour in Recycling Plastic Containers
and Packaging....................................................................................................... 397
14.2.2 Challenges in Collecting Containers and Packaging Waste................................. 399
14.3 Discussion on Ocean Plastic Pollution............................................................................... 399
14.3.1 Background of Problems...................................................................................... 399
14.3.2 Policy and Regulatory Frameworks...................................................................... 400
14.3.3 Survey of Microplastics Found on the Coast of Miyazaki City, Japan................ 401
14.3.4 Sources of Marine Plastics................................................................................... 404
14.3.5 Policy Recommendations..................................................................................... 404
14.4 New Technology for the Sorting of Plastic......................................................................... 406
14.4.1 The Waste Plastic Sorting System in Japan.......................................................... 406
14.4.2 The Technology of THz Sorting........................................................................... 406
14.5 Potential of Education on SDGs......................................................................................... 408
14.5.1 SDGs Education Towards Solving Environmental Problems............................... 408
14.5.2 SDGs Education at Schools Stricken by the Great East Japan
Earthquake............................................................................................................408
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-14 395

newgenprepdf
396
14.5.3 Effects of the Industry-Academia Collaboration System..................................... 409

14.5.4 SDGs Education’s Role in Solving the Waste Problem........................................ 410
14.6 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................410
References....................................................................................................................................... 411
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the ocean plastic waste problem has become a worldwide concern, especially after
more and more people saw the picture that shows the straws stabbed into sea turtles’ noses or the
dead whales with a massive amount of plastic packaging in their stomachs.
The USA and Japan consume massive amounts of disposable plastic products every year, and
most of the waste plastic products are exported to China instead of being recycled domestically.
From January 2018, affected by China’s ban on waste plastic importation, the USA and Japan had
to learn how to deal with waste plastic products domestically.
During the G7 summit meeting held in Canada in 2018, participants adopted the ‘Blueprint for
Healthy Oceans, Seas and Resilient Communities that outlines commitments related to resilient
coasts and coastal communities’ to solve ocean plastic waste problems. Moreover, England, France,
Germany, Italy, Canada, and the EU also signed on the ‘Ocean Plastic Charter’ to further strengthen
plastic management. Meanwhile, it is noticeable that neither the USA nor Japan signed the charter.
On the other hand, most ocean plastic waste was generated from China and Southeast Asian
counties such as Indonesia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. Only with the advanced countries cooper-
ating with developing countries can the ocean plastic waste problem be solved on a global scale.
Moreover, since the microplastic waste problem has not been investigated thoroughly, the situation
has not been revealed yet. Although Japan has tried to solve these problems by charging consumers
for plastic bags and disposable containers, such issues cannot be solved completely by mere laws
or regulations.
This chapter will introduce residents’ waste discharging characteristics, their cooperation
behavior towards waste plastic recycling, issues related to ocean plastic waste, advanced waste
plastic selection technology, and the importance of environmental education. In fact, these are
essential in achieving effective plastic recycling, and the lack of any single element of these would
seriously damage its effectiveness.
14.1.1 Marine Waste in Japan

The Ministry of Environment has been researching the volume and type of marine waste on
beaches since FY 2010. According to its report, they had researched it at Awaji in the Fiscal
Year (FY) 2014 while Wakkanai, Nemuro, Hakodate, Yuza, and Goto were done in FY 2016.
The focus on the volume and proportion of artifact material was higher than natural material
except for Wakkanai and Hakodate. The types of artifact materials were different form place
to place, and plastic materials such as PET, Polystyrene foam, and fishing gear, were higher in
many regions. The weight and volume of waste artifact materials was higher at Nemuro, Shiriya,
Yuza, Hachijojima, Matsue, and Goto while natural materials were higher in Wakanai, Hakodate,
Awaji and Nichinan. As a result, artificial materials were not different in the region. However,
Polystyrene, vinyl bags, containers and packaging of foods and plastic fishing gear were higher
in many regions. Then the quantity of artifact waste materials accounted for more than 80% in
all regions. Moreover, plastics accounted for the largest number in the whole region. Used PET
bottles were the highest at 6 out of the 10 regions, and they were found to have foreign labels
(Japanese Ministry of the Environment, 2019a).
As for marine plastics, research conducted by the Ministry of the Environment showed an abun-
dance of distribution around the Japan sea. Especially, it tended to show higher density in the
397
Sustainable Plastic Recycling in Japan 397
Pacific Ocean and Japan ocean side of Tohoku, and around the pacific coast of Shikoku and Kyushu
(Japanese Ministry of the Environment, 2019b).
14.1.2 Plastic Containers and Packaging Recycling Law in Japan

Plastic products have contributed to solving many industrial problems and promoting social devel-
opment due to their high functionality. However, the mass consumption of plastic, especially dis-
posable plastic products, causes serious environmental issues. Approximately 9,400 tonnes of
plastic products will be discharged as waste in Japan annually, of which 4,260 tonnes were plastic
containers and packaging (Consumer Affairs Agency of Japan, 2020).
It is vital to recycle waste plastic containers and packaging to avoid pollution problems while
ensuring a stable resource supply in the future. As a resource-dependent country, Japan has various
recycling policies aimed at reduceing, as well as using the waste effectively. Before 1995, it was
entirely local municipalities’ responsibility to collect waste plastic containers and packaging in
Japan. In 1995, to further prompt the separate collection and recycling of waste plastic containers
and packaging (such as PET bottles, plastic, and paper packaging), the Japanese government
published the ‘Containers and Packaging Recycling Law’, which is also the first law mentioned
which promotes the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) principle in Japan, and requires plastic
products’ makers, consumers and also `retailers to take the responsibility in recycling.
14.2 COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOUR FOR COLLECTING CONTAINERS AND

PACKAGING WASTE
14.2.1 Stakeholders’ Cooperative Behaviour in Recycling Plastic Containers and
Packaging
According to Containers and Packaging Recycling Law, consumers should discharge each type of
waste plastic container and packaging separately according to their recycling identification marks
(as shown in Figure 14.1) and local municipalities’ rules. PET bottles are generally collected and
recycled separately from other plastic containers and packaging. Theoretically, consumers should
rinse PET bottles, remove the label and caps before discharging them. The municipalities will then
separate each type of bottle and remove foreign objects before regularly giving them to authorized
recyclers. The authorized recyclers will then recycle waste PET bottles.
Some retailers, such as supermarkets, also collect waste PET bottles, food trays, and egg packs
from their consumers for free by setting up collecting boxes based on the EPR principle (Figure 14.2).
The supermarkets will transport collected plastic wastes to authorized recycling corporations and
pay for the recycling fee. Some recycling companies are also doing partnership with supermarkets
by setting up waste PET collection machines at supermarkets. The PET collection machine will pro-
vide consumers one (1) point, which can be used in the supermarket, for every 5 waste bottles they
FIGURE 14.1 Recycling identification marks on plastic containers and packaging.

398
FIGURE 14.2 Waste collection boxes in supermarkets.
FIGURE 14.3 Roles of each stakeholder in the Containers and Packaging Recycling Law.
throw. The roles of each stakeholder in the Containers and Packaging Recycling Law are shown in
Figure 14.3.
Currently, 76.7% of municipalities in Japan collect waste plastic containers and packaging from
85.1% of the total population in Japan (Minister of the Environment of Japan, 2021).1 According
to a survey performed by the National Supermarket Association of Japan, 86.2% of supermarkets
collect food trays, and 60.6% of supermarkets collect PET bottles from their consumers (National
Supermarket Association of Japan, 2020). With the cooperation of each stakeholder, the generation
of waste plastic packaging was reduced by 17.6%, waste PET bottles reduced by 24.8% from 2014
to 2019. Furthermore, the waste PET bottles’ collection rate in Japan reached 85.8%, which is also
the highest globally (The Japan Containers and Packaging Recycling Association, 2021a).
399
FIGURE 14.4 PET bottles and food trays collected in supermarkets.
14.2.2 Challenges in Collecting Containers and Packaging Waste

The consumption of PET bottles keeps increasing fast, especially in the beverage production
industry, by over 10% each year (The Japan Containers and Packaging Recycling Association,
2021b). Influenced by COVID-19, people are discharging more used PET bottles and plastic pack-
aging as they change their lifestyle and spend more time at home. Consequently, municipalities are
taking a heavier economic burden to collect waste containers and packaging currently.
Also, the although waste PET bottles’ collection rate was high in Japan, most of the PET bottles
collected by municipalities were dirty and can only be thermally recycled or be exported abroad.
However, affected by increasing stringent waste import policies in China and other east north Asian
countries, Japan needs to consider recycling waste plastic containers and packaging with high effi-
ciency domestically in the future.
On the other hand, most of the waste plastic products collected by supermarkets can be recycled
as resources since they are comparatively clean and well separated (Figure 14.4).
In general, it is easier for a supermarket resource recycling station to collect recyclable materials
than the public collection system (Liu et al. 2021)). Therefore, to improve the recycling of waste
plastic products in Japan, stakeholders could consider a new cooperation system, under which
retailers (such as supermarkets) instead of the municipalities could take more responsibility.
14.3 DISCUSSION ON OCEAN PLASTIC POLLUTION

14.3.1 Background of Problems
Marine litter is a growing menace that is affecting economies on global and regional scales.
Globally, about 4.8 to 12.7 million tonnes of plastic find their way into oceans yearly, where Asia
is the major contributor at 80% (World Bank, 2021). Current production and consumption patterns
are leading causes of material pollution in marine environments. As waste infrastructures continue
to be overwhelmed by different discarded materials, natural environments are becoming inundated
with plastic waste, causing enormous harm to human and animal health. Countries in East Asia and
Southeast Asia have been at the receiving end of this occurrence, and it has not spared developed
and developing economies. Japan, a highly industrialized country with advanced waste management
technologies, has been battling marine litter, not from domestic origins but waste materials swept
onto its coastal shores from other countries.
400
Similarly, the Philippines is facing the same problem by virtue of its geographic location and the
challenges brought about by indiscriminate disposal of domestic waste coupled with limited waste
management infrastructures. Based on recent figures, Japan generates about 7.99 tonnes of plastic
waste and more than 143,000 tonnes of plastic litter annually, and it has 29,751 km of coastline.
On the other hand, the Philippines has an annual plastic generation rate of 2,566,766 tonnes and its
coastline is 36,289 km (World Population Review, 2021). The Philippines is the third-largest con-
tributor of plastic leakage at about 0.75 million tonnes every year.
Japan and the Philippines are countries which contrast in terms of geographical and economic
attributes but are equally faced with worsening marine plastic pollution. Tackling the problem,
therefore, requires international/regional collaboration and the introduction of circular economy
approaches where material production is closely linked to design, prolonged reusability, and recyc-
lability. Addressing marine litter, specifically plastic waste, is a regional problem requiring macro
planning but extensive research at the country level in terms of sources, types, occurrence, and
volume to identify sustainable solutions and pathways.
Plastics do not decompose into inorganic materials in nature. They are destroyed by wind, rain,
and ultraviolet light. However, they continue to exist as plastics, albeit in smaller pieces. If marine
organisms accidentally ingest plastics, they may suffer physical damage such as injury and suffo-
cation. In addition, plastics may contain additives to give them various properties such as flame-
retardancy and flexibility. Plastics can also absorb Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the
ocean. If marine organisms accidentally ingest plastics that contain these chemicals, they may suffer
chemical damage. Smaller marine organisms such as small fish and zooplankton mistakenly eat the
smaller pieces of plastic as food, and then larger predators eat them in the food chain, leading to bio-
accumulation of toxic substances in larger marine organisms. Of these plastics, those smaller than
5 mm in size are called microplastics (MPs). Since they are easily contacted by marine organisms,
they have been actively studied in recent years. Microscopic particles larger than 5 mm are called
mesoplastics, which will eventually become MPs, and their dynamics are also of interest. Of course,
plastics of larger sizes are also a problem. When they are scattered along the coast, they spoil the
scenery and are a great loss to the tourism industry.
Recent studies on marine plastic pollution point to the multifaceted nature of the problem. One
paper looked at the presence of MPs in marine sediments and in commercial fish in select coastal
areas in the Southern Philippines. Research confirmed that MPs are ingested by fish which are
then consumed by local residents (Bucol et al. 2019). Another study delved into the degradation of
wetlands and their biodiversity in the Philippines caused by indiscriminate disposal of solid waste.
The recommendation was to develop interventions that use indigenous materials built from local
knowledge and practices (Lecciones et al. 2021).
In Japan, some studies have been conducted on the dynamics of MPs in nearshore water (Isobe
et al. 2014), with results suggesting that the closer to shore, the more mesoplastics are present, and
the finer they are, the more they become MPs, and the more they spread offshore. Another study
has been conducted on the number of MPs in feeding fish in the seas around Japan (Ushijima et al.
2018). In this study, MPs larger than 100 µm were recorded in seven fish species collected from five
bays and Lake Biwa in Japan. A total of 197 fish were detected with these in the digestive tracts of
37.6 % of all fish species.
14.3.2 Policy and Regulatory Frameworks

Marine plastic pollution places a huge burden on national and local economies in terms of the deg-
radation of aquatic life, loss of biodiversity, and subsequent impacts on human health. It also drains
the budgets of local governments to remove waste plastic from marine environments and manage
them ecologically. In the case of Japan, a combination of strategies to address it, such as waste
separation, 3Rs, incineration, and final disposal are in place. Its strategy for solving marine litter
401
is elucidated in its National Action Plan for Marine Plastic Litter, where it focuses on preventing
illegal dumping and unintentional leakage of waste into the oceans, land-based collection, develop-
ment of alternative materials, local and international collaboration, the sharing of best practices, and
the promotion of scientific knowledge.
In the Philippines, some local governments either have limited or lacking in waste infrastructures
such as recycling and residual disposal facilities. Republic Act 9003 (R.A. 9003) or the Philippine
Ecological Solid Waste Management Act provides guidelines on solid waste avoidance and mini-
mization through reduce, reuse, recycling, and composting. It requires local government units to
provide the necessary infrastructure to collect, transport and process recycling and trash streams
in an ecological manner. Specific to marine litter, it developed the National Plan of Action for the
prevention, Reduction, and Management of Marine Litter where the main objective is to improve
current efforts to address marine litter issues and address leakage into water bodies.
14.3.3 Survey of Microplastics Found on the Coast of Miyazaki City, Japan

Miyazaki prefecture is in the southern part of Japan, a prosperous agricultural region. It is also
famous for its beaches and surfing spots, which attract many tourists. The climate is mild throughout
the year, with more hours of sunshine and more days of clear skies than any other area in Japan.
However, typhoons sometimes hit the area in September and October. Miyazaki City, the capital
of Miyazaki prefecture, is a core city with a population of approximately 400,000 and faces the
Pacific Ocean.
For years, MPs have been found to be drifting in the oceans all over the world. Some of them are
carried by waves and drift to the land, and MPs are carried by water currents to the coast of Miyazaki
City and can be collected. Those washed up on the sandy beach are particularly easy to collect.
However, they are not uniformly scattered on the beach. On closer look, MPs amass from the high
tide line to the supratidal zone where the pieces of wood and other debris are gathered. If the number
of MPs drifting on multiple beaches is compared, it is better to collect at the points where these MPs
are gathered (Ikegai et al. 2017).
In this survey, the number of MPs (1 -5 mm in size) on seven beaches in Miyazaki City, as shown
in Figure 14.5, was investigated. The collection process was carried out from mid-October to early
January. To collect MPs, we first defined a 30 cm square plot and sieved all the sand sediment up to
a depth of 7.5 cm through a 1 mm mesh sieve. Recently, coastal MPs have often been collected at a
FIGURE 14.5 Coasts in Miyazaki City where MPs were collected.

402
depth of 5 cm. The size of the plot is usually 30 -60 square cm. The larger the plot, the more MPs
can be collected, but higher labor is required to count them.
Sand and other particles smaller than 1 mm were removed. MPs smaller than 1 mm were similarly
removed. The remaining material in the 1 mm mesh sieve is then passed through a 6 mm mesh sieve
to remove large pieces of wood and other materials. Samples of 1 to 6 mm in size were collected
from five sites on each beach and brought back to the laboratory for analysis.
The sample contained many pieces of wood, pebbles, and shells. A visual examination showed
the MPs, and they were collected with tweezers. Then, to find other MPs, the remaining samples
were placed in water. In this way, pebbles and shells sank into the water, while MPs made of resin,
which is lighter than water, floated on the water, making them easier to find (if sodium iodide solu-
tion, which has higher specific gravity, is used instead of water, the MPs, which are heavier than
water, will also float, making them easier to find. If MPs smaller than 1 mm are to be collected, this
solution should be used). Then, the collected MPs were sieved again into 5 mm, 4 mm, 3 mm, 2 mm,
and 1 mm mesh sieves and divided into different sizes.
MPs can be divided into two types: primary plastics (primary MPs) and secondary plastics.
Primary MPs include pellets, which are raw materials for plastics, and microbeads, which are used
in cosmetics. Nylon fiber is also included in primary MPs. However, MPs smaller than 1 mm in
size were not included in this survey, so all primary MPs collected were pellets. Secondary plastics
are plastic products that have been scraped or broken into fragments. In this survey, Styrofoam and
plastic capsules for fertilizer were especially abundant. Plastic capsules are resin-coated fertilizer
ingredients. Fertilizer capsules are coated with a resin that slowly dissolves the fertilizer ingredients.
Therefore, the MPs collected in this survey were classified into four types: primary MPs, Styrofoam,
plastic capsule for fertilizer, and other secondary MPs.
Figure 14.6 shows the number of MPs for each coast, and Figure 14.7 shows the median number
of MPs for each coast and its breakdown by type. The abundance of MPs on the coast varies even
FIGURE 14.6 Distribution of various microplastics on the coast of Miyazaki City, Japan.
403
FIGURE 14.7 Median number of MPs for each coast and its breakdown by type.
between the high tidal line and the upper tidal zone. Some coasts have more MPs than others
depending on the types of MPs. Characteristically, plastic capsules for fertilizer are abundant in
A and G. The other types of MPs are abundant in D, E, and F. Overall, MPs are more abundant
in D and G, because D has more Styrofoam and G has more plastic capsules for fertilizer. Other
Secondary MPs are especially abundant in F.
Despite this, the number and composition of MPs on each coast are very different. This suggests
that they are influenced by inland areas, especially river basins.
Figure 14.8 shows histograms of the MPs collected in this survey according to the size of each
type. The size of primary MPs and plastic capsules for fertilizer is with some exceptions, mostly in
the range of 2 -4 mm, because they are all of this size when they are used. On the other hand, the
smaller size of Styrofoam and other secondary MPs, the more numerous they are. This is probably
because the number increases when one piece of plastic is broken. This implies that the number of
Styrofoam and other secondary MPs with a size of less than 1 mm would be very large.
Finally, what kinds of plastics are discharged into the ocean through rivers in Miyazaki City is
discussed. A regular check of the riverbeds of Miyazaki city shows that a variety of plastics are left
behind. This is the plastic left behind when rivers rise and recede due to heavy rains. Some of them
are shown in Figure 14.9 below. In the riverbed, it is difficult to find plastic resin materials and
plastic capsules, which are small in nature. However, it can be confirmed that many plastic products
are being washed down the river.
In Japan, it is rare to see littering on the street. However, some traces of plastic shopping bags,
lunch containers, cigarette filters, and the like, may be found. Another possible cause is the sep-
aration of plastics. In Japan, many cities (including Miyazaki City), towns, and villages separate
plastics for containers and packaging as a resource. Since these plastics are very light, they are often
blown away by the wind when they are left outside on a windy day. Outdoor trash boxes that contain
empty PET bottles are sometimes littered with their contents during typhoons. In agriculture, agri-
cultural materials are supposed to be kept indoors, in principle, and it is rare to see plastic bags of
fertilizer left outside. With careful investigation, there are many things that can be found as sources
of secondary MPs, and it appears to be a challenge to manage them. On the other hand, plastic
capsules for fertilizer are spread on the farmland, particularly on paddy fields and whose residual
materials drain into rivers and oceans through irrigation channels. Now that marine plastic pollution
has become an issue, alternative methods such as the use of biodegradable and compostable plastics
are gaining popularity.
404
FIGURE 14.8 Size of various microplastics on the coast of Miyazaki city, Japan.
14.3.4 Sources of Marine Plastics

Plastics found in marine environments originate from both land and sea-based sources. Some eco-
nomic activities such as fishing, agriculture, maritime transport, industrial processes, tourism,
and household consumption are triggers for the increase of marine litter (Newman S. et al. 2015).
Managing municipal waste in the Philippines is a challenge for local government units (LGUs)
because of its complexity and the huge resources (logistics and finance) needed to address it. For
example, some LGUs lack or do not have enough resources to have a consistent waste collection
system in communities and the ability to establish engineered disposal facilities. In addition, some
recycling centers called Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) are lacking in equipment and systems
to process recyclable materials. Thus, leakage into streets and water channels is inevitable due
to these challenges. The National Solid Waste Management Commission (NSWMC), the agency
tasked to oversee the implementation of R.A. 9003 has issued some guidelines on having a cluster
approach to managing a landfill by having multiple LGUs co-locating such facilities to save on costs
and resources.
14.3.5 Policy Recommendations
Plastics that have been miniaturized in the ocean can no longer be removed. This is because it is
practically impossible. Therefore, we have no choice but to focus on stopping them at the source so
that plastics do not increase any further in the ocean. Tackling marine plastic pollution requires a
405
FIGURE 14.9 Plastic litter washed up on a riverbed in Miyazaki city.
mix of policy and regulatory interventions. International and regional initiatives on addressing the
proliferation of plastic waste in water bodies exist. Japan, for example, is supporting the ASEAN+
3 Marine Plastic Debris Cooperative Action Initiative, which aims to assist member countries in
constructing waste treatment facilities as well as to build local capacities for marine litter manage-
ment and monitoring. The Philippines, on the other hand, is involved in the Glolitter Partnership
Project, which is being backed by the United Nations to tackle marine litter, clean up the oceans
and encourage industries to limit the use of plastics. As the global momentum continues to build on
suppressing plastic waste, some policies could be introduced/reiterated:
1. Incentive mechanisms for industries and local government units promoting Extended
Producer Responsibility (EPR).
2. Strengthening of Research and Development (RandD) through ties with academic institutions
to identify approaches, alternatives, and technologies in managing marine litter with a com-
munity participation component.
406
3. Development of common tools/platforms to qualify and quantify marine plastic waste to aid
in the scientific understanding/analysis of waste materials.
4. Establishment of an entity that will unify certification of biodegradable and compostable
plastic materials for adoption by manufacturing industries and recognition by governments.
14.4 NEW TECHNOLOGY FOR THE SORTING OF PLASTIC

14.4.1 The Waste Plastic Sorting System in Japan
There are many plastic wastes found in both land marine environments in Japan. Waste plastic
must be managed and recycled appropriately locally. In Japan, the amount of used plastic products
discharged annually is 8.5 million tonnes (including 680,000 tons of loss during production), of
which 1.86 million tonnes (22% of the amount discharged) are recycled materials. The total
amount of effective utilization is 7.26 million tons, which means that 85% of the total is recycled,
270,000 tons is used for chemical recycling and 5.13 million tonnes for thermal recycling, indicating
that 64% of the total is used as fuel.
Material recycling rate remains low and one of the reasons for this is the economic and tech-
nical problems associated with sorting. Waste plastic must be separated by material (PP, PS, PE,
and so on) for appropriate material recycling. Material recycling requires that the qualities of the
waste plastics must be kept high for a good quality new product, but it is a lower priority because
of cost-effectiveness.
As for the technical problems, the near-infrared (NIR) identification system is being used for
sorting plastic waste. However, it cannot measure black plastic, and it is difficult to measure com-
posite materials. One of the companies in Japan is disposing of un-recyclable plastics. Its cost is
estimated at several hundred million Japanese yen a year.
As plastic composite materials are becoming more common, appropriate technology for sorting
must be created. If the appropriate technology is not provided, illegal dumping increases, and
the environment deteriorates. After COVID-19, the plastic screen which was used for preventing
COVID-19 will be disposed of. If countries do not have strategies and technical solutions, waste
plastic will continue to be illegally dumped into the environment and oceans. To solve this problem,
the Terahertz (THz) sorting machine is being developed.
14.4.2 The Technology of THz Sorting

THz is one frequency of electromagnetic wave that is located between the mm waves and infrared
light. Therefore, a THz wave has both the transparency of a mm wave and the direct propagation
of infrared light, respectively. Since the dielectric constant of plastics at THz frequencies differs
among materials, the material of the plastic can be estimated from its transmittance and reflectance
of THz waves, as shown in Figure 14.10. Figure 14.11 shows the relationship between the THz
refractive index and the specific gravity of various plastics. The material of the plastic can be iden-
tified by THz waves even if it is coloured. THz waves are being studied for non-destructive evalu-
ation applications on non-polar materials such as concrete infrastructure structures (J. Nishizawa,
2004; M. Tonouchi, 2007; M. Naftaly et al. 2019). Further, the energy of the THz wave is so small
that it does not ionize biological tissue. Prototype apparatus has been constructed to detect the
shape of metal inside a concrete and cable-coated insulation (Y. Oyama et al. 2009; S. Takahashi
et al. 2014).
As basic scientific data, there are instruments that measure spectra in the THz frequency region,
such as THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) and GaP THz Spectrometer (R. E. Miles
et al. 2001; K. Suto et al. 2015), respectively. The THz spectrum has information of reflectivity
and transmittance, which is effective for practical THz applications with several single-frequency
407
FIGURE 14.10 Transmittance spectra of plastic samples.
FIGURE 14.11 Relationship between THz refractive index and specific gravity of plastics samples.
THz emitters. The optical configuration of THz-TDS is as follows. A femto-second pulse from a
Ti:Sapphire laser is split into pump light and probe light by a beam splitter and the pump light is
introduced to the THz generating device and probe light guided to the THz detection device, where
each device is a low-temperature grown GaAs photoconductive antenna. The time delay of the THz
pulse through the plastic sample can be detected by sweeping the delay. By Fourier transforming the
transmitted THz pulse shape and phase delay, it is possible to obtain the refractive index of plastics
in the THz region. The refractive index is measured in the frequency range of 0.2 to 0.7 THz. The
photoexcitation of lattices vibrating at THz frequencies in GaP crystals can emit THz waves outside
the crystals, where the frequency of the THz wave can be tuned from 1 THz to 7 THz. THz
emitters, especially at lower THz frequencies, include the Tunnel-injection Transit Time effect diode
(TUNNETT) (J. Nishizawa et al. 1958; J. Nishizawa et al. 2008), the Resonant Tunnelling Diode
(RTD), and the Impact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time diode (IMPATT). These are compact but
fixed frequency (T. Maekawa et al. 2016).
408
14.5 POTENTIAL OF EDUCATION ON SDGS

14.5.1 SDGs Education Towards Solving Environmental Problems
With the introduction of the SDGs in 2016, people began to feel the importance of maintaining a sus-
tainable society more than ever. Consequently, waste problems became one of the important topics
since they may threaten the sustainability of the environment and society. At the Davos Conference
in 2016, it was estimated that the amount of plastic in the ocean would exceed the number of fish by
2050. Therefore, to fulfill the 14th goal of the SDGs (‘LIFE BELOW WATER’), it is necessary to
solve the waste and marine plastic problem.
There are various measures to solve environmental problems, and ‘education’ is one of the
most important solutions. In the 1950s, there was a growing voice in Japan that pollution problems
should be solved, and at the same time, pollution education and nature maintenance education was
conducted in Japan. Furthermore, as environmental issues are becoming more and more complex
every year, it is important to introduce SDGs education into school curriculums.
As a matter of fact, the latest curriculum guidelines published in 2020 have already demonstrated
the importance of SDGs education. Clearly, the Japanese government takes the view that SDGs edu-
cation is important for achieving a sustainable society.
This section introduces the efforts of establishing SDGs education at three elementary schools in
Higashi Matsushima City as a case study. These three elementary schools are located near the ocean
and were damaged by the tsunami caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011. The research
would test whether SDGs education could lead to the solution of waste problems (such as marine
pollution problems) in such areas.
14.5.2 SDGs Education at Schools Stricken by the Great East Japan Earthquake

When referring to sustainability in Japan, one inevitable topic is the reconstruction from the Great
East Japan Earthquake. In the aftermath of this earthquake, Tohoku University has provided ‘delivery
lectures’ at elementary schools in the affected areas continuously (Figure 14.12). In this section, the
research will introduce the effect of SDGs education under the industry-academia collaboration
system performed in Higashi Matsushima City, which was damaged by the great tsunami from the
Great East Japan Earthquake.
The topic of visiting classes for Yamoto Nishi Elementary School, Akai Elementary School,
and Oshio Elementary School’s fourth-grade students was ‘plastic recycling’ in 2020. The lec-
ture was given in collaboration with Dow Chemical, the world’s largest plastic raw material
manufacturer, and SEINAN Corporation, the largest recycling company in the Tohoku region.
During this kind of experience-based class, students get to learn about plastics while touching
real plastic bottles, containers, overseas beverage containers, and recycled eco-bags and pellets.
And so, the word ‘recycling’ for students has changed from a distant concept to a more familiar
experience.
Figure 14.13 shows Yamoto Nishi Elementary School 56 students’ answers for solutions to reduce
plastic waste following the class. This survey was performed at Yamoto Nishi Elementary School on
November 17, 2020. The most common idea was to separate the garbage, which accounted for about
35% of the total answer. The next most common idea was ‘recycling’, which accounted for about
28% of the total answer. In addition, some students believe that plastic products should be carefully
repaired and used instead of being discharged (see Figure 14.13).
In addition, based on the survey of the teachers after the class, the teachers felt that the ‘delivery
lecture’ would decrease their burden on preparing lessons and provide their students the opportunity
to learn the latest and diverse topics at the same time.
409
FIGURE 14.12 Delivery lecture in Yamotonishi Elementary School.
FIGURE 14.13 Breakdown of the answers for the solutions to reduce plastic waste at Yamotonishi Elementary
School.
14.5.3 Effects of the Industry-Academia Collaboration System

In the previous section, the effects of SDGs education under the industry-academia collaboration
system were described from the elementary schools’ perspectives. The visiting class also provided
an opportunity for raw material manufacturers (stakeholders in the arterial industry) and recyclers
(stakeholders in the vein industry), who were rarely involved, to learn about each other’s efforts and
issues. Furthermore, such kind of lesson provided a chance for the university to return the latest
research results to the local community. With the cooperation of the artery industry, venous industry,
local educational institutions and the private sector, SDGs activities could make significant social
contribution.
410
14.5.4 SDGs Education’s Role in Solving the Waste Problem

Higashi Matsushima is a city that has been selected as one of the ‘SDGs future cities’ in 2018. It is
also a city damaged by the tsunami in the Great East Japan Earthquake.
The people who live in Higashi Matsushima City need to learn how to coexist with the sea.
Therefore, it is important to find clues to solve marine plastic pollution and create a sustainable
society through reconstruction.
Through SDGs education, the young generations who will lead society in the future will learn the
importance of recycling and the necessity for waste separation. Thus, as a long-term effect, environ-
mental problems could be solved in their generation.
14.6 CONCLUSION
As the waste plastic problem became a social issue, the Japanese government has decided to enact
new plastic recycling laws from 2022 to reduce the amount of waste plastic.
However, impacted by COVID-19, residents in Japan tend to discharge more waste plastic
products and put less effort into supporting recycling activities.
Consequently, it is hard to collect and recycle waste plastics through municipal systems only.
Therefore, it is expected that private waste collection systems (such as the waste collection box in
supermarkets) can be installed and play an important part in improving residents’ recycling con-
sciousness and reducing the Japanese government’s burden.
As for the ocean plastic wastes, countries such as the Philippines cannot fundamentally solve
such problems properly by merely instituting domestic laws since they do not have the neces-
sary technologies and financial resources. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the amount of
waste plastic and the waste collection/recycling technologies in these countries first and then pro-
vide suitable waste selection technology or environmental education according to their features,
individually.
Moreover, advanced waste plastic sorting technology is also essential. Current near-infrared
(NIR) identification systems to verify the color, impurity, composition, and degradation level of
plastic waste can be improved when THz sorting technology is implemented in the recycling field.
The 17 SDGs brought up by the UN focus on waste problems as well. The experience-based
visiting classes (SDGs education) performed in cooperation with Tohoku University, earthquake-
stricken elementary schools, stakeholders in the arterial and vein industries could be an effective
way for the future generation to solve waste plastic problems and achieve a more sustainable society
eventually. In fact, most teachers do not have enough knowledge of the SDGs and feel uncomfort-
able conducting SDGs education at present (Okubo et al. 2021). Therefore, a variety of stakeholders
support SDGs education in each region through industry, academia, and government collaboration.
In conclusion, to solve ocean plastic waste problems, the discharge amount of waste plastic in
advanced countries and developing countries should be clarified, and the most appropriate recyc-
ling technology chosen accordingly, and SDGs education should be provided for students in school.
Without these data and efforts, there would not be an effective environmental policy or international
cooperation.
Residents’ cooperation in recycling activities, retailers’ efforts to develop environment-friendly
products, advanced recycling technology development in the education department, and quality
management in the waste recycling industry are all indispensable for the sustainable resource circu-
lation network and for a solution to the ocean waste problem.
NOTE
1 This work was supported by the program for Creating Start-ups from Advanced Research and Technology (2021) by the
Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)
411
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15 Marine Pollution and

Ecosystem Health
Challenges for Developing
Sustainable Blue Economy
Md. Nazrul Islam,1* Sahanaj Tamanna,2 and
Al Rabby Siemens1
1
University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
2
*Corresponding author: Md. Nazrul Islam.
E-mail: nazrul_[email protected]
CONTENTS
15.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 414
15.2 Marine Pollution and its Impact.......................................................................................... 417
15.2.1 Marine Pollution and the Loss of Marine Biodiversity........................................ 417
15.2.2 Marine Pollution and the Collapse of Fish Stocks from Overfishing................... 418
15.2.3 Fertilizers and Waste from Humans and Animals................................................ 418
15.2.4 Marine Pollution Subsequent Impacts on Human Health and
Well-being............................................................................................................422
15.3 Tracking the Impact Achieved with these Protected Areas................................................. 424
15.4 Ocean Based Pollution Scenarios and Blue Economy Perceptions.................................... 424
15.4.1 South Atlantic Ocean Scenarios........................................................................... 424
15.4.2 North Atlantic Ocean Scenarios........................................................................... 425
15.4.3 Pacific Ocean Pollution Status.............................................................................. 427
15.4.4 Indian Ocean Pollution Rate................................................................................. 427
15.4.5 Arctic Ocean Pollution Scenario.......................................................................... 427
15.5 Impact on Ocean Health and the Blue Economy................................................................ 428
15.5.1 Water Quality and Ocean Health.......................................................................... 428
15.5.2 Aquatic Biodiversity Loss and Reduction of the Blue Economy......................... 429
15.5.3 Impact of the Navigation Hazard on the Blue Economy...................................... 430
15.6 A Pollution Management Approach for a Blue Economy.................................................. 431
15.6.1 Implementation Law and Policy........................................................................... 431
15.6.2 Fair Trade Policy.................................................................................................. 433
15.6.3 Using Sustainable Energy and the Blue Economy............................................... 434
15.6.4 Political Commitment........................................................................................... 434
15.6.5 Functioning Geopolitical Approach..................................................................... 435
15.6.6 Research and Training.......................................................................................... 436
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-15 413

newgenprepdf
414
15.7 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................436
References....................................................................................................................................... 436
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Developing the sustainable fisheries, aquaculture and the blue economy the pollution free marine
ecosystems are currently the most important issues. But currently the marine pollution threats to
marine biodiversity and to make the barriers for enhancing the blue economy at regional to glo-
bally as well (Riera et al. 2014; Bond, 2019; Voyer and van Leeuwen, 2019). In general, marine
pollution is a combination of chemicals, inflow nutrients and trash, most of which comes from
land and river-estuaries sources and is washed or blown into the ocean (Landrigan et al. 2020;
National Geographic, 2022). This pollution results in damage to the marine environment and bio-
diversity, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures, for example, blue economy
worldwide (Patil et al. 2018; Alam and Xiangmin). There are many types of marine debris include
various plastic items like shopping bags and beverage bottles, along with cigarette butts, bottle
caps, food wrappers, and fishing gear etc. (Andrady, 2011Naik Mayur et al. 2021). Plastic waste is
particularly problematic as a pollutant because it is so long-lasting. Most of the plastic items can
take hundreds of years to decompose at the bottom of the oceans (Cuthbert et al. 2014). Many sci-
entific research findings shows that an estimated 8 million tonnes of plastic waste and 1.5 million
tonnes of microplastics enter the oceans every year (Abbas, 1973; National Geographic, 2022).
This threatens marine ecosystems and the communities relying on the seas for their livelihoods
(Kamal and Khan, 2009). Cousteau, 2022). From an international point of view, negligible data
on socio-economic and environmental estimates of the ocean-based sector have been available in
the scientific research domain (Sumailia et al. 2020). According to Forbes (1995) there are a few
assessment procedures tools to monitor the marine pollution that have been started to evaluate on
the basis of ocean based economic ideas since 1970 (Shepherd and Jackson, 2013; Wenhai et al.
2019). The lack of available marine pollution information and data evaluation limits the intentions
of connected stakeholders, complicating the real assessment of those stakeholders in terms of eco-
nomic success from a regional, national and global perspective (Delgado, 2003; Sidell and O’Brien,
2006). The blue economy encompasses a diverse mix of resources and assets that have aided in the
growth of the regional and global economy. As an example, according to a basic calculation, the blue
economy contributes between 3% and 5% of world GDP (Patil et al. 2018; FAO, 2021). Considering
the largest population structure and food necessity in Asia it is quite important to enhance the blue
economy in Asian Countries especially in South Asia (Ahmed, 1976; Sarker et al. 2016). The Bay
of Bengal is surrounded by several south Asian states. India borders it on the west, northwest, and
east, Myanmar borders it on the east, Sri Lanka borders it on the southwest, and Indonesia borders
it on the southeast (Shahriar, 2020; Mukherji, 2021). This may open up possibilities and generate a
lot of future ideas for the blue economy to grow, and they can use the riches and materials they have
in their designated maritime zones to do so (Dietz and O’Neill, 2013).
In South Asia, residents in coastal regions rely mostly on fish and fisheries for their livelihoods,
which account for 5% to 8% of total income (Aye et al. 2019). Because the Bay of Bengal is such a
valuable resource in South Asia, India gets around half of the seafood it produces (1.2 million tonnes
per year), and Myanmar (Burma) receives approximately 1.1 million tons (Funge-Smith et al. 2012;
Anderson, 2014). If it looks at some of the countries involved by this phenomenon, it can see that
Maldives, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka are acquiring 0.6 million tonnes, 0.12 million tons,
and 0.16 million tonnes seafood’s annually, respectively (Alharthi and Hanif, 2020). Considering
these production scenarios, the management and processes of seafood cultivation activities must be
carried out carefully to guarantee that quality requirements are satisfied while contributing to higher
GDP in South Asian countries (Bari, 2017; Bond, 2019). Particularly, India has a coastline with six
415
Marine Pollution and Ecosystem Health 415
other countries, providing great prospects for blue economic growth through maritime expansion,
commerce and the use of natural resources such as fisheries and aquaculture, minerals as well as
energy to suit local needs (Agarwala, 2021). Through building a solid and long-term framework for
maritime advancement, India may achieve financial and other economic success.
Five nations in south Asia (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Maldives and Sri Lanka) comprise less
than 2% of the world’s entire coastline (Bari, 2017). Coastal areas account for 40% of all trade in
such nations’ diverse regions and supply most of their financial foundation (Huang, 2016). South
Asia’s coastline neighborhoods are quite diverse. The beach tourism industry in the area has grown
at an annual pace of 8% approximately. India had the most tourists in the area in 2014, while
Bangladesh had the fewest (Naazer, 2018). If we look at some perceptions over the last few years,
the concept becomes apparent in Table 15.1.
TABLE 15.1
Some Important Conferences and Declarations Made on Global Blue Economy Organized
by Various Organizations from 2011–2021
Date and
Name year Place Specifications Source
Funding the 11 Nov 2021 Glasgow, UK This event highlighted that while financial COP26
Sustainable Blue to 11 Dec institutions are key enablers of this (2021)
Economy (Hybrid 2021 transition, public support is essential to
Event) close the ocean finance gap.
Virtual Conference 10–11 University of It focuses was on the blue economy and blue Tirumala
on Blue Economy November Wollongong, finance, including related governance and Tiwari
and Blue Finance 2020 Australia planning, sectoral management, and risk (2020)
management.
Declaration of the 2–3 Pointe aux Piments, The development of the blue economy holds Rogerson
Indian Ocean September Republic of immense promise for the Indian Ocean (2020)
Rim Association 2015 Mauritius region. The Indian Ocean is the world’s
preeminent seaway for trade and commerce.
The IORA Blue 4–5 May Durban, South Promoting fisheries and aquaculture and Bohler-Muller
Economy Core 2015 Africa maritime safety and security cooperation in (2017)
Group Workshop the Indian Ocean region.
The Indian Ocean 26–27 July Bali, Indonesia Exploration and development of seabed Yamin et al.
Region Workshop 2015 minerals and hydrocarbons: current (2021)
capability and emerging science needs.
The Changwon 2012 Changwon City, It underlined the need of expanding East Asian Upadhyay
Declaration Republic of seas through a blue economy dependent on and Mishra
Korea the ocean (EAS). (2020)
The East Asian Seas 2012 Changwon City, It defined the notion of a blue economy and Mallin et al.
Congress Republic of announced the dawn of a new era for the (2020)
Korea world.
The Xiamen 2014 Xiamen, China It became a key cornerstone for activists Silver et al.
Declaration and allowing them to identify new blue (2015)
economy strategies to expand cooperation
and coordination.
The Abu Dhabi 19 -20 Abu Dhabi, UAE Its helps us in understanding the importance Sadally
Declaration January and insights of blue economy as well as (2018)
Conference 2014 Seychelles and the United Arab Emirates
collaborated to host the Conference.
416
To ensure the long term sustainability of coastal resources attention must be paid to integrate
eco-friendly material with developing new infrastructures and paradigms (Eric Jordán-Dahlgren
Rosa, 2007). Changes in institutions and regulations need to be also explored, with the main goal
of assuring marine environmental sustainability and conserving the coastline landscapes, the eco-
system, marine elements, and aquatic resources all receive important considerations (Iftekhar,
2006). The blue economy and its intertwined relationship with productivity growth are commonly
misunderstood, and additional knowledge is still required (Geisendorf and Pietrulla, 2018). Marine
biotechnology as well as the manufacturing process of seafood and salt are two more related indus-
tries that employ ocean-based assets (Smith-Godfrey, 2016). Ship and boat building and repair, as
well as marine tourism and the advancement of maritime legislation and management, are all part of
the blue economy (EU, 2016). In South Asia and African countries, we have a huge manpower with
low labor costs so that the ship and boat buildings are remarkably suitable to establish in this region.
The blue economy also encompasses functions such as maritime exploration and invention (Eikeset
et al. 2018). This also includes all major ocean-related industries, such as coast guards and security
forces. The blue economy is an essential idea for nations with coastal areas, and this bigger image
of the blue economy provides us with clarity into the notion as a whole and its value. No economy
wants to waste potential growth prospects, thus the blue economy is an essential concept (Rudge,
2021). The value of the blue economy is now widely acknowledged across the world. Every policy-
maker, researcher, and scientist recognizes the importance of blue economy and marine pollution
concern in the relevance of the Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and the Southern
African area (Techera, 2018). Coastal states are fighting to keep their study rights. They also seek to
make use of their marine riches (Alharthi and Hanif, 2020).
Because of this, the Seychelles and the United Arab Emirates teamed up in 2014 to convene the
Abu Dhabi Declaration Conference in Abu Dhabi, which emphasized the importance of adapting to
and coping with global warming (Houghton et al. 2001; Howel et al. 2012). This conference also
focused on maritime environmental preservation, as well as the creation and gratification of the
blue economy (Grilli et al. 2021). The notion of a blue economy has acquired momentum in more
than the world’s major countries. But it can be seen, emerging and third-world countries, such as
African nations and small island developing states, have also been influenced (SIDS) at this sector
(Robinson, 20220; Allam and Jones, 2021). Fishing has always been a source of income for South
Asian countries. They have a lot of advantages and a lot of possibilities for building their blue econ-
omies because of their closeness to the Indian Ocean (NOAA, 2017). However, without the infra-
structure in place to successfully manage and regulate the blue economy, it is highly unlikely that it
will reach its full potential.
But currently marine pollution especially the micro-plastic has threatened these potential
resources. Fisheries resources are declining day by day and on the other hand the fish consumption
rate has increased dramatically in recent years. India’s per capita fish intake grew by 4.3% between
1985 and 1997 (Ohlan, 2016). Many South Asian countries also showed a 3.3% increase in fish
consumption over this time period (Delgado et al. 2003). Fisheries is the fastest growing industry
that provides answers to issues including resource exploitation and degradation while also pro-
viding employment possibilities. In comparison to other regions, South Asian countries have seen
tremendous expansion in the fishing sector (Funge-Smith et al. 2012). Figure 15.1 is a functional
flowchart of the implementation of local, regional, global coastal planning for enhancing global
blue economy.
Sri Lanka and Maldives have significant coastlines, which means that the biodiversity of the
ocean offers more chances for expansion (Bari, 2017). Governments such as these are on the lookout
for new methods to contribute and grow their economies. Nations with coastal territories have the
option, according to UN Resolutions, to use whatever maritime resources they can, including mining
and fishing (United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea [UNCLOS] Article 56) (NOAA,
2017). Other UN articles allow coastal countries to dig, explore, and use the sea’s riches (UNCLOS
417
FIGURE 15.1 Functional flowchart that outlines of local, regional, global coastal planning for enhancing
global blue economy.
Article 77) (Schoolmeesters et al. 2009; Smith, 2017). Because of the enormous impact that mari-
time sectors have on the Global market, China has recognized the need for developing the blue
economy. According to experts Zhao et al. (2014) and Colgan and Judith (2013), China’s blue
economy related sectors contributed around US$ 240 billion to the GDP. The Chinese blue economy
employs about nine million people, and according to Jiang et al. (2014), the sector’s contribution to
the national economy expanded from 6.46% to 13.83% from 2000 to 2011.
The World Bank defines sustainable use of marine assets as the use of ocean resources for finan-
cial growth, enhanced livelihoods, and jobs while maintaining the integrity of the ocean environ-
ment for future expansion and economic benefits (EU, 2016). According to information provided by
the Commonwealth:
• The global marine economy is estimated to be worth roughly one and a half trillion US$
every year.
• 80% trade by volume is handled by the ocean, and fisheries support 350 million jobs worldwide.
• Offshore oil resources are expected to account for 34% of crude oil output by 2025.
• Aquaculture is the fastest growing food sector, accounting for nearly half of the fish consumed
by humans (Commonwealth, 2022).
However, economic benefits and growth can only continue to be achieved if the resources which
fuel the development can be protected and used sustainably (Bhanawat, 2021). Plastic waste in the
world’s seas actually costs up to US$ 2.5 trillion every 12 months, based on a research reported
in the Marine Pollution Bulletin (Waste360, 2019). Not only that, projects such as offshore wind
turbines, oil mining and waste management may not take the health of the ocean into account.
Therefore, the challenges for blue economy are man-made, created in the name of development
which is short-sighted, the negligence of the people, and the irresponsibility of the world leaders
to take accountability (Fattah, 1979; UNECA, 2016). These challenges must be dealt with before
marine pollution causes irreparable damage.
15.2 MARINE POLLUTION AND ITS IMPACT

15.2.1 Marine Pollution and the Loss of Marine Biodiversity
According to a report in 2015 by World Wildlife Fund, there has been about 50% decline in
populations of marine life between the years 1970 and 2012 (Briggs, 2016). It is not a hyperbole
418
to estimate that the statistics have been only increasing due to ever-increasing marine pollution
(Goldberg, 2011). The ocean ecosystem’s resilience to tolerate climate shocks is being weakened by
the continued loss of coastal ecosystems. Because of the economic importance of marine variety, the
climate change issue has the potential to prevent the growth of a blue economy (Hasan et al. 2018).
Species-specific behavioral patterns emerge because of the temperature increase caused by human
activity. Certain species respond to variations in temperature, while others relocate to the poles or to
new locations, a phenomenon known as species invasion (WASA Group, 1998). This can also have
negative consequences.
For instance, deadly algae endemic to the Indian and Pacific Oceans have diffused throughout the
Mediterranean, displacing local plants and depleting marine life of food and shelter (Thelma, 2019).
Other species that are unable to adjust to the changing environment may become endangered. In
2015, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reported the extinction of 15 iden-
tified marine species (Ceballos et al. 2015). Environmental degradation has the potential to bleach
and kill some corals. This has an immediate effect on marine species that have calcareous skeletons
or shells. Table 15.2 shows some sources and impacts of marine debris pollution and its mitigation
process to build a sustainable blue economy.
Erosion and floods have a negative impact on ocean life in coastal regions, notably in some
coastal ecosystems like estuaries and sea grass beds. Fish is a main provider of animal nutrition for
at least 1 billion people on the planet, according to UNESCO (Lincoln et al. 2021). The seafood
industry will be heavily impacted by the massive loss of biodiversity if the marine pollution con-
tinues to increase. This biodiversity reduction also means that the genes and compounds that could
be useful in medical research and industrial applications will be hampered (National Geographic
, 2019). All of these observations are relevant indicators of marine pollution pointing to a loss of
potential commercial marine trades for the long-term blue economy (Sarker et al. 2018).
15.2.2 Marine Pollution and the Collapse of Fish Stocks from Overfishing

Fishing is one of the main drivers of decreases in sea natural life populations. Taking fish isn’t
innately awful for the sea, except when vessels take fish more quickly than stocks can renew, some-
thing many refer to as overfishing (Gershwin, 2013; Forrest et al. 2019). The quantity of overfished
stocks internationally has significantly increased in 50 years and today 33% of the world’s surveyed
fisheries are at present pushed past their natural cutoff points (Willette et al. 2017). Table 15.3 shows
marine pollution effects and global projected fish production scenarios through 2030 (live weight
equivalent). Overfishing involves taking too many fish too quickly, so that the reproducing popula-
tion is unable to recuperate (Jackson and Seeger, 2013). Overfishing regularly goes along with inef-
ficient kinds of business fishing that take in large numbers of unwanted fish or other sea creatures,
which are then disposed of (Wilhelmsson et al. 2013).
The table shows the amount of fishing and the increase day by day. Overfishing jeopardizes sea
environments and the billions of individuals who depend on fish as an essential provider of protein
(Davies and Baum, 2012; Dais et al. 2019). Without practical administration, our fisheries face
breakdown and we face a food emergency (Srinivasan et al. 2010; Sumaila and Tai, 2019). The harm
done by overfishing goes past the marine climate. Billions of individuals depend on fish for protein,
and fishing is the chief business for many individuals all over the planet. (Sumaila and Tai, 2019).
All over the planet, numerous fisheries are impacted by decisions that exacerbate the issue or that
might be unprincipled.
15.2.3 Fertilizers and Waste from Humans and Animals

Human trash pollutes the oceans in a variety of ways (Awuchi and Awuchi, 2019). Waste and
plastics detritus (packs, syringes, cutlery, plastic bottles, and so on) pose a significant danger to
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TABLE 15.2
Sources and Impacts of Marine Debris Pollution and Its Mitigation Process in Building the
Sustainable Blue Economy
Materials Proportion Impact Mitigation Process References
Plastics 37 Hundreds of marine species have So, that plastics elements do IUCN (2021)
been ingested, suffocated, killed, or not increase enormously,
entangled. it is necessary to minimize
output and recycle.
Glass 09 Sharp edges endanger species, and it can To avoid trash from being Nature (2019)
take years for them to be ground down thrown away, a new tech-
into ‘beach glass.’ and is referred to based manufacturing system is
as garbage. required.
Rubber 08 Tires release microscopic plastic We should minimize the overall Binnemans
polymers when the rubber wears production of rubber and et al. (2013)
down, which typically end up as also to reduce the recycling
contaminants in seas and streams. mechanisms of rubber if we
want to see the clean ocean.
Wood or 18 Timber processes, such as the use To move production away from Anh et al.
Processed of fertilizers and insecticides, and the water’s edge and decrease (2010)
timber pulp paper mill trash management deforestation
techniques also contribute to water
pollution in terms of erosion, chemical
pollution, and the damage of marine
lines.
Metal 7 Sediments in ecosystems with chronic Many treatment approaches, such Ansari (2004)
metal inputs, such as seaports or as mechanical, biochemical,
other industrialized coastal regions, and biological, were proposed
are heavily polluted. This trait has to clean up heavy metal
raised concerns about the ecological contamination in the ocean.
consequences of poor sediment
quality.
Clothing and 17 Clothes composed of synthetic materials To reduce the consumption of NRDC (2015)
textiles and chemical compounds shed small harmful technologies and look
plastic fibers that wind up in the at possibilities for creating
environment when created, cleaned, recycled textiles so that ocean
and worn. water remains safe.
Others 4 Abandoned and derelict vessels or paper To conserve the maritime ecology Sayed et al.
and cardboard. by reducing pollutant waste, (2021)
mitigating vehicle pollution,
and using less energy.
Source: Modified and adopted from Binnemans et al. 2013; Pavičić, 2015; Sayed et al. 2021.
the existence of maritime fauna. These forms of pollution are eaten, cause entanglement, and even
death by asphyxia (Mason and Folkerts, 2013; Awuchi and Awuchi, 2019). Because many varieties
of plastic do not float, they end up deep in the water (Gameiro, 2019). Other polymers tend to
gather in subtropical gyres, forming massive waste patches. Biodegradable polymers, on the other
hand, often only degrade at specific temperatures that aren’t prevalent in oceans (Goel et al. 2021).
Swimmers can contribute sunscreen, moisturizer, repellents, oils, beauty products, and cosmetics
420
TABLE 15.3
Marine Pollution Effects and Global Projected Fish Production Scenarios through 2030
(Live Weight Equivalent)
Projected Fish Production Scenarios 2030 (live weight equivalent)

2018 2030 2030 growth vs. 2018 growth
Regions (1,000 tones) In percentage (%)
Asia 1,22,404 1,45,850 + 19.2

Africa 12,268 13,820 + 12.7
Europe 18,102 19,290 + 06.6
North America 6,536 6,981 + 06.8
South America and Caribbean 17,587 16,730 - 04.9
Oceania 1,617 1,750 + 08.2
Developed countries 29,233 30,730 + 05.1
Developing countries 1,35,096 1,73,691 + 28.6
World 1,78,529 2,04,421 + 14.5
Source: Kobayashi et al. 2015; FAO, 2020.
to water bodies (Awuchi and Awuchi, 2019). This is significant since much of this occurs because
of tourism. As a result, even though it is profitable, actions must be taken to ensure tourism’s long-
term viability (Adkins, 2017). These chemicals harm phytoplankton, sea anemones, fish, and other
animals in the water, as well as coral reefs, all of which are popular tourist destinations (Häder et al.
2007). Oil from cars on the road is washed away and ends up in the water. Boats have also dumped
oil directly into the ocean.
Plastic is the most common man- made substance, and it has long been scrutinized by
environmentalists (Vegter et al. 2014; Lee et al. 2020). However, there is a scarcity of reli-
able worldwide data, notably concerning its end-of-life destiny. A first global assessment of
all large plastics ever conducted has taken place, detecting and synthesizing disparate data on
thermoplastics, synthetic fabrics, and chemicals manufacturing, use, and end-of-life management
(Geyer et al. 2017).
a) Oiling and Lubrication

 When oil causes physical and chemical damage to a plant or animal, it is known as fouling
or oiling. A bird’s wings, for example, may be oil-coated, rendering it impossible to fly or
removing the insulating characteristics.
 The amount of greasing an animal receives might affect its prospects for survival.
b) Sensitivity to Oil
 Oil has a variety of harmful substances that can result in serious health issues such as heart
disease, growth retardation, immune response impacts, and even mortality.
c) Runoff from Farmland and Aquaculture

 Farmers’ ammonia fertilizers and insecticides wash down into waterways and into the sea.
 The aquaculture sector has also been accused of dumping unfinished foodstuff, chemicals,
and parasites into bodies of water.
 Sewage and sanitary systems don’t always operate well, and they don’t always eliminate
enough nitrogen and phosphorus before dumping the waste into the rivers.
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FIGURE 15.2 Increase of global plastic production by year (modified and regenerated by the author from
Geyer et al. 2017; Goel et al. 2021).
Now, if we look at three occurrences that occurred in the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, we can
see how oil toxicity, or an oil spill may have a severe influence on the ocean and its surroundings
(Table 15.4).
d) Pollution from Industry

 Pollutants such as nuclear debris, arsenic, copper, chloride, and cyanide are found in com-
mercial waste.
 As they are discharged into the water without being properly treated, they can pollute the
water and damage the local ecology.
e) Nutrient Enrichment (Eutrophication)

 Eutrophication is caused by a shortage of oxygen incorporated in the water and an abun-
dance of nutrients, mostly nitrates and phosphates, in coastal regions.
 This pollution is caused by runoff from household and industrial wastewater treatment
plants, as well as manufacturing agricultural regions.
f) Increase of CO2
 The acidity of the seas is increasing. This is because carbon dioxide is increasing because of
air pollution, and carbon dioxide dissolves in water and forms carbonic acid.
 Corals as well as shellfish may be harmed by increased acidity.
g) Sound Pollution
 Several marine creatures rely substantially on their sensitivity to sound to survive.
 The noise produced by cargo vessels, submarines, oil drilling and mining, fishing industry,
and leisure jet skis disturbs this.
h) Manure
 These are used to improve manufacturing quality and quantity. Fertilizers have a variety of
negative consequences on the maritime ecosystem resulting from their widespread use.
 Runoffs can occur from both home gardens and industrial farms.
422
Manures must be delivered in the proper quantities, at the proper times and locations, and in the
proper manner. Their effects include:
i) Oxygen depletion caused by commercial pesticides that include nutrients which promote the
development and proliferation of microorganisms (Kako et al. 2014). This lowers the amount of
available oxygen in marine habitats that can lead to suffocation in many aquatic animals (Islam and
Tanaka, 2004). The water quality may be harmed because of these deceased species.
ii) Algal Blooms can be triggered by fertilizers. Many various forms of marine life can be
poisoned by large concentrations of growing algae. Algae also takes a lot of oxygen to grow, which
causes oxygen deprivation (Joyce, 2000; Islam et al. 2012; Wurtsbaugh et al. 2019). Algae as well
as its toxins can cause an ecosystem to shut down. Dead zones emerge when typical marine life can
no longer survive (Islam et al. 2013). Over 400 such dead zones may now be found throughout the
world’s coasts. It might take years for them to go back to their former, healthy state. These zones
may potentially impact nearby environments (Jackson, 2019).
15.2.4 Marine Pollution Subsequent Impacts on Human Health and Well-being

The oceans are essential to human health and wellbeing. The oceans are particularly important
to the health and well-being of people in small island nations (Landrigan et al. 2020). Most of
the oceans and sea contamination are increasing because many nations inadequately controle
marine pollution. It is a complicated combination of poisonous metals, plastics, man-made syn-
thetic substances, petrol, metropolitan and modern wastes, pesticides, composts, synthetic drug
substances, rural overflow, and sewage (Landrigan et al. 2020). Over 80% emerges from land-
based sources (Landrigan et al. 2020). It arrives at the seas through waterways, spillover, the air
and direct releases. It usually appears to be heaviest around the coastlines, and is most prevalent
all along coastal areas of low and middle-income countries (Barbier and Cox, 2003). Plastic is a
quickly expanding and exceptionally apparent part of sea contamination, and an expected 10 million
metric tonnes of plastic waste enter the oceans every year (Landrigan et al. 2020). Additionally, all
four regional seas in Europe have a large-scale contamination problem, ranging from 96 % of the
assessed area in the Baltic Sea and 91 % in the Black Sea, to 87 % in the Mediterranean and 75 %
in the North-East Atlantic Ocean. The magnitude of coverage of the assessed area is mostly good,
but it varies considerably between the four seas and remains limited in the offshore waters of the
Mediterranean Sea (Zhongming et al. 2019).
Mercury is the most noteworthy metal contamination in the seas. Mercury pollution of ocean
environments comes from two primary sources of coal burning and limited scope gold mining (Rallo
et al. 2012). Worldwide spread of industrialized horticulture with expanding utilization of synthetic
compost prompts expansion of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) to previously unaffected districts
(Roberts et al. 2021). Synthetic toxins are universal and pollute oceans and marine creatures from
the high Arctic to the deep depths (Schnurr et al. 2018). The plastic waste in the ocean can upset
endocrine flagging, decrease male fertility, harm the sensory system, and increase the risk of disease
(Maes et al. 2021). HABs produce strong poisons that collect in fish and shellfish. When consumed,
these toxins could induce severe brain damage as well as rapid death.
HAB poisons can likewise become airborne and cause respiratory sickness. Pathogenic marine
microorganisms cause gastrointestinal illnesses and significant problems (Livesay et al. 2021).
Regarding climate change and increased contamination, the risk of Vibrio infections, such as
cholera, increasing, recurring and spreading to new areas is considerable (Maes et al. 2021). All the
negative effects of sea pollution on human health fall disproportionately on vulnerable populations
in the Global South, resulting in global ecological injustice.
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TABLE 15.4
Three Selective Case Studies Showing the Events and Aftermath of Oil Spill in the
Marine Ecosystem
Case study: 1 Case study: 2 Case study: 3
MV Treasure oil incident Gulf of Mexico oil incident Oil incident in Mauritius
Year: 2000 Year: 2010 Year: 2020
Location: Occurred at the coast of Location: Occurred at Mexican Gulf Location: Occurred at southeast of
South Africa Mauritius
About the Event: About the Event: About the Event:
On June 23, 2000, the MV Treasure As workers on an offshore drilling rig A Japanese bulk tanker ran straight
sunk six miles off the coast of attempted to shut off an exploratory into the ground on such a coral reef
South Africa while carrying iron oil well deep in the Gulf of Mexico, southeastern part of Mauritius on July
ore from China to Brazil, causing a blast of gas surged up, crushing 25, 2020, dumping almost 1,000 tons
an oil disaster. the drill pipe. of gasoline oil into the island’s lovely,
clear waters (AFP, 2022)
The vessel was transporting fuel The ‘blowout protector,’ an alternative
oil, which spilled into the sea valve meant to seal the well in the One of the world’s largest bulk carriers
(Crawford et al. 2002) event of a collision, collapsed, and capsized while travelling across the
gas rushed the drill site, causing Indian Ocean on its route from China
an accident that killed 11 crew to Brazil (Laurette and Takada, 2021)
members (Borunda, 2020)
Aftermaths: Aftermaths: Aftermaths:
It put two of the most significant More than a third of federal gulf Poisonous elements of the oil spill
mating groups of the threatened waterways were closed to fishing were exposed to tens of thousands of
African, or jackass, penguins, during the peak of the spill individuals who participated for the
which live off the coastline of (Pallardy, 2010). clean-up, especially members of local
South Africa and eats largely fish, fishing industry.
in jeopardy.
A thousand individuals labored 24 Numerous species died because of It harmed the island’s food system and
hours a day for more than 3 months the dangerous spill, ranging from diminished its tourism appeal.
to save the creatures. Over 19,000 algae to whales, with a range of
penguins were engulfed in oil at consequences including reduced
Robben Island and the rescue’s breeding, limited growth, lesions,
resources already stretched and illness.
thin, the slick travelled towards
Dassen Island, host to a breeding
population of 50,000 more birds.
Dassen’s 19,500 vulnerable penguins Scientists have devoted a decade to Apparently over 50 whales and dolphins
were picked up by rescuers and examining the influence on Gulf were washed up, dead on the island’s
moved 500 km away, where they marine life after the accident beaches; the administration has yet
were free to find their way back by (Boyle, 2020). to reveal the complete findings of the
ocean (Martel, 2010). animals’ autopsy, which would clarify
whether the oil leak was to blame for
their deaths (Sandooyea and Steele,
2021)
Source: Modified and adopted from Crawford et al. 2002; Martel, 2010; Pallardy, 2010; Boyle, 2020; Borunda, 2020;
Sandooyea and Steele, 2021; Laurette and Takada, 2021; AFP, 2022.
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FIGURE 15.3 The approximation of contamination scenarios of marine pollution, its impact, and the state
of marine ecosystem health.
15.3 TRACKING THE IMPACT ACHIEVED WITH THESE PROTECTED AREAS

To reduce pollution, some areas are specifically being protected. In the ocean, these are known as
marine protected areas, or MPAs. Three types are:
1) Fully protected areas which means that mining and processing operations are not permitted.
2) Areas which are severely guarded are those where no industrial and only a little leisure
activity is permitted.
3) Partially protected areas which find a balance between human activities and protection.
Protecting such areas always brings benefits. Properly protected regions can boost total marine life
biomass by more than 400% on average (Grorud-Colvert and Lubchenco, 2017). Fish tend to grow
larger and reproduce more. Even partially protected areas can provide some benefits, even though
these are much less than those of strongly protected areas (Pittman et al. 2014). The MPAs also pro-
vide the species with a greater facility to combat environmental changes. When a low-oxygen event
destroyed many abalones in the Gulf of California, threatening the local fisheries, the abalones in the
maritime reserve were the first to revive and start to refill the region (Magazine, 2017).
15.4 OCEAN BASED POLLUTION SCENARIOS AND BLUE ECONOMY

PERCEPTIONS
15.4.1 South Atlantic Ocean Scenarios
The southwestern Atlantic Coastline is dominated by Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, whereas the
eastern Atlantic Coastline is dominated by Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Angola, Namibia, Sao Tome and Principe, and South Africa (Miloslavich et al, 2011). Steep canyons
run the length of the continental slope, connecting the shelf and deep waters. The heads of the sub-
marine canyons have a significant benthic diversity, including 50% of the species associated with
the shelf-break community (Bertolino et al. 2007; Schejter et al. 2016). With white sand, man-
grove forests, rocky shores, marshes, and coral reefs in the north and sandy shorelines, mangrove
swamps, rocky coastlines, lagoons, and coral reefs in the south, Brazil’s coasts are host to a diverse
425
spectrum of aquatic, estuarine, and coastal life. (Miloslavich et al. 2011). The population density of
these countries is quite variable and mostly lives at the coast. Due to a lack of comprehensive land-
use management and strong preparation mechanisms, these hazards disproportionately affect third
world and emerging nations in the world (Hatje et al. 2021).
The equator divides the Atlantic Ocean into two halves, as we all know. The anticlockwise cen-
tral subtropical gyre of surface and intermediate seas runs near to the coastlines of South America
as well as South Africa and characterizes South Atlantic waters, with increasingly complicated
currents forming on both continents’ coasts (Campos et al. 1995; McDonagh and King, 2005).
Between the equator and 40° S is a zone with a circumference of around 4,500 km (Piontkovski
et al. 2000). A portion of the worldwide circulation is known as the Atlantic Meridional Overturning
Circulation. Its eastern (African) branch transports hot water to the northern hemisphere, while the
western (South American) branch transports cold water from the northern (Hunt et al. 2016). The
sub Antarctic branch of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current closes the gyre to the south (West Wind
Drift). When compared to surrounding locations, we can determine that the zone is a biogeographic
zone with distinct biological constituents (Longhurst, 1998).
Oil and gas drilling, as well as mining, are key sources of revenue for nations on both sides of
the South Atlantic (Ayuk et al. 2020). Anglo and Latin America, Greenland, Brasil, Europe, and
Africa are all connected through these nations. The countries named are world-class producers
of oil, fossil fuels, and minerals (Gonzalez-Silvera et al. 2004; Spalding et al. 2016). The overall
amount of oil extracted, and the gas production was enormous. In January 2020, it was estimated
as 3,120 million barrels/day and 139 million cubic meters, respectively (Hatje et al. 2021). Coastal
sites, on the other hand, provided for 97% and 81% of national oil and gas supply. Mining has
always been a significant business in Brazil’s shoreline and sovereign sea. (Polovina et al. 2008;
Henson et al. 2010).
The ocean is being viewed as a garbage sink from a global viewpoint, owing to humans’ mis-
guided belief that dilution is the cure to pollution (Boschi, 2010). Manufacturing activities and
industrialized economies’ usage of fossil fuels are the primary sources of pollutants in the North
Atlantic (Huang et al. 2014). However, during the South America conference for the Decade of
Ocean Science, the lack of adequate sewage technology and water systems was identified as the
major source of pollution (Hu et al. 2004). Developed countries treat 70% of all industrial effluent
in the globe. Only 8% of people in third world nations obtain effluent treatment. As a result, it is
estimated that over 80% of all sewage is released without treatment worldwide and may accumu-
late in the environment (Anon, 2013). Contaminants reach coastal waters from a variety of sources,
the majority of which are land-based. Surface runoff, waste dumping, agricultural and industrial
operations, and inadequate waste treatment are among them, while others are related to the ocean,
such as transportation, industrial and recreation fishing, oil drilling, extraction, and industrial
emissions (Abreu, 2013). We also forget about noise and light pollution from time to time. Due to
their negative effects on aquatic animals, both are becoming a significant global problem (Smith
and Eckert, 1991; Anon, 2013). Rapid urbanization and development of coastal regions, commercial
watercraft, geophysical and mining activities in the ocean all contribute to these types of pollution
(Boschi, 2010).
15.4.2 North Atlantic Ocean Scenarios

Aside from natural variations, manmade emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) or aerosols have an
impact on global temperatures, and the global average temperature will continue to fluctuate (Chen
and Dong, 2019). With increasing greenhouse gas emissions estimated in the later decades of the
twenty-first century, all sections of the world are expected to warm, except for a few limited marine
areas in some cases. During the last decade of the twentieth century and the first decade of the
twenty-first century, the global mean temperature is expected to climb by 1.4° C to 5.8° C. (Wang
426
and Swail, 2001) cover the complete range of forcing scenarios from the ATCSG’s Specialized
Assessment on Emissions Scenarios. The resulting rise in ocean level is expected to be between 0.09
and 0.88 meters by 2100 (Wang and Swail, 2001; Webb and Howard, 2011).
Almost every country is experiencing global warming as a result of this and scientists are afraid
that the Earth’s weather conditions will continue to become more powerful and unpredictable
(Leiserowitz, 2007). One of the impacts, it has been proposed, may be a particularly severe summer
in the United States. In late June of 2020 temperatures in the generally temperate Pacific Northwest
reached record highs, with Portland, Oregon, hitting 116 degrees F (Chang and Bonnette, 2016;
Vasquez, 2022). For the first time in history (30th June 2021), the temperature in Canada exceeds
120 degrees Fahrenheit (Nicholas, 2021; Samenow, 2021). The heat waves also took a devastating
human toll, likely killing hundreds of people. Wildfires have also scorched millions of acres in the
western U.S. with California on pace to surpass its record-shattering 2020 season in terms of the
number of fires (Nicholas, 2021; Samenow, 2021). For the 2022 hurricane season, the National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is forecasting a likely range of 14 to 21
named storms (winds of 39 mph or higher), of which 6 to 10 could become hurricanes (winds of
74 mph or higher), including 3 to 6 major hurricanes (category 3, 4 or 5; with winds of 111 mph
or higher). NOAA provides these ranges with a 70% confidence (Blackwell, 2022). The research
scholars of NOAA have predicted that the frequency of hurricane in Atlantic ocean will increase in
future years (Reimann, 2021).
The Gulf of Mexico is a basin in the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the gulf coast of the United
States, Mexico and Cuba (Turner and Rabalais, 2019). The dead zone here is one of the largest
in the world. Its waters are full of nitrogen and phosphorous that come from major farming states
in USA. The presence of these chemicals frequently turns Gulf of Mexico waters hypoxic, or
low in oxygen (Altieri and Diaz, 2019). The North Atlantic Garbage Patch was first documented
in 1972 and is entirely composed of man-made marine debris floating in the North Atlantic Gyre
(Rabalais et al. 2002). Scientists estimate that the North Atlantic Garbage Patch is hundreds of
kilometers in size and has a density of 200,000 pieces of trash per square kilometer in some places
(Kaplan, 2021).
FIGURE 15.4 Scenarios of marine pollution through the North and South Atlantic Ocean and blue economy
perceptions.
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15.4.3 Pacific Ocean Pollution Status

The Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) is a collection of marine debris in the North Pacific
Ocean (GPG, 2019) Also known as the Pacific trash vortex, the garbage patch is actually two dis-
tinct collections of debris bounded by the massive North Pacific Subtropical Gyre (Harse, 2011;
Lebreton et al. 2018). The GPGP is a swath of ocean litter. It’s taken from the North Pacific Ocean.
Plastic use has now surpassed 320 million tons annually, with more plastic being created in the last
century than ever before (NOAA, 2017). In the ocean plastic might remain on the surface waters
and it can end up building up in remote parts of the world’s oceans (FAO, 2014). Researchers iden-
tify and estimate the GPGP, is a significant agglomeration of plastic in the ocean zone established
in subtropical areas and spanning from California to Hawaii. Approximately 60% of the plastic
manufactured has a density lower than that of seawater (Leberton, 2017). Plastic can be carried by
ocean trade winds once it is incorporated into the marine ecosystem (GPGP). It is either reclaimed
by coastlines that have been damaged by the sun, temperature changes, waves, and marine life,
or it loses stability and sinks (Leberton, 2017). On the other hand, most of these floating plastics
make their way onshore and into marine gyres. A substantial concentration zone for floating plastic
has been observed in the eastern part of the Northern Pacific Subtropical Gyre (Goldstein and
Goodwin, 2013). The research team GPGP were able to predict whether the observed values from
sea surface sweep literature are inside or outside the GPGP zone by creating a flexible GPGP
window that accounts for seasonal and inter-annual fluctuations. They looked at the ten-year evo-
lution of microplastic mass concentrations (kg km2) in and around Los Angeles using our calibrated
model (GPGP) (Lebreton et al. 2018).
15.4.4 Indian Ocean Pollution Rate

Scientists found that 414 million plastic garbage items totaling 238 tons are poisoning the Indian
Ocean environment. The enormous plastic development included around 25% single-use or dispos-
able plastics, packages, drink bottles, straws, plastic cutlery, sacks, toothbrushes and shoes, of the
414 million items of plastic toxins (Pattiaratchi et al. 2021). An expected 384 million buried items
waste was viewed covering the surface at up to 10 cm depth (Lavers et al. 2019; Moore, 2020).
Around 60% of this contained miniature garbage that was 2 -5 mm in size and could present critical
difficulties to untamed life and biodiversity (Moore, 2020).
15.4.5 Arctic Ocean Pollution Scenario

The biggest source of pollution in the Arctic waters isn’t monetary activity. The growing presence
of military weapons structures in the neighborhood raises concerns about contamination spreading
farther (Schor, 2011). The gatherings resulted in an agreement to conduct a preliminary examination
of public legislation and to discern differences in climate-change mitigation measures (Biesbroek
et al. 2011). The review of explicit threats of marine pollution in the Arctic is mostly governed by
public legislation in coastal nations, albeit they take into account current worldwide rules (Regan,
2021). 92% detected of microplastics were microscopic, manufactured fibers, the majority of which
were polyester (‘Pollutants in the Arctic’, 2021).
Despite its remote location, the Arctic is intimately linked to our houses, our clothing, and our
shopping proclivities across the rest of the globe, according to Ross, because roughly 66% of our clothing
is made from manufactured materials such as polyester-nylon-acrylic (‘Pollutants in the Arctic’, 2021).
The eastern strands were also half the length of the western strands and appeared to be more recent and
fresher, suggesting that most strands seen in the Arctic Ocean originated in the Atlantic (Strand et al.
2020). Plastic particle concentrations were many times greater in the Eastern Arctic (above Western
Europe and the North Atlantic Ocean) than in the Western Arctic (above the Western Canadian shoreline
or more Alaska) in terms of microplastic concentrations (Halsband and Herzke, 2019).
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15.5 IMPACT ON OCEAN HEALTH AND THE BLUE ECONOMY

The Global Organization for the Blue Economy has organized various discussions and seminars on
the subject recently. This is crucial because a big part of economic activity happens in associated
ocean economic activities rather than core industries (Fujita and Krugman, 2004). Fisheries, mari-
time trade and shipping, fuel, recreation, environmental services, and marine monitoring and sur-
veillance are among the 26 marine economic functions that may be recognized (Potgieter, 2018).
According to the European Commission’s 2019 blue economy survey (excluding seabed extrac-
tion), marine living assets (namely, the fishing industry, commercial fishing, and fish production and
marketing), the coastal tourist industry, maritime transport, port facilities, building and construction
and repair, and the marine refining of crude oil, gas, and metals, directly employed approximately
4 million people in 2017 (up 7.2% from 2009) and produced €180 billion in gross value added
(GVA) (EU, The EU Blue Economy Report, 2019).
All these roles take into consideration the supply chains that arise as a result of the possibilities
for infrastructure growth in a range of sectors (Coe et al. 2017). These will provide jobs and aid in
reducing poverty by allowing residents in coastal areas to participate in social and economic activ-
ities (MoFA, 2020). To achieve long-term success, however, solid political duties, in-depth analyses,
cultural sensitivity, and a good attitude are essential.
15.5.1 Water Quality and Ocean Health

The Salish Sea’s seawater condition is critical for all living things that rely on it. It has an impact on
the number of phytoplankton in surface water, which is important since phytoplankton absorb and
store vast amounts of free carbon while also releasing oxygen into the environment (Miner et al.
2018). As marine water quality impacts the capability of fish and marine mammals to flourish and
breed, it has an impact on people as well. It further has an impact on the quality and amount of food
that we may collect from the water. It impacts us both directly and passively when we visit a beach
or enjoy the fauna and landscape of the place (EPA, Marine Water Quality, 2019).
Gross value added (in billion euro, established sectors only)

€ 40.00
€ 35.00 € 34.40
€ 32.60
€ 30.00
€ 21.90 € 22.80
€ 25.00
€ 20.00 € 14.80
€ 15.00
€ 14.00 € 14.00
€ 10.00 € 4.60
€ 5.00
€ 0.00
€ 2.00
FIGURE 15.5 The marine portion expansion (gross value added by currency) (the EU Blue Economy, 2018).
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TABLE 15.5
Comparing Calculated Data of pH Value of Marine Water with Lower and Upper
Uncertainty pH Value of Marine Water
Calculated data Lower uncertainty Upper uncertainty

of pH value of limit of pH value limit of pH value
Year marine water of marine water of marine water Comment
1985 8.109 8.108 8.110 The ocean accumulates around 30% of the
1990 8.102 8.101 8.103 carbon dioxide that is released into the
1995 8.096 8.095 8.097 environment, raising ocean acidity. As the pH
2000 8.087 8.086 8.088 range is logarithmic, the pH of surface marine
2005 8.079 8.078 8.080 waters has decreased by 0.1 pH units during
2010 8.071 8.070 8.072 the industrial revolution, corresponding to a
2015 8.062 8.061 8.063 30% increase in acidity.
2018 8.057 8.056 8.057
Source: Chou et al. 2016; Alvarez et al. 2020; FAO, 2020.
Table 15.5 lists soluble oxygen levels in coastal water over time. The coastal water score,
established by the Washington State Department of Ecology, is just another approach to track marine
water condition in Puget Sound, and is an indicator of the overall condition of marine waters in
the Salish Sea (Wong and Rylko, 2014). It is offered here as an additional indicator of the quality
of seawater. This sign also highlights a new concern to marine water health in the Salish Sea and
throughout the world’s oceans: micro-plastics (EPA, Marine Water Quality, 2019). There has
been some research on the amount of heavy metal pollution, its origins, and its effects on marine
ecosystems along various coastlines, such as the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, two of the
world’s largest oceans (Jayaraju et al. 2009).
15.5.2 Aquatic Biodiversity Loss and Reduction of the Blue Economy

Marine biodiversity has significant importance for enhancing the blue economy in the coastal and
ocean systems. It is critical for the ocean environment to be able to withstand climatic disruptions,
mitigate climatic changes, and fulfill its role as a global ecosystem (Cavicchioli et al. 2019). Ocean
biodiversity, as a climate controller, must be conserved and restored (Whechel et al. 2018). Millions
of species live in the marine water and ecosystems as well. Marine biodiversity is critical to the health
of the seas. Climate control relies heavily on oceanic life. Marine animals are directly influenced by
global warming resulting from human activities (Cavicchioli et al. 2019).
Temperatures rise causes animals of various kinds to behave in different ways. If their association
with the microalgae that they shield and depend on is interrupted, some corals can quickly bleach
and die (Dikens, 2018). Phytoplankton, crustaceans, and molluscs are amongst the marine animals
whose calcareous skeletons or shells are directly affected by ocean acidification, which is a result of
rising CO2 absorption (Smith, 2016).
Climate changes wreak havoc on marine species in coastal locations, particularly in marshes and
sea grasses, which are vital reproductive grounds and CO2 capturing zones, and erosion and floods
are two additional examples of how strong weather events devastate resources (Abisha et al. 2022).
Because of the accumulated consequences of multiple changes in coastal environments, oceans
are becoming increasingly sensitive to climate change (MoEF, 2001). Ocean habitats are being
degraded, making them less able to respond to climate change. The significance of this crisis has
received much too little appreciation.
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FIGURE 15.6 Marine biodiversity is critical to the health of the seas due to climatic and anthropogenic
impacts.
On a worldwide basis, one third of fish populations are overfished, while another 60% of the total
(Gullestad et al. 2020) are fished to their utmost sustainable levels. The impacts of growing acidifi-
cation of the oceans may be felt across the world due to the global nature of ocean and circulation
patterns. (Verberk, 2016). Climate change is a third factor contributing to the dwindling marine
biodiversity, since it is predicted to reduce ocean net primary output by 3–10% and fish biomass
by 3–25% by the end of the century (Bryndum-Buchholz et al. 2019). Coral reefs in the tropics are
expected to experience more intense warming events with shorter recovery periods, resulting in
massive bleaching events with significant death rates (Kubiak, 2019).
15.5.3 Impact of the Navigation Hazard on the Blue Economy

There are many natural disasters involving ocean processes include phenomena such as rain, trop-
ical storms, tsunamis, storm surges, blooms of toxic algae, pathogen contamination of coastal
waters, and recurring as well as long-term climate variability (National Research Council, 1999).
The navigational hazards are things you could run into on the water. However, the person at the
helm may constitute a ‘danger to navigation’ (Van Erve and Bonnor, 2006). When a boat collides
with something while in motion, it is one of the most costly and dangerous claims that can arise in
Marine Boat Insurance (Maloney, 2017). Investigations have shown that these tragedies are virtu-
ally always preventable if common sense and basic skills are used (Rutherford, 2017). Thousands
of damaged and derelict ships litter harbors, rivers, and ports around the globe Bamford et al.
(2008), posing a threat to our oceans, beaches, waterways, and Great Lakes by impeding naut-
ical channels, inflicting environmental damage, and lowering financial and cultural value (Little,
2018). Our ocean, beaches, waterways, and Great Lakes are all under peril. This debris obstructs
navigational channels, harming the ecosystem and lowers the financial and cultural value of the
area. Lost and abandoned vessels can linger for years, wreaking havoc on protected ports and
bays and scattering debris (Hopley, 2004). This work outlines how each coastal state deals with
abandoned and derelict vessels in an effort to pull together facts and offer a thorough look at this
issue (Bilkovic, 2019).
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Natural disasters and maritime accidents can increase the marine trash issue. Natural catastrophes
of many kinds, from hurricanes to tsunamis to floods and landslides, have devastating effects on
human life and property (Shaw, 2006). Because of tremendous winds, torrential rainfall, floods,
and tidal waves, extreme occurrences can carry anything as little as a cigarette butt or as massive as
the top of a two-story home far out to ocean (Fradkin, 2005). Even medical waste, such as syringes
and needles, may be washed into the ocean and coastal waterways during storms or other periods
of strong winds or high waves. This can lead to floods and make it difficult or risky to get to people
in an emergency (Pawar et al. 2016). Large volumes of marine debris can also be formed in a single
incident at sea. In addition to blocking waterways, large items like complete vessels and cargo
containers can create accidents that put human health and safety in jeopardy (Sheavly and Register,
2007). In order to reduce the impacts from marine debris created during a disaster, there is the
NOAA Marine Debris Program (Blog, 2021). These instructions for coastal states and territories
include information that can be used during a marine debris emergency. The information in these
handbooks explains how different levels of government deal with maritime debris in the wake of a
disaster and how to deal with dangerous material that can obstruct shipping lanes (Bhanawat, 2021).
This lost equipment can provide a threat to boats and navigational safety through tangling around
engines and thrusters, or by snagging active fishing gear. Sunken and massive marine debris also
serves as a hazard to boat movement (Brennan et al. 2018). When the seas are rough or the weather is
unfavorable, removing abandoned fishing gear from a boat can be difficult and even dangerous. The
greatest Great Lake, Lake Superior, is plagued by a ghost net issue (Sheavly and Register, 2007). Gill
nets, a long-lasting form of net often employed in Lake Superior, can be destroyed by storms, wind,
moving ice, waves, and other boats (Galili et al. 2010). In addition to knotting with active fishing gear
and propellers, nets that have been cut loose will float for years below the water’s surface, posing a
danger to boaters who may not know how to free their craft from derelict gear (Tudela, 2004).
15.6 A POLLUTION MANAGEMENT APPROACH FOR A BLUE ECONOMY

15.6.1 Implementation Law and Policy
The Law of the International Maritime organization sets a fundamental legal framework within
which all activity in the oceans must occur (Molenaar and Oude Elferink, 2009). It establishes the
powers and obligations of states in the areas of navigation, living and non-living assets, marine
ecological preservation and protection, and the development and transfer of marine technologies
(Conference, 2006). Members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) have trading commitments
and responsibilities that may affect the blue economy (Kohl et al. 2016). These were created to
strengthen current institutional structures, but they also provide a challenge in terms of uniformity
and integration (Table 15.6).
The United Nations General Assembly’s recently decided (Resolution 69/292 of June 19, 2015) to
establish a regional and international, valid signatory device under UNCLOS on sustainable devel-
opment (Sung, 2016). It is also forms the mechanism of clean energy use in coastal ecosystems
in areas beyond sovereign territory and it is a significant development in terms of investments in
areas beyond national jurisdiction (Pauli, 2010; Tessnow-von Wysocki and Vadrot, 2020; Caroli
et al. 2022). Africa’s minimal participation in the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) and carbon trading systems thus far reflects the continent’s technical, geopolitical, and
organizational competency limitations (Vogler, 2011; Hassan and Alam, 2019). Barriers to know-
ledge may be overcome with perseverance, and governments can use global legal measures to aid
in the development of effective domestic Blue Economy administrative frameworks and policy
recommendations.
Increasing the capacity of states to begin negotiating fair and substantial agreements requires that
the essential legislative and judicial policy direction is framed by specific national circumstances
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TABLE 15.6
Challenges and Opportunities for a Sustainable Blue Economy Sector
Challenges Sectors Opportunities
✓ Yet to be a fossil-fuel-based Maritime transportation ✓ To establish itself as a global marine

transportation system (KIM, 2019) trading centre
✓ To ensure proper health, safety, security, ✓ Increased capacity and infrastructure,
and environmental protection particularly for coastal shipping and inland
✓ To gain social and political support waterways
✓ To improve the maritime environment’s
efficient approach
✓ Acquisition and management Biological variety in the ✓ To make money by using vast maritime
of maritime reserves, as well as sea (Hayward, 2015; resources as assets
conservation incentives Broderick, 2015) ✓ Using them as a source of nutrients for
✓ To provide a worldwide framework or humanity
concern for ocean resource protection ✓ To make the maritime environment more
✓ For mitigating the negative effects resistant to climate change’s impacts
of global warming on the marine
ecosystem.
✓ To improve the foundation for Sustainable aquaculture ✓ To fulfill rising food and nutrient needs in
sustainable fisheries management and and fishing (FAO, 2021) terms of quantity and quality
aquaculture development ✓ To successfully integrate aquaculture with
✓ Increased stakeholder involvement other agricultural operations
in the fisheries industry will help to
increase openness in selection at all
levels.
✓ To make the complicated and varied Marine renewable energy ✓ To create a massive supply of energy for
nature of the situations encountered by (Sánche, 2021) commercial advantage while also supporting
maritime converter technology more the whole global society
understandable. ✓ Making a nation or zone more adaptable
✓ To address and comprehend these through new energy derived from marine
loading situations, as well as the resources and making them fluent or
difficulties and possibilities that they comfortable with it
provide
✓ To drastically minimize the risk of Coastal and marine ✓ Coastal and maritime tourism has emerged
marine pollution tourism (EU, as one of the most prominent touristic
✓ To maintain appropriate administration Challenges and sub-sectors
of national and international policy Opportunities for ✓ To give a nation’s economy a substantial
standards, as well as other concerns Maritime and Coastal financial boost
✓ To secure the sector’s long-term Tourism in the EU, ✓ To assist in the long-term development of
viability by providing fundamental 2016) coastal regions that are more distant
financial assistance
(Keohane et al. 2009). It suggests that while improving institutional and legal capabilities for the
Blue Economy, the following factors should be considered (Pauli, 2010; Okemwa, 2019):
• Implementing undone agreements by states based on marine policy.

• Relating ocean governance instruments to freshwater bodies and other natural resources.
• Making adaptations of legislation and policies regarding marine environment.
• Negotiating conflicts as well as marine boundaries.
433
• Training officials on economic sectors including international law and legislation.

• Developing integrated maritime strategies.
• Establishing ‘Academic Centers of Excellence’ on the Blue Economy in universities as think
tanks (Pauli, 2010; Hassan and Alam, 2019).
• Establishing aquatic and marine related departments/institutions.
• Enhancing dialogues and consultations regionally to aggregate views and facilitate technolo-
gies on marine resources.
• Strengthening states’ ability to execute fair and strong contractual agreements on a global scale.
• Developing environmental rules and regulations for marine and coastal ecosystem conserva-
tion, management, preservation, and sustainability (Hassan and Alam, 2019).
• Improving blue economy training, research, building capacity, and skills enhancement across
the country.
• Ensuring involvement in agreements and conceptualization of a reasonable view relating the
global advancement and ability to understand under UNCLOS.
The above cases highlight the significance of establishing a road map and vision for the maritime
economy’s long-term growth (Pauli, 2010). It focuses on the necessity to build a set of regulations for
the maritime sector, as well as other institutional methods (Jakobsen et al. 2022). Establishing a blue
economy ministry, coordination of the blue economy at a high office level, such as the president’s or
prime minister’s office, or the formation of an operational coordination mechanism, are only a few
examples of methods to develop (Voyer et al. 2018). The case and discourse let us see the value of
long-term strategy, supervision, practical operations, and assessment in the blue economy.
15.6.2 Fair Trade Policy

The fisheries sector employs 350 million people worldwide, with 90% of fisherman living in under-
developed nations (Barnes-Mauthe et al. 2013). Fish is projected to be worth US$ 25 billion in emer-
ging regions, making it the most expensive single trade product exchanged by these nations (Belton
et al. 2018). Because aquaculture supplies 58% of all fish sold in global markets, revitalizing this
sector can help to improve food security while also promoting social and economic inclusion for
some of the world’s poorest populations (Table 15.7) (FAO, 2016; Taylor et al. 2019).
TABLE 15.7
Fishermen and Fish Farmers’ Employment across the World, Broken Down by Zone
(Thousands)
Fishermen and fish farmers’ employment across the world, broken down by zone (thousands)
Fisheries and aquaculture
Region 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Africa 2,812 3,348 3,925 4,483 5,067
Americas 2,072 2,239 2,254 2,898 3,193
Asia 31,632 40,434 44,716 49,427 49,969
Europe 476 783 658 648 453
Oceania 466 459 466 473 479
Total 37,456 47,263 52,019 57,930 59,161
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2020.

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It also has the potential to promote food security, which is connected to economic growth, steady
earnings, and a reduction in risk and vulnerability. If a producer earns more money, it indicates that he
or she has more money to spend on food and investment (Fisher, 2018). Another key element of fair
trade is that the producer is able to utilize environmentally friendly growing methods that safeguard
the environment while also providing workers with safe, healthy, and humane working conditions
(Sinclair, 2021). Significant signals are sent to the market by big merchants’ commitments to pur-
chase from sustainable sources. In addition, in certain situations, these commitments may yield
direct money that can be used to fund sustainable practices (Potts et al. 2016).
The sustainability criteria of fresh fish’s ability to support a blue economy, as well as its participa-
tion in it, is highly dependent on a few factors, including the characteristics of individual proposals,
the ideological culture in which the proposals are carried out, and the overall economic environment
in which they are incorporated (Potts et al. 2016).
15.6.3 Using Sustainable Energy and the Blue Economy

The ocean most likely contains enough energy in the form of heat, currents, waves, and tides to supply
the world’s need for electricity many times over (Owusu and Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016). Further
research and the implementation of renewable energy from the ocean is required for a broad, holistic,
and sustainable energy strategy, since marine renewable energy will surely improve the climate by sub-
stituting fossil fuel plants and cutting carbon pollution (Pelc and Fujita, 2002; Al-Shetwi, 2022). Oceans
are a significant source of renewable energy. For gathering that energy, different devices use different
methodologies. The following are the primary sources of ocean energy (Ponta and Jacovkis, 2008):
• Tidal streams
• Thermal energy
• Currents in the ocean
• Range of tides
• Waves
• Gradients of salinity
As with any promising but new technology, it is recommended that research efforts continue but to
move cautiously, prioritizing the health of the marine environment while creating clean energy as a
top priority (Pelc and Fujita, 2002; Wilberforce et al. 2019).
So, as a result, it is reasonable to conclude that the future of such sustainable energy is bright,
as it provides multiple advantages while having very little detrimental effect (Panwar et al. 2011).
It also has the potential to become a major energy source in the long term, as well as a significant
contributor to the blue economy (Ebarvia, 2016).
15.6.4 Political Commitment
Political forces can have a significant impact on the pollution management approach for the blue
economy. They handle pollutants both inside and externally (Voyer and van Leeuwen, 2019).
Political leaders play a significant role in a nation and are, in most circumstances, policymakers
(Cosgrove and Loucks, 2015). They must adopt a variety of criteria and circumstances in order to
reduce pollution in the blue economy and make it long-term viable (Bond, 2019). Therefore, people
are more likely to obey their instructions. Emphasizing the blue economy on a national level would
have a great impact in the future economic development of a country (Bonstra et al. 2018).
At the Ocean Foundation a unique investment alternative is provided for those who have elected
to withdraw from fossil fuels as part of the boycott movement, by default. As of 2019 they’ve raised
roughly US$ 25 million in funding and they’ve been running for more than three and a half years
435
FIGURE 15.7 Political forces can have a significant impact on the pollution management approach of the
blue economy.
(Cordier and Uehara, 2019). At the Ocean Foundation, every company in the portfolio is evaluated,
as well as any new firms under discussion for admission, to ensure that the ‘good for the ocean’
statement is accurate (Cordier and Uehara, 2019). In October 2015, the very first workshop was held
in Monterey, California. The conference’s title is ‘The Oceans in National Income Accounts (Attri
and Bohler-Mulleris, Eds. 2018). Seeking Consensus on Definitions and Standards,’ it gathered up
39 participants from 10 nations to discuss how to assess both the ocean economy and the (new) blue
(sustainable) economy using national accounting categories (Silver et al. 2015; Colgan, 2016). The
maritime economy of these ten countries was quite similar.
It will take a protracted effort to:
i) Develop a consistent set of classifications for measuring the ocean’s market system, as well
as a regular, adequate, and well-defined regions and.
2) Look for methods to quantify ecological integrity, which shows whether socioeconomic
growth is long-term viable, and start working on a financial spreadsheet for ocean resources
(Boer, 2000).
In the fall of 2016, China hosted a second summit with coastal states. Since then, The Ocean
Foundation and the House of Sweden have co-sponsored and co-chaired a conversation on the Blue
Economy (Spalding, 2016). The delegates at the conference discussed methods to improve trans-
atlantic cooperation and collaboration, such as how the blue growth agenda might help reverse the
present loss in ocean health while simultaneously producing employment and money. However,
it protects ocean ecological services, which are difficult to quantify. The delegates at the confer-
ence can also assist with the assessment of natural resources. They teamed up with JetBlue to look
at the true value of natural systems in the Caribbean (clean beaches, thriving reefs, and healthy
mangroves) (Spalding, 2016).
15.6.5 Functioning Geopolitical Approach

The geopolitical approach is basically a method of understanding, explaining, and predicting inter-
national political behavior through researching foreign policy (Choudhury, 1964; Scholvin and
436
Wigell, 2018). Small Island authorities have meaningful ocean resources at their disposal, particu-
larly in comparison to their mainland, which displays a huge potential for boosting economic growth
while attempting to address unemployment, food security, and deprivation (Mustafa et al. 2019).
The ocean based economy is more than just a perspective and looks at the ocean economy as a
revenue source (Fusco et al. 2022). Therefore, managing pollutants is very essential for the blue
economy. The policymaker of a country could come up with some steps or regulations to prevent the
pollutants from entering a water body, for example, by reducing degradable wastes from the land
water, using fewer plastic materials and not disposing of these in any water.
15.6.6 Research and Training

Well-trained, skilled, and knowledgeable human resources are the motivating power behind the
development of a blue economy capable of participating in transnational corporations and the
ensuing technology revolution (Farazmand, 2004). Progressive and long-term expansion is impos-
sible without a skilled staff (Rostoka et al. 2019). When it comes to sustainability in the maritime
sector, how can we explain its ‘rebound’ effect? Increased efficiency can result in financial savings
that can be used to buy additional items and activities, therefore offsetting the ecological benefits
of increased efficiency (Herring and Roy, 2007). Our Rockefeller Marine Initiative is still a finan-
cial offering that focuses on the ocean and includes investments. It is made up of companies who
produce or provide goods or services that are ‘good for the ocean’ (Spalding, 2016).
15.7 CONCLUSION
A blue economy may considerably assist financial development provided the global blue assets in
the ocean are efficiently mapped as well as incorporated within a sound institutional structure as
well as based on particular laws and studies. As a result, there is potential for infrastructural growth.
This will help to alleviate unemployment by introducing coastal inhabitants into the mainstream,
in addition to producing jobs. According to the conclusions of this analysis, several countries have
the potential to develop a blue economy that would contribute to regional economic success, but
they will need strong political intentions, practical research, societal understanding, and favorable
attitudes. In other words, if many countries properly utilize their advantages, they will advance more
quickly. On the other hand, long-term success necessitates a strong governmental dedication, thor-
ough study, cultural awareness, and a constructive attitude toward the blue economy. To secure the
long-term viability of coastal resources, global collaboration is required, and this will assist us better
in understanding the blue economy’s role in encouraging socioeconomic progress.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to all of the anonymous authors and contributors whose articles
free domains, blogs and other sources for reviewing the literature, concepts and perceptions to
build the scenarios of marine pollution and challenges for developing a sustainable blue economy.
Also, I would like to show my gratitude to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of
Bangladesh that have provided the funding support (NST Research Allocation Project 2019-2020)
to the first author of this chapter for continuing his research on the global blue economy and seafood
production and policies.
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449
16 Seaweed Farming Potential

in India
An Assessment and Review
Muthuswamy Jaikumar,1* Ramadoss Dineshram,2
Temjensangba Imchen,2 Sourav Mandal,3 and
Kannan Rangesh4
1
Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Bhuj, Kachchh, Gujarat. India
2
Biological Oceanography Division, CSIR—National Institute of
Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, India
3
Ocean Engineering Division, CSIR—National Institute of
Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, India
4
Department of Marine and Coastal Studies, Madurai Kamaraj
University, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding author: Muthuswamy Jaikumar;
E-mail: [email protected]
CONTENTS
16.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 450
16.2 Distribution of Seaweeds.................................................................................................... 451
16.3 The Importance of Seaweeds.............................................................................................. 452
16.3.1 Economic Significance......................................................................................... 452
16.3.2 The Significance of Seaweed Farming................................................................. 453
16.3.3 The Significance of Seaweed in Diet and Health................................................. 454
16.4 The Potential of Seaweed Cultivation in India................................................................... 454
16.4.1 Seaweed as a Cultivated Crop.............................................................................. 454
16.4.2 Sustainable Livelihood to Fishermen Through Seaweed Cultivation................... 455
16.5 The Potential of Commercial Seaweed Cultivation in India............................................... 455
16.6 Potential of Kappaphycus Cultivation................................................................................ 456
16.6.1 The Characteristics of Kappaphycus Seaweed..................................................... 456
16.6.2 The Advantages and Benefits of Kappaphycus Seaweed..................................... 456
16.7 Methods of Seaweed Cultivation........................................................................................ 456
16.7.1 Popular Methods of Seaweed Farming in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat..................... 456
16.7.2 The Single Rope Floating Raft Method................................................................ 456
16.7.3 The Floating Bamboo Raft Method...................................................................... 457
16.7.4 The Pole Monoline Method.................................................................................. 457
16.7.5 The Tying HDPE Pipe Ladder/Bamboo Tube Net/Tie-Tie Method..................... 458
16.7.6 The PVC Ladder Seaweed Tying Method............................................................ 458
16.7.7 The Pole Long Line Tubenet Method (Very Shallow Water)............................... 458
16.7.8 Long-Monoline Method (Deeper Water).............................................................. 460
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-16 449

newgenprepdf
450
16.7.9 The Net Bag Method............................................................................................ 460

16.7.10 The Cultivation of Gracillaria edulis Using HDPE Pipe..................................... 460
16.8 The Collection of Wild Seaweed in India........................................................................... 461
16.9 The Problems and Prospects of Seaweed Cultivation......................................................... 462
16.9.1 Seaweed-Associated Bacteria and Their Interactions..........................................462
16.9.2 Seaweed-Associated Fauna.................................................................................. 463
16.9.3 Epiphytism on Seaweed and Preventive Measures............................................... 463
16.9.4 The Role of Epiphytes.......................................................................................... 463
16.9.5 The Impact of Epiphytes on Seaweed Farming.................................................... 465
16.9.6 The Challenges and Impact of Epiphytic Fauna or Grazer in Kappaphycus
alvarezii Cultivation.............................................................................................465
16.9.7 Mitigation and Preventive Measures.................................................................... 466
16.9.8 Hydrodynamic Modelling for Offshore Seaweed Farming.................................. 466
16.10 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................467
References....................................................................................................................................... 467
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Seaweeds are a vital part of coastal ecosystems, which offer indispensable ecosystem services as
well as socio-economic values for the lives of various marine forms. The seaweed industry has
huge economic value and significantly contributes to the sustainable development of rural coastal
provinces. Seaweeds are cultivated in many Asian countries, and the production of phycocolloids
from seaweeds is extensive across the globe. Seaweed resources are abundant in India, particu-
larly on the west coast and the southeast coast of India. India has an 8100 km stretch of coastline,
and it includes an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) around 2 million sq km, consisting of coastal
and island ecosystems, and these are same as 66% of the total mainland area. About 30% of the
people depend on these areas for utilizing a large variety of seaweed populations (Ganesan et al.
2020). The highest seaweed diversity was reported on the Southeast Coast of Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,
Lakshadweep islands, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
In India, seaweed cultivation is being taken up on a large scale, particularly in the coastal districts
of Tamil Nadu, because of suitable environmental conditions such as the shallow nature of the
bottom and a lesser tidal influence (Figure 16.1). This favours the cultivators who can do more
cycles of cultivation every season, especially in three coastal districts. In Gujarat, only a pilot scale
of cultivation has been tried in a few districts because in this region, tidal amplitude is very high
with high wave action. Such conditions are not favourable to do more cycles of cultivation. A pilot
scale cultivation has been carried out in the state of Andhra Pradesh, for example, in Visakhapatnam
district in cages and in the Krishna district, Nayalanka, in PVC rafts pipes.
On the South East coast of India, the coastline of Tamil Nadu extends from Tiruvalluvar dis-
trict in the north to Kanyakumari district in the south, a total length of about 1076 km (Ramesh
et al. 2008; Mantri et al. 2019a). The coastal districts of Tamil Nadu such as Pudhukottai,
Ramanathapuram, Tuticorin and Kanyakumari have a rich diversity of seaweeds. Seaweed
species like Kappaphycus alvarezii, Gracilaria dura and G. edulis are cultivated on a commercial
scale in the coastal region of India, particularly in Tamil Nadu’s Pudhukottai, Ramanathapuram
and Tuticorin. Carragenophyte Kappaphycus alvarezii is cultivated extensively in this region.
K. alvarezii is cultivated by vegetative propagation as it grows faster. The crop can be harvested
within 40 days of cultivation. Gracilaria edulis and G. dura cultivation period extends to 60–
75 days, and the revenue is less compared to Kappaphycus cultivation. The fishermen in this
coastal region are actively engaged in Kappaphycus cultivation due to its shorter cultivation time
and it is an additional source of income.
451
Seaweed Farming Potential in India 451
FIGURE 16.1 Seaweed locations in India (Government of Gujarat) (https://gaic.gujarat.gov.in/writereadd

ata/images/pdf/26-seaweed-culture.pdf).
16.2 DISTRIBUTION OF SEAWEEDS
Seaweeds are primitive macrophytic benthic marine algae found in the tidal regions of the seas/
oceans. Green, brown and red seaweeds are found in the intertidal, tidal and subtidal regions, respect-
ively. Green seaweeds are more prevalent in the intertidal zone. Green seaweeds include the species
of sea lettuce (Ulva), green string lettuce (Enteromorpha), Codium, Chaetomorpha and Caulerpa.
Brown seaweeds live in the upper subtidal zone or tidal zone. They are Sargassum, Turbinaria,
Laminaria and Dictyota. Red seaweeds mostly grow in subtidal waters, and they include Gracilaria,
Eucheuma, Gelidiella, Ceramium, Acanthophora.
More than 100 species of seaweeds have been recorded between Dhanuskodi and Kanyakumari
(Table 16.1) Kaliaperumal et al (1998). The surveys from the Central Salt and Marine and Chemical
452
TABLE 16.1
Seaweed Distribution: Dhanuskodi and Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu
Name of Species Number of Species
Chlorophyta 20
Phaeophyta 18
Rhodophyta 61
Cyanophyta 1
Estuarine Species
Hypnea valentiae 3
Gracilaria verrucosa
G. arcuate
FIGURE 16.2 Seaweed production targets in India.
Source: Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Government of India (2020)
Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana: Operational Guidelines, (http://nfdb.gov.in/PDF/
PMMSY-Guidelines24-June2020.pdf).
Research Institute (CSMCRI), the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) and fishery-
based organizations showed that South India’s coastal belt has a large number of seaweed resources.
In Gujarat’s West Coast, there are huge amounts of seaweed resources along the subtidal and inter-
tidal regions. The coasts of Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Lakshadweep
have a rich diversityk of seaweeds and standing biomass.
There are about 700 species of marine algae from the Indian coast, that is, from both deep-water
and inter-tidal regions, and of these, about 60 species have commercial significance (Khan and
Satam, 2004; Mantri et al., 2019b). Agar production from Gelidiella acerosa and Gracilaria sp. (red
seaweeds) is performed all year round, whereas alginate production from Sargassum and Turbinaria
(brown algae) is performed in the southern coast between the months of August and January. The
bays and creeks in most of the Indian coastal regions are reported to have immense potential for the
cultivation of seaweeds (Ayyappan, et al. 2006)
16.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF SEAWEEDS

16.3.1 Economic Significance
There are about 221 economically important seaweeds, of which 145 species are used for food and
110 species are used for the production of phycocolloids (Mohammed, 2015). In 2018, seaweed
453
TABLE 16.2
Global and Indigenous Production of Seaweed
Country/Area Wet Weight in Tones Share of World Total (%)
China 20351442 56.86

Indonesia 9962900 27.84
Korea, Republic 1821475 5.09
Philippines 1500326 4.19
Korea, Dem. People's Rep 603000 1.68
Japan 412300 1.15
Malaysia 188110 0.53
India 5300 0.01
Chile 427508 1.19
Peru 36348 0.10
Canada 12655 0.04
Mexico 7336 0.02
United States of America 3394 0.01
Norway 163197 0.46
France 51683 0.14
Ireland 29542 0.08
Russian Federation 19544 0.05
Iceland 17533 0.05
United Republic of Tanzania 106069 0.30
Morocco 17591 0.05
South Africa 11155 0.03
Madagascar 9665 0.03
Solomon Islands 5600 0.02
Papua New Guinea 4300 0.01
Kiribati 3650 0.01
Australia 1923 0.01
Source: FAO. 2021c. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics. Global production by production source 1950–2019 (FishStatJ),
Mantri et al. 2022.
farming constituted 97.1 % by volume of the total of 32.4 million tonnes of the cultivated combin-
ation of aquatic algae and wild seaweed (Table 16.2) (Chopin and Tacon, 2021). In India, 5,300
tonnes of seaweed was produced through seaweed farming (FAO, 2020; Chen and Xu, 2005). On
the other hand, about 25,000 tonnes of wild seaweeds was collected from the wild, accounting to a
market value of about ~Rs or 300 -500 crores (Raghuvanshi et al. 2021). Under the Pradhan Mantri
Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) program, the Department of Fisheries, Government of India,
has set a target to achieve 11.2 Lakh MT of fresh seaweed production in the next five years (2020
-2025) (Shenoy and Rajpathak, 2021) (Figure 16.2). A study showed that India could meet only
25% of the seaweed-based bio-stimulant market demand, while the remaining 75% is imported from
Europe and North America (Ferdouse et al. 2018).
16.3.2 The Significance of Seaweed Farming

To fulfil the burgeoning market of seaweeds and their products, seaweed farming is venturing
towards open ocean, however, its development is still at a rudimentary stage. Seaweed culture can
have noteworthy constructive environmental impact. The nutrient-absorbing properties of seaweeds
can help improve coastal water quality. In addition, it can also help to treat the effluent wastewater
and control eutrophication.
454
16.3.3 The Significance of Seaweed in Diet and Health

Seaweeds are popularly known as sea vegetables. They are a good source of vitamins and minerals.
Seaweeds have become a great source of nutraceutical supplements with many health benefiting
properties. They are a good source of vitamins A, B1, B12, C, D, E, niacin, folic acid, pantothenic
acid, riboflavin, and minerals such as Ca, P, Na, and K. They have essential amino acids needed for
metabolism and health. There are about 54 trace elements needed for the human body’s physio-
logical functions, and these vital elements are colloidal, chelated and balanced forms and hence they
are bioavailable. The presence of biologically active compounds such as carotenoids, phlorotannins,
fucoidan, alginic acid, etc. can preclude certain diseases like inflammation, cancer, diabetes, arth-
ritis, hypertension, and cardiovascular ailments, by consuming seaweeds. Seaweeds are used as an
ingredient in food formulations for their proteins, antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory
compounds, and fibres. Seaweeds also serve as fodder because of high nutritional value. The sea-
weed phytochemical products like agar, alginate and carrageenan are used as stabilizers (alginate),
in biotechnology (agar), in pharmaceuticals and as an emulsifier in the food industry (carrageenan).
They also serve as manure for the cultivation of agricultural crops due to their micronutrients and
growth promoting property.
16.4 THE POTENTIAL OF SEAWEED CULTIVATION IN INDIA

16.4.1 Seaweed as a Cultivated Crop
Seaweed cultivation commands a billion-dollar industry with an ecologically sustainable devel-
opment. In a tropical country like India, seaweed cultivation is blessed with the gifts of nature,
namely, sunlight and seawater. Seaweed cultivation has the potential to generate wealth with a
quick return on investment due to its short cultivation cycle. Therefore, seaweed cultivation can
bring a revolutionary change in the economy and overall prosperity to India. Harvested seaweeds
from coastal regions are used for alginate and agar production in the Gulf of Mannar. Local people
of this region are the victims of past tsunami who lost their livelihood and properties. The people,
especially women, depend on wild seaweed collection for their daily earnings. The meagre income
can meet the basic needs for survival. However, if the coastal community practice and adopt sci-
entific farming of seaweed, they can generate a minimum amount of Rs.25,000 to 35,000 per
month. India has a long coastline, and it has huge potential to develop seaweed aquaculture. It is
estimated that the seaweed market has a potential to achieve 60 billion US$ globally by 2030. The
standing stock of about 844 seaweeds is assessed to be 58,715 tonnes wet weight in the Indian seas
(Banerjee et al. 2020.).
In India, the commercially harvested seaweeds like G. acerosa and G. edulis are used for agar
production, whereas Sargassum and Turbinaria are produced for alginate production in India
(Krishnamurthy, 1971). Pilot scale cultivation of Kappaphycus was initiated for fisherwomen’s
economy development in Mandapam. Later, it was extended to Kanyakumari and Tuticorin. The
production from these areas showed that cultivation of seaweed is a profitable venture. The demand
for Kappaphycus alvarezii is high in both local and global markets. In India, K. alvarezii is well
recognized for its plant bio-stimulant/fertilizer property (Shanmugam and Seth, 2018.). However,
the commercial potential of seaweed farming is not fully capitalized in many littoral countries. As
of now, only K. alvarezii is commercially cultivated and this accounts for 30% of the requirement
and the rest, Gracilaria sp., Gelidiella sp. and Sargassum sp., is harvested from naturally occurring
areas. The State Bank of India (SBI) and NGO and seaweed companies has started financing sea-
weed cultivation to SHGs in 2004 (Krishnan and Narayanakumar, 2013). About 2000 families of
coastal poor folk have been rehabilitated in the southern coastal districts of Tamil Nadu with a max-
imum between Mandapam and Rameswaram.
455
16.4.2 Sustainable Livelihood to Fishermen Through Seaweed Cultivation

Seaweed is easy to cultivate. It is completely eco-friendly in cultivation, harvesting and use. The
chosen varieties are non-invasive species, and they do not alter the water or affect other marine
organisms. The vocation of seaweed cultivation will ameliorate the living conditions of marginal
fishermen and earn additional income. The assorted benefits of seaweed farming are as follows: it
offers job opportunities to coastal people, provides an uninterrupted supply of essential material for
the seaweed industry, provides good quality raw material for industrial purposes, and conserves nat-
urally occurring wild seaweed populations.
16.5 THE POTENTIAL OF COMMERCIAL SEAWEED CULTIVATION IN INDIA

Commercial seaweeds come under the categories of agarophytes, carrageenophytes, alginophytes,
and edible seaweeds as shown in Figure 16.3 and Table 16.3.
FIGURE 16.3 Some commercial seaweeds of India.
TABLE 16.3
Commercial Seaweeds of India
S. No. Seaweed Category Representative Species
1. Agarophytes Gelidiella acerosa, Gracilaria corticata, G. edulis, G. crassa, G. folifera, Gracilariopsis

megaspore
2. Carrageenophytes Hypnea valentiae, H. musiformis, Kappaphycus alone is cultivated at present on a
commercial scale in Palk Bay since returns are attractive with an annual income
exceeding Rs.100,000 /head
3. Alginophytes Sargassum sp, Turbinaria conoides, Cystoseira trinodis, Hormophysa triquetra for algin and
liquid seaweed fertilizer
4. Edible seaweds Ulva flexuosa, Ulva lactuca, Caulerpa racemosa,C. lactervirens, Acanthophora spicefera
456
16.6 POTENTIAL OF KAPPAPHYCUS CULTIVATION

16.6.1 The Characteristics of Kappaphycus Seaweed
The Kappaphycus is a red alga and belongs to Rhodophycea family. K. alvarezii comprises a cylin-
drical axis with enlarged maximally irregular branches that extend beyond the basal structure towards
the light. The halli looks darkish brown in intense light and reddish in the deeper water or shade
because of the large amount of phycoerythrin. Pale yellow thalli occur in bright light conditions.
K. alvarezii perform phototrophy in intense light conditions. The growth condition depends on water
motion. If there is high wave action, more damage is possible to plants. Clear water is desirable for
growth. The site should be away from the lowest tidal level. Care is required to avoid very shallow
water near the shore since the crop is destroyed due to high temperature in summer. K. alvarezii
grows abundantly in the sandy bottom of the sand, and optimum salinity ranges from 29 to 34 ppt.
About 150 g of seed plants grow in 45 days up to >600 g in Palk Bay as it has calmer conditions.
It needs sunlight, no turbid seawater and lower wave action for refilling the bottommost nutrients.
It has also been shown that Kappaphycus seaweed can grow up to 1 kg in the open sea water in the
monoline net-bag culture method where the wave action is higher.
16.6.2 The Advantages and Benefits of Kappaphycus Seaweed

• Kappaphycus is a resourceful plant and can grow almost everywhere in marine environment.
• Kappaphycus is the chief source of Kappa carrageenan.
• It is propagated vegetatively by ‘cloning’ from bud cuttings and it is easy to multiply.
• The growth cycle is short, namely, ~45 days
• It has simplified cultivation technology and is eco-friendly.
• It does not require fertilizer or any other chemicals used in agricultural crops.
• Seeding, harvesting, the extraction of biofertilizer and drying can be done on the shore.
• Kappaphycus can assist in sustainable mariculture production.
• 2–3 members of a family can earn Rs. 25,000 to 35,000 per month. The techno-economic via-
bility was established in Tamil Nadu.
• Kappaphycus cultivation can be valuable to the environment as it absorbs CO2, controls
pollution and enhances biodiversity.
16.7 METHODS OF SEAWEED CULTIVATION

16.7.1 Popular Methods of Seaweed Farming in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat
The methods for seaweed farming in India were developed by Central Salt and Marine Chemicals
Research Institute- Marine Algal Research Station (CSMCRI-MARS), a constituent laboratory of
CSIR. The methods include the floating raft method (bamboo frame with nylon ropes and stone
anchor) for calm and shallow water, the monoline method (wooden poles connected with nylon
ropes) for shallow water with small to moderate waves, tube net method (3 to 7 m long tube nets with
an eye size of 85 -90 mm) for rough water, and net bag method (nylon net bags attached to a long
rope) for rough and deep water. The application of a method depends on the geography and weather
conditions of the site (Table 16.4).
16.7.2 The Single Rope Floating Raft Method

The single rope floating raft (SRFR) method developed by CSMCRI is suitable for culturing
seaweeds in greater depths and over a wide area (Figure 16.4). A long rope made up of polypro-
pylene (10 mm diameter) is attached to two wooden stakes with two synthetic fibre anchor cables
and kept afloat with synthetic floats. The length of the cable is twice the depth of the sea (3 to 4 m).
457
TABLE 16.4
Cultivation Methods of Seaweed in India
S. No. Site Type Preferred Farming Method
1. Very calm and very shallow Pole monoline system, where seaweed lines are attached to poles
hammered into the seabed or Bamboo raft system
2. Very calm waters and slightly deep Bamboo raft system or regular monoline system
3. Moderately calm waters Regular monoline system
4. Rough and deep waters HDPE pipe ladder system with tube nets
FIGURE 16.4 Single rope floating raft (SRFR) method (Image Courtesy: https://twocircles.net/2021dec23/
444480.html?amp).
Each raft is kept afloat by means of 25-30 floats. A long polypropylene rope of 10 mm diameter is
attached to 2 wooden stakes with 2 synthetic fibre anchor cables and kept afloat with synthetic floats.
The length of the cable is twice the depth of the sea (3 to 4 m). The lower end of the cultivation rope
is attached to the stone to keep this in a vertical position. Normally, ten fragments of Gracilaria
edulis are bound on each rope. The distance between two rafts is kept at 2 m. Floating raft tech-
nology (FRT) is recommended for the Kerala coast for agarophyte cultivation. Some areas in the
Gulf of Kutch are suggested as appropriate for seaweed cultivation in deep water. Besides, CMFRI
also developed and improved the techniques for culturing Gracilaria edulis, Gelidiella acerosa,
Acanthophora spicifera and Hypnea musciformis.
16.7.3 The Floating Bamboo Raft Method

A raft of 1.8 to 2.4 m bamboo is used for the purpose. 15-18 lines of rope is used in a single raft, and
the seedlings are tied to the ropes. The raft is anchored with stones or steel anchors (Shanmugam
et al. 2017) (Figure 16.5).
16.7.4 The Pole Monoline Method

The monoline method is suitable for shallow regions such as nearshore shallow waters (Figure 16.6).
In the pole monoline method, the poles where rope lines are attached are hammered into the seabed.
A 7 m monoline contains 20 twines at 10 cm intervals. An average of 5 kg of seed material is attached
in each monoline, and it is tied with 12 mm nylon rope.
458
FIGURE 16.5 Floating bamboo raft method.
FIGURE 16.6 Pole monoline method.
16.7.5 The Tying HDPE Pipe Ladder/Bamboo Tube Net/Tie-Tie Method

This method is very similar to the monoline method, except in the seeding practice (Figure 16.7).
It requires a fabrication of tube net with a mesh size of 45 mm, and the diameter of the tube will be
90 mm which is fixed in the permanent structure of a HDPE/bamboo raft, holding 20 seeding lines,
each 3 m length with 2 kg seed/lines.
The seed material is not fastened with ties in this method but held compactly. The seed material of
algae will be loaded into the tube-nets with the help of a small plastic pipe with smaller diameter than
tube-net. A raft prepared from bamboo of 7 to 10 cm diameter and 30 × 30 cm in size will be used for
fabrication of the main frame in the tube-net method of cultivation. Here bamboo supports the angular
portions diagonally and is fixed using supporting bamboo of 4′ long to keep the raft structure together.
10–15 cm diameter plastic tube-net having 3–4 cm mesh size is cut into 3 m lengths.
16.7.6 The PVC Ladder Seaweed Tying Method

This method is similar to the tube net method. It uses 1 m × 2 m length PVC tubes (Figure 16.8).
16.7.7 The Pole Long Line Tubenet Method (Very Shallow Water)

In this method, longline tubenet is set afloat by using plastic pet bottles used as floaters in which 10 mm
polypropylene rope forms the monoline. The pole end of the monoline is anchored (Figure 16.9).
459
FIGURE 16.7 Sector monoline method.
FIGURE 16.8 PVC ladder method.
FIGURE 16.9 Pole long line tube net method.

460
FIGURE 16.10 Long monoline method.
16.7.8 Long-Monoline Method (Deeper Water)

In this method,10 mm polypropylene rope forms the monoline, which is anchored at both ends and
kept afloat with the help of floaters tied to the monoline (Figure 16.10). 100 g of seed material is
used for each planting. The seed material is tied to the monoline using soft plastic fabric (Doty and
Alvarez, 1975), similar to the tie-tie method. A monoline of 7 m contains 40 seedlings at intervals of
15 cm. The harvest is collected after 45 days of seeding.
16.7.9 The Net Bag Method

The mesh size of the net bag is about 0.64 cm. The fish net is prepared by cutting a net of 90 ×
80 cm. The net is folded towards its 90 cm side and the bottom and the side are sewn (Figure 16.11).
The net bag’s size after sewing will be 45 cm and 80 cm long. The bottom side is bundled and tied
with a 3 mm polyethylene rope (FAO, 2018). This net bag method is used for Kappaphycus alvarezii
cultivation in rough waters. Generally, 0.5 kg to 1 kg of seed material is kept in the net bag for the
cultivation method. After the seeding, it is monitored at 3-day intervals to wash off the mud and
clean the attached animals on the surface of the net bag. After 30 -45 days of culture, every net bag
of 1 kg of seedlings will grow up to 5 kg/net bag.
16.7.10 The Cultivation of Gracillaria edulis Using HDPE Pipe

Gracilaria edulis is cultivated on a commercial level across the year in the Gulf of Mannar region
and between June and September in Palk Bay. The new raft method is best suited to the bay region,
where the waves are less or the depth is shallow (Figure 16.12). Production is about 120 t/ha (wet
wt.) per year. A threefold increase is noted within 60 days (Johnson et al. 2020).
Raft design: One-meter HDPE pipe with 12 mm holes on both ends for tying the rope. The raft
consists of 18 to 20 monolines each 4.5 m long. Bottom fencing is used to protect from fish bites.
The bottom fencing also allows Gracillaria spores to settle in the net, ensuring a supply of seeding
material for the next cycle of cultivation. Each line is stitched with a 4 mm tie rope. Approximately
0.065 g/line or 50 g/system of seed material is tied to the line and it takes about 50–60 days to
harvest.
461
FIGURE 16.11 Net bag method.
FIGURE 16.12 HDPE pipe method.
16.8 THE COLLECTION OF WILD SEAWEED IN INDIA

The seaweed is collected from the wild during spring tides in five districts of Tamil Nadu (Tanjore,
Pudukottai, Ramnathapuram, Tuticorin and Kanyakumari). A study by Ganesan et al. (2019) showed
that in the Gulf of Mannar region, about 1270 women and 285 men of the fishing community,
representing 14 coastal villages are engaged in harvesting seaweed. The report also showed that
about 460 women and 210 men from the Palk Bay coast harvest seaweed. Their report indicates
that around 2000 active men and women are engaged in the collection of wild seaweed. Most of the
wild collection has been reported from the Gulf of Mannar region in the Ramanathapuram district
(Table 16.5) (Johnson et al. 2017 ). Gelidiella, Gracilaria, Sargassum and Turbinaria are the major
seaweeds collected from the wild in this region. However, in recent years, the collection from the
wild has declined due to the restriction and subsequent ban by the department of forests in the Gulf
462
TABLE 16.5
List of Cultivable Species in India
S. No Seaweed species District Season
1. Gelidiella acerosa Ramanathapuram February - April

2. Gracilaria edulis Ramanathapuram February - April
3. G.dura Ramanathapuram February - April
4. Kappaphycus alvarezii Pudhukottai, Ramanathapuram, Tuticorin Pudhukottai (October -April)
Ramanathapuram (February -September)
Tuticorin (May-October)
of Mannar and Palk Bay area. Despite this, some people are still engaged in illegal collection in the
Gulf of Mannar region.
A survey during 1980 -90 by CSMCRI (Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute)
showed that the estimated total of seaweed standing stocks was 97,400 tonnes wet wt. (Kaliaperumal
and Kalimuthu, 1997) from the coast of Tamil Nadu, 7,500 tonnes wet wt. from the Andhra Pradesh
coast, and ~19,345 tonnes wet wt. from the Lakshadweep islands. The production of Gelidiella
acerosa decreased from 500 tonnes (dry wt.) in 2005 to 280 tonnes in 2017 (Mantri et al. 2019a;
Ganesan et al. 2019). During the same period, Gracilaria edulis decreased from 250 to 50 tonnes.
Similarly, the SNAP Natural Products and Alginates (P) Ltd) (SNAP, 2020) showed that the wild
collection of Sargassum wightii decreased from 2700 tonnes in 2005 to 1550 tonnes in 2017. The
collection of different species of Turbinaria conoides, T. ornata and T. decurrens from the Gulf of
Mannar islands and coastal mainland of Southeast India from Rameswaram to Kanyakumari also
witnessed a drastic decline from 100 tonnes in 2005 to 10 tonnes in 2017. However, there is a steady
increase in food grade agar production; every year 300 -400 dry tonnes is produced for agar pro-
duction (SNAP, 2020). Their report showed that ~15,000 MT of Sargassum wightii wet weight per
year was collected from the natural beds at Ramanathapuram.
In three districts of Tamil Nadu, namely, Tuticorin, Ramnathapuram and Pudukottai, more than
2000 active men and women are engaged in Kappaphycus alvarezii cultivation. In the Mandapam
region of Ramanathapuram district, Gracilaria dura and G. edulis cultivation are also being taken
up, and around 50 members are actively involved in this cultivation (Table 16.6). Due to restrictions
in wild collection, fishermen are looking for alternative income and they are now entering into sea-
weed cultivation in this region. Government funding bodies and private companies are supporting
the local fisherfolk to take up Kappaphycus alvarezii cultivation.
16.9 THE PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF SEAWEED CULTIVATION

Recent problems associated with the seaweed industry are overexploitation of raw materials, low
quality of stocks and lack of labour. Besides, most seaweeds are prone to epiphytism and colonized
by epibionts such as bacteria, protest, algae and invertebrates.
16.9.1 Seaweed-Associated Bacteria and Their Interactions

Kappaphycus alvarezii crop failure is mostly due to various environmental issues and using the
same vegetative strains since its introduction in our Indian waters. Seaweed-associated bacteria
play a major role in seaweed growth and morphogenesis (R.P Singh and CRK Reddy. 2014).
Microbial communities from the phyla Proteobacteria and Firmicutes are the most abundant on sea-
weed tissue. Bacterial communities associated with seaweed produce plant growth-regulators, bio-
active compounds, signalling molecules for quorum sensing, and other effective molecules which
463
TABLE 16.6
List of Seaweed Species Available in Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar
S. No. Palk Bay Gulf of Mannar
1. Gelidiella acerosa Gelidiella acerosa

2. Gracilaria edulis Gracilaria edulis
3. Gracilaria lichenoides G. verrucosa
4. Sargassum spp. G.salicornia
5. Turbinaria ornata G.crassa
6. T. deccurens G.foliifera
7. T. conoides Sargassum wightii
8. Kappaphycus alvarezii Turbinaria ornate
9. Hydropuntia edulis T. deccurens
10. Hypnea sp. T. conoides
11. Hypnea musciformis
12. Sarconema filiforme
are responsible for the regular morphology, growth and development of seaweeds. Besides, bio-
active compounds of associated bacteria control the presence of another group of bacterial strains on
seaweeds and safeguard the host from harmful entities found in the pelagic realm.
16.9.2 Seaweed-Associated Fauna
The most common problems encountered by seaweed farmers are fish bite in Mandapam region,
and barnacles and ascidian attachments in Tuticorin cultivation sites (FAO, 1988; Miller and Hay,
1998). Research is being undertaken to address the problem of epiphytism and grazers in sea-
weed aquaculture (Table 16.7) (Ganesan et al. 2006). The outcome of these studies is expected
to bring relief to the fisherfolk who are engaged in seaweed cultivation and increase their source
of income.
16.9.3 Epiphytism on Seaweed and Preventive Measures

Most marine organisms are prone to epiphytism, and it is a common occurrence on seaweed
(Chirapart et al. 2018; Imchen et al. 2021). They are colonized by epibionts such as bacteria, pro-
test, algae (micro-and macro-forms) and invertebrates (Wang et al. 2022). Epiphytic organisms use
the seaweed as a host for support, food and protection. Most of the epiphytes are facultative, pro-
viding a mutualistic association, while some share an obligate relationship (Wahl and Mark, 1999;
Stachowicz and Whitlatch, 2005; El-Din et al. 2015).
16.9.4 The Role of Epiphytes

Epiphytes play an important role in energy and nutrient conversion in addition to their role as
pollution indicators (Davies, 2009). Many factors affect the distribution and the load of epiphytes,
including seasonal and geographical variation. Environmental factors such as nutrient availability,
DO, pH, salinity, water quality, temperature, light, and other biochemical processes affect the epi-
phytic load (Wear et al. 1999; Frankovic et al. 2006; Amsler et al. 2005; El-Din et al. 2015). Study
also shows that the complex architecture of seaweed provides an ideal substratum for the settlement
of epiphytes and epifauna (Wuchter et al. 2003; Ferreiro et al. 2013). However, the infestation by
epiphytes can cause great economic loss to the seaweed industry due to inferior quality. Studies
464
TABLE 16.7
Seaweed-Associated Fauna
District Affected by
S. No. Epiphytes/Grazers Images Epiphytes (month)
1. Crabs, rabbit fishes, Tuticorin and Ramnad (July

and Puffer fish to September)
2. Ascidians Tuticorin and Ramnad

(November to January)
3. Micro bivalve Tuticorin

(July to August)
4. Barnacles Tuticorin, Kottaipattinam

(November to December)
465

Seaweed-Associated Fauna
District Affected by
S. No. Epiphytes/Grazers Images Epiphytes (month)
5. Isopods Mandapam
(October to November)
6. Macroalgae Mandapam
Enteromorpha intestinalis,
Chaetomorpha crassa
(May to July)
Source: mediastore house
showed that the decline has been due to disease and pest infestation, intensified by monocrop aqua-
culture activity in seaweed aquaculture farms (Gachon et al. 2010; Loureiro et al. 2015 ).
16.9.5 The Impact of Epiphytes on Seaweed Farming

The first major outbreak of epiphytic infestation was recorded on Kappaphycus during the last quarter
of the 20th century (Sahu et al. 2020). The incidence of disease drastically affects the seaweed prod-
uctivity. The major effect of the dense growth of epiphytes on seaweed is competition for the same
resources such as light and nutrients. The epiphytes cover the photosynthetic surface area of the host,
affecting the photosynthetic capacity. The outbreak of epiphytes also weakens the host, which in turn
becomes susceptible to infection by pathogens. This affects the productivity of biomass and causes
economic loss due to decreased market value of the crop. Experience has shown that carrageenan
quality of seaweed species like Kappaphycus and Eucheuma spp. is significantly reduced due to
infestation of epiphytic filamentous algae (EFA) (Tsiresy et al. 2016; Ward et al. 2020). This lowers
the quality of seaweed and causes economic loss to the farmers. The epiphytic Polysiphonia infest-
ation on Kappaphycus alvarezii has been a major cause in the decline of productivity (Vairappan,
2006; Yang et al. 2017; Ingle et al. 2018). The loss due to disease and pests in Saccharina japonica
was 25 -30% (Wang et al. 2017) and up to 20% in Pyropia sp. (Kim et al. 2017). The thallus whitening
and discoloration of eucheumatoid seaweed known as ice-ice syndrome is a major problem in the
seaweed industry. This syndrome has been identified to be caused by a combination of both abiotic
(variation in temperature and salinity) and biotic factors (microbial pathogens) (Ward et al. 2020;
Wahl et al. 2012; Kambey et al. 2021). Vairappan et al. (2008) demonstrated that epiphytic infestation
damages the cortex of Kappaphycus making the host susceptible to bacterial infection.
16.9.6 The Challenges and Impact of Epiphytic Fauna or Grazer in Kappaphycus

alvarezii Cultivation
Seaweed cultivation is diminished due to various issues faced by the cultivators. Particularly, fish bite
was the most common issue in the Mandapam region and barnacles and ascidians in the Southern
466
part of the cultivation sites from Tuticorin to Kanyakumari. Research and development activities
commenced to control the epiphytic and grazing activities during the cultivation period, which will
help the fisherfolk to improve the benefits of cultivation and improve their source of income through
prospective cultivation techniques.
16.9.7 Mitigation and Preventive Measures

Studies on the effect of epiphytism showed that it significantly affects the growth and survival of
seaweed by restricting the uptake of carbon, oxygen and nutrients, reduces the amount of light for
photosynthesis, shading affects the sporulation, decreases the flexibility of thalli, and increases the
palatability for grazers (Wahl et al. 1997; Wang et al. 2017). To prevent and mitigate the effect
of disease and pest infestation in commercially cultivated seaweeds, various strategies have been
proposed in recent years.
The acid washing of Pyropia blades had been effective in controlling many diseases (Kim et al.
2017). Wang et al. (2014) showed that modifying the culture conditions such as exposure to light and
salinity can reduce the severity of infection in Saccharina japonica. Hand picking and removal of
the epiphytic pest is a common practice for controlling EFA. Ask and Azanza (2002) demonstrated
that immediate removal of infected stock and replacing with an uninfected planting material is an
effective technique in containing the spread. On the other hand, the bioactive extract from brown
algae has been shown to protect Pyropia spp. against Olpidiopsis infection (Prado et al. 2017; Qiu
et al. 2019).
Some bacterial epiphytes are known to support the growth and defence of seaweeds (Albakosh
et al. 2016). However, these procedures could be too expensive for small-scale farmers. This
indicates that preventive methods like quarantine, and improved aquaculture practices is an ideal
strategy as suggested by Campbell et al. (2019). A natural defence mechanism to control epiphytism
is produced by seaweed itself through biochemical compounds. However, the most effective strategy
for monitoring and controlling disease and pest infestation lies on having an improved understanding
of the causal agents such as biotic and abiotic factors. The understanding of epidemiology will
facilitate an early detection and removal of the pest. This will significantly reduce the impact of pest
infestation. On the other hand, the availability of seaweed strains against epiphytism could provide
an effective tool in developing a sustainable seaweed aquaculture. Therefore, it is imperative to have
a strong biosecurity guideline with a low-cost monitoring system to assess the potential risk and
provide management of the pests and diseases.
16.9.8 Hydrodynamic Modelling for Offshore Seaweed Farming

Currently seaweed farms are placed in sheltered locations. However, there is a strong need to expand
seaweed cultivation towards offshore for large-scale farming. The productivity of the culture area is
closely related to the hydrodynamics of the culture field. The wave energy dissipation and changes
in the flow pattern due to the farming structure have significant effects on seaweed health. Wave-
current induced sediment transport adds more complexities. The suitable positioning of framing
structures based on the simulated flow behaviour and sediment dynamics contributes to predicting
the vulnerabilities of the floating frame structures and designing the mitigation measures. A feasi-
bility study should be carried out to assess the farming structure’s performance and the seaweed’s
productivity for the local prevailing wave-flow conditions and sediment behaviour. A coupled wave-
flow hydrodynamic model is set up to simulate the flow patterns and wave conditions at the model
domain. The nutrient dynamics and water quality modelling can help to understand the health of the
site’s ecosystem. Finally, the wave-current-farming structure interaction study through model testing
at laboratory scale and numerical simulation under different (extreme) wave-current conditions and
structural configurations gives insight into the structural response, integrity and fatigue failure.
467
FIGURE 16.13 Seaweed farming in a wind farm (Image Courtesy: © Denis Lacroix, Ifremer and Malo
Lacroix).
The model testing also gives a vivid understanding of the load on the mooring system and dynamics
of the floater. Based on the literature review, ecological parameters, model simulated flow behav-
iour, and wave-interaction with the farming structure, an offshore seaweed farming location is
selected, keeping in mind low wave and flow conditions with sufficient nutrient supply for the
growth of seaweed. Thereafter, a high-resolution hydrodynamic modelling study is carried out
before and after placing farming structures in the area of interest to understand changes in detailed
local hydrodynamic behaviour due to the farming structure. Figure 16.13 illustrates conceptual sea-
weed farming inside a wind farm. In the near future, the presence of nearshore/offshore wind farms
will increase due to their significant contribution to the generation of cleaner energy technologies.
Further, this approach can be extended to other marine infrastructures.
16.10 CONCLUSION
To improve the living conditions of marginal farmers and fisherfolk in the coastal regions, sea-
weed cultivation is a promising avenue to earn an additional income due to the short growth cycle
of seaweeds. However, to derive optimum benefits, efforts are required to improve the aquaculture
practices of seaweed cultivation, especially the enhanced growth and harvesting strategies and elim-
ination of invasive species. Sophisticated technology is needed to improve large scale seaweed cul-
tivation in offshore seawater. To encourage the expansion of seaweed aquaculture, surveys must be
conducted on large spatial scales to identify suitable locations.
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newgenprepdf
471
17 Modeling of Marine
Policy Regime Creation
for Enhancing Blue Economy
in Global to Regional Aspects
Md. Nazrul Islam
CONTENTS
17.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 472
17.2 The History of Maritime Law and Blue Economy Issues................................................... 474
17.2.1 Instruments of Marine Pollution at International, Regional and
National Levels..................................................................................................... 476
17.2.2 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).................... 476
17.2.3 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
(MARPOL), 1973/78............................................................................................ 477
17.2.4 Salient Features of MARPOL 73/78 and Annex V..............................................478
17.2.5 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS),
1971......................................................................................................................478
17.2.6 Marine Protected Areas: Territorial Water and Maritime
Zones Act, 1974.................................................................................................... 478
17.2.7 The Need to Develop the Marine Environment Conservation Act 2004.............. 478
17.2.8 The Coastal Zone Policy 2005.............................................................................479
17.3 Challenges to Marine Regime Creation for the Mitigation of Climate
Change Impact.................................................................................................................... 480
17.4 Policy Options and their Application for Blue Economy Sectors....................................... 482
17.5 Achievements for the Blue Economy Under the London Convention and
its Protocol.......................................................................................................................... 483
17.6 Major Priorities For A Sustainable Global Blue Economy................................................. 484
17.7 Model Building And Policy Process Analysis.................................................................... 486
17.7.1 Marine Environmental Management and Adaptation Strategies
(MEMAS) Model................................................................................................. 487
17.7.2 Coding and Conceptualizing the Parameters for the MEMAS Model................. 487
17.8 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................... 490
References....................................................................................................................................... 490
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184287-17 471

472
17.1 INTRODUCTION
The marine ecosystems are the storehouses of the natural resources to use for achieving food security
for the people of the world and for the various species in the oceans. The oceans are unique, extra-
ordinary, and vital elements of our earth, covering more than of seventy percent of its surface. The
productivity of marine ecosystems sustain life by generating oxygen, absorbing carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere, regulating climate and temperature (Hale et al. 2009). Moreover, increasing a sus-
tainable blue economy requires a model to create employment in coastal communities while ensuring
that the oceans remain healthy and keep clean (Bennett et al. 2019). Nowadays, the world is pushing
for extra food production and many people rely on the ocean for food, for jobs, for transport, and for
recreation (Spalding, 2016; Hasan et al. 2018; Bennett et al. 2021). Considering the importance of
thes, all the stakeholders should stand by the ocean to realize its vastness, its power and it’s poten-
tial. Currently, marine ecosystems and coastal environments are subject to cumulative impacts from
human activities, and those impacts know no boundaries (Day et al. 2015). It is necessary to develop
a sustainable management strategy to solve this problem. A system managing each sector independ-
ently and allowing sectors to ignore each other is therefore inadequate (Kappel et al. 2012; Boero
et al. 2016). It is necessary to integrate across sectors and across borders to enrich the marine envir-
onment globally and regionally (Annan-Diab and Molinari, 2017). According to the 1996 London
Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter (Verlaan, 2011; Ruiz, 2018) prohibits all wastes, except for those identified on the ‘reverse
list’. This protocol is intended to be more protective of the marine environment (A-Khavari, 1997). To
prevent or reduce ocean dumping, it is essential that we all do our part in cleaning up the mess. And,
in order to make that happen, a clean-up drive could be organized to clear the shoreline (Ruhl, 1997;
Wood, 2018). If the shore can be properly cleaned of the waste, ocean dumping rates can be reduced
significantly. Heavy rains and floods wash trash and debris into the water (Rode, 2013). Human waste
and sewage water that has been partially treated or untreated goes into the ocean. This is called ‘gar-
bage dumping’ and is one of the world’s leading causes of ocean pollution (Muthaiyah, 2020).
The scientific evidence shows that the current problems in the marine ecosystem and coastal
zones are unplanned coastal development, illegal and overfishing, resource and habitat degradation
(Chong et al. 2010). All of these are reflecting the lack of effective resource management activ-
ities in these areas (Baine et al. 2007). There is no integration of marine policies and protocols are
implemented to overcome this issue. Some key challenges that are facing fisheries managers and
scientists include (Peterman, 2004; Tyre and Michaels, 2011): (1) dealing with lots climate change
uncertainties and the resultant risks, (2) estimating probabilities for those uncertain quantities,
(3) recognizing and dealing with changes in parameters over time, (4) comprehensively evaluating
management options, and so forth. (Cox, 2012).
Due to global warming and climate change the ocean is warming and the sea surface tempera-
ture is increasing, marine fish and other invertebrates have shifted their distributions to access their
preferred temperatures (Perry et al. 2005; Dulvy et al. 2008; Poloczanska et al. 2013; Pinsky et al.
2013). In general, this has resulted in shifts towards the poles and into deeper waters. At a mean rate
of 72 km per decade, marine species have been moving an order of magnitude faster than terres-
trial species (Poloczanska et al. 2013). These distribution shifts are already generating management
challenges (Pinsky et al. 2018). For example, a ‘mackerel war’ erupted in 2007 when the north-
east Atlantic mackerel stock shifted from waters managed by the European Union, Norway and
Faroe Islands into Icelandic and Greenland waters. Disagreements over the drivers of the shift, the
expected duration of the shift, and appropriate catch reallocations resulted in the stock becoming
increasingly overfished (Spijkers and Boonstra, 2017).
Marine ecosystems are critical for human existence and a foundation of the global economy.
According to the Paulo de Bolle (2022) Global Senior Director, Financial Institutions Group, IFC,
‘the more than 3 billion people rely on the ocean for their food, jobs, and livelihoods. Yet the impacts
of climate change, overfishing, and pollution are putting our oceans at great risk, imperiling pros-
perity for millions in developing countries. Protecting the blue economy from these mounting threats
473
Modeling of Marine Policy Regime Creation 473
isn’t just a moral imperative it’s a growing financial opportunity. Managed appropriately, it can
create a win-win for the environment and the health in emerging market economies. Prior to the
COVID-19 pandemic, the ocean economy was expected to double from 2010 to 2030 to reach $3
trillion and employ 40 million people.’
According to ARTICLE 193 of The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
confers upon member states the sovereign right to exploit their natural resources pursuant to their
environmental policies and in accordance with their duty to protect and preserve the marine environ-
ment (Schrijver, 1995). Similarly, ARTICLE 193 of UNCLOS also states that member states should
take all the measures consistent to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment
from any sources mentioned in this convention. They have also complied with this duty to protect
the marine environment and the obligation to take measures to prevent and control marine pollution
from regional to global contexts.
The 1969 International Convention applied to casualties involving pollution by oil. In view of the
increasing quantity of other substances, mainly chemical, carried by ships, some of which would, if
released, because serious hazard to the marine environment, the 1969 Brussels Conference recognized
the need to extend the Convention to cover substances other than oil (Bergesen et al. 2018). The
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1973 (MARPOL) as
modified by the protocol of 1978. The six annexes of MARPOL (Annex 1 to 6) that are in force
global from 2002 cover pollution by oil, chemicals, harmful substances in packaged form, sewage,
and garbage (Vaneeckhaute and Fazli, 2020). But there is no comprehensive national legislation
for the enforcement of these conventions (Hongdao and Mukhtar, 2017). The UNEP’s ‘Sustainable
TABLE 17.1
The Major Scales and Policy Implementation of Marine Policies Considering the Global
Blue Economy Guidance
Global Blue Economy Guidance

Scale Institution Policy Policy implementation Reference
Global United Nations Green economy in the blue Widely used in this Gachingiri (2015)
Environmental world; blue economy; sharing policy instrument
Programme (UNEP) success stories to inspire
and Others change
World Wildlife Fund Principles for sustainable blue Not enough funds for Hoegh-Guldberg
(WWF) economy; Reviving the ocean the developing and (2015)
economy; the case for action least developed
(2015) countries
Continental United Nations Economic Africa’s Blue Economy: A Widely used in African Hagy and Nene
Commission for Africa policy handbook countries (2021)
(UNECA)
African Union (AU) 2050 Africa’s integrated Maritime Widely used in African Union (2012)
strategy (2050 AIM Strategy) countries
Regional United Nations The Ocean Economy: Widely used in Small Salpin et al. (2018)
Conference on Trade Opportunities and Challenges Island Developing
and Development for Small Island Developing States (SIDS)
(UNCTAD) States
Western Indian Ocean Building the blue economy in Widely used in the Conand and
Science Association the WID Region Indian Ocean region Muthiga (2016);
(WIOMSA) Wenhai et al. (2019)
WWF International Reviving the Western Indian Widely used in the Obura et al (2017)
Ocean Economy: actions for Indian Ocean region
a sustainable future
474
Blue Economy Initiative’ (Table 17.1) aims to facilitate sustainable ocean-based economic, social
and environmental benefits within the planetary boundaries of oceans and coasts (Sumaila et al.
2020). It is mentioned that engaging with countries, regional seas and many partners, it seeks to
enhance decision-making, enabling conditions and capacities to develop the blue economy (Waite
et al. 2015). Also they have tried to implement sustainable, climate-resilient and inclusive blue
economy polices, strategies and solutions that reduce human impacts and support the sound use of
marine and coastal ecosystems and their many services (Sumaila et al. 2020).
Similarly, WWF International recently released, ‘Principles for a Sustainable Blue Economy,’ a
2015 briefing that aims to clarify what a ‘blue economy,’ a label now commonly used in the contexts
of economics, agriculture, and conservation, truly means (Voyer et al. 2020). As there remains no
specific definition of the term, in WWF’s view, the ambiguity may pose a danger. Thus, the principles
have been developed to ‘fill this gap in shared understanding about what characterizes a sustainable
blue economy, and to help ensure that the economic development of the ocean contributes to true
prosperity, today and long into the future (Hadjimichael, 2018).
The global blue economy strategy is consolidated, based on the following five detailed thematic
technical reports that are annexes to this strategy:
• Fisheries, aquaculture, conservation, and sustainable aquatic ecosystems

• Shipping/transportation, trade, ports, maritime security, safety, and enforcement
• Coastal and maritime tourism, climate change, resilience, environment, infrastructure
• Sustainable energy and mineral resources and innovative industries
• Policies, institutional and governance, employment, job creation and poverty eradication,
innovative financing
17.2 THE HISTORY OF MARITIME LAW AND BLUE ECONOMY ISSUES

Maritime law, also known as admiralty law, is a body of laws, conventions, and treaties that govern
private maritime business and other nautical matters, such as shipping or offenses occurring on open
water (Rogers, 2019). In the mission of the sustainable development goals, considerable effort is
needed to ensure that the proposed goals, targets and indicators are in alignment with the vision,
principles, guiding framework and criteria set out at the global and regional level (Waage et al.
2010). While the SDGs are not legally binding, governments are expected to take ownership and
to establish national frameworks for the achievement of the SDGs through recurrent national and
sectoral development planning (Banik, 2019). It must be done in a sustainable manner designed to
ensure the conservation of individual species for current and future generations.
International rules, governing the use of the oceans and seas, are known as the law of the sea.
Maritime law is a mix of common practices and laws that have been adopted by seafaring nations
for generations (Smith, 2017). Since 1974, the maritime attorneys at the Law Offices of Charles
D. Naylor have been compassionately and aggressively representing injured workers from the
maritime trades, including seamen, and longshore workers. There is documentation of individual
judgments and the establishment of common rules that pre-date European admiralty doctrines
(Naylor, 2013). Additionally, the customs of early Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Greeks played
a major role in the development and establishment of maritime law (Hassanali, 2020). As in the
continental perspective of the blue economy, for the regional blue economies UNCTAD supports
developing countries in improving their trade policies to ensure the sustainable use of the oceans,
seas and coasts for economic growth and to improve livelihoods and jobs, while preserving the
health of the ocean ecosystem (Islam and Mostaque, 2016; Ayilu et al. 2022).
The Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA) is inviting proposals from
senior consultants to prepare and develop a status report, regional action plan and roadmap for ‘The
Blue Economy and Coastal Cities of the Western Indian Ocean Region’ (Table 17.2) (Wambiji, 2019).
475
TABLE 17.2
Global Zoning of Potential Marine Areas, Their Characteristics and Major Environmental
Concerns of This Particular Zone
Regions Specific Marine Areas and Characteristics Major Environmental Concern
West Asia The Mediterranean, the Persian Gulf, the Arabian and In the GCC countries, the challenges are from
the Red Sea oil related industries and desalination plants
North America Almost 25% of Canada’s and about 55% of the Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) and toxins
United States’ populations live in coastal areas produced in the marine ecosystems
Latin America South America, Meso-America, and the Caribbean Habitat destruction and overexploitation,
and the Pacific
Europe The Adriatic, Mediterranean, Black, Azov, North Sea, Many of the 200 nuclear power plants
Caspian, Baltic and White seas and the northeast operating throughout Europe are in coastal
Atlantic coast regions
Asia and the Australia and New Zeeland, Central Asia, South Asia, Marine resource issues are very critical,
Pacific Northwest Pacific and East Asia, South Asia, South especially in developing countries
Pacific
Africa The African coastal zone is the island states Coastal and marine habitats are being
Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion and Seychelles. physically eroded and biologically degraded
Many big cities are situated along the through unsustainable rates of resource
coast: Alexandria, Tripoli, Benghazi, Tunis, Algiers extraction
and Cairo
The Polar region The Arctic marine environment covers approximately Radioactive contamination, former nuclear
a) The Arctic 20 million km2 and includes the Arctic Ocean and weapons testing, and the Chernobyl accident
b) The Antarctic several adjacent water bodies
The Southern Ocean represents 10% of the world’s Hydrocarbon contamination
oceans
Source: After modifying and adopted from Islam and Kitazawa, 2011.
The Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association and UN Habitat, in partnership with the Nairobi
Convention recently launched a portfolio of 6 reports on 15th December 2021 (Wright et al. 2017).
In the United States, Maritime Law or Admiralty Law came into effect when the Judiciary Act
of 1789 gave federal district courts jurisdiction over admiralty law cases, which made the U.S.
Supreme Court the final authority on admiralty issues (Brown 1993; Casto, 1993). Although all
cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction were put under federal jurisdiction, there is still a
‘saving’ clause that allows state courts to hear some maritime cases (Table 17.3). Although not all of
the original principles of Admiralty Law still apply, there are principles that are used today such as
Maintenance and Cure, Marine Insurance, General Average, and Salvage (Stevens, 1950).
These concerns lead to the passage of maritime laws making ship owners ‘strictly liable’ for
damage caused by oil spills, and to new work rules for seamen on tankers and other types of
vessels.
Also, the Basel Convention focuses on the regulation of the transboundary movement of haz-
ardous wastes to protect developing countries from importing such wastes that they are unable
to manage in an environmentally sound manner (Choksi, 2001). However, Basel does not estab-
lish a system for ship recycling, rather this has been dealt with in the Hong Kong International
Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships 2009 (Mikelis, 2010).
Though Bangladesh is the 3rd largest ship recycling country, it has not ratified the Hong Kong
Convention and the observance of this convention has not been mentioned in Ship Breaking and
Hazardous Waste Management Rules 2010 (Mikelis, 2010).
476
TABLE 17.3
Marine Environmental Relevant Laws, International Regime, Protocol and Amendments
Major Marine Regimes Marine Acts, Laws, Protocol and Amendment
Antarctic Regime (1959–1998) ✓ Antarctic Treaty (1959–1980)

✓ Protocol on Environmental Protection (1989/91–1998)
Baltic Sea Regime (1974–1998) ✓ Regulations for all Sources of Marine Pollution (1974–1992) (1992–1998)
Barents Sea Fisheries (1975–1998) ✓ Norwegian-Russian Cooperation on Fisheries in the Barents Sea Region
(1975–1998)
Biodiversity Regime (1992–1998) ✓ Convention on Biological Diversity (1992–1998)
Climate Change Regime (1992–1998) ✓ Kyoto-Protocol (1997–1998)
✓ The UN Framework Convention (UNFCCC) (1997–1998)
Lakes Management Regime 1972–1998 ✓ Great Lakes Water Quality and Ecosystem Management (1978–1998)
London Convention Regime 1972–1998 ✓ Wastes and Substances the Dumping of which is Prohibited (1972–1991)
(1991–1998)
✓ Regulation of Incineration at Sea (1978–1991) (1991–1998)
North Sea Regime 1972/74–1998 ✓ North Sea Conferences (1984–1998)
Oil Pollution Regime 1954–1998 ✓ The OILPOL Convention in 1954
✓ The MARPOL (1973/78–1998) Conevention
Ramsar regime on Wetlands 1971–1998 ✓ Ramsar Convention (1971–1987) (1987–1998)
Regime of Black Sea 1992–1998 ✓ Bucharest Convention and Protocols (1992–1998)
✓ Black Sea Strategic Action Plan (1996–1998)
S. Pacific Fisheries Regime 1979–1998 ✓ General Management of Fisheries (1979–1982) (1982–1995/97) (1995/
97–1998)
17.2.1 Instruments of Marine Pollution at International, Regional and

National Levels
A large number of instruments at international, regional and national levels have been adopted to
tackle marine environmental pollution issues (Boyes and Elliott, 2014). These instruments com-
prise conventions, agreements, regulations, strategies, action plans, programs, and guidelines
(Figure 17.1). They contain specific management measures that are either compulsory or vol-
untary (Chen, 2015). The corresponding regional or national instruments transposed from inter-
national ones include: i) the European Union (EU) PRF Directive, ii) Annex IV of the Helsinki
Convention, iii) the United States (US) Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act, iv)
the United Kingdom (UK) Merchant Shipping (Prevention of Pollution by Sewage and Garbage
from Ships) Regulations 2008, and v) various other national legislations (Boteler and Coastal,
2014). The second type comprises instruments, which are not explicitly transposed into regional
or national schemes. These instruments mostly serve as global guiding instruments encouraging
regional bodies or countries to follow the actions proposed therein, or as a platform for the states
concerned to engage in coordination and cooperation in marine litter issues (Long, 2011). The
most prominent examples are perhaps a series of initiatives developed by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
17.2.2 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) incorporates in its part XII the
first comprehensive statement of international law for the ocean environment. The United Nations
477
International Convention
London Convention, 1972
Annex V of MARPOL 73/78
UNCLOS
SOLAS-71
Agenda-21
RAMSAR Convention’ 71
Regional Convention
Steps of Prevention Measures South Asian Cooperative Environment Program
Identification South Asian Seas program
Law enforcement South Asian Convention on Coastal
Monitoring Management
Behavior Change
National Legislation
Environmental Conservation Act-1995
Marine Pollution Ordinance-1989
Environmental Conservation Act, 2010
FIGURE 17.1 A thematic diagram of the number of instruments at international, regional, and national levels
have been adopted to tackle marine environmental pollution issues.
Convention on the Law of the Sea (Jamilah and Disemadi, 2020) provides specifically for marine
scientific research, protection of the marine environment, and the promotion of research centers
((Jamilah and Disemadi, 2020) .
• Article 192 -States have the obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment
• Article 193 -States have the sovereign right to exploit their natural resources pursuant to their
environmental policies and in accordance with their duty to protect and preserve the marine
environment.
• Article 194 -States shall take, individually or jointly as appropriate, all measures consistent
with this convention that are necessary to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine
environment from any source, using for this purpose the best practicable means at their dis-
posal and in accordance with their capabilities, and they shall endeavor to harmonize their
policies in this connection (Reeve, 2012; Karim, 2016).
17.2.3 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution (MARPOL),

1973/78
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is the main
international convention covering the prevention of the pollution of the marine environment by
ships from operational or accidental causes (Bergmeijer, 1992). The MARPOL Convention was
adopted on 2nd November 1973 at IMO. The Protocol of 1978 was adopted in response to a spate of
tanker accidents in 1976 -1977. As the 1973 MARPOL Convention had not yet come into force, the
1978 MARPOL Protocol absorbed the parent Convention (Bergmeijer, 1992; Sheavly and Register,
2007). The combined instrument entered into force on 2nd October 1983. In 1997, a Protocol was
adopted to amend the Convention and a new Annex VI was added which came into force on 19th May
2005. MARPOL has been updated by amendments through the years.
478
17.2.4 Salient Features of MARPOL 73/78 and Annex V

The MARPOL Annex V regulates the prevention of pollution by garbage from ships. Amendments
to Annex V were adopted in 2011 (resolution MEPC.201 (62)) and came into force on 1st January
2013 (Campara et al. 2018). Under the amended MARPOL Annex V, discharge of all garbage is
now prohibited, except as specifically permitted in the regulations of MARPOL Annex V. (Before
these amendments, the discharge of garbage was generally allowed unless provided for otherwise
in MARPOL Annex V, depending on the nature of the garbage and defined distances from shore.)
Regulation 7 provides limited exceptions to the MARPOL Annex V restrictions in emergency and
non-routine situations (Table 17.4) (Carpenter, 2019; Sovacool et al. 2021). Generally, discharge is
restricted to food wastes, identified cargo residues, animal carcasses, and identified cleaning agents
and additives and cargo residues entrained in wash water which are not harmful to the marine envir-
onment (Amon et al. 2020; Sovacool et al. 2021). It is recommended that ships use port reception
facilities as the primary means of discharge for all garbage.
17.2.5 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea

(SOLAS), 1971
Additional measures for tanker safety were incorporated into the 1978 Protocol to the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1971 (Zhang et al. 2021). The SOLAS
Convention in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most important of all international
treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships (Zhang et al. 2021). The main objective of the
SOLAS Convention is to specify minimum standards for the construction, equipment and operation
of ships, compatible with their safety (Engtrø, 2022). Flag States are responsible for ensuring that
ships under their flag comply with its requirements, and several certificates are prescribed in the
Convention as proof that this has been done (Campara et al. 2018). Control provisions also allow
Contracting Governments to inspect ships of other Contracting States if there are clear grounds for
believing that the ship and its equipment do not substantially comply with the requirements of the
Convention. This procedure is known as port State control (Gagatsia, 2007).
17.2.6 Marine Protected Areas: Territorial Water and Maritime Zones

Act, 1974
The important legislation in the South and Southeast Asia region relates to marine parks and reserves
and continues the tradition of dealing with them in the context of fisheries and environmental legis-
lation (Agardy et al. 2011). The conservation, use, and exploitation of marine resources is provided
for under the Territorial Water and Maritime Zones Act, 1974. According to the provisions in this
Act, conservation zones may be established to protect marine resources from indiscriminate exploit-
ation, depletion, or destruction (Islam et al. 2017). At present, there is no legal provision for the
management of coastal zones.
17.2.7 The Need to Develop the Marine Environment Conservation Act 2004

As example considering the regional scale shows that in 2004, the government of Bangladesh drafted
a Marine Environment Conservation Act, which were placed in the national parliament assembly
for consideration after necessary scrutiny (Karim, 2019; Berkey and Williams, 2018). According
to the Bangladesh Maritime Zones Act, 2018 (Draft) and under section 21, the owner or master or
agent or the occupier of a ship is bound to report about discharges of oil or pollutants to the relevant
authorities (Edu, 2011; Karim, 2016). Many different government Departments and devolved
administrations have responsibility for regulating different activities and protecting the marine envir-
onment. In particular, the waters around Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland out to 12 nautical
479
TABLE 17.4
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)
Is the Main International Convention Covering Prevention of Pollution of the Marine
Environment by Ships from Operational or Accidental Causes
Offshore Platforms and

Ships Outside Special All Ships Within 500 m
Type of Garbage Areas Ships Within Special Area of Such Platforms
Food wastes comminuted or Discharge permitted ≥3 nm Discharge permitted ≥12 nm Discharge permitted
ground from the nearest land from the nearest land and en ≥12 nm from the
and en route route nearest land
Food wastes not comminuted Discharge permitted Discharge prohibited Discharged prohibited
or ground ≥12 nm from the nearest
land and en route
Cargo residues not Discharge permitted Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
contained in wash water ≥12 nm from the nearest
land and en route
Cargo residues contained in Discharge permitted Discharge only permitted in Discharge prohibited
wash water ≥12 nm from the nearest specific circumstance and
land and en route ≥12 nm from the nearest land
and en route
Cleaning agents and Discharge permitted Discharge only permitted in Discharge prohibited
additives’ contained in specific circumstanced and
cargo hold wash water ≥12 nm from the nearest land
and en route
Cleaning agents and Discharge permitted Discharge permitted Discharge prohibited
additives’ contained in
deck and external surfaces
wash water
Animal carcasses Discharge permitted as far Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
from the nearest land as
possible and en route
All other garbage including Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
plastics, domestic wastes,
cooking oil, incinerator
ashes, operational wastes,
and fishing gear
Source: Bergmeijer, 1992; Sheavly and Register, 2007; Campara et al. 2018; Carpenter, 2019.
miles are territorial seas and are the responsibility of the respective devolved administrations (Simas
et al. 2015).
17.2.8 The Coastal Zone Policy 2005

The Coastal Zone Policy (CZP) 2005 with its eight development objectives forms a comprehen-
sive framework for ensuring environmental friendly activities in coastal areas along with sustain-
able development (Rey-Valette et al. 2007). The Coastal Zone Policy (CZP) builds on the relevant
segments on coastal issues and explicates them in a manner that provides direction for realizing the
objectives of the policy (Rahman, 2006). The policy also prescribes provisions to control pollution
on the coast to minimize environmental degradation.
480
17.3 CHALLENGES TO MARINE REGIME CREATION FOR THE

MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT
Climate change is reducing the productivity of marine fisheries globally. Regional impacts are espe-
cially pronounced, with some regions experiencing large gains in productivity whilst others are
experiencing large losses (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2019). Climate change is significantly altering
the ability for marine fisheries to provide food and income for people around the world (Shukla
et al. 2019). These changes are commonly viewed as occurring through impacts on either the dis-
tribution of fish stocks (namely, where fish can be caught and by whom) or the productivity of fish
stocks (namely, how much fish can be caught) (Bakun and Broad, 2003). In general, productivity is
predicted to decrease in tropical and temperate regions and increase toward the poles (Lotze et al.
2019) as marine organisms shift their distributions to maintain their preferred temperatures (Pinsky
et al. 2013; Poloczanska et al. 2013; Poloczanska et al. 2016). These regional shifts in productivity,
range and fishing opportunity are likely to result in regional discrepancies in food and profits from
fisheries (Lam et al. 2016), with tropical developing countries and small island developing states
exhibiting the greatest vulnerability to the climate change (Allison et al. 2009; Blasiak et al. 2017;
Guillotreau et al. 2012).
• Ocean warming is expected to raise mortality rates and lower productivity for higher-trophic-
level species (bivalves, finfish, and crustaceans) (Lacoue-Labarthe et al. 2016).
• Sea level rise will increase the intrusion of saline water into deltas and estuaries comprom-
ising brackish-water aquaculture (Bricheno et al. 2021) and shifting shoreline morphology
could reduce habitat availability (bivalves, finfish, crustaceans).
• Increasing storm strength and frequency pose risks to infrastructure (De Silva, 2012),
and increased weather variability has been associated with lower profits (bivalves, finfish,
crustaceans) (Li et al. 2014).
• Ocean acidification impedes the calcification of mollusc shells (Gazeau et al. 2013) resulting
in reduced recruitment, higher mortality (Barton et al. 2012; Green et al. 2013) and increased
vulnerability to disease and parasites (bivalves).
• Increasing rainfall will raise the turbidity and nutrient loading of rivers, potentially causing
more harmful algal blooms (HABs) (Islam et al. 2012) that reduce production and threaten
human health (bivalves, finfish, crustaceans) (Himes-Cornell et al. 2013; Rosa et al. 2014).
Every climatic event can have a range of harmful effects on the resources of coastal areas. Every
year, many types of natural disaster occur in coastal regions (Mirza, 2003; Wenhai et al. 2019)). It
brings both economic and environmental losses to countries. Every coastal country’s peoples earn
their livelihood using the ocean resources and this also enlarges the blue economy (Barbesgaard,
2018). In a particular season of annual cyclones in the ocean there is damage to the coastal infra-
structure, human casualties and degradation of the environmental balance. Melting of the ice
impacts sea level rise, thus increasing the possibility of regular flooding and the degradation of eco-
system services in mangrove areas (Bax et al. 2022). Similarly, regular erosion of land in coastal
areas results in the loss of flora and fauna. Sometimes cyclones produce tidal surges in coastal
areas (Sigren et al. 2014). As a result of these tidal surges,saline intrusion increases on coastal soil
and water. Saline intrusion impacts on crops and aquaculture. Floods also create damage by way
of tidal surges. Table 17.5 shows the key sources of marine regime creation challenges, environ-
mental forcing factors and the magnitudes of impacts from natural and anthropogenic interference
to marine ecosystems.
Of the natural resources in the marine environment, the second-largest ocean-related economic
sector was tourism in 2010, next to offshore oil and gas (Hussain et al. 2014; OECD, 2016). The
blue economy sectors and ocean tourism are projected to be the top contributor to ocean industry
by 2030 in terms of production value, at which point it will account for 26% of the ocean-based
481
TABLE 17.5
Key Source of Marine Regime Creation Challenges, Environmental Forcing Factors
and Magnitudes Impacts from Natural and Anthropogenic Interference to the Marine
Ecosystems
Key Sources Environmental Forcing Factors (EFF) Magnitude of Impacts
Nuclear and power transmission Tailings and water pollution Marine ecosystem threats and species
thrashing
Oil and gas exploration, dredging Seismic effects, high level sound, oil Contain toxic agents, namely, methanol
spills
Microplastic increasingly leads Disturbance of the oceanic Adversely affects environmental and
environment human health
Commercial marine shipping Waste dumping, oil spills and ship Water pollution, toxicity, species missing
groundings
Overfishing and Aquaculture Imbalance in productivity Eutrophication and algal blooms
Highway and transportation Habitat destruction and noise Marine fish and mammals shifted and
pollution killed
Hydroelectric power generation Sound pollution and fish/mammals Endangered fish and mammals
lost
Military step and navigation research Ranges and training areas conflict, Geopolitical crisis and cold war,
hazards pollution
Oceanographic survey and Habitat stress and noise pollution Benthic fauna endangered, fish killed
experiments
Sonar and air guns for seismic Habitat dispersal and species Habitat destruction and species loss
surveys movement
Laying submarine cables Habitat disturbance and broad- Harmful algal blooms and toxin
spectrum dispersal produced
Underwater habitat and sea lab Habitat disturbance and full dispersal Long term marine ecosystem effects
of species
Underwater Robotics (AUV, ROV) Disturbance and harassment Species threats and loss, fish killed
Subsurface and seabed aquaculture Pollution and toxicity increased Mammals and benthic species threats
Tourism and recreational activities Human interference and habitat Ecosystems threats and species
reduction overwhelmed
Pipelines, tunnel borers and drilling Chemical pollution, noise and Continuing effects and biodiversity
sediment erosion threats
economy, compared with 21% for oil and gas (OECD, 2016). Particularly in Asia and Africa, ocean
tourism dwarfs the contribution of industrial capture fisheries, which constitute only 1% of ocean-
based industries’ production value (not accounting for artisanal fisheries, which are a critical com-
ponent of the economies of Asia and Africa) (Raheem, 2022). Ocean resource exploitative activities
include beach tourism, recreational fishing, swimming, diving, whale watching, and taking cruises,
amongst. These, and possibly other blue economy sectors will be the emerging economic sectors in
near future, in the world economy (Table 17.6) (Hall, 2001). Ocean tourism’s global direct added
value was estimated at US$390 billion in 2010, directly providing seven million full-time jobs. In
addition, the ocean is a source of recreation for millions of people in the developed and developing
worlds (Ghermandi and Nunes, 2013; Arlinghaus et al. 2019).
Ocean tourism directly supports the livelihoods of millions of people and the economies of
the developing tropics and many small island developing states (Lee et al. 2015). For example,
482
TABLE 17.6
Climate Change Extreme Events with Their Impacts on Marine Resources and Options for
Resilience Building to Climate Change and Enhancing Blue Economy
Climate Change Options for Resilience Building for

Events Impacts on Marine Resources Enhancing Blue Economy
Warming Coral bleaching, species migration, biodiversity Mangrove plantation and restoration,
loss, altered species life style, disruption in sea grass, salt marsh and mussel bed
marine food chain conservation, coral reef protection and
Cyclone Loss of coastal resources, degradation of coastal oyster reef development
habitats, loss of infrastructure facilities
Sea Level Reduction in photosynthesis, disruption in the
mangrove ecosystem
Droughts Crop loss Plantation and crop insurance
Erosion Clogging of air bladder of fish, mortality of the Mangrove plantation and restoration,
species, loss of coastal resources, degradation of sea grass, salt marsh and mussel bed
coastal habitats, loss of infrastructure facilities conservation, coral reef protection and
oyster reef development
Tidal surge Loss of coastal resources, degrade coastal habitats, Mangrove plantation and restoration,
loss of infrastructure facilities sea grass, salt marsh and mussel bed
conservation, coral reef protection and
oyster reef development
Saline water intrusion Crop damage, shift of species habitat Mangrove plantation and restoration, crop
Flood Crop damage, loss of infrastructure, loss of habitats insurance
Change in precipitation Crop loss Plantation and crop insurance
Ocean acidification Biodiversity loss, species migration, biodiversity Mangrove plantation and restoration,
loss, altered species life style, disruption in marine spatial planning and marine
marine food chain protected area declaration
Source: Adopted from Techera, 2018; Sarker et al. 2019; Karani and Failler, 2020; Bax et al. 2022.
coral reef tourism alone contributes over 40% of the gross domestic products of Maldives,
Palau, and St. Barthelemy (Spalding et al. 2017). Despite the importance of ocean tourism
in the economy, data and research on the impacts of climate change in the tourism sector are
limited (Scott et al. 2012).
17.4 POLICY OPTIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION FOR BLUE ECONOMY

SECTORS
International maritime law stands on four strong pillars, namely, the Law of Sovereignty of Nations,
the Law of Freedom of the High seas, the Law of Freedom of Contract, and the Legal Personality
of a Ship (Khobragade et al. 2021). Each country is sovereign within its own political boundaries,
in which its laws apply. Maritime law, also known as admiralty law, is a body of laws, conventions,
and treaties that govern private maritime business and other nautical matters, such as shipping or
offenses occurring on open water (Collins and Hassan, 2009; Rogers, 2019).
International rules, governing the use of the oceans and seas, are known as the Law of the Sea
(De Lucia, 2019). With one of the industry’s main concerns being the safety of crew and personnel
onboard vessels, SOLAS ‘Safety of Life at Sea’ is generally regarded as the most important of all
international Conventions (Table 17.7) (Joseph and Dalaklis, 2021).
483
TABLE 17.7
The SDGs Goal 14-Conserve and Sustainably Use the Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources
for Sustainable Blue Economy and Others Development
SDGs Goal 14 and Sustainable Global Blue Economy: Policy Options References
14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, from land- Cordova and Nurhati (2019)
based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution. Smail et al. (2020)
14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid Segui et al. (2020)
significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and act for Halkos and Gkampoura (2021)
their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans. Virto (2018)
14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through Tilbrook et al. (2019)
enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels. Scott (2018)
14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported, Hurd et al. (2018)
and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science- Friess et al. (2019)
based management plans, to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least to Singh et al. (2018)
levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological Nash et al. (2020)
characteristics.
14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10% of coastal and marine areas, consistent with Dudley et al. (2017)
national and international law and based on the best available scientific information. Friess et al. (2019)
14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to Schmidt (2018)
overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported, Oh (2018)
and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing Yingying (2017)
that appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and
least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization
fisheries subsidies negotiation.
14.7 By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least Nisa et al. (2022)
developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through Singh et al. (2018)
sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture, and tourism Griffin et al. (2019)
14. a. Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine Nisa et al. (2022)
technology, adopting the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria Singh et al. (2018)
and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, to improve ocean health and Griffin et al. (2019)
to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing Morgera and Ntona (2018)
countries, in particular Small Island Developing States and least developed countries.
14.b. Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets. Zelasney et al. (2020)
14.c Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by Cormier and Elliott (2017)
implementing international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on Virto (2018)
the Law of the Sea, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and Mustafa et al. (2018)
sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of ‘The Rickels et al. (2019)
future we want’.
17.5 ACHIEVEMENTS FOR THE BLUE ECONOMY UNDER THE LONDON

CONVENTION AND ITS PROTOCOL
The unregulated dumping and incineration activities that developed in the late 1960s and early
1970s have been halted (Louis, 2004). Parties to the Convention agreed to control dumping by
implementing regulatory programs to assess the need for, and the potential impact of, dumping
(Vare et al. 2018). They eliminated dumping of certain types of waste and, gradually, made this
regime more restrictive by promoting sound waste management and pollution prevention (Ray,
484
2008). Prohibitions are in force for the dumping of industrial and radioactive wastes, as well as for
incineration at sea of industrial waste and sewage sludge (Fytili and Zabaniotou, 2008).
• Guidance has been developed for the development of action lists and action levels for dredged
material which assists regulators and policy makers on the selection of action lists and the
development of action levels for dredged material intended for disposal at sea (Apitz and
Agius, 2013). It is also remarked on the potential regulatory outcomes from changes to chem-
istry protocols in the Canadian disposal at sea program (Selin, 2013). An action list is a set
of chemicals of concern, biological responses of concern, or other characteristics that can be
used for screening dredged material for their potential effects on human health and the marine
environment (Heise et al. 2020). On the other hand, the action levels establish thresholds
that provide decision points to determine whether sediments can be disposed of at bottom of
the ocean.
• Advice is available concerning the management of spoilt cargoes onboard vessels, best man-
agement practices for the removal of anti-fouling coatings from ships, and placement of arti-
ficial reefs (VanderZwaag, 2015).
• A technical co-operation and assistance programme has been established to assist with cap-
acity building for waste assessment and management in marine system (Alam and Faruque,
2014), and in developing national regulations to comply with and implementation of the
London Protocol and other maritime regimes (Stokke, 2018).
• As a remarkable mater is that the contracting parties to the London Protocol of marine regime
have recently taken ground-breaking steps to mitigate the impacts of increasing concentrations
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by amending the Protocol to regulate carbon capture and
sequestration in sub-sea geological formations (Ringbom et al. 2018).
• London Convention and Protocol Contracting Parties have also adopted an ‘Assessment
Framework for Scientific Research Involving Ocean Fertilization’ to guide Parties on how to
assess proposals for ocean fertilization research which provides detailed steps for completion
of an environmental assessment, including risk management and monitoring (Broder, 2017).
• Parties have developed a wealth of experience regarding marine pollution prevention issues,
interpretation of the Convention and Protocol, licensing, compliance, and field monitoring
activities (Gulas et al. 2017).
17.6 MAJOR PRIORITIES FOR A SUSTAINABLE GLOBAL BLUE ECONOMY

For much too long, the ocean has been out of sight, out of mind and out of luck. Attention has been
scant from governments, funding agencies, financial institutions, food-security organizations, and
the climate-mitigation community (Konar and Ding, 2020; Lubchenco et al. 2020). Nations usually
manage their waters sector by sector, or issue by issue. The resulting hodgepodge of policies fails
to consider collective impacts. It has been mentioned by US Secretary of State, John Kerry (2014)
(Goldenberg, 2014), that ‘Protecting our oceans is not a luxury. It is a necessity that contributes
to our economy, our climate, and our way of life. Working together, we can change the current
course and chart a sustainable future.’ It is essential to standardize our methods and definitions for
valuing the coasts and ocean. The world’s population depends upon the oceans for its very existence
(Rockström and Klum, 2015). The ocean regulates our climate and our weather. It generates
half of the oxygen we breathe (Andrews et al. 2014). It provides food and income for billions of
people. Covering almost three quarters of the planet, the ocean is the life support system for Planet
Earth. They express this life support as ‘eco-system services’ provisioning (for example, food,
oxygen, and water), regulating (for example, climate/temperature regulation, and coastal stabiliza-
tion), supporting (for example, pollution filtration, waste processing, and transportation of goods),
and cultural services (for example, aesthetics, recreation, fun, and inspiration) (Raheem, 2022).
485
FIGURE 17.2 The SWOT Analysis shows the prospective Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats
for enhancing global blue economy in the marine environment.
Figure 17.2 is a SWOT Analysis that shows the prospective Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,
and Threats for enhancing Global Blue Economy in the marine environment.
Climate change impacts on the marine ecosystem will differ by the sea and oceans locations,
territory, characteristics and dynamics of the oceans. By exploring climate change impact at the
national level for fisheries, aquaculture and reef tourism, countries can assess what they stand to
gain or lose due to climate change and understand how they might make use of these predictions to
inform their investments and actions (Hoffman, 2005; Zougmoré, et al. 2016). Implementing certain
key strategies will help build socioecological resilience to climate change and ensure the continued,
or improved, provision of functions and services from the ocean, especially for the most vulnerable
coastal nations (Hertel and Rosch, 2010). These strategies include the following:
• A focus on equity: Climate change is likely to cause and exacerbate global inequities, redu-
cing resilience and thereby likely to worsen outcomes under all climate change scenarios
(Lomborg, 2020). It will thus be profoundly important to examine the equity implications of
all new and existing management decisions across all three sectors.
• Looking forward: The future of the ocean economy is expected to drastically change given
climate change, and the nature and magnitude of these changes can be highly variable (Sellers
and Ebi, 2018). Each of these three sectors will need to work to understand risks and anticipate
changes, and to build precautionary and adaptive strategies into their management decisions
(Figure 17.3).
• Cooperating across boundaries: As suitable habitats shift and change, marine species will
move across jurisdictional boundaries and regional, national and international cooperative
agreements will be necessary to ensure that these species are well-managed, and that the
benefits are fairly distributed during and after the transitions (Roberts et al. 2017).
The steps for mitigation of and adaptation strategies for a sustainable blue economy are:
• It is needed to address the current impacts of climate change on the ocean including signifi-
cantly cutting emissions, up-scaling proper protection for marine ecosystems to retain resist-
ance and rebuild resilience (Wilson and Forsyth, 2018) , as well as implementing sustainable
practices for all industries and uses across the oceans.
• The coastal states are well positioned to make use of MPAs for ecosystem-based adaptation
and mitigation as a ‘no-regret’ climate change strategy (Lo, 2016). The Integrated Coastal
486
FIGURE 17.3 A DPSIR framework for the integrating marine and sustainable global blue economy.
Zone Management (ICZM) and Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) can be used by countries to
improve the management of MPAs and help meet multiple objectives (Ramieri et al. 2019),
including sustainable development, biodiversity conservation as well as climate change adap-
tation and mitigation.
• Adaptation strategies, including National Adaptation Action Plans (NAPA), as well as
mitigation efforts such as REDD+(Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation) are needed for implementation in developing countries like Bangladesh.
Also, the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement, pro-
vide opportunities to use MPAs as an implementation tool for ecosystem-based adap-
tation and mitigation (Bädeker, 2021) and are very useful to overcome climate impact
challenges.
• Climate finance mechanisms enable increased support for the implementation of marine and
coastal ecosystem-based adaptation and mitigation (Wamsler et al. 2016). For example, the
Green Climate Fund (GCF) offers an opportunity for developing countries to receive support
for mitigation and adaptation efforts, with a focus on biodiversity conservation and protected
area management.
17.7 MODEL BUILDING AND POLICY PROCESS ANALYSIS

There are many prospects and challenges to the perspective of the blue economy such as frequent
floods, marine pollution including ocean acidification and blue carbon, lack of trained personnel,
plans and laws, poor ocean governance and political support, and so forth (Isoard and Winograd,
2013; Bir et al. 2020). The blue economy has diverse components, including established traditional
ocean industries such as fisheries, tourism, and maritime transport (Spalding, 2016), but also new
and emerging activities, such as offshore renewable energy, aquaculture, seabed extractive activ-
ities, and marine resources management (Voyer and van Leeuwen, 2019; Baltov, 2020). Considering
these complex issues, the proposed Marine Environmental Management and Adaptation Strategies
(MEMAS) Model could be the pathway to overcoming the hurdles of the marine regime creation
challenges to enhance the global blue economy sectors (Table 17.8).
487
TABLE 17.8
Marine Regime Creations Factors and Challenges for Sustainable Development Blue
Economy and Marine Management
Factors Challenges
Leadership Yes, US (NGO pressure and after accidents)

Science Some debate, but not really an issue in negotiations
Problem framing Shared sense of environmental problem and visibility of pollution, industry concerns could
be overcome
Governance principles No, only technical cooperation for implementation in developing countries
Incentives participation International activity, competitiveness and threat of unilateralism
Source: Cohen et al. 2019; Farcy et al. 2019.
17.7.1 Marine Environmental Management and Adaptation Strategies

(MEMAS) Model
Climate change and ocean acidification continue to have serious, adverse impacts on the marine
environment with significant implications for people (Guinotte and Fabry, 2008). Several mitiga-
tion approaches are being developed and implemented in order to achieve a significant and rapid
decrease in GHG emissions (Koch et al. 2013). Coastal ecosystem-based mitigation activities can
be used alongside other land use changes and forestry activities to reduce ongoing emissions and
to sequester new carbon (Kroeker et al. 2013). Effectively, apply carbon and coastal management,
conservation and restoration strategies, including REDD+, NAMAs, MPAs and integrated coastal
zone management, to increase the world’s natural coastal carbon sinks (mangroves, salt marshes and
seagrasses) and support other ecosystem functions and services (Dupont et al. 2008). It is to build
a model, in collaboration with field studies, to develop tools for improving and enhancing manage-
ment plans, including optimal scenarios for carbon allocation, CO2 uptake and carbon management
schemes.
17.7.2 Coding and Conceptualizing the Parameters for the MEMAS Model

To build the MEMAS model, Table 17.9: Identification and Processes of Major Parameters for
developing the proposed model, is helpful.
In Table 17.9 are shown the identification, definitions and processes of the major parameters
for the MEMAS Model. Application of the model based ecosystem approach will help to reach
a balance in the conservation of marine biodiversity to enhance the global blue economy. It is
based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of selective
major and minor influencing parameters which encompass the essential processes, functions and
interactions among organisms and the marine environment. In Table 17.10 is shown the Selective
Parameters Process and Functions: Marine Policy-Regime Creation Challenges for Enhancing
the Blue Economy in Global to Regional Aspects to build a Marine Environmental Management
and Adaptation Strategies (MEMAS) Model (Table 17.11). In this model, six major indicators are
selected, that are highly challenging, to manage the marine ecosystem for developing a sustainable
blue economy. Additionally, 30 minor influencing parameters are selected for the MEMAS model
as the in-situ challenges to overcoming marine ecosystem management.
488
TABLE 17.9
Identification, Definitions and Processes of Major Parameters for MEMAS Model
Definition of Major Parameters Coding Process
Constraint of National Sovereignty CNS A fundamental principle of international law is that a state
can generally control all activities within the territory over
which it has sovereignty
Collective Action and Free Riding Problem CAF The free-rider problem because a person can enjoy the
benefits of the good without having to pay for it
Conflict of Developed and Developing Countries CDD The main concept of conflict is, indeed, synonym of
political, economic, and social instability
Rule Making in the Absence in the Government RMA An absence or lack of regulation
Affects Different Countries and Actors Differently DCA Working differently in fragile and conflict-affected situations
Lack of Integration of Marine Regime and IMR Understanding regime shifts is thus critical for marine
Policies natural resource management
TABLE 17.10
Selective Parameters Process and Functions: Marine Policy-Regime Creation Challenges for
Enhancing the Blue Economy in Global to Regional Aspects
Code Parameters process, definition and functions Parameters/Criteria/Factors

CNS Constraint of National Sovereignty Major Influencing Factor
CNSa Regional Coordination Mechanisms Minor Influencing Factor
CNSb Pan African Fisheries Policy Minor Influencing Factor
CNSc Limitation of International Marine Law Minor Influencing Factor
CNSd Negotiations Imposed by Political Practice Minor Influencing Factor
CNSe States must Abide by International Law and Conventions Minor Influencing Factor
CAF Collective Action and Free Riding Problems in Ocean Major Influencing Factor
CAFa Climate Change Impact on Marine Ecosystem Minor Influencing Factor
CAFb Biodiversity Loss and Resource Depletion Minor Influencing Factor
CAFc Waste Accumulation and Environmental Degradation Minor Influencing Factor
CAFd Dumping of Plastic Wastes into the Ocean Minor Influencing Factor
CAFe Utilize Public Goods without Paying for Them. Minor Influencing Factor
CDD Conflict of Developed and Developing Countries Major Influencing Factor
CDDa Worsening State Services Minor Influencing Factor
CDDb Widening access to finance and business Minor Influencing Factor
CDDc Establishing investment support agencies or services Minor Influencing Factor
CDDd Growth of the economy or improved police force Minor Influencing Factor
CDDe Conflict with meaningful opportunities Minor Influencing Factor
RMG Rule Making in the Absence in the Government Major Influencing Factor
RMGa Environment data collection and testing. Minor Influencing Factor
RMGb MoU between the sub regional institutions Minor Influencing Factor
RMGc Clean up of oil and chemical spills Minor Influencing Factor
RMGd Scientific research on species, plant life and reefs Minor Influencing Factor
RMGe Conservation and restoration of coastal and ocean habitats Minor Influencing Factor
ADC Affects Different Countries and Actors Differently Major Influencing Factor
ADCa Significantly influence their foreign policy behavior Minor Influencing Factor
ADCb Actors are promoted international relations Minor Influencing Factor
ADCc Role of state and non-state marine actors Minor Influencing Factor
ADCd Increasing international interdependence and relations Minor Influencing Factor
489

Selective Parameters Process and Functions: Marine Policy-Regime Creation Challenges for
Enhancing the Blue Economy in Global to Regional Aspects
Code Parameters process, definition and functions Parameters/Criteria/Factors
ADCe Allocate funds for their participation Minor Influencing Factor
IMR Lack of Integration of Marine Regime and Policies Major Influencing Factor
IMRa Cross-cutting issues in policymaking Minor Influencing Factor
IMRb Encouraging Member States for Enhancing Blue Economy Minor Influencing Factor
IMRc Policy integration is a matter of coordination. Minor Influencing Factor
IMRd Implementation of administration and evaluation Minor Influencing Factor
IMRe Policy violations by the stakeholders Minor Influencing Factor
TABLE 17.11
Matrix of the Marine Environmental Management and Adaptation Strategies
(MEMAS) Model
Major/Minor
Parameters CNS CAF CDD RMG ADC IMR
CNSa CNS × CNSa CAF × CNSa CDD × CNSa RMG × CNSa ADC × CNSa IMR × CNSa
CNSb CNS × CNSb CAF × CNSb CDD × CNSb RMG × CNSb ADC × CNSb IMR × CNSb
CNSc CNS × CNSc CAF × CNSc CDD × CNSc RMG × CNSc ADC × CNSc IMR × CNSc
CNSd CNS × CNSd CNS × CNSd CDD × CNSd RMG × CNSd ADC × CNSd IMR × CNSd
CNSe CNS × CNSe CAF × CNSe CDD × CNSe RMG × CNSe ADC × CNSe IMR × CNSe
CAFa CNS × CAFa CAF × CAFa CDD × CAFa RMG × CAFa ADC × CAFa IMR × CAFa
CAFb CNS × CAFb CAF × CAFb CDD × CAFb RMG × CAFb ADC × CAFb IMR × CAFb
CAFc CNS × CAFc CAF × CAFc CDD × CAFc RMG × CAFc ADC × CAFc IMR × CAFc
CAFd CNS × CAFd CAF× CAFd CDD × CAFd RMG × CAFd ADC × CAFd IMR × CAFd
CAFe CNS × CAFe CAF × CAFe CDD × CAFe RMG × CAFe ADC × CAFe IMR × CAFe
CDDa CNS × CDDa CAF × CDDa CDD × CDDa RMG × CDDa ADC × CDDa IMR × CDDa
CDDb CNS × CDDb CAF × CDDb CDD × CDDb RMG × CDDb ADC × CDDb IMR × CDDb
CDDc CNS × CDDc CAF × CDDc CDD × CDDc RMG × CDDc ADC × CDDc IMR × CDDc
CDDd CNS × CDDd CAF × CDDd CDD × CDDd RMG × CDDd ADC × CDDd IMR × CDDd
CDDe CNS × CDDe CAF × CDDe CDD × CDDe RMG × CDDe ADC × CDDe IMR × CDDe
RMGa CNS × RMGa CAF × RMGa CDD × RMGa RMG × RMGa ADC × RMGa IMR × RMGa
RMGb CNS × RMGb CAF × RMGb CDD × RMGb RMG × RMGb ADC × RMGb IMR × RMGb
RMGc CNS × RMGc CAF × RMGc CDD × RMGc RMG × RMGc ADC × RMGc IMR × RMGc
RMGd CNS × RMGd CAF × RMGd CDD × RMGd RMG × RMGd ADC × RMGd IMR × RMGd
RMGe CNS × RMGe CAF × RMGe CDD × RMGe RMG × RMGe ADC × RMGe IMR × RMGe
ADCa CNS × ADCa CAF × ADCa CCD × ADCa RMG × ADCa ADC × ADCa IMR × ADCa
ADCb CNS × ADCb CAF × ADCb CCD × ADCb RMG × ADCb ADC × ADCb IMR × ADCb
ADCc CNS × ADCc CAF × ADCc CCD × ADCc RMG × ADCc ADC × ADCc IMR × ADCc
ADCd CNS × ADCd CAF × ADCd CCD × ADCd RMG × ADCd ADC × ADCd IMR × ADCd
ADCe CNS × ADCe CAF × ADCe CCD × ADCe RMG × ADCe CNS × ADCe IMR × ADCe
IMRa CNS × IMRa CAF × IMRa CCD × IMRa RMG × IMRa ADC × IMRa IMR × IMRa
IMRb CNS × IMRb CAF × IMRb CCD × IMRb RMG × IMRb ADC × IMRb IMR × IMRb
IMRc CNS × IMRc CAF × IMRc CCD × IMRc RMG × IMRc ADC × IMRc IMR × IMRc
IMRd CNS × IMRd CAF × IMRd CCD × IMRd RMG × IMRd ADC × IMRd IMR × IMRd
IMRe CNS × IMRe CAF × IMRe CCD × IMRe RMG × IMRe ADC × IMRe IMR × IMRe
490
17.8 CONCLUSION
Many causes of pollution including sewage and fertilizers contain nutrients such as nitrates and
phosphates. In excess levels, nutrients overstimulate the growth of aquatic plants and algae. Excessive
growth of these types of organisms consequently uses up dissolved oxygen as they decompose and
blocks light to deeper waters in the ocean. The rapidly increasing variety and number of offshore
uses and the potential for conflicts between competing interests operating in the same area will
increase the need for information concerning the nature and extent of offshore activities. In today’s
highly interdependent world, efforts to ensure national security, maintain environmental quality and
manage the use of marine resources will require unprecedented awareness of activities, trends, and
anomalies in the maritime domain, including those that may require some intervention. Politicians
must think of sustainable development rather than economic expansion. Conservation strategies
must become more widely accepted, and people must learn that energy use can be dramatically
diminished without sacrificing comfort.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We have reviewed many books, articles, blogs and websites, I would like to express my gratitude to
all the anonymous authors and contributors
In addition, I would like to express my thanks to the SUMITOMO Foundation, Tokyo, Japan for
providing financing assistance for this study on the global blue economy and seafood production
practices observed in Japanese tradition.
Also, I would like to thank the Faculty of Social of Science, Jahangirnagar University, Savar,
Dhaka-1342, and the University Grants Commission (UGC) of Bangladesh for their financial
support to continue my research on the seafood cultivation mechanisms and enhancing the blue
economy in Bangladesh.
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501
Index
Note: Figures are indicated by italics. Tables are indicated by bold.
A Central Bank of Sri Lanka (CBSL) 234, 239

Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) 301
Abu Dhabi Declaration 415, 416
Central Indian Ridge (CIR) 289, 293
algae 233, 245, 249, 264, 265, 278
cephalopods 228
Amsterdam-St. Paul 11
Ceylon Fishery Harbor Corporation (CFHC) 236
Andaman and Nicobar Island 301
challenges 40, 42, 53, 59, 61, 65–9, 148, 154, 166, 181,
Antarctica, 224, 225
184, 186, 348, 350
Antarctic Australian Ridge (AAR) 295
China 292, 297
Atlantic Ocean 297–8
climate change 42, 46, 63, 222, 223, 247, 249, 250, 251,
Atlantis, 103, 104
310, 370, 384
Atlantis II Deep 286, 295, 299
climate control 429
aquaculture 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 18–20, 62–5, 69, 77, 84,
climate-resilient 474
87, 88, 91, 148, 150, 153, 156, 159, 161, 162, 165, 168,
coastal 35, 37, 40, 42, 46, 48, 51, 53, 55, 57, 60, 61,
173, 178, 181, 185, 187, 228, 230, 232, 233, 246, 247,
63, 65, 69
250, 252, 263, 271, 274, 312–14, 316, 317, 322, 326,
closed containment tank 106, 111–13, 120
362, 363, 365, 367, 370, 371, 374, 375–7, 414, 415, 417,
coastal development 472
420, 432, 433, 474, 480, 481, 483, 486
coastal ecosystem 260–3, 274, 276
aquaculture production 312, 317
coastal ecosystem 418, 431, 433
Aquapod 104, 105
cobalt 343, 348
Asian countries 414, 416
co-location 104, 120
Asian Development Bank 233
community engagement 222
Asia-pacific Fishery Commission 248
COMRA 292
autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) 294
conference 415, 416, 425, 431, 435
connectivity 61, 63, 67, 81, 82, 84–9, 92
B
conserve 40, 49, 52, 54
Bangladesh 364, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376–8, 380, 382–5 consumption 362, 364, 365, 376
Baochu Pagoda 293–4 contamination 422, 424, 427, 430
Bay of Bengal 266, 268 contractors 297–8
biodiversity 40, 41, 49, 51, 54, 56, 59, 63, 65 copper 343, 348
biological resources 228 coral reef 264, 265, 268
biomass production 311 COSPAR 94, 123, 124
biota 293, 298–9 Covid-19 pandemic 473
biotechnology 148, 150, 153, 165, 179, 181, 185 Cox’s Bazar 326
Bismarck Sea 299 crustaceans 228, 249
blue carbon 148, 166, 167, 263, 271, 272, 277 cultivation scenarios 322, 324–8
blue economy, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11–13, 14, 15, 16, cyanobacteria 313, 315, 316
17–21, 23, 24, 37, 40–2, 44, 49, 59, 61–7, 69, 71,
147–51, 153–7, 159, 166–71, 176–87, 260, 261, 262, D
263, 270, 272, 273, 274, 276, 278, 297, 301, 363, 364,
Daxi 291–3
373, 374, 375, 377, 378, 380, 385, 414, 415, 416–19,
dead weight tonnage (DWT) 248
422, 424, 426, 428, 430, 431, 433, 434, 436, 472, 473,
Debris Program 431
474, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488,
decapods 228
489, 490
decision- making 474
blue green 313, 315, 316
Deep Ocean Mission 300
Blue Growth Agenda 10
deep sea 260, 265, 269, 270, 275, 343
Blue Growth Farm 121
deep-sea ecosystem 265, 269
Blue Growth Strategy 10
deep sea mining 341
Boomerang Seamount 295
depletion 343, 345, 348
bottom culture 366
Delimitation of the Outer Edge of the Continental Margin
bottom trawl 367, 368
of Sri Lanka (DEOCOM) 226, 228
design challenges 92, 101
C
developing countries 364, 365, 372, 385
carbon reserves 271 Digital Marine Fisheries Resource Mapping (DMFRM) 384
Carlsberg Ridge (CR) 285, 290, 292 DPSIR framework 319
501
502
502 Index
Dodo 289, 293–4, 297 G

Dragon Horn 296
Duanqiao 288–9, 296–7 Gallieni fracture zone 296
gas and oil 148, 163, 164
E gastropods 228
GEMINO 286
East Pacific Rise (EPR) 294, 298 generalized additive model 85
echinoderms 228, 249 Genghai 124
economic sustainability 222 Geodyn 286
economic value 348 Geological Survey of India (GSI) 298
economics 297, 302 Germany 286, 292, 297
economy finance 15, 16 Giant Offshore 103, 104
ecosystems 35, 37, 40, 42, 49, 52, 55, 57, 59, 63, 67 GIEC 122
ecosystem resilience 222, 223 global climate 266, 270
ecosystem services 2, 9, 343 global economy 414
ecotourism 48, 49, 51, 52, 57, 65 Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) 272
Edmond 289, 293–4, 297 global shrimp exchange 365
EIA 299, 301 global warming 2, 11, 12, 15
elasmobranchs 228 Goa Declaration 301
emerging nations 364 governance 37, 44, 52, 57, 61, 63–5, 67, 68, 71, 247, 253
EMP 299, 301 governance principles 387
energy 37, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 62, 148, 150, 152, 153, 156, Gracillaria edulis 460
163–5, 173, 176, 184–5, 187 Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) 427
enrichment 297 green economy 40
environment 35, 37, 40, 42, 46, 49, 52, 57, 59, 65, 67, 69, gross domestic product (GDP) 302
287–9, 293, 295, 298–9 gross value added (GVA) 301
environmental challenges 92 guidelines 51, 53, 67
environmental impacts 353
environmental management 480, 487, 489 H
environmental sustainability 2–4, 6, 10, 17, 18, 416
epiphytes 463 Hakuho Knoll 294
European countries 319, 328 harvesting 312, 326–8
European fish market 383 harvesting seafood 366, 369, 371
European Green Deal 10 Havfarm 101, 108, 110, 119
eutrophication 421 Hex Box 122, 123
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 225, 247, 226, 228, 286 human health 262, 273
exploitation 286, 297, 299, 301 hurricane 426, 431
exploration 286–7, 292–3, 297, 299, 301 hydrocarbon exploration 239. 240
exploration contracts 346, 347 hydrodynamic modelling 63, 65–9, 77
exposuree 62, 63, 68, 77, 81, 84, 86, 87 hydrothermal vents 287, 296–9
Extended Continental Shelf (ECS/CS) 286
I
F
Iheya North hydrothermal field 298
ferromanganese crusts 348, 350 illegal-unreported-unregulated (IUU) fishing 247, 252
fisheries 40, 51, 53–9, 65, 67, 261, 263, 265, 267, 271, 274, India 286–7, 292, 294, 297–302
276, 277, 414–18, 420, 424, 428, 432, 433 Indian Ocean 285–7, 289, 293, 297, 301
fish pen’s 89, 92–4, 96, 97, 99–101, 103, 105, Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) 247, 287
119, 120 Indian Ocean Rim Countries (IORC) 225, 227, 241, 248, 252
fish welfare 92, 96, 97, 103 Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) 248, 250, 251
flexible collar pens 102 Index of Agreement 69
floating bamboo raft method 457 indomed fracture zone 296
food 10, 311, 314, 315, 319–22, 324–6, 329 Indonesia 287
food and livelihoods 373 InRidge 294–5, 297–8
food security 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 16, 20, 246, 247, 249, 148, 151, intertidal zone 312–14
154, 163, 166, 168, 184, 364, 373, 375, 379, 383 IORS 285–7, 295, 298
FOWT-SFFC 123 ISA 287, 297–9, 301
France 297 isolation 63, 68, 81, 83–7
friable soil 260 institutional integration 222
frozen fish 364, 365, 376 integration 115, 120, 125
FVCOM 64, 89 International Oil Companies (IOCs) 241
503
Index 503
International Seabed Authority (ISA) 341, 345 maritime zones 253

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 418 MARPOL 473, 476, 477, 478, 479
Mauritius 287, 298, 302
J Melville fracture zone 296
MEMAS model 486, 487, 488, 489
Jamaica 286–7
MESO 289, 290, 293, 297
metalliferous sediments 286, 296
K
microalgae 311, 314–16, 319, 320
Kairei 288–9, 293–4, 297–8 Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) 286, 293, 297–9
Kappaphycusalvarezii cultivation 456, 465 Mid-ocean ridges (MOR) 285–7, 293, 295, 300
Korea 297 mineral resources 148, 164, 184, 187, 188, 228, 241
Kyoto Protocol 250, 251 mineral sand deposit 241
monsoon 223, 224, 233
L Mount Jourdanne 293, 296–7, 300
mud crab (Scylla serrate) 230
lagoon 232, 237
Mujin 295
land-based mining 343, 352
Legal and Technical Commission (LTC) 298 N
limestone 228, 244, 245
Liner Shipping Connectivity Index (LSCI) 225 National Adaptation Action Plans (NAPA) 486
lobster (Panulirus Homarus) 230, 252 National Institute of Transforming India (NITI) 301
Logatchev 293 nationaloceanpolicy 66
London convention 476, 477, 483, 484 NCPOR 297
long-monoline method 460 net bag method 460
Longqi 288, 296–7 nickel 352
nonconventional renewable energy (NCRE) 233
M NSENGI 104
nutrition security 310
Madagascar 298
Maldives 298 O
Malaysia 301
management 42, 44, 46, 49, 53, 55, 57–9, 61, 65, 67, 68, 69 OCC 294, 296–7
manganese 352 ocean acidification 486, 487
mangrove forest 260, 266 ocean dumping 472
mariculture 230, 232, 233 ocean economy 2–4, 6, 7, 8, 35, 37, 40, 42, 59, 61, 63,
marine 35, 37, 40–2, 44–6, 49, 51, 54, 55, 57, 59, 62, 63, 65, 67, 71
65, 67–9 ocean energy 268, 275
marine algae 311–13, 316, 326, 327 ocean farm 99, 101, 107, 110, 119
marine biodiversity 414, 416, 417, 428–30 ocean health 428, 435
marine climate 373 ocean thermal energy 249
marine ecosystem services 262, 263, 269 ocean trade 427
marine environment 472, 473, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, ODP 299
480, 484, 485, 486, 487, 489 offshore fish farming 89–92, 96, 100, 101, 106, 110, 111,
marine habitats 260, 262, 267, 269 120, 124, 125
marine life 313, 314 offshore seaweed farming 466
marine organism 262, 268, 278 offshore wind energy 21, 249
marine policy 487, 488, 489 offshore tidal energy 21
marine pollution 19, 23, 418, 420, 422, 424, 427, 432, 436, oil mining 417
472, 473, 476, 477, 483, 484, 486 oil spill 148, 169, 171, 173–5
Marine Protected Areas 54, 55 Okinawa Trough 298
marine regime 480, 481, 484, 486, 487, 488, 489 Onnuri 289, 294
Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) 486 open net pen 90, 91, 93, 106
maritime 147–50, 152, 154–9, 167–71, 173, 174, 176, operational challenges 92, 96
178–81, 183, 185 opportunities 147, 154, 156, 164, 180, 345, 348
maritime activities 260, 261, 270 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
maritime exploration 416 (OECD) 249
maritime history 224 overfishing 371, 372, 385, 418
maritime law 474, 475, 482
P
maritime security 148, 149, 154, 169, 173, 174, 183, 185,
250, 474 Pacific Ocean 297–8
maritime transportation 2, 22, 37, 40, 46 Papua New Guinea 299
504
504 Index
parasite 63, 87 seaweed export 322, 323, 324, 325, 327

pathways 148, 154, 156, 175 seaweed farming 271, 316–21, 328
pelagia 288, 295, 297–8 SEPA 65, 67, 79, 88, 91
pelagic 230, 247 Seychelles 298
PESTLE 344 shellfish 362, 363, 367
Petroleum Resources Development Secretariat (PRDS) 241 shipbreaking 148, 155, 159
plastic 242, 250, 427 shipbuilding 2, 22, 148, 150, 155, 159, 168
PLOCAN, 120, 121 shipping 262, 263, 269, 270, 273, 276
Poland 297 shrimp 362, 365, 367, 368, 374, 376, 377, 385
pole long line tubenet method 458 shrimp (Penaeus monodon) 230, 232, 252
pole monoline method 457 SIDS 262, 270, 271, 275, 277
policies 37, 40, 42, 53, 59, 67 single rope floating raft method 456
pollution 247, 249–52 skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) 230
polymetallic nodules 341, 343, 352 small scale fisheries 4
polymetallic manganese nodules 286, 300 society 50, 273
polymetallic sulfides 341 socioeconomics 224
ports 225, 233, 234, 236, 248, 249, 252, 253 solar energy 249
potential 37, 40, 42, 44, 48, 51, 52, 57, 59, 65, 68 Solitaire 289, 293–4, 297
Potsunen 294 Solwara-1 299–300
preventing erosion 260 Sonne 286, 289, 293
production scenarios 414, 418, 420 South-east Indian Ridge (SEIR) 286, 295, 298
prospect 147, 154, 156, 158, 164, 186 South-west Indian Ridge (SWIR) 286, 288–9, 292,
public legislation 427 295–300
PVC ladder seaweed tying method 458 Sri Lanka 298
Sri Lanka Ports Authority (SLPA) 233, 236, 253
R Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority (SLTDA) 238
stakeholders 6, 10, 14, 15, 16, 18, 23
rainbow 293
submerged pens 96, 103, 120
Red Sea 285–6
submersible Shinkai 6500 296
regime creation 480, 481, 486, 487, 488, 489
summer monsoon, 233
remotely operated vehicle (ROV) 299
sustainable 35, 37, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 49, 51–3, 55, 57, 59,
renewable energy 2, 5, 8, 9, 12, 15, 17, 21, 233, 239, 249
61, 63–5, 67, 69, 70, 148, 149, 151, 153, 154, 156, 160,
resources 35, 37, 40–2, 44, 46, 44, 49, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61,
168–70, 172, 175–87
63, 65, 67, 69, 71
sustainable blue economy 10, 14, 15, 16, 23
resource management 250
sustainable development goals 222
reunion 295
sustainable development strategy 6
Rio+20 9
sustainable seafood 363
risks 148, 154, 156, 171, 182, 188
SWOT 344, 345, 353
risk assessment 370
Rodriguez Triple Junction (RTJ) 286, 288, 293, 295–6
ROSUB 6000 299 T
Russia 297 Talus-Tips-Site (TTS) 293
threats 148, 156, 171, 174, 181, 183
S Tiancheng 288, 296
salinity gradient energy 249 Tianxiu 291
SDG-14 287 Tianzuo 288, 296
SDGs Targets 273, 274, 276 tidal energy 249
sea cucumber (Holuthuriascraba) 232, 233 tourism 148, 150, 152, 153, 155, 156, 160–2, 167–9,
seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) 286–7, 289, 292, 296–301 173, 187, 223, 236–8, 248, 262, 263, 268–70, 273,
seafood marketing 325 276, 278
seafood production 362, 363, 367, 370, 376–8, 380, 382, toxins 422, 427
383, 384, 385 trade and commerce 224, 225
Seafood for Sustainable Development (SSD) Model 378, transform faults (TF) 294, 298
379, 380, 381, 382, 385 traps 366, 367
Sealark 294 Tropical Warm Pool 223
sea lice 62–4, 66, 67, 77, 79 Tsukushi 294
seaweed-associated bacteria 462 Tubenet, 102, 103
seaweed-associated fauna 463 tuna 230, 247, 248, 250, 251
seaweed cultivation 319, 322, 323–9, 454–5 tying HDPE pipe ladder 458
505
Index 505
U volcanogenic massive sulfides (VMS) 286

Voyer et al. 2018, 4, 6–10, 16, 17
UNCLOS 286–7, 297, 341, 347, 473, 476,
477 W
UNCSD 286
United Nation’s Commission on Limit of the wave energy 233, 249
Continental shelf (UNCLCS) 226 wave and tide energy 20
United Nations COMTRADE Wenhai et al. 2019, 4, 11, 15, 17, 18
328 wetland 249, 250, 251
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development wind energy 233, 249
(UNCTAD) 225 winter monsoon 223
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Wocan 290–3, 297
(UNCLOS) 225, 226, 250 World Economic Forum 249
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate WRF 64, 69, 91
Change 250 WeStCOMS 64, 65, 77, 88
V Y
Vema 294, 295 yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) 230
vent 286, 294 Yokoniwa 289
Vityaz 286, 294 Yuhuang 288–9, 296–7, 300

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Global Blue Economy

Applied Ecology and Environmental Management –​A Series

Global Blue Economy: Analysis, Developments, and Challenges

Managing Environmental Data: Principles, Techniques, and Best Practices

Sustainable Development Indicators: An Exergy-Based Approach

Environmental Management of Marine Ecosystems

Ecotoxicology and Chemistry Applications in Environmental Management

Ecological Forest Management Handbook

Integrated Environmental Management: A Transdisciplinary Approach

Ecological Processes Handbook

Handbook of Inland Aquatic Ecosystem Management

Eco-Cities: A Planning Guide

For more information on this series, please visit: www.routle​dge.com/​Appl​ied-​Ecol​ogy-​and-​

Global Blue Economy

First edition published 2023

Chapter 2 Realizing Blue Economy Potential in Malaysia, Opportunities and

Chapter 3 Optimizing the Connectivity of Salmon Farms: Role of Exposure to

Chapter 6 Blue Economy Prospects, Opportunities, Challenges, Risks, and Sustainable

Chapter 8 Development and Challenges of Indian Ocean Blue Economy and

Chapter 9 Marine Ecosystem Services: SDGs Targets, Achievement and Linkages

Chapter 11 Global Scenarios of Seaweed Cultivation: Science-​Policy Nexus for

Chapter 13 Modern Seafood Production to Enhance the Blue Economy:

Chapter 14 New Challenges for Sustainable Plastic Recycling in Japan..................................... 395

Chapter 15 Marine Pollution and Ecosystem Health: Challenges for Developing

Chapter 16 Seaweed Farming Potential in India: An Assessment and Review........................... 449

Chapter 17 Modeling of Marine Policy Regime Creation for Enhancing Blue

Md. Nazrul Islam

Md. Nazrul Islam

About the Editors

Steven M. Bartell has extensive experience and technical skills in quantita-

Thomas Adams Keith Davidson

Md. Wahidul Alam Ramadoss Dineshram

Dmitry Aleynik Hanizah Idris

Mir Mohammad Ali Ryo Ikeda

Ankeeta A. Amonkar Temjensangba Imchen

Keerthi Sri Senarathna Atapaththu Md. Nazrul Islam

Joerg Baumeister Md. Shahriar Islam

Md. Simul Bhuyan S. M. Rashedul Islam

Yunil Chu Sridhar D. Iyer

Nawalage S. Cooray Muthuswamy Jaikumar

Mohan Kumar Das Dong-​Sheng Jeng

Niyati Gopinath Kalangutkar Kazuaki Okubo

Khaled Mahamud Khan Shiori Osanai

Kentaro Kikuchi Upul Premarathna

Daisuke Kitazawa Tilak Priyadarshana

Hideya Kubo Kannan Rangesh

Kosuke Toshiki Jeongsoo Yu

Chien Ming Wang Hong Zhang

Shuoyao Wang Jinxin Zhou

1 Concepts, Tools, and Pillars

2 Global Blue Economy: Analysis, Developments, and Challenges

1.1 CONCEPTUAL PARADIGM OF THE BLUE ECONOMY

Concepts, Tools, and Pillars of the Blue Economy 3

4 Global Blue Economy: Analysis, Developments, and Challenges

• Ocean as Environmental Equity: a concept used by quasi ecological groups to recommend

1.2 UNITED NATIONS (UN) CONCEPT OF THE BLUE ECONOMY

Concepts, Tools, and Pillars of the Blue Economy 5

6 Global Blue Economy: Analysis, Developments, and Challenges

1.3 HOW CAN BUILDING A BLUE ECONOMY HELP US ACHIEVE THE

Applied Ecology and Environmental Management –A Series

For more information on this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Applied-Ecology-and-

Chapter 11 Global Scenarios of Seaweed Cultivation: Science-Policy Nexus for

Mohan Kumar Das Dong-Sheng Jeng

1.1 CONCEPTUAL PARADIGM OF THE BLUE ECONOMY

1.2 UNITED NATIONS (UN) CONCEPT OF THE BLUE ECONOMY

1.3 HOW CAN BUILDING A BLUE ECONOMY HELP US ACHIEVE THE

1.4 SCOPE AND ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES OF THE BLUE ECONOMY

Non-living Resource Conservation and

Mining on the seafloor/deep Fish stocks Shipping (marine Blue carbon

1.4.1 Fundamentals of Blue Economy and So-called Lenses

1.4.2 Differentiate between Green and Blue Economy

1.4.3 EU’s Blue Growth Strategy and Blue Economy Innovation Plan

1.5 MAJOR PILLARS OF THE GLOBAL BLUE ECONOMY

1.6 CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABLE OR BLUE ECONOMY GROWTH

1.6.1 Challenges and Opportunities of Global Blue Economy

1.6.2 Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles

1.6.3 Economic Sustainability of the Blue Economy

1.6.4 Environmental Sustainability of the Blue Economy

1.6.5 Social Sustainability of the Blue Economy

1.6.6 Linking SDGs and Policies to the Global Blue Economy

1.6.7 Blue Economy and Marine Pollution Issues

1.6.8 Tools and Opportunities for a Blue Economy

1.6.8.1 Fisheries, Aquaculture and Seafood Production

1.6.8.2 Oil and Gas, Deep-sea Mining and the Blue Economy

1.6.8.3 Offshore Wind, Wave and Tide Energy Production

1.6.8.4 Offshore Wind Energy

1.6.8.5 Offshore Tidal Energy and the Blue Economy

1.6.8.6 Shipping, Port and Maritime Logistics with the Blue Economy

1.6.8.7 Marine Manufacturing and Ship-building

1.6.8.8 Enhancing Marine Commerce, Tourism and Leisure

1.6.9 Implementation of Science-Policy Nexus for Developing Blue Economy

2.2 DEFINING THE BLUE ECONOMY

2.3 PRIORITIES AREAS FOR BLUE ECONOMY IN MALAYSIA