Afac Fbim-Manual v3

Fire Brigade Intervention
Model Manual
GUIDELINE
Version 3.0
14 April 2020
PROCEDURAL Doctrine ID 3068
Copyright © 2020, Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council Limited
All rights reserved. Copyright in this publication is subject to the operation of the Copyright Act 1968 and its subsequent
amendments. Any material contained in this document can be reproduced, providing the source is acknowledged and it is
not used for any commercialisation purpose whatsoever without the permission of the copyright owner.
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Level 1, 340 Albert Street
East Melbourne Victoria 3002
Telephone: 03 9419 2388
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[email protected]
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Disclaimer
This document has been developed from consultation and research between the Australasian Fire and Emergency Service
Authorities Council Limited (AFAC), its members and stakeholders. It is intended to address matters relevant to fire, land
management and emergency services across Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific region.
The information in this document is for general purposes only and is not intended to be used by the general public or
untrained persons. Use of this document by AFAC Member agencies, organisations and public bodies does not derogate
from their statutory obligations. It is important that individuals, agencies, organisations and public bodies make their own
enquiries as to the currency of this document and its suitability to their own particular circumstances prior to its use.
AFAC does not accept any responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or relevance of this document or the information
contained in it, or any liability caused directly or indirectly by any error or omission or actions taken by any person in
reliance upon it.
You should seek advice from the appropriate fire or emergency services agencies and obtain independent legal advice
before using this document of the information contained herein.
Citation
Australasian Fire and Emergency Services Authorities Council. (2020) Fire Brigade Intervention Model Manual (AFAC
Publication No. 3068). East Melbourne, Vic: Australia. AFAC Ltd.
Review period
This guideline is part of a five-year review cycle and should be reviewed by the doctrine owner by 30 April, 2025
FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL i

Contents
About AFAC and AFAC Doctrine......................................................................................................................................... iii
About this document........................................................................................................................................................ iii
Section 1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................3
Section 2. Structural Firefighting Operations.....................................................................................................................4
Section 3. Fire engineering and fire brigade intervention................................................................................................10
Section 4. Overview of model..........................................................................................................................................18
Section 5. The Fire Brigade Intervention Model...............................................................................................................20
Supporting discussion......................................................................................................................................................65
FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL ii

About AFAC and guidance of a technical nature: how to do something, or
the technical meaning relative to a situation.
AFAC Doctrine
About this document
AFAC
This publication is technical guideline. It must be used with
The Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities the latest AFAC Fire Brigade Intervention Model (FBIM)
Council (AFAC) is the Australian and New Zealand National Dataset which can be found here https://www.afac.com.au/
Council for fire, emergency services and land management. insight/doctrine/article/current/fire-brigade-intervention-
It is a collaborative network of fire, emergency services model-manual.
and land management agencies that supports the sector to
make communities safer and more resilient.
Background
AFAC Doctrine Early in 1995, AFAC convened a committee for the purpose
of coordinating its response to the performance-based
AFAC develops doctrine to support the practice of
building regulations which were undergoing development
emergency management. The information in doctrine
at that time.
publications is evidence based and drawn from academic
research and the collective expert knowledge of member The committee was drawn from fire agencies around
agencies. Doctrine is regularly reviewed and represents the Australia and New Zealand. It is a multi-disciplinary team,
official AFAC view on a range of topics. with members having qualifications and expertise in
disciplines ranging across various branches of engineering,
Doctrine does not mandate action; rather, it sets
applied science, mathematics, building surveying and
aspirational measures. Publishing nationally agreed views,
business administration. Combined, the committee had
shared approaches and common terminology enhances
more than 80 years of firefighting experience to draw upon.
cooperation and collaboration within and between
agencies and jurisdictions. One of the main functions of this committee was to
formulate a quantitative model of fire brigade operations
Types of AFAC Doctrine that would be suitable for use in conjunction with the new
performance-based building code. After assessing the
situation and the context of application, the committee
AFAC Doctrine is classified as follows:
set about developing a framework for quantitatively
Capstone doctrine – includes publications, such as determining the time for fire brigade operations. This
'strategic intents', that are high-level accounts of the was developed for use at the design stage of building
concepts of emergency management operations and development. The framework needed to be augmented by
service delivery. They describe the principles of what is data covering the range of fire brigade activities identified,
practical, realistic and possible in terms of protecting life, so a process of data acquisition was designed and
property and the environment. implemented.
Fundamental doctrine – includes 'positions', which AFAC National and international studies were undertaken to
members are expected to support, as well as 'approaches' determine if such a methodology already existed. This
and some 'frameworks'. Fundamental doctrine may consisted of an extensive literature review and a research
become agency or jurisdictional policy on a matter if tour to explore in more detail the possible options that
adopted by individual services or jurisdictions. were identified. This research tour also included interviews
with fire brigades, regulatory authorities, industry
Procedural doctrine – includes 'guidelines', some
organisations, and educational and research institutions
'frameworks' and 'specifications'. AFAC members are
to identify and discuss issues or findings in relation to the
expected to be aware of procedural doctrine. A guideline
role of fire brigade intervention in the fire engineering
is an advisable course of action; a framework provides a
environment. Special attention was paid to the New
linking of elements to create a supporting structure to a
Zealand experience as a performance-based code had
system, and specifications are a detailed description of a
already been introduced there. This was more than just
precise requirement to do something or build something.
a case study, as the then draft Building Code of Australia
Technical doctrine – includes 'technical notes', 'training 1996 (BCA) drew heavily on the New Zealand document.
material' and the Australasian Inter-Service Incident
Management System (AIIMS). Technical doctrine provides
FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL iii

The findings of this process were assessed by the
committee to determine whether any of the models would Audience
be suitable for use in Australia. Taken into account were:
This FBIM guideline is intended for use by building
• the regulatory environment in Australia fire safety professionals as they consider firefighting
• the proposed performance provisions of the Building intervention in the design and assessment of buildings. This
Code of Australia includes:
• the suitability of the methodology to the Australian • building designers
fire brigades’ operational policies • fire services
• the suitability for use by the Australian fire brigades • fire safety engineers and other engineering
and approval authorities. professionals
Apart from some exceptions in technical areas, it was • building surveyors and certifiers
determined that the methodologies identified were not
suitable for use in Australia, as they failed to meet some or It is recommended that this FBIM guideline is used only
all of the criteria outlined above. Where useful information by building fire safety professionals that have been
was gained, it was adapted for use and incorporated into suitably trained and have a sound understanding of fire
the model. safety engineering. If additional information is required, it
should be obtained from the particular fire brigade with
To maintain consistency with the introduction of a responsibility for attending the site in question.
performance-based national building code in 1996, the
model needed to be nationally applicable. This contrasts
with fire service delivery which is a state or territory Scope
responsibility. An analysis was made of all AFAC member
fire agencies to determine areas of operational uniformity This FBIM guideline should be used for typical structures
and to highlight areas of divergent techniques, so that and environments.
an all-encompassing model could be developed. To be
Structures such as tunnels, hazardous substances and
relevant, the model needed to be flexible enough to
major hazard facilities are currently out of scope for this
accommodate both major urban brigades and those in
guideline. Please consult the relevant fire service or brigade
remote rural areas.
for complex environments such as these.
The final result was produced as the Fire Brigade
This guideline is not designed to be a resource allocation
Intervention Model (FBIM). The model has since undergone
tool for fire services, nor is it to be used as a measure of
major revisions in 2004 and 2020.
operational efficiency.
Purpose Statement of engagement

This FBIM guideline describes the model, how it should be
This guideline was prepared by the AFAC Fire Engineering
used, and provides the necessary supporting data. As such,
Network. Members of the group contributed information
this document is largely self-contained and can be used
and guidance from their jurisdictions and provided
when quantitative estimates of fire brigade operational
feedback during the development of the publication. Other
times are required.
AFAC collaboration groups engaged in the review and
This guideline has been developed to provide a guide to development include the Community Safety Group, the
support consideration of the intervention activities of fire Urban Operations Group and the Built Environment and
brigades into building design. Planning Technical Group.
This guideline is not designed to be a resource allocation
tool for fire services, nor is it to be used as a measure of
operational efficiency.
FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 1

Source of authority Definitions, acronyms and
The National Council endorsed this Fire Brigade
key terms
Intervention Model Manual on 29 April 2020
Australasian region: A region within Oceania comprised
mainly of Australia and New Zealand and their territories.
Acknowledgements Building Codes of Australia (BCA): a single nationally
consistent set of technical provisions. First introduced in
AFAC acknowledges the contribution made to this work 1992 and now contained within the National Construction
by representatives of member agencies through the Fire Code.
Engineering Network and Built Environment and Planning
Fire brigade: Fire brigade is synonymous with fire service,
Technical Group. AFAC would also like to acknowledge key
fire authority, fire agency, fire department or any other
individuals for the development of the original version
organisation responsible for responding to fire.
of FBIM guideline including Rob Llewellyn, Greg Buckley,
Wayne Bradborne, John Clampett, Nabeel Kurban, Steve Fire engineering brief (FEB): See performance based
Wise and Roger Marchant. design brief.
Fire engineering design brief (FEDB): See performance
based design brief.
Fire Engineering Guidelines (FEG): Describe an appropriate
engineering methodology developed in 1996 for the design
and assessment of fire safety buildings by competent
practitioners.
Fire engineering safety brief (FESB): See performance
based design brief.
Fire safety engineering: The application of science
and engineering principles to protect people and their
environment from the unwanted impact of fire.
International Fire Engineering Guidelines (IFEG): The IFEG
is based on the Fire Engineering Guidelines developed by
the Fire Code Reform Centre in 1996. It was developed and
published in 2005 through a collaborative process involving
the Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB) and the
respective building code agencies of Canada, the United
States of America and New Zealand.
Performance based design brief (PBDB): A brief produced
involving all stakeholders relevant to the building design
that includes the outline of a fire strategy to be adopted.
Guidance on developing a PDBP is included in the IFEG
and referred to as a fire engineering brief (FEB) in that
document. A PBDB is also known as a fire engineering
design brief and a fire engineering safety brief.

Section 1. Introduction The use of FBIM is described in more detail in Section 3.
This section provides an overview of the fire engineering
discipline and how FBIM relates to the overall process
The building regulatory reforms in the early 1990s, with an emphasis on the International Fire Engineering
culminated in the adoption of a single national building Guidelines (IFEG) published by the ABCB. Whilst FBIM is not
code. The reforms were always directed at the ultimate inextricably linked to the IFEG and can stand alone for use
goal of introducing a nationally consistent performance- in a general setting, it seems reasonable to focus on its use
based building code. in conjunction with those guidelines; both because they
constitute a useful template for descriptive purposes and
No consideration of the effects of a fire incident is will find frequent application in practice. This section also
complete without understanding the role of the fire covers the vital issues of safety margins using percentiles
brigade that inevitably responds to deal with the situation. and sensitivity analyses.
Therefore, understanding fire brigade intervention is an
essential ingredient of a fire safety engineering analysis. Section 4 provides an overview of FBIM and serves as an
introduction to the main body of this document, Section
While the Fire Brigade Intervention Model (FBIM) is flexible 5, that contains the model. The methodology consisting of
enough to be expanded to deal with all aspects of fire flow charts for the most relevant fire brigade activities is
brigade operations, its development is aimed solely at also defined in Section 5.
addressing the issues applicable in building design as they
relate to fire. The obligation rests with the designer to The data necessary to undertake scenario assessments can
conform with legislation and relevant codes. be accessed from the accompanying dataset.
A summary for the remaining contents of this guideline The accompanying document FBIM Scenarios provides an
follows. example of, and commentary on, the application of the
model. The simplified example is aimed at reinforcing the
Section 2 addresses structural firefighting operations and logic of the model and its application.
consists of an operational overview of Australasian region
fire brigades. A review was undertaken of all AFAC member
fire services to establish areas of uniformity and highlight
areas of divergence. This enabled the committee to give
the model a regional perspective.

Section 2. Structural These factors include:
• the existence of a firefighting force to tackle the fire
firefighting operations • availability of that firefighting force to attend an

incident
• extinguishing medium relevant to the type of fire
2.1. Introduction •
•
personnel training
notification that a fire has occurred
Whenever a fire occurs in a building, the fire brigade • the capability to respond to the fire
undertakes a particular series of intervention activities that • actions taken to investigate the reason for notification
will endeavour to achieve the overall fire brigade objective: • strategies employed to tackle the incident
'to protect life, property and the environment'.1 This series
• lifesaving issues such as rescue
of activities follows a logical sequence throughout the cycle
of a fire incident. If the series of activities is analysed, it • tactics used to attack the fire
can be seen that the control and extinguishment of the fire • methods used to control the fire
cannot result from chance, but only as a consequence of • control and extinguishment.
planned strategies.
Somewhere in the lifecycle of the incident a time must
The probability of a well-managed incident resulting from be specified when all rescues have been completed, the
a planned strategy increases as each component of that fire is controlled and the likelihood of further damage is
strategy is improved. It is these components that need to minimised. From this point onwards the urgency of the
be addressed. incident is dictated by other issues such as possibility
The components that comprise a well-managed incident of collapse, environmental concerns, public amenity,
can be categorised into three phases: economic loss and criminal investigation.
• prior to the incident When confronted with a fire in a building, it is unrealistic

to expect that a fire brigade will automatically arrive with
• during the incident
all the personnel, equipment and resources needed to save
• after the incident. life and property. The entire system related to fire brigade
The activities undertaken during these phases must be intervention must be planned, in place and proven. When
taken into account when considering the response to an the aforementioned factors are considered, it can be seen
incident. Failure to recognise that planning is required that response time will be either enhanced or exacerbated
during all three phases may see the deterioration of by refinements in these factors. Understanding the
a managed incident into a haphazard and dangerous considerable activity involved in preparing for a fire brigade
situation. response provides insight to the process of fire brigade
intervention.
Fire brigade preparation for each phase includes:
•
•
identification of the hazards that can cause a fire
mitigation of the fire potential
2.2. Firefighting in
• planning to combat an outbreak of fire the Australasian region
• planning for restitution of the premises
The approach to tackling a structural fire in Australasia
• prevention of recurrences of the incident. is reasonably consistent with international concepts and
These issues relate to an incident itself and the preparation objectives: ‘to protect life, property and the environment
occurring prior to the intervention in such incidents. from fire'. While differences occur with fire brigade
Adequate preparation can result in an efficient response operational procedures due to variances in jurisdictions
to an incident and reducing the time for any fire brigade and physical environments regarding resources, equipment,
intervention. Fire brigade intervention can then be response times, and provision of fire protection coverage,
considered by the application of appropriate operational firefighting objectives are consistent.
times to building features (eg. structural stability). This will When each of the previously mentioned factors are
permit legislated fire brigade activities to be undertaken considered from a national perspective, a greater
safely. understanding of firefighting operational roles and fire
Many factors must be considered when looking at the time brigade intervention is gained.
for fire brigade intervention to occur in a building on fire.
1 A generalisation of the objective of fire brigade legislation in Australasia.

In order to understand what happens at a fire and the time With a properly implemented strategy, the actual time
required to perform the necessary tasks, there must be an to activate a response, mobilise the firefighting crew and
explanation of the tasks and why they are undertaken. travel to the scene of the incident can be predicted. The
time between the initiation of the fire and its discovery and
2.2.1. The existence of a fire subsequent fire brigade notification is generally beyond
the fire brigade’s direct control. Once the fire brigade is
brigade to tackle the fire notified that the situation exists, the time from that point
until intervention occurs can generally be measured. The
Each jurisdiction in the Australasian region has fire brigades
variables that influence the response travel time range
to provide protection from fire or other emergencies.
from the size of the area covered, location of firefighting
Legislation decrees the type of fire brigade in each
crews within that area, the terrain and topography to be
jurisdiction and the regulatory powers it may use to fulfil
travelled over, the nature and condition of the road system,
its role. Based on the policy adopted by the particular fire
and the condition and efficiency of the response vehicle.
brigade, equipment and personnel are made available
to control and extinguish fires when they occur. The Due to factors such as growth of the community and its
equipment and personnel are funded by various means infrastructure, improvements in technology or changing
such as insurance levies and contributions from industry patterns in fire occurrence, reviews are undertaken
and government. Some determinants of coverage include regularly to ensure the intended community coverage is
factors such as population density, risk management, suitable.
historical perspective, statistical frequency of incidents,
public expectation and the methods used to provide that
coverage.
2.2.2. Availability of the fire
When decisions are made as to the type of protection
brigade to attend an incident
provided, other factors are considered such as the cost of Once it has been identified that a fire brigade does exist,
providing that protection, the degree of protection to be the type of service must be determined.
provided and, more recently, the ‘user pays’ philosophy.
There are four main types of service:
This may mean that certain areas have a full-time and
permanently staffed fire brigade that can respond to any • full-time firefighting staff (paid)
incident at any hour of the day. Other areas may have some • part-time firefighting staff (paid or retained)
permanent staffing supplemented by volunteer personnel,
• part-time firefighting staff (volunteer)
while others still may have a solely volunteer response to
any fire. The differences between the types of protection • composite (any combination of the above).
provided will affect the time to respond to and control a The type of service provided will have some effect on the
fire in a building. In most instances, a permanently staffed time to respond to an incident. While a full-time crew
fire brigade should, if it is not already allocated to other may be available for immediate response, they may be
tasks, respond quicker to a fire than a fire brigade that is occupied with other duties or incidents at the time of alarm
staffed only by volunteer personnel. If that fire brigade notification. This would result in the delay of a response
is allocated to other tasks, the time to respond may be until the particular crew had safely abandoned the task
slightly slower due to the crew packing up equipment and commenced their travel to the incident, or dispatched
before they can respond or because of the need to deploy an alternative response. Time delays can result from the
other crews from neighbouring areas to cover for the alternative response having an increased travel distance or
already committed crew. Most fire brigades have a policy demographic imposition, such as peak hour traffic.
to provide back-up for crews committed to other duties
The response time of volunteer fire brigades may be
so that the geographical area of responsibility is not left
delayed because personnel are committed to other
without protection during this time.
activities or employment at the time of the fire alarm.
Where a fire brigade has volunteer staffing, the response Proximity to the fire station is critical for this scenario
time will depend upon their location at the time the because there is a time delay between being alerted to the
alarm is given. They may be at work, asleep or otherwise alarm and reaching the dispatch site.
occupied at the time of the alarm. Additional time may
Some volunteers respond directly to the address where
then be taken to get to the fire station and respond. In
the alarm has occurred, rather than present to the fire
some instances personnel may respond directly to the fire,
station first. The difficulty with this approach is that there
while others may respond to the fire station and take the
is no confirmation the number of personnel attending
fire appliance from the location at which it is housed.
will be sufficient to attack the fire until the firefighters
The existence of a fire brigade to provide a planned actually assemble at the incident site. A major constraint
strategy of community protection depends on the policy are occupational health and safety directives that require
of the organising body and the availability of resources. firefighters to respond in approved modes of transport,

so that response to an incident at high speed in a private ability. This ensures that the individual does not expose
vehicle with no warning lights or audible alarm systems themselves to unnecessary danger, and that principles of
does not occur. occupational health and safety are applied. Much of this
training is done at a local brigade level, but specialist and
Composite brigades are subject to the same potential
qualifying training may be done at a regional or central
delays as volunteer and full-time responses, yet the
training facility.
likelihood of both responses being unavailable is minimal.
If the full-time component are able to respond, they may While there is some consistency across states and
arrive early, effect rescue and conduct reconnaissance so territories, each brigade has its own methods to ensure
that when the remainder of the firefighting force arrive training is available to its members. Full-time personnel
they can commence a systematic attack on the fire. usually have a structured training regime that provides
constant grading and assessment as part of a career
The emphasis in this section is that there is an initial
development path. Most volunteer brigades have a
response to every incident. The size of that response can
rotation system that provides opportunity for members to
depend upon prior knowledge of the likely risk, availability
undertake general training in firefighting subjects.
of resources, confirmation that resources are adequate
on scene, and spreading of resources to cover previously
allocated equipment within the area of control. 2.2.5. Notification that a fire has
Some fire brigades implement a rolling response where occurred
multiple resources are alerted to respond to an incident.
Once a fire in a structure has been identified, it must be
The closest vehicles to the incident proceed at emergency
reported so a fire brigade can respond and intervene. That
response pace whilst the other alerted vehicles are driven
notification may result from a monitored alarm system,
in the general direction of the incident. If the initial arriving
where the fire is automatically detected and the fire
crew encounters a fire and requires assistance then the
brigade is alerted, or by observation of the fire. With a
mobile back up crew has a reduced response time. If the
monitored alarm system, the notification of fire may alert
initial crew arrive and find it is not a fire situation, they can
the fire brigade via a direct link or it may be monitored by a
then stand down the back-up crew. This approach makes
private organisation that then alerts the fire brigade.
more efficient use of the available resources and does not
alter the total number of uncommitted resources within Observation of a fire may occur by someone who is present
the area of coverage. at the fire or who has observed the presence of smoke
or flame and genuinely believes that a fire is occurring.
2.2.3. Extinguishing medium Confirmation that the reported fire is actually occurring
will reinforce the urgency of the situation and is generally
relevant to the type of fire manifests through multiple telephone calls or verbal
reports.
Extinguishing mediums become a major issue when the
diversity and complexity of different fire scenarios is The emergency telephone call system is used widely
considered. It is generally assumed that a fire in a building throughout the Australasian region. In smaller communities
will be readily extinguished with water spray. This is there is strong belief that direct reports to the fire station
commonly considered the most appropriate, abundant or to the homes of the firefighters, using local telephone
and practicable extinguishing medium. However, there numbers, will give a greater degree of surety that a
are fire incidents that will require extinguishing mediums response will occur.
other than water, such as foam, depending on the nature
Once the fire brigade have been notified that a fire is
of the fire. Some regions may not have infrastructure
actually occurring, an appropriate response to deal with
to provide a sufficient water supply or appropriate
the fire can be activated. There have been instances where
alternative extinguishing mediums. The environment in
many people are aware of the existence of a fire and each
the Australasian region range from the arid, dry interior, to
assumes another has raised the alarm when in fact no
the frozen, alpine regions of the south-eastern seaboard.
alarm has been raised. Failure to alert the fire brigade at
Some areas do not have an abundant water supply and
this stage will delay any response and extend the time for
must seek out available sources of water from dams, creeks
any intervention.
and bores. Reticulated supply of water is not a common
occurrence outside of major towns.
2.2.6. The capability to respond to
2.2.4. Personnel training the fire
Each fire brigade has an obligation to train the personnel A fire brigade must be in a state of readiness to respond to
at their disposal to a reasonable level of proficiency so any reported fire. While preparation and planning may be
that they are able to operate safely and to the best of their in place, the fire crew may be involved in other activities at

the moment of the call that will delay their response. This tactics that are used for smaller segments of the fire.
may include building or hazard familiarisation, conducting
Standard operational procedures (SOPs) are used by most
drills using the fire truck or appliance, response activities
fire brigades to detail the type of response and the general
outside the area of responsibility or commitment at
strategic plan for tackling most fires. The actual use and
another fire.
objectives of SOPs will vary between jurisdictions, but these
Because these activities are a regular part of the function documents are becoming increasingly important. Almost
of most fire brigades, a planned strategy is usually in place any activity undertaken by fire brigades in the Australasian
to ensure that a back-up system exists whenever they region can be documented in an SOP, but they can also be
occur. Fire brigades from neighbouring stations are placed used for various layers within an incident.
on stand-by to respond in the instance that the fire brigade
The following list indicates the ways in which SOPs are
responsible for that particular area is otherwise engaged.
used:
2.2.7. Actions taken to investigate • Administrative organisation – indicating the type of fire
brigade and the area of responsibility.
the reason for alarm • What response should be activated – to guide the
Once a fire brigade has been notified that a fire is occurring responding organisation as to the type of equipment,
in a building, it will supply personnel and resources to support and minimum number of resources
the site in order to determine the validity of the alarm. appropriate to the type of incident.
Confirmation that a fire is occurring can be made by • What actions should be taken strategically – the most
a reliable report from an authenticated source or by appropriate strategy to tackle the type of incident so
witnessing the incident. When responding to the site of the that a coordinated attack is made.
alarm, a fire crew will gain information about the incident • Individual aspects of a firefighting operation – such as
as they approach the scene. This information may be visual, lawful breaking and entering, searching and rescue.
such as a smoke plume, flames evident at windows or the
reaction of people in the immediate proximity. It may be SOPs aim to ensure all actions related to an incident are
sensory, such as the smell from a smouldering fire or a door consistent and can be readily adapted by support brigades.
that is hot to the touch, or it may be detected by electronic They detail a safe methodology that has been tested in
means and confirmed by the fire crew. a less dangerous environment and found to be the best
approach.
The fire brigade may already have a general knowledge
of the building, and/or the area, the known risks and
occupant characteristics. Pre-fire planning is undertaken 2.2.9. Lifesaving issues such as
by many brigades and this type of information is sought rescue
and stored and made ready for retrieval during a fire. This
information is general and may or may not be accurate at The principal objective at any fire is to save life. This may
the specific time of the fire. Fire brigades cannot assume not be achieved easily and may require that the fire be
that a building is unoccupied or that a full evacuation has tackled first in order to control the situation and allow
successfully been undertaken. the rescue to occur. It may also require the use of ladders
and platforms to gain access to upper floors to effect any
Certain investigations must be made in order to determine rescue. It is not expected that the life of a firefighter be
the severity of the situation. This could mean determining needlessly endangered in a rescue attempt. Because of the
if occupants are involved and rescuing them if required, emotive nature of fire rescues and the need to make split-
gaining access to the actual site of the fire, determining the second decisions before it becomes too dangerous, there is
extent of the fire and predicting the most likely exposures no true way to define the point at which a rescue attempt
that may be in danger. This information will help to build a can be guaranteed of success.
picture of the incident in the mind of the crew fighting the
fire and enable adequate resources and tactics to be used. Searching for occupants in a building on fire may
necessitate a complete search of the building in order to
locate the occupants, or the fire brigade may be directed
2.2.8. Strategies employed to to the precise location by other occupants. There are two
tackle the incident stages; locating the victim, then removing them to safety.
The task of searching and the time to perform the search
Once a basic picture of the extent of the fire is created, will impact on the fire brigade's resources as well as the
then strategies can be employed to bring the fire victim's chances of survival.
under control. This may necessitate more resources,
concentrating on life rescue or deploying crews to prevent A primary search involves an immediate and systematic
extension of the fire to other buildings. The strategies are search for any occupants in the immediate vicinity of the
the overall plan to deal with the fire, not the individual fire. This generally occurs in smaller compartments in

close proximity to the seat of the fire or where smoke is Individual components of the attack strategies include
concentrated. forced entry techniques, primary and secondary search
procedures, application of the extinguishing medium and
A secondary search is a thorough investigation of every
direct or indirect fire attack, water supply set up, hose
compartment in the general area of the fire where
laying, positioning of appliances, staging areas, control
occupants may require rescue or assistance. This type
points and other tasks. These can be found in more detail
of search may be a protracted incident that requires
in Section 6 of this guideline. Each individual area of floor
coordinated search teams and will depend on available
space must be systematically searched, even in heavy
resources and the size and complexity of the building.
smoke or complete darkness. This may mean a lengthy
Some management procedures account for the number time between the commencement of search and rescue
of occupants in the building. This can assist firefighters to strategies and their completion. Occupants need to be
concentrate their efforts in specific locations rather than located and removed to safety while the fire may be left to
expend valuable time searching for people who are no burn until occupant safety is assured.
longer in the building.
In public buildings such as shopping centres, there may 2.2.11. Methods used to control
be no procedures available to determine the number
or location of occupants. Such a scenario will require a
the fire
thorough search of all smoke-logged areas. Other buildings Whenever firefighters enter a burning building, they must
such as warehouses or factories may have an accredited be equipped with personal protective clothing to protect
evacuation plan so that all occupants are accounted for and themselves from injury, breathing apparatus to enable
out of the building in the event of a fire. them to breathe uncontaminated air in a contaminated
atmosphere, and a charged hoseline to attack any outbreak
2.2.10. Tactics used to attack the of fire or defend themselves and enable safe exit.
fire These requirements are almost mandatory across

Australasia to protect firefighters from unnecessary harm.
When a fire brigade responds to a fire, the fire crew and In preparing to enter a burning building, firefighters ensure
the officer in charge must apply a strategy to tackle the they are dressed and equipped correctly and work in pairs
incident. It is not sufficient to arrive at a fire, apply water to for safety purposes.
the flames and hope for a successful outcome.
Once they are inside the building, firefighters may
As a fire crew approaches an incident, the officer in undertake a direct attack on the fire, generally referred
charge and the crew will size up the fire and gather all the to as an offensive attack. This is done while searching for
information available to them. This information will include occupants and establishing the extent of the fire. If the fire
reports of the fire to the brigade, local knowledge of the is of such an intensity and at such a stage that it is unsafe
area or building, the signs of fire such as smoke plume and and impractical to enter the compartment, it may require a
radiated heat impact, as well as the response of people at defensive attack that will concentrate primarily on exposure
the incident. protection and to a lesser extent on reducing property
damage to the initial structure.
The combination of all available cues that characterise the
fire will enable the officer in charge to plan a method of Variations of offensive and defensive attack may occur
attack that will allow rescue of occupants and limit damage. within a structure to limit fire extension to other
The nature of the incident and stage that the fire is at may compartments, without great emphasis on a direct fire
require a direct attack on the fire to limit its spread and the attack.
consequent damage. Searching the premises and rescuing
occupants is the first priority. This may mean letting the fire
continue to develop unchecked until additional resources
2.2.12. Control and
arrive on scene to control its spread. extinguishment
A series of pre-planned attack strategies are generally used The primary purpose of fire brigades in Australia is the
for the initial response and these are developed further as protection of life, property and the environment from the
the situation warrants. The initial strategies may involve effects of fire. This may be achieved to varying degrees
search, rescue and exposure control using the resources when the fire is under control, but ultimately when it is out.
at the scene. The attack is strengthened and widened as
A fire is out when it has consumed all available fuel,
additional resources arrive.
cannot sustain the amount of heat required to continue
burning or depletes the supply of oxygen available to assist
combustion.

2.3. Summary
The intervention activity surrounding a structure fire
depends upon several factors:
• knowing the fire exists
• having a fire brigade available to deal with the fire
• a fire brigade's ability to intervene, rescue occupants
and extinguish the fire.
The way a fire brigade is notified of a fire can vary from
automatic fire detection and alarm systems to telephone
reports by onlookers or visual observations by the fire
brigade. Responding to and dealing with a fire can only
occur once the fire brigade knows a fire or suspected fire
actually exists. Assuming that a fire brigade knows about a
fire already only delays a response and endangers the lives
of any people involved.
Once a fire brigade is informed of a fire, they dispatch
personnel and resources to deal with it. This is generally
part of a predetermined plan where resources are
dispatched to a known risk and the fire brigade officer in
charge assesses the size of the fire and determines if it
can be contained with the resources at his or her disposal.
Additional resources may be summoned as appropriate for
the strategy to be employed.
Once the occupants are accounted for and, if necessary,
rescued, the fire is attacked and ultimately extinguished.
The method of achieving this aim may vary slightly from
state to state and region to region, but each method has
a common purpose – to protect life, property and the
environment.
Te process of intervention is provided so that all life and
property has some level of protection. This may vary
according to location and practicalities, but intervention
results from a series of activities that take place to achieve
a successful outcome.

Section 3. ground tactics and strategies. Firefighter safety for internal
fire tactics largely depends on this sub-model.
Fire engineering Occupant characteristics directly impact on the brigade’s

search and rescue methodology. This information is
and fire brigade required in determining relevant criteria to establish life

safety, the major objective for both the building regulations
intervention and the fire brigade.

Adjoining property characteristics are used to ascertain
exposure hazards and any potential risks to the
environment. This information will have an impact on
3.1 Introduction access, set up time and strategies on the fire ground.
This section discusses the relationship between FBIM and

fire engineering analysis. Building codes typically outline, in Fire detection
Fire and
performance terms, brigade involvement in building design. and
smoke spread
suppression
In the IFEG, fire brigade intervention is developed as a
separate subsystem (SS-F).
However, communication and response does not
adequately describe brigade tasks on the fire ground. To Fire
more accurately reflect the tasks of the brigade in fire Building
Fire initiation Brigade construction
safety engineering design, this subsystem has been further and growth and
Intervetion
developed and renamed as the Fire Brigade Intervention characteristics
Model (FBIM). FBIM is a major component of the total fire
Model
safety package and interacts with all aspects of fire safety
design.
By virtue of their relevant Acts, fire brigades will attend all Adjoining
Occupancy
reports of fires. Therefore their role, by necessity, extends property
characteristics
characteristics
to and interacts with all fire safety provisions for the
building.
The relationship between FBIM and other fire safety Figure 3.1 Fire Brigade Intervention Model (FBIM)
systems in the building are shown in Figure 3.1. Each
of these fire safety systems directly impacts on the
notification, response, operation or fire ground tactics of
the attending fire brigade. 3.2 Fire safety engineering
Fire initiation and growth provides details regarding the fire
characteristics throughout all stages of brigade notification,
overview
response and fire ground tactics. FBIM uses data from At the heart of any fire engineering analysis is the design
relevant subsystems to establish life safety, access fire, the effects of which are required to be dealt with
possibilities, offensive or defensive strategies, additional satisfactorily. A deterministic approach considers a
resources needed, set up requirements, adjoining property specific fire that might be termed the reasonable worst
hazards and fire ground tactics. case scenario and looks at how it evolves. A probabilistic
Fire detection and suppression has a direct impact on approach considers the probabilities of a fire’s transition
brigade notification time and response, equipment to different states and the associated times of occurrence.
allocation and use, and fire ground tactics. This helps to An event tree is built up of possible paths a fire scenario
determine fire severity and the corresponding brigade might take and the probability of their occurrence is
strategies and activities. matched with their consequences. This is summed
across all possibilities to obtain a quantitative measure
Fire and smoke spread is used to determine fire ground for the risk posed by fire. At present, the deterministic
strategies and tactics, importantly specifying the conditions approach is most often applied in practice. It is also more
associated with search and rescue, access and limitation of understandable, and is briefly outlined below to provide an
fire spread. introduction to fire safety engineering.
Building construction and characteristics includes aspects Reasonable worst case is usually considered to be a large,
as construction, geometry, fire load and passive fire rapidly growing fire. Analysing the effects of such a fire is
protection features which are necessary to ascertain fire

considered an appropriately conservative design approach resolution, etc. Fields of temperature, velocity and species
because of the implicit assumption that the impact of concentration across the region of interest are determined
any real fire will be no greater than the impact of the by applying fundamental equations for their evolution
design fire. However, no single scenario can encapsulate and then employing one of a number of approximation
the variety of hazards that might be deemed reasonable schemes so that a digital computer can solve the
worst case. For example, sprinklers may control a rapidly equations. This discretisation process must be handled
developing fire, but are generally ineffective for a carefully. Other issues surrounding appropriate turbulence
smouldering fire in a boarding house at night. Therefore, parameterisations, boundary conditions and the treatment
a range of scenarios need to be considered. These should of radiative transfers can also cause problems. Successfully
be drawn from the different patterns of fire behaviour and applied, the models can provide a great deal of information
different locations of fire origin that may prove critical for useful in design work.
the building under consideration.
Since FBIM takes the fire model as input, its results are 3.2.2 Evacuation
acutely dependent on the range of scenarios considered.
Life safety of occupants assumes the highest priority.
This range must encapsulate circumstances that include
Knowledge of how quickly a building can be evacuated
the reasonable worst case for firefighters. The greatest
sets a constraint on what can be tolerated in terms of fire
time that results from these analyses then constitutes the
development. Evacuation modelling constitutes a difficult
design constraint with regard to fire brigade intervention,
problem and programs that deal with it vary greatly in their
even though that fire scenario itself may not be as severe
level of sophistication. The modelling approach ranges
with respect to building code requirements in other areas.
from consideration of discrete flows where people are
This is a broad principle already applied in fire engineering,
catered to as simple objects that move at certain speeds,
for example, the inclusion of smoke detection in addition
to complicated attempts at understanding the psychology
to sprinkler protection because of the danger posed by the
of people as they behave in large groups under emergency
latent detection times of sprinklers. This principle should
conditions.
not be confused with the inclusion of system redundancies
for added safety. It is a design necessity to ensure that all
foreseeable risks are considered. 3.2.3 Tenability
Dealing with fire and its effects requires the use of Tenability models consider how the adverse effects of a fire
various models that represent and simplify their relevant environment impact upon occupants that are exposed to
characteristics. The models most often encountered can be it. They focus on the toxicology of the main components of
classified as: combustion, such as CO, CO2, HCN and HCl, by considering
concentrations in the local environment and the effects
of accumulated levels of exposure. Consideration is also
3.2.1 Fire and smoke development given to the impact of radiant heat flux from flames and
These models tend to fall into one of two categories, zone hot upper layers on people as they attempt evacuation.
or field. Visibility should also be considered in determining
occupant tenability.
A zone model generally divides an enclosure into an upper
and lower layer, connected by an axisymmetric fire plume In FBIM, firefighter tenability limits are specified at levels
that acts as a pump from the lower layer into the upper higher than those for occupants due to the personal
one. A heat source of known output drives the plume, and protective equipment worn.
conservation equations for mass, momentum, buoyancy
and chemical species are solved so as to determine
conditions in the two layers. The horizontal interface
3.2.4 System performance
between the layers descends as the hot, smoky, upper Fire systems and their response to fire can be analysed.
layer gradually fills. Depending on the sophistication of A typical example is the activation of sprinklers and the
the model, adjoining compartments and openings such as associated hydraulic performance of the sprinkler system.
doors and windows can be taken into consideration. These
models can offer good reliability as long as the overriding
assumption of quasi-steady homogenous layers is valid,
3.2.5 Radiation transfer
such as in relatively small enclosure sizes. Caution should Apart from considering the effects of fire within a building,
always be exercised when using zone models for large it is also important to understand the fire’s impact on
enclosures or unusual features. adjoining property and the possibility of fire spread.
This is achieved by modelling the fire as a radiating body
Field models offer far greater flexibility than zone models emanating an equivalent radiant heat flux. This radiant heat
but are also prone to erroneous results for technical can lead to ignition of combustibles remote from the fire
reasons, such as numerical instabilities, insufficient and thereby spread the fire to adjoining property. Further,

radiated flux from the hot upper layer may adversely available ventilation. This may lead to one of a number of
impact on the tenability limits of occupants and firefighters alternatives:
in the enclosure.
• spread beyond the compartment
• exhaustion of fuel
3.2.6 Design fires • fire brigade intervention and fire extinguishment.
Although many fire-related aspects are understood well
At any point in the fire’s development, fire safety
enough to allow progress, it is impractical to address the
subsystems may come into play and alter the progress of
modelling of the combustion process itself. The physics
the fire. This, of course, includes the fire brigade which can
and chemistry involved make such a task prohibitively
intervene at any time, thereby altering the course of the
complicated, so fire behaviour is conveniently described in
design fire’s development.
terms of its heat output. Calculation of this heat output is
accomplished in many ways. A typical design fire curve, illustrating some of these
ideas and how they piece together, is shown in Figure
One concept to emerge from fundamental research and
3.2. This curve illustrates a typical situation of a fire left to
gain prominence as an applied tool is that of a ‘t2’ fire. This
follow a natural course. The action of installed systems or
is a simple model of the early stages of fire development.
intervention by the fire brigade would normally alter this
The heat output of the fire (Q), is a function of the time
curve to one of substantially reduced total heat output.
(t) from ignition squared, modulated by a rate constant
(α) that can be empirically determined to account for such The fire curve, once defined, encapsulates the major
factors as the chemical and physical nature of the fuel. features of the particular fire scenario. It describes both
the development of the fire in terms of what is scientifically
Q=αt2
known, and how this impacts on the operation of installed
In this developing phase, a fire is said to be fuel-controlled fire safety subsystems, the performance of which feeds
as its rate of burning is dependent on the availability of back into fire development. The outcome of a fire safety
fuel. Uninterrupted, this state will continue until either: engineering analysis depends on this two-way interaction.
Should the result be unsatisfactory, alternative design
• the fuel burns out
options must be pursued by repeating the process.
• the availability of oxygen is so low that a ventilation
controlled state is reached (this could lead to a The fire curve determines all fire-related activities. The
dangerous backdraught situation if a door is suddenly performance of the various subsystems at a given time,
opened) including fire brigade intervention, is controlled by the state
of the fire at that time. Application of FBIM depends crucially
• the fire reaches flashover, where the whole
on this curve as it controls the nature of firefighting activities
compartment becomes involved.
that are undertaken.
For certain geometries, the heat output of a post-flashover
fire can be determined from compartment size and
Ventilation controlled
Decay
Heat output
Flashover
Extinguishment
Time
Figure 3.2 A typical design fire

FBIM has been designed to be used primarily as a fire purpose of the PBDB was to streamline the design process
safety subsystem component of an overall fire safety by obtaining consensus on all aspects of the design at the
system package. This model considers extinguishment for conceptual stage. Fire brigade involvement in the PBDB is
two reasons: desirable generally, but vital in the application of the fire
brigade subsystem.
• To allow the model can stand alone when used for
other purposes where quantitative knowledge of Three key elements of the process were to:
fire brigade operations is desirable, such as pre-fire
1. secure agreement from all parties to the design
planning.
objectives and acceptance criteria
• Intervention in the fire growth will likely reduce its
impact, thereby indirectly achieving the objectives 2. establish trial concept design(s) acceptable to all
of building codes regarding occupant safety and fire parties
spread. 3. specify the requisite fire scenarios for analysis.
Whether or not the extinguishment aspect of firefighting (Fire Code Reform Centre, 1996)
operations is taken into consideration when determining The process of analysis itself was system-based and
a design fire curve is a matter for the performance based classified into three levels. The appropriate level was
design brief (PBDB). chosen for the task at hand by the PBDB team. The overall
In essence, FBIM consists of a hierarchy of flow charts that fire safety system was broken into six subsystems to
detail both the content and order of specific fire brigade facilitate analysis.
activities undertaken on the fire ground, and employs data Further to the evaluation extent, there are the two types of
obtained from a variety of sources specifying the time for analysis described in the IFEG, comparative and absolute.
these activities. Comparative analysis compares levels of safety that would
This is described more completely in Sections 5 and 6. This otherwise be achieved in a design compliant with the
approach allows the subsystem of fire brigade intervention deemed-to-satisfy provisions. Absolute analysis matches
to be incorporated into a fire safety engineering analysis so against objectives or performances without comparison to
that building code requirements pertaining to fire brigade benchmark.
activities can be properly catered for. Deterministic analysis relies upon the implementation
of scientific theories and empirical results for a set of
3.3 Application of FBIM in predetermined boundary conditions. A range of methods for

varying conditions exist for deterministic analysis and should
practice produce the same outcome for a given set of parameters.
The probabilistic method relies upon defining the
A practical example of the use of this model is offered by performance, in terms of reliability, of the fire system and
considering its application in conjunction with the IFEG assigning frequencies to the identified event occurring. The
published by the ABCB. This is useful because, although not probabilistic approach provides the ability to compare an
essential, the application of fire engineering principles will, outcome against known predetermined acceptance criteria,
in practice, most probably be achieved by following the and be applied to a complete fire engineering assessment
procedures similar to those laid out in those guidelines. of a building design. This method has an advantage over
The mission of the Fire Code Reform Centre, the publisher a deterministic approach as the analysis will predict the
of the Fire Engineering Guidelines (FEG), precursor to probability of the design event occurring.
the current IFEG, was 'to introduce a cost-effective, fully Figure 3.3 gives a broad illustration of the design process
engineered approach to building fire safety regulations.' incorporating a PBDB and emphasising FBIM as a subsystem
(The Warren Centre for Advanced Engineering, 1989) of the overall design analysis. In order to satisfy the
The production of the original document, the FEG, PBDB (referred to as fire engineering brief) requirements
constituted a major component of the centre’s work. stipulated in the IFEG, a representative from the relevant
fire brigade should be part of the PBDB group. This will
Fire brigade communication and response is an integral ensure that all required fire safety issues are incorporated
subsystem when considering design using the IFEG. FBIM into the design and each subsystem correctly interacts
can be used to satisfy the requirements of this subsystem. with FBIM. The designer may then use the methodology
Central to the process of design as outlined in the original contained within FBIM to allow for the brigade component
FEG was the fire engineering design brief (now known as in the building design.
the performance based design brief (PBDB)) and the team
of interested parties charged with its formulation. The

Performance BCA Design utilising the Fire Brigade Intervention Model
PBCA
- objectives
-functional
- performance Undertake analysis of each sub system:
• Fire initiation and growth
• Smoke development and management
• Fire spread and management
• Detection and suppression
• Occupancy characteristics
Building and
occupant • Fire brigade intervention
characteristics • Building occupancy characteristics
defined
Results
Fire safety hazards Reassess design

defined and installed
systems
Acceptance
Modify design No criteria
achieved?
Acceptance and
PBDB
verification criteria Yes

defined
Proceed with
design
Fire safety
consequences
defined Verification
criteria No
achieved?
Yes
Proceed with End

analysis
PBDB group includes fire brigade representatives
Figure 3.3 Relationship of FBIM to the design process in Australasia

Calculation method It can be shown that for any distribution, the probability of
randomly selecting a value more than k standard deviations
The data for FBIM activities is provided in terms of means away from the mean value is at most 1/k 2. A conservative
and standard deviations so that any desired percentile approach is then to assume nothing about the distribution.
can be determined from the sequence of activities An x percentile can then be guaranteed by selecting k
undertaken in a given scenario. This is necessary because according to:
the distributions for timed activities are determined
empirically and can be combined in many ways depending 1/k2 =(100-x)/100
on the scenario. The final distribution for intervention that is:
time is therefore unknown at the outset. Consequently,
unless a Monte Carlo method is used with the raw data, k=√(100/(100-x))
the best approach is to make no assumption about the final As this estimate can be made regardless of the distribution,
distribution but calculate the desired percentile from the it is relatively crude and only useful for high percentile
means and standard deviations directly. estimation where the values of k are relatively large and
When combining random variables, the appropriate any errors incurred consequently small. For fire engineering
quantities to work with are the mean, µ, and the variance, purposes this is appropriate. A useful working rule is that
which is the square of the standard deviation, σ2. k should be greater than about 2 for this approach to have
tolerable accuracy. However, errors incurred lead to a more
Although random variables can be combined in many ways, conservative result and hence err on the side of safety.
for the purposes of FBIM it is the accumulation of times For highly skewed distributions such as those encountered
from different activities that is of interest. Consequently, in fire brigade activities, this is the preferred approach.
the random variables representing each activity in a Table 3.1 gives some representative values of x and the
scenario are added. To do this, add the individual means to corresponding k values.
get an overall mean and add the individual variances to get
an overall variance. The overall standard deviation is the More accurate expressions appropriate for all percentiles,
square root of the final overall variance2. and especially lower ones, require a knowledge of the
distribution concerned.
For instance, if mean values alone were used, which is not
recommended in most circumstances, the individual means x k
for the sequence of activities are simply added together 75 2.00
to get the overall mean. This would result in the sequence
of activities for the scenario being undertaken within the 80 2.23
stated duration 50% of the time. Obviously then, there is an 85 2.59
equal likelihood that they would take longer. Consequently,
it is desirable to introduce a margin for safety by adopting 90 3.17
a policy of using a greater percentile, such as 90%. In this 95 4.47
case, the overall sequence of activities is completed within
the stated duration 90% of the time. To obtain a more 99 10.00
appropriate percentile representing the desired level of
safety, the appropriate number of standard deviations must Table 3.1: Number of standard deviations for safety factor
be added to the mean. when distribution unknown
The procedure for obtaining the desired percentile

(Chebyshev’s rule) is as follows:
2 It may seem pedantic to work with variances in this way, why not just add the standard deviations directly? But consider this simple example; 2 + 2 = 4, however, the
square root of 22 + 22 is √8 = 2.828.. which clearly is not 4!

Example:
It is decided to conduct an analysis with a safety factor based on a 90% percentile. If rolling out one length of hose
has a mean of 70 seconds and a standard deviation of 34 seconds, then a 90% time is given by 70 + 3.17 x 34 = 178
seconds for this single activity. However, if rolling out two lengths of hose consecutively, then we must add the two
means to get a final mean of 70 + 70 = 140 seconds, and add the two variances to get a final variance of 342 + 342
= 2,312 and take the square root for the final standard deviation of 48 seconds. The 90% time is then obtained from
140 + 3.14 x 48 = 291 seconds. Note this is not simply double the time for the single activity which would give an
unreasonably conservative value (refer again to the footnote to see why).
Setting out a calculation may follow a typical tabular approach as below:

List of individual activities Mean, µ Standard deviation, σ Variance, σ2
1.
2.
3.
Final scenario Σµ = A Σσ2 = B
Desired percentile e.g. 90% Corresponding k-value e.g. 3.17

Result A+k √B=
and rescue cannot be carried out due to flashover.

Concluding remark
In this regard a number of scenarios require modelling.
The adoption of the appropriate percentile should be
The longest time necessary for the fire brigade to
discussed during the PBDB with the approval authority,
undertake activities to meet the design objectives should
PBDB team and fire agency input.
be the one adopted for design. This can be achieved as
An additional and important point needs to be made where a normal part of the design process, as discussed in
a time exceeds the time to flashover. This is because search Section 3.2.
Figure 3.5 Brigade response sensitivity

3.3.1.Sensitivity analysis For example, a probability analysis could assess the
likelihood of one or more of the following events occurring:
To obtain their results, model predictions often rely on
• fire brigade response
the use of complex equations involving a range of data.
The figures used in the equations can be obtained from • flashover/non-flashover
real fires, standard tests, historical data, or based on the • confined/non-confined
designers’ judgement. Generally, they are an average of • extinguished/not extinguished.
these results plus one or more standard deviations. This
means that they do not always accurately reflect the If all these outcomes are varied using a sensitivity
extremes that can be encountered in typical fire scenarios. analysis, then the results can be used to identify the most
appropriate fire safety system.
For this reason, it is important that a sensitivity analysis of
any model’s predictions be conducted to assess its validity. All events can be assessed statistically to evaluate their
likelihood. A good method is to gather a range of results
A sensitivity analysis involves using different input and present those results by upper and lower limits, known
parameters in the model to see how the end result is as confidence limits, that encompass the likely range of
affected. In its simplest form, a sensitivity analysis varies scenarios. The PBDB is then in a position to justify the final
one input at a time. The effects of this change are then scenarios and results for incorporation into the design.
observed, either at the end of the model’s run or at set
times throughout the modelling process. If the model’s Regardless of whether a model uses deterministic or
results change dramatically with small changes in inputs, probabilistic data, there are always assumptions made. This
then the model is too sensitive and the validity of the means there is always a level of uncertainty involved in a
predictions and the method used need to be reassessed. model’s inputs and consequent outputs. For this reason, it
The sensitivity is defined as the rate of change of the is important that the uncertainty be treated by conducting
output parameter with respect to the input parameter. This a sensitivity analysis, so that the results can be evaluated
type of analysis is also used to define the acceptable range by the designer.
of values for each of the model’s inputs. A model performs well if it reproduces the results of recent
Designers can also choose to do a more advanced form of data or experience or it predicts the likelihood of an event
sensitivity analysis which involves changing more than one within reasonable limits. If the results of the model do not
variable at a time. This is a more complex procedure and, achieve this then the components used in the model need
as it relates to FBIM, may involve varying inputs provided to be reassessed or re-calibrated.
by the other models used in FBIM such as the egress, Figure 3.5 indicates how even a small change in either
smoke development and fire initiation models. the heat release rate (hrr) of a fire, or a delay in the
A sensitivity analysis can also be used to assess how time to apply water, may result in significantly different
important certain aspects of the model are to the overall consequences for the scenario under consideration.
outcome. For example, the minimum and maximum fire The number of model runs will increase depending on how
brigade response times could be used to assess any likely many input variables are considered, and these inputs can
changes to the fire size, in particular whether the fire be internal or external to the model. These should not be a
reaches flashover and/or spreads beyond the room of deterrent to conducting a sensitivity analysis.
origin. This could then be incorporated with a proposed
sprinkler design to reassess the likely outcomes of the two As part of the documentation, the results of the sensitivity
combined systems. By completing this type of analysis, analysis should be shown in tables or graphs to highlight
it is possible to establish how valuable certain fire safety the effect that changing a parameter has had on the
aspects are to the overall design of the system, or whether model’s predictions.
additional fire safety measures will be required.
It is recommended that a sensitivity analysis be carried out.
This involves assessing the likelihood of specific events and
identifying their risk rating as well as their outcome.

Section 4. Overview of Many factors are relevant in the determination of fire
brigade times. The methodology is very complex as
model
modelling decision-based actions cover a broad spectrum
of possibilities, personalities, culture, management
techniques, training, resources and crisis situations. For this
reason, activities and consequences have been simplified to
FBIM complements the performance based regulatory
ensure practical and reasonable results are attainable.
framework of Australia and New Zealand. Therefore,
relevant building codes and the associated fire engineering The charts contained within Section 6 outline the
guidelines form the basis for its adoption and use. methodology used in each module associated with FBIM.
The main factors that contribute to fire brigade operational
A fire brigade’s involvement in the building regulatory
and fire ground tactics for each system of FBIM are
environment may be limited to life safety and adjoining
summarised below. Each fire brigade task is considered
property protection. In reality, the brigade has extended
with due regard to health and safety issues to ensure the
roles that may not be specifically recognised in the
safety of firefighters.
regulations. These include fire control, extinguishment
and overhaul, property protection (distinct from adjoining
property protection) and environmental protection.
4.1. Fire initiation and
For the purposes of the building legislation, life safety
and adjoining property protection form the basis of FBIM.
growth
Those extended roles specified in the relevant fire brigade • Fire size at time of call
Acts may form part of the strategy process employed at the
discretion of the user. • Fire size at time of arrival on scene
• Fire size at time when fire ground tactics begin
FBIM has been developed to determine the time required
to allow for the following fire brigade tasks: The outcome of the impact of the design fire is considered:
• notification • acceptable, if the fire is controlled by the installed

• dispatch system
• response • reasonable, if occupants are safe and fire requires

• arrival intervention by brigade and controlled by initial
responding crews
• access
• information and assessment • of concern, if occupants are at risk and fire requires
additional crews and appliances for search and
• strategy determination rescue, exposure protection or fire control and
• set up extinguishment.
• search and rescue
•
•
exposure protection
environmental protection
4.2. Response time
• fire control and extinguishment. • Brigade response policy
Real values and probabilities for each of these tasks have • Method of detection and notification
been established by literature reviews, statistical collation • Dispatch method
methods, measurement analysis, training practices and the • Staffing type
Delphi method.
• Station location
It is not anticipated that any single fire brigade task will • Number and type of appliances
result in additional fire safety requirements to those
• Pre-fire planning
required in prescriptive building regulations. Fire brigade
intervention will occur and fire brigade tasks will be • Training
undertaken provided the resultant fire conditions are • Time of day
conducive to such activities. If the design scenario prevents • Road conditions
the fire brigade from conducting one or more of their
statutory obligations and requirements, then possible
loss of life and property may result. In such cases, the fire 4.3. Access time
engineer must ascertain which fire safety features need to
be modified to achieve the requirements of the building • Pre-fire planning
code. • Installed fire safety systems

•
•
Building characteristics
Initial brigade response size
4.7. Exposure protection
• Occupancy characteristics • Fire characteristics
• Access
4.4. Information, • Brigade resources
assessment and strategy • Environment conditions
determination •
•
Training
Source and exposed building characteristics
• Fire characteristics • Pre-fire planning
• Pre-fire planning • Water supply
• Occupant and brigade training
• Resources 4.8. Fire control and
•
•
Installed fire safety systems
Occupancy characteristics
extinguishment
• Building characteristics • Occupant and brigade training
• Building exposures • Fire characteristics
• Environment exposures • Building characteristics
• Brigade resources
4.5. Set up time •

•
Support agencies
Water supply
• Pre-fire planning • Installed fire safety systems
• Training • Environment conditions
• Building characteristics • Building exposure characteristics
• Occupancy characteristics
Each of the items outlined above has numerous design
• Access around and within building implications which may be considered in the PBDB. For
• Fire characteristics example, access within a building depends upon the
• Water supply availability and condition of fire isolated stairs, fire and
smoke compartmentation, emergency lighting, smoke
• Installed fire safety systems
management systems, fire lifts, fire characteristics, water
• Environment conditions supply, training, pre-fire planning, information, strategy,
brigade resources, etc. Therefore, the methodology
4.6. Search and rescue associated with each system of FBIM has been developed
to incorporate those activities that contribute to the time
for the fire brigade to undertake duly required tasks. It
• Occupant and brigade training
should be emphasised that many fire brigade actions
• Occupancy characteristics are undertaken concurrently, and the total time is not
• Brigade access necessarily the successive addition of individual task and
• Fire characteristics activity times.
• Building characteristics
• Building management systems
• Installed fire safety systems
• Water supply

Section 5. The Fire determined, the size of the design fire, and where
appropriate, the smoke spread needs to be established.
Brigade Intervention Then, depending on available resources and whether

people are still in the building (as determined by
Model information provided from the evacuation model), the

strategy of search, rescue, firefighting and protection of
adjoining property will need to be implemented. During
each activity it will be necessary to gauge the effect of the
5.1. Philosophy strategy. For example:

• Will all necessary areas be searched before smoke
The outcome of applying FBIM will always depend upon spread creates untenable conditions to either
two principal sets of variables: occupants or withdrawing firefighters?
1. the development of the fire-induced environment, • Does the applied fire suppression control or extinguish
which will be determined by such factors as fire the fire, thereby modifying the design fire growth curve?
growth rate, smoke spread and the impact upon • Will the threat to adjoining property be curtailed by
the building as determined by its construction and the application of water by the available resources, or
compartmentation will the fire have grown beyond the capability of the
firefighters and water to prevent such fire spread?
2. the effects of fire brigade intervention in terms
of limiting the impact of the fire upon occupants, For the purpose of the model, unless sufficient suppression is
adjoining property and, as appropriate, the building, available to either control or extinguish the fire, suppression
its contents and the environment. activities will not impact upon the fire growth rate.
The first set is beyond the direct control of the fire brigade and As is the case with real fires, the tactical components of
so is an externally generated status of the fire and building. likely strategies will be concurrently implemented. For
example, the simultaneous implementation of suppression
The second set is directly within fire brigade control and to reduce fire growth and increase available time for search
so constitutes an internally generated status of fire brigade and rescue to take place.
resources available to deal with the situation.
At various times within the selected strategy, its effect will
Together, the fire and building status, and available fire need to be assessed in terms of the condition of the design
brigade resources, constitute a fire ground status that fire which itself may be revised due to the strategy and its
is a workable synopsis of the situation that would be impact upon evacuating occupants, firefighters and adjoining
determined by an officer in charge and provide the basis property. Where such strategies fail, then other solutions will
upon which intervention strategies are formulated. need to be found by the designer.
The mobilisation and deployment of resources dictates the Where damage to the environment or the building structure
nature of fire brigade intervention. The strategy for control and contents (asset protection) are factored into the design,
of these resources depends on the external factors that then special attention to these needs can be catered for
comprise the fire ground status. using this methodology, provided that at crucial times, as
Once the time of the first arriving appliance has been determined by fire brigade strategy, the impact of the fire on
determined, the size of the design fire must be assessed: those particular elements can be quantified by the designer.
• Is the fire at post-flashover conditions with failed glass Although the steps undertaken in particular activities are
and flames projecting out from the window and visible covered by the flow charts, the determination of which chart
to the attending firefighters, or is the fire area simply is to be invoked, and at what stage during the development
smoke-logged? of a scenario, is a matter for strategy determination. This
strategy is determined in light of information provided by
• Will firefighters need to investigate the fire or is the
the fire ground status, and is constantly reviewed as the fire
size of the fire likely to be evident?
ground status is itself updated.
• What impact will this have on adjoining property?
While a strategy gives the overall approach to a scenario, the
• Have all the occupants evacuated the building or
individual components of its implementation are in practice
will they still be evacuating and therefore hindering
far too numerous to deal with. Fortunately, many of the
firefighters?
activities involved are undertaken concurrently and since
As with a real fire, a strategy determination will need the fundamental goal of applying this model is to determine
to be made as to how FBIM will be applied. Upgrade the critical time path for fire brigade operations, these
the fire alarm and call for more resources or investigate relatively minor (in a time sense) activities can be ignored.
the location of the fire? Once the fire location has been Only that subset of activities undertaken at a fire that lead to

a critical accumulation of overall time need to be considered. strategy. The critical time path should be agreed upon in
It is these activities that form the basis of the flow charts. consultation with the appropriate fire brigade.
However, even after abstracting the most important fire
The overall picture of FBIM application, illustrating the
brigade activities, the issue of concurrence persists. It simply
concepts of strategy determination via a fire ground status
is not possible to define a model that relies on a purely
and the concurrent nature of the tactical activities, is
sequential flow of events that can cater for all situations. A
presented in Figure 5.1.
critical time path must still be determined from the activities
that are undertaken in the implementation of a firefighting The mechanics of applying these ideas in practice is
discussed in the following subsections.
Resource mobilisation
FIRE ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
Fire spread and

management
Smoke development Fire detection and

and management suppression
Time for fire brigade PBDB

notification
CHART 1
Fire initiation and Occupancy

development characteristics
Time to dispatch
resources
CHARTS 2 AND 3
Time to assess and Time for search and

access fire rescue
Time to reach kerb CHARTS 5, 6 AND 7 CHART 12
side
CHART 4
Time to travel to set Time for other

up area property protection
CHART 8 CHARTS 13 AND 14
FIRE
GROUND
STATUS
Firefighter travel Time for water
rates set up
CHART 9 CHARTS 10 AND 11
Time to control and Time for environment

extinguish the fire protection
CHART 15 CHART 16
Figure 5.1: FBIM interface with other subsystems

5.2. Strategy determination obvious upper limit for what can be used on the fire ground
and may be a serious constraint.
Strategy determination involves the allocation of available The diagrammatic representation of Figure 5.1 illustrates
firefighting resources and the assessment of whether or the interdependent nature of all activities after the
not those resources are sufficient to carry out all required arrival at kerb side. Up until this time, the flow of events
tasks. is sequential. Dealing with the potentially concurrent
nature of activities requires an overall coordination. This
Available, in the sense used here, means available at the is why all the flow chart groups are embedded in the fire
fire scene. There may be other broader availability issues ground status. This status must be examined to determine
with regard to the overall capacity of the organisation a strategy which guides the user through the appropriate
having responsibility to dedicate sufficient resources to flow charts.
the incident. This could be the case in rural areas. This
organisational total resource availability constitutes an The interrelationship across charts and the central role of
the fire ground status is illustrated in Figure 5.2.
Chart events
Decision
Time activities
activities
Sequential Concurrent
Fire ground status
Critical time for fire

brigade operations Influence and
direction of analysis
Externally Fire brigade

determined determined
Figure 5.2: Chart relationships and fire ground status
This diagram represents the different possibilities available encountered in reality, expert judgment is employed to
in the use of the flow charts. The chart events are divided decide on a course of action. This judgment is augmented
into time activities and decision activities. Time activities where possible with globally definable criteria, for example,
can be sequential or concurrent. Decision activities can when the tenability criteria for firefighters is exceeded in a
affect the direction of the assessment by either adding compartment, a mandatory evacuation is required.
to the fire ground status or dictating the direction of the
The fire ground status consists of the internally generated
process.
available firefighting resources and externally generated
Strategy options can only be decided in conjunction variables that describe the fire induced environment.
with the fire brigade representative of the PBDB team or This status needs to be known at critical points in any
equivalent. To make an appropriate choice, the nature calculation so that a strategy can be either determined
of the fire environment needs to be assessed and this is or reassessed. Table 5.1 summarises the critical strategy
achieved in the model by examining the fire ground status. determination points at which the fire ground status should
Armed with this model representation of what would be be interrogated.

INTERNALLY GENERATED EXTERNALLY GENERATED
(from FBIM) (from other fire engineering sub-systems)
• Within flow charts between decision and time boxes • Flashover
• At the conclusion of each flow chart that lies within • Tenability limits (occupant and firefighter) within each
fire ground status box enclosure when reached
• Smoke spread to adjoining compartments
• Radiant heat flux to adjoining property exceeding
threshold
• Evacuation completed
• Fire size at attack time
• Partial structural collapse
Table 5.1 Critical strategy determination points
Managing the necessary information that comprises the The criteria for more resources include occupants, fire and
fire ground status can be done in many ways but must smoke spread, as well as number and size of enclosures
include the level of available resources and how they are threatened. Fire size in terms of heat release rate
deployed. This ensures no duplication of tasks occurs and determines the required water quantity for control and
allows resources that become available after completion of extinguishment.
a task can be redirected.
As the charts are worked through, decisions are arrived at
The fire ground status also includes the salient features of by consulting the fire ground status table, and assessing
the fire and building obtained from the other subsystems. the necessary resources against the available resources to
An example of fire ground status management could be as ascertain if additional resources are required. For example,
simple as a table format as shown in Table 5.2. Therefore, before proceeding with search and rescue, the enclosure
the table is developed for each critical time in the analysis. temperature is confirmed from the fire ground status table
The officer in charge will only be able to request more to determine if threshold limits for firefighters have been
resources at and after the time of their strategic inspection exceeded.
of the fire site, unless the fire is visible on arrival.

TIME SITUATION NECESSARY RESOURCES AVAILABLE RESOURCES
Brigade arrival at kerb side Room of origin: temp 90°C, 1 pumper, 1 search team, 2 Initial response: 1 pumper, 3
smoke layer 1.2 m hose teams firefighters
Adjacent enclosure 1: temp
45°C, smoke layer 2.1 m, no
further spread
Occupants: evacuation
underway
As officer in charge decides Room of origin: temp 1 pumper, 1 search team, 2 1 pumper, 3 firefighters
strategy 150°C, smoke layer 0.8m hose teams
65°C, smoke layer 1.9 m
40°C
Occupants: evacuation
complete
Untenable conditions Room of origin: temp 2 pumpers, 2 search teams, 1 pumper, 3 firefighters
290°C, smoke layer 0.5 m, 4 hose teams
water reqd 20 L/s
Adjacent enclosure 1: fire
spread, temp 95°C, smoke
layer 1.5 m
70°C, smoke layer 2.6 m
Occupants: 2 occupants
missing
Table 5.2: Example of a format to account for fire ground status
5.3. The critical path The duration of the activity as calculated from the available
data is similarly recorded. In this way, an overall picture
of the inter-relationship and overlapping of times can be
The final phase in bringing together the many disparate
immediately seen. Such a procedure is standard in many
activities associated with firefighting operations is
project management areas and software is available to
determining the critical time path for the overall operation
assist in this function. An illustration of the process is
appropriate to the scenario. An effective and visually
provided in Figure 5.3.
revealing way of accomplishing this is to form a Gantt chart
of all activities that are undertaken as determined by the
strategy. Such a chart is simply an overlay of individual
times against a principal time axis. As each activity is
commenced, its starting time is logged on the time axis.

Flow chart activities
Key: Time
Critical path
Other activities
Figure 5.3: Critical path methodology
5.4. Methodology meet the performance requirements of relevant building

codes and the International Fire Engineering Guidelines.
This overview indicates the structure of the model and the
FBIM methodology relies on the systematic completion flow between each module.
of each module or chart to ascertain the total time to
undertake the required activities. An overview of the FBIM begins with brigade notification of a fire. Fire
methodology is presented in Figure 5.4. initiation and growth, smoke development and spread, and
time to detect the fire form the basis of this notification.
Each chart (or module) represents a distinct component They are not developed in this model, however, and are to
of fire brigade intervention during a fire. Collectively, they be determined and provided by the designer as input into
form FBIM. The model parameters have been structured to FBIM.

Detection of fire
Time for fire brigade notification
CHART 1
Brigade receives signal
Signal reaches station

Time to dispatch resources
CHARTS 2 AND 3
Firefighters leave station
Time to reach kerb side

Road travel time
CHART 4
Don BA and gather Determine fire

initial equipment location
Time to assess and access fire
CHARTS 5, 6 AND 7
Survey fire and building surrounds, determine
additional resources
Time to travel to set up area

Travel to set up area
CHART 8
Firefighter travel rates

Firefighter travel rates
CHART 9
Initial firefighter protection

Time for water set up
CHARTS 10 AND 11
Water supply requirements
BA controls procedure
Time for search and rescue
CHART 12
Undertake search and rescue
Set up for exposure protection
Time for other property protection Undertake other property protection

CHARTS 13 AND 14
Undertake salvage operations
Set up hose streams

Time to control and extinguish the fire
CHART 15
Water application
Assess environmental protection

Time for environment protection
CHART 16
Set up for environmental protection
Figure 5.4: FBIM methodology overview

Chart 1: Time for initial brigade notification. This module Chart 10 and 11: Time to set up water. These modules
determines the time which elapses from fire detection to determine the time to set up water requirements, initially
fire brigade notification. Notification is considered complete for firefighter safety and then to obtain water for exposure
when the information has been received and understood protection, fire extinguishment, etc. prior to entering the
by the fire brigade (eg. any telephone information from the fire area.
caller has been received and understood) and will depend
Chart 12: Time for search and rescue. This module
upon types of systems employed to notify the fire brigade.
determines the time, once the necessary safety equipment
Chart 2 and 3: Time to dispatch resources. This module has been set up, to search smoke-logged areas and rescue
determines the time between the information being anyone trapped in the building.
received and understood by the fire brigade, and the
Note: The events contained within modules 5 to 12 may
time that the first fire appliance proceeds to the fire
occur simultaneously, in some cases the elapsed time
scene. Dispatch systems vary from metropolitan to rural
within this group being the maximum time within any
brigades, central to local station transmission, and radio to
single module plus any delays caused by other modules.
computer-aided dispatch systems.
This should be agreed upon in consultation with the
Chart 4: Time to reach fire scene (kerb side). This is the appropriate fire brigades.
travel time for the fire brigade to drive to the fire address.
Chart 13 and 14: Time for other property protection. These
Different methods to determine the road travel time are
modules consider the impact of the fire in the burning
provide and the option chosen will depend on available
building upon its neighbouring properties. Activities include
information.
the time to mobilise and set up necessary resources (eg.
Note: The events contained within modules 1 to 4 will aerial or pump appliance, hand-held hose streams) or to
generally occur sequentially, with the elapsed time to this undertake salvage operations to minimise damage.
point being the aggregate time for each module.
Chart 15: Time to control and extinguish the fire. This
Chart 5 and 6: Time for initial determination of fire location module estimates the effect of hand-held hose streams
and don safety equipment. This time may involve accessing on the heat release rate of the fire until extinguishment is
the site, locating a primary information target such as a obtained. In some cases, fire control or extinguishment may
fire indicator panel in a fire control room, opening doors be necessary to ensure the safety of trapped occupants
or gates, horizontal and vertical travel within a building, or prevent fire spread to other property. Also, where the
and delays which may occur where impediment to access designer or building owner wishes to include the protection
is present. This module also includes the time necessary of his/her property within the design brief, an impact
to don safety equipment prior to entry into the building. analysis through this module (in terms of fire brigade
Once at this primary information target, verification response) can be undertaken as an option.
and assessment of the fire will occur, and any necessary
Note: Modules 13, 14 and 15 will normally be undertaken
additional resources will be determined.
at the completion of search and rescue tasks or when
Chart 7: Time to assess fire. Each fire has unique additional resources become available.
characteristics and challenges that have to be assessed to
Chart 16: Time to protect the environment. Although not a
ensure the correct incident control strategy is employed,
requirement of the building code, environmental impact is
sufficient resources are obtained and allocated efficiently,
an issue of importance to fire brigades and industry. Where
firefighter safety is maintained, and potential exposure risks
the designer or building owner wishes to include protection
are identified. This module estimates the time necessary
of the environment within the design brief, impact analysis
to determine the resources needed at the fire scene.
through this module (in terms of fire brigade response) is
This work is normally undertaken by the officer in charge,
an option.
while other tasks such as set up and obtaining water are
completed by firefighting crews. Note: Modules 14, 15 and 16 will also assist designers
where they wish to incorporate asset protection within
Chart 8: Time to travel to set up area. As part of the
their design brief for the benefit of, or as requested by,
fire assessment, the officer in charge will ascertain the
their client. It is desirable that building design, where
appropriate set up area. This module incorporates the time
possible, address any output arising from these modules.
to travel, with equipment, to this location.
Chart 9: Time for firefighter travel. This chart enables the
speed of firefighters to be estimated, and includes details
of horizontal or vertical travel with or without equipment.
This chart is utilised throughout the process as firefighters
undertake their activities on the fire ground.

Key:
• The charts which follow comprise decision and time
(shaded) boxes. Beginning/end of
• The decision process is determined in conjunction with workflow
the relevant fire brigade. The shaded boxes indicate
times taken for individual activities.
• The letter at the top right corner of the shaded boxes
refers to the appropriate table in the accompanying
dataset.
Decision
• In the cases where no letter is provided, either
reference to another chart is necessary, or the time is
to be established in conjunction with the relevant fire
brigade.
• The text associated with each chart can be used
for guidance. For example, the time for fire
extinguishment can be estimated by using the Time/calculations
procedure outlined in the text to chart 15. required
• Times are thus accumulated.
A
Letter/s in corner
reference appropriate
table for calculation
SUB CHART
Completion of another chart
is required for calculation
Possible loss of life

or property

Chart 1 - Time for initial brigade notification
1
Begin
2 3 4
Is an automatic detection Detection via
No No Other means of No
or suppression system occupant cues? detection?
installed?
Yes Yes
5 Possible
Time to activate 9 B
loss of life or
automatic detection or Time to verify fire property
suppression system
6
Suppression No
system?
Yes
7 A B
8
Time to depressurise Time delay for alarm
system and activate verification
alarm
10 11
Automatic, direct 12
Intermediate
uninterrupted No No Telephone No
monitoring
connection to fire notification?
organisation?
brigade?
Yes Yes
Yes B B B
13 14 15
Time delay until Time delay for Time for special
notification of fire access, dial and option of contact
brigade connection fire brigade
16
Time to transmit information to fire
brigade = sum of times in shaded boxes
along chosen path

Chart 1 notes
1 – Time for initial brigade notification 7 – Time to depressurise system and activate alarm
This flow chart determines the time to notify the fire If notification is made via a suppression system, then the
brigade after the fire has been detected. This detection can pressure in the piping must drop before either the alarm
occur automatically by activation of a sprinkler or smoke valve opens or the pressure switch operates and the alarm
detector, or manually via other means. Notification is only is transmitted to the fire brigade. Similarly, a deluge valve
considered complete when the message has been received has a timelag between detection and suppression due to
and understood by the relevant fire brigade. The time the operation of the deluge valve. These delays affect the
for notification should be provided by the applicant after alarm time, not the time that water is put on the fire. These
discussion with the relevant brigade. The process outlined times must be added onto the calculated detector response
here is used as a guide to integrate the notification method time which will delay fire brigade notification. Guidance
with the appropriate brigade system. for typical values are given in Table A of the accompanying
dataset.
2 – Time from fire initiation to occurrence of detection
8 – Time delay for alarm verification
The time for detection of a fire should be calculated for
the scenario being analysed relevant to the time of the fire Irrespective of whether the system is primarily detection or
starting. This should be based on the time of activation of suppression, it will likely incorporate an alarm verification
the relevant sprinkler head, smoke detector, heat detector, period which must be added on to the depressurisation or
etc. based on accepted methodologies for calculating detector activation time.
such times. For detection via occupant cues, this may be
For addressable systems, the scan time and any permitted
the time for a smoke layer or other visual cues to occur
delay time must be added to the total time. In some cases,
for occupants. Similarly, for other means of detection, the
scanning requires verification by an additional scan once
time from fire initiation to the receipt of detection or a cue
the detection device has registered an alarm. For example,
appropriate to the means of detection should be included.
where it is usually a 5 second scan time, 10 seconds will
need to be added to calculation. This considers that the
3 – Is an automatic detection or suppression system alarm has activated immediately after the initial system
installed? scan.
An automatic detection or suppression system may, besides Some systems may also incorporate a delay for alarm
alerting building occupants of a fire, also perform the verification due to occupant safety or security reasons; eg.
task of automatically notifying the relevant fire brigade where a hazardous extinguishing agent may be released
where a permanent connection is provided. This module in occupied areas, or where the alarm is connected to a
recognises the signal output of automatic fire alarm central monitoring watch. Particular attention is drawn to
detection or suppression systems. If the detection system management strategies employed in some custodial care
is not connected to the brigade, the installed system may institutions such as prisons and care residences. In many
alert occupants (this is defined as cue type A) who then cases, a fire alarm is intercepted by staff who investigate
manually notify the brigade via direct brigade alarm or the situation before calling the fire brigade.
phone (box 11).
9 – Time to verify fire
4 – Is detection via occupant cues?
Occupant cues, such as sensory or visual, are generally
unreliable for evacuation. Therefore the time to notify the
5 – Are there other means of detection?
brigade is increased when using this method. The time to
Other means of detection allows for alternative design evacuate, which is used with these cues, is not necessarily
methods such as a watchman alarm, passer-by or sirens the time of brigade notification, and care must be used
and flashing lights at an army base. if this method is to be employed. Box 9 is necessary to
ensure there is appropriate time to verify the fire before
6 – Is a suppression system installed? manual notification of the brigade occurs.
It is necessary to ascertain if a suppression system is used
for brigade notification because additional, system-specific
alarm delays will usually occur with deluge systems, dry
pipe systems and wet pipe sprinkler systems.

10 – Automatic, direct, uninterrupted connection to fire
brigade?
11 – Intermediate monitoring organisation?
12 – Telephone notification?
13 – Time delay until notification of fire brigade
14 – Time delay for access, dial and connection
15 – Time for special option to contact fire brigade

Methods 10-15 provide likely alternatives for transmission
of the fire alarm to the brigade. While an automatic, direct,
uninterrupted connection to the brigade has no associated
delays, intermediate monitoring organisations often impose
an additional time to verify an alarm before notifying the
brigade. Telephone notification may depend on occupant
training and evacuation procedures; eg. if a fire warden is
allocated this task. Time for a special option to contact fire
brigade provides for an alternative method such as via a
third party.
16 – Possible loss of life and property

Chart 2- Time to dispatch resources
1
Begin
2
Is call via telephone, No
radio or passer by?
Yes
3
C
Time to receive
and take down
verbal information
4
Time to relay
dispatch
information
5
Time to respond = sum of times in shaded
boxes along chosen path

Chart 2 notes
1 – Time to dispatch resources

This module calculates the elapsed time from the time
of the incoming fire call to the time that a fire appliance
begins proceeding to the fire scene. Time to dispatch
resources is typically instantaneous where the relevant
fire brigade utilises an electronic dispatch system (termed
computer-aided dispatch – CAD), and may be considered as
negligible for these systems.
2 – Is the call via telephone, radio, or passer-by?
3 – Time to receive and take down verbal information
4 – Time to relay dispatch information

Many fire brigades use a central dispatch communications
centre. A computer-aided dispatch system will transmit
information to firefighters quicker than other dispatch
systems because the nearest available appliances are
automatically identified and dispatched. This will result in a
zero dispatch time.
An estimate of the time to relay dispatch information by
various means are given in Table D of the accompanying
dataset.

Chart 3 - Time for firefighters to respond to dispatch call
1
Begin
3 E
2 Time to travel to fire
Is the fire station No station, dress, assemble,
staffed full time? assimilate information
and leave station
Yes
4
Are firefighters in the No
station?
Yes
5 E
Time to dress, 6 E
assimilate information Time to make up and
and leave station become mobile
7
Time to respond and depart fire station = sum
of times in shaded boxes along chosen path

Chart 3 notes
1 – Time for firefighters to respond to dispatch call have the appliance and hoses set up for activities other
than emergency response functions. In such cases, the
This chart determines the time for firefighters to respond firefighters are not considered in the fire station but should
to the dispatch signal (turn out signal). It is the time from be within their turnout area. The crew have to make up and
activation of the turn out signal to the time when the become mobile before responding (box 6).
appliance proceeds to the fire scene.
5 – Time to dress, assimilate information and leave
2 – Is the fire station staffed full time?
station
In this chart, the only distinction necessary for the brigade
When located at the fire station, firefighters only don fire
type is whether the fire station is permanently staffed.
apparel when notification occurs. At the same time as
If the fire station is not staffed on a permanent basis, it
dressing, information regarding the call is assessed before
is assumed that the firefighters are not located at the
they enter the appliance and leave the station. The station
station at the time of the call. This assumption simplifies
must also be made secure before departing. Typical times
the process and ignores possible complicated scenarios
are provided in Table E of the accompanying dataset.
produced by part-time, auxiliary or volunteer fire brigades.
6 – Time to make up and become mobile

3 – Time to travel to a fire station, dress, assemble,
assimilate information and leave station In some instances, an allowance will need to be made for
a delayed response by the fire appliance. This may occur
Those firefighters responding from stations which are not due to training activities necessary to maintain appropriate
staffed full time are assumed to be out of the station, and skill levels. In such cases, all equipment being used by
their time to respond prior to arrival at the fire station is firefighters at that time will need to be either disconnected
estimated in Table E of the accompanying dataset providing or repacked on the vehicle before it can respond to the fire
default values. call.
4 – Are firefighters in the fire station?

While firefighters may be in the fire station, they may
be conducting a training drill or building inspection and

Chart 4 - Time to reach fire scene (kerb side)
1
Begin
2 F
Travel time
3
Is another appliance
responding from Yes
another location?
No
4
For each appliance, total appliance travel
time = design speed (box 2)

Chart 4 notes
1 – Time to reach fire scene (kerb side) if so, the local fire brigade must be consulted to
determine the most appropriate fire station to be
This module calculates the time from when the first used.
appliance becomes mobile to the time it reaches the street
• Sample times must be taken for different days and
address. This is the time to reach the kerb side and does
times of the week. These days should include Tuesday,
not include any travel within the site. The designer must
Friday and Saturday and the times should include
consult with the relevant fire brigade to agree on the
08:30, 12:00, 17:00 and 23:00. See Table 5.3 for an
appropriate responding stations.
example.
2 – Travel time • The travel time should be the median taken from the
slowest time in the sample. In Table 5.3, the final travel
This is the travel time of the fire appliance using complex time should be 10 minutes.
digital mapping systems.
• Use Table 5.3 as a template to demonstrate a range of
In some cases, the appropriate fire brigade may have days and times have been considered.
accurate and up-to-date records for appliance travel • A table must be produced for each responding location
speeds. In this instance, consultation with the fire service is so that a chronological sequence of the different
recommended. resources arriving at the fire scene can be established.
The method for identifying the travel speed for each
responding appliance is through digital mapping software 3 – Is another appliance responding from another
such as Google Maps™. In order to achieve the most location?
appropriate time the following approach must be used and
Where other fire appliances respond from other locations
documented:
(multiple response), then the time for each appliance
• Times must be collected from the second closest response must be calculated so that a chronological
fire station. This allows for the possibility that the sequence of the different resources arriving at the fire
appliances at the closest station may already be in use. scene can be established.
In some cases, the closest station may be occupied,
Appropriate/agreed fire station Day of the

Building address Distance Time of day Time range
address week
340 Albert Street, East Fire Station 10, 55 Church Street, 2.3km Tuesday 08:30 5-14 min
Melbourne, VIC 3002 Richmond, VIC 3121 12:00 5-12 min
17:00 6-14 min
23:00 5-8 min
Friday 08:30 5-12 min
12:00 5-12 min
17:00 6-12 min
23:00 5-9 min
Saturday 08:30 5-8 min
12:00 5-10 min
17:00 5-12 min
23:00 5-8 min
Table 5.3 Example of determining appliance travel times using digital mapping

Chart 5 - Time for initial determination of fire location
F
2 3
1 Is the road travel Time to travel through
within the site
Yes
Begin site = time travel distance
necessary? divided by travel speed
No
4
No Is fire visible on Yes
5 arrival?
Are premises Yes
occupied?
6 7
CHART 6 Adjust time
Time to don for hindrance
No safety equipment factor
11
Is forced entry Yes
required?
12
CHART 6
8 G
Time to don safety
No Time for
equipment and gather
necessary tools any security
procedure
14
CHART 6
Time to don safety
equipment
J 13
I
15
Time to force entry = 9
Time to gain entry
number of entries X Is an accredited
= number of doors Yes
entry type X time per fire warden
or gates X time per
door or gate type present?
gate
No
16
17 H
Is fire brigade 10
CHART 9
pre-fire planning Yes Time to
Time for internal
documented? communicate
travel to primary
with fire warden
information target
No
19 L
Time for
K information
18
gathering
Time resolved
way finding
20
Total time taken to determine fire
location = sum of times in shaded

Chart 5 notes
1 – Time for initial determination of fire location prioritise any fire ground tactics and the assessment of fire
location may become of secondary importance.
This chart calculates the elapsed time to access the
building and reach a primary information target, if The purpose of this box is to determine if security
required, and includes any time to move the fire appliances procedures are applicable or if an accredited fire warden is
from the kerb side location. The initial target to access is present to assist the brigade to determine the fire location.
the primary information target. This includes such items Prior to entry to the building, firefighters will don safety
as the fire indicator panel, fire control room, etc. The equipment, as per chart 6.
information provided by these primary sources is then used
by the officer in charge to establish an initial assessment of 7 – Time for any security procedure at site perimeter
the fire location and modify fire ground tactics, depending
Security procedures will be relevant for a number
on the information gained.
of building types including prisons, banks, casinos,
department stores, etc. It is necessary to ensure these
2 – Is road travel within the site necessary? procedures are allocated the necessary time component.
It is usually expected that where security procedures are
3 – Time to travel through site = travel distance divided applicable, fire wardens will also be present.
by travel speed
If the building is part of a complex within a site, or a large 8 – Is a fire warden present?
site with fire brigade access provided, then road travel Fire wardens will reduce brigade time spent determining
within the site is normally undertaken. This is calculated by the fire location. However, it is expected that any benefit
measuring the distance from the kerb side arrival position gained using this approach will require the building
to the location where the appliance will stop to begin management fire warden system to be appropriately
investigation, and dividing this by the travel speed. It is implemented and maintained since it must remain for the
expected that the travel speed will be very slow due to life of the building.
traffic, pedestrians, speed humps, etc. A value of 8 km/h
should be adopted. 9 – Time to communicate with fire warden
4 – CHART 6 -Time to don safety equipment This time will only be significant when the building is
overly complex and firefighters are likely to require specific
instructions to reach the fire area.
5 – Is the fire location visible on arrival?
If the fire has developed to a stage that it is visible on 10 – Is forced entry required?
brigade arrival at kerb side, an initial assessment may
be undertaken by visual means. This will not necessarily If the premises are unoccupied and the fire brigade does
negate the need to investigate the primary source (e.g. not carry keys to access the property, then forced entry will
fire detection control and indicating equipment (FDCIE)) be necessary. Either option will require safety equipment
in due course, since information is continually sought for firefighters and, in some instances, entry tools will be
by the fire officer to enhance any visual observations. used.
However, if the fire location is apparent upon arrival, the
time for this initial assessment of fire location is reduced. 11 – Time to force entry
For estimation purposes, this time will be assumed as This can vary from the time to cut a chain with bolt cutters
zero in this situation. Should the fire reach flashover in to the time to saw through a steel roller door using a
a single compartment building, then access to a primary friction cutter. If the premises is a complex, then the time
information source such as FDCIE may not be possible and to force entry may be two-fold, being the sum of the time
a visual inspection will have to be relied upon as the sole to force an entry through the main factory gate and the
determination of fire location. The criteria for visible fire time to force an entry into the building where the fire is
should initially be considered as flame extension out of located, for example.
windows.
12 – Time to gain entry
6 – Are premises occupied?
When keys are required to access the building, time will be
If the premises are occupied at the time of brigade arrival, taken to gain entry. This is a function of the door type and
access into the building should be relatively easy. However, number of doors. If the premises are occupied and open,
brigade personnel may be hampered by those occupants or security staff are present, there is no additional time to
still evacuating. In addition, ensuring occupant safety will force or gain entry and boxes 11 and 12 are bypassed.

13 – Is fire brigade pre-fire planning documented? Ideal way finding occurs in premises which have clear,
delineated access provisions to essential firefighting
Some fire brigades now undertake pre-fire planning as part
equipment and facilities. Buildings with good way finding
of their operational preparedness. This involves assessing
layouts and instructions will be credited with a time saving.
the site for a potential fire and planning strategies to
However, signage is not able to compensate for way finding
deal with an incident. The obvious benefit of the brigade
problems which are due to the complexity of the floor plan.
undertaking such planning is time saved, and this is
Pre-fire planning may also have an impact on this issue.
reflected in the methodology. This item must be discussed
Therefore, the time to resolve way finding is a subjective
with the relevant fire brigade to determine what should be
issue which should be discussed with the relevant fire
considered for the particular project.
brigade representative.
14 – CHART 9 - Time for internal travel to primary

16 – Time for information gathering
information target
This is the time at the primary information source, such
15 – Time to resolve way finding as a FDCIE, to absorb the information displayed. It may
involve opening panels, cancelling alarms and reading plan
In buildings where there is limited information and information to assess where the fire is located.
the structure is complex in nature or having many
compartments, then time delays will occur as firefighters
orient themselves and find their way through the building.
This will be reflected in the time to resolve way finding
within a building to reach the primary information target,
e.g. FDCIE.

Chart 6 - Time to don safety equipment and gather necessary tools
2 M
1
Time to dismount fire
Begin
appliance and don BA
3 N
Is other safety 4
equipment Yes Time to remove and don
necessary? safety equipment
No
5 O
Time to conduct safety
procedures
6 7 P
Are tools necessary Time to remove
for initial access
Yes
necessary tools from
and set up? appliance
No
8
Time to don safety equipment and gather
necessary tools = sum of times in shaded

Chart 6 notes
1 – Time to don safety equipment and gather necessary hazardous incident suits. These times may vary depending
tools on the availability of full hazardous incident equipment and
whether temporary measures are needed in the interim.
For firefighter safety reasons, breathing apparatus (BA) will
always be worn prior to entering the building. While the Any safety equipment will require final safety checks and
BA may not yet be operating, ie. the face mask attached procedures. For BA, a control point is established to ensure
and the air cylinder turned on, it will be strapped to the each firefighter lodges a tally and each individual time of
firefighter in a condition ready for use. entry to the building can be recorded. This is an integral
part of the safety procedures.
Depending on the building type and size, necessary
equipment for access and for firefighter safety may include 3 – Time to remove necessary tools from appliance
forced entry equipment, small bore hose, or an operational
kit. Initial access tools may be necessary, particularly where
forced entry is required. This may include items such as
2 – Time to dismount fire appliance, don BA, don safety bolt cutters or a crowbar. Normally, hose lengths will also
be removed at this time. Depending upon the building type
equipment
and size, operational kits will also be used by firefighters.
If BA equipment is located within the appliance locker, For example, a high rise kit contains essential equipment
upon reaching kerb side, firefighters will dismount and items specifically selected for use in high rise incidents. This
proceed directly to remove this equipment. Each firefighter, kit will automatically be gathered if the fire incident occurs
after donning the BA (but not the face mask), will test the in a multi-storey building.
equipment to ensure it is operating satisfactorily and the
Depending on the equipment necessary, the time for it to
air cylinder is fully charged. It should be noted that on
be removed from the appliance is calculated here. While
some fire appliances, BA equipment is worn in the crew
the time alloted to equipment removal is generally minor,
compartment and firefighters dismount at the fire scene
this item may be significant if specialised equipment is
with their BA equipment donned.
used or the quantity of equipment used is extensive. For
Other safety equipment may require donning depending example, some dangerous goods safety equipment will
on the fire situation and the building contents and necessitate a significant time period, as will the removal of
condition. The time required for this activity must be long lengths of hose should a water relay be necessary.
discussed with the relevant brigade. However, Table N of
the accompanying dataset provides guidance on the use of

Chart 7 - Time to assess fire
2
Is the fire location
1 and extent
obvious without
Yes
Begin
reconnaissance?
No
Q
4
3 Time for OIC to walk
Is building greater perimeter of fire affected
than three storeys in
No
area, to and from set up
height? area
Yes
Q,R,T
Q,R,T 6 Q,R,T
5 7
Time for OIC to walk from 1
Time for OIC to walk from Time for OIC
floor below fire compartment
set up area to 1 floor to walk back to
to 1 floor above fire
below fire compartment set up area
compartment and survey floor
9
8
CHART 2
Are additional
Yes Time to notify
resources
dispatch for additional
required?
resources
No
10
Time for fire assessment = sum of
times in shaded boxes along chosen
path

Chart 7 notes
1 – Time to assess fire 4 – CHART 9 - Time for personnel to walk perimeter of

The development of this methodology represents an fire affected area, and to set up area
essential component of the fire brigade process. However, If the building is three storeys or less, the assessment and
establishing these activities as time-related components strategy is undertaken in the time the officer in charge
is extremely difficult and complicated, given that this may walks from the set up area to and around the perimeter
include the following: of the fire-affected area, often delineated by walls or
• a survey of the fire and building partitions. This occurs after the fire location has been
determined, and during the time firefighters travel to the
• an assessment of the particular hazards resulting from
set up area as determined in chart 8. The firefighters will
the fire
set up while the officer in charge is conducting their survey
• consequences of the fire in terms of life safety, of the fire. Depending on fire size and compartmentation,
property loss, other property and environmental the set up area may be located either inside or outside the
hazards building.
• effective allocation of resources
• formulating and commanding an incident control 5, 6 and 7 – CHART 9 - Time for personnel to assess fire
system and determine strategy for multi-storey buildings
• coordinating other organisations. If the building is more than three storeys, the assessment
FBIM cannot, at this stage of its development, incorporate and strategy is undertaken in the time that the officer in
the depth of analysis necessary to provide times for these charge walks from the set up area (1 or 2 storeys below
tasks and strategies. Therefore, these requirements have the fire compartment, after having checked this floor
been modelled into a more easily definable time-related for safety), to the floor below the fire compartment (to
activity. This is described below. check the fire progress), and to the floor above the fire
compartment (to check the fire progress). The officer in
This methodology is based on fire ground tactics, is readily charge then proceeds back to the set up area.
determined and easily measured. It also simplifies the
strategic approach to firefighting which is a process that The firefighters will be setting up while the officer in charge
the officer in charge (OIC) accommodates when managing is conducting their survey of the fire. As the set up area
the fire scene. is located inside the building, water will be sourced from
the internal hydrant system after entry into the building.
2 – Are fire location and extent obvious without Fire crews outside will ensure that water is available to
the internal hydrant system. Note: when determining the
reconnaissance?
sequence of events, consultation with the appropriate fire
If the location of the fire is evident at this time (eg. a brigade is required.
factory building fully involved in fire), then an initial
reconnaissance to establish the size and location of the fire 8 – Are additional resources required?
may not be necessary. Firefighters will be able to start work
immediately and the officer in charge will be able to make When the officer in charge assesses the fire and
an assessment of resources likely to be needed at the fire determines the applicable strategy, additional resources
scene. may be necessary. These are called, if available, at this
time. There is no time delay associated with this activity.
The communication centre is notified, and the reference to
3 – Is the building greater than three storeys in height?
charts 2, 3 and 4 are applicable as additional resources are
Buildings are categorised as: three storeys or less, in dispatched. Additional resources includes both brigade and
which case the set up area is located outside the building; other emergency organisations.
or more than three storeys, where the set up area is
located on the floor either one or two levels below the fire
compartment. While this is the category that determines
whether the set up occurs inside or outside the building,
the relevant fire brigade and designer may wish to use
other criteria. This methodology is easily adaptable to
categorise buildings of other heights.

Chart 8 - Time to travel to set up area
2 3 G
1 Is road travel within Time for
Yes
Begin the site necessary? any security
procedures
No
F
6 4
5
CHART 6 Time to travel through
No Is safety equipment
site = travel distance
Don safety equipment donned?
and gather necessary divided by travel
tools
Yes
7
Is set up area inside No
the building?
Yes
9 G
8
CHART 9
Time for
Time for internal
any security
travel with
procedure
necessary tools
11 S
10
Adjust internal
Is building No
travel time for
evacuated?
hindrance factor
Yes
12
Time taken to travel to set up area =
sum of times in shaded boxes along
chosen path

Chart 8 notes
1 – Time to travel to set up area 7 – Time for any security procedure

This is the time elapsed to access the set up area, either Security procedures additional to those required to access
inside or outside the building. The set up area location the building may be necessary depending on the nature
depends primarily on the fire and building characteristics. of the occupancy and the location of the fire and set up
It accounts for those factors additional to the time required area. This may be relevant for large, high security premises
to access the primary information target. such as prisons, casinos and banks. The time for any such
procedures should be determined by the designer. The
2 – Is road travel within the site necessary? time for internal travel with or without necessary tools is
determined in chart 9.
3 – Time for any security procedures
8 – CHART 9 – Time for internal travel with necessary
4 – Time to travel through the site tools
These times relate to large complexes such as factories and
9 – Is the building evacuated?
regional shopping centres where the front gate is remote
from the building or building portion which firefighters If the building is not yet evacuated, access to the set up
must access. In such circumstances, vehicular travel area may be affected due to hindrance or to resources
through the site may be necessary. There may also be being transferred to assist building occupants.
necessary security procedures which may be very complex,
especially within military establishments. 10 – Adjust internal travel time for hindrance factor
If the building has a significant population which is
5 – CHART 6 - Don safety equipment and gather
evacuating the building, this will slow down firefighters
necessary tools trying to access the building against the occupant flow.
Suitable allowances need to be made for this and reference
6 – Is set up area inside the building? to the evacuation model will be necessary to see if this
If the set up area is outside the building, then access situation is occurring at the time firefighters are trying to
time is zero and only travel time previously calculated is access the fire area. Specific instances may need to be
applicable. This travel time is explained in chart 5. estimated in conjunction with the relevant fire brigade.
11 – Time to travel to set up area

Chart 9 - Time for firefighter travel
2
1 Are doors to be Yes
Begin negotiated?
No
I, J
3
Time to gain
entry
5 Q
4 Horizontal travel time = travel
Is horizontal travel Yes distance X speed X factor for smoke
required? obscuration X factor for necessary
tools carried
No
No
6 7 8
Is vertical travel Yes Are fire lifts Are stairs available No
required? available for use? for use?
No Yes Yes
9 R T
10
Lift travel time
Stair travel time =
= lift speed X
number of steps up
vertical height +
or down X time per
time for loading
step up or down X
necessary tools
factor for smoke
in lift
obscuration X factor
for necessary tools
carried.
12
Are stairs also to be Yes
negotiated?
11
No Internal access not
13
available - possible
Total time to travel internally = sum of times
loss of life or
in shaded boxes along chosen path = road
property
travel + door entry + horizontal travel +
vertical travel

Chart 9 notes
1 – Time for firefighter travel 6 – Is vertical travel required?

This chart methodology calculates the actual travel time, If vertical travel is necessary to access either the
and is used in the estimation of time to travel anywhere on information target or the set up area, then this has a
the fire ground, such as the primary information target or different speed factor than normal horizontal travel. Any
the set up area. travel via stairs is considered vertical travel.
2 – Are doors to be negotiated?

Any doors or gates within the site or building will require 7 – Are emergency lifts available for use?
additional time to access.
The provision of emergency lifts will significantly reduce the
time required to travel to upper storeys, particularly where
3 – Time to gain entry equipment needs to be carried up several floors.
If the premises are unoccupied, and the fire brigade do not
carry keys to access the building, then forced entry will be 8 – Are stairs available for use?
necessary. This can vary from the time to cut a chain with
If lifts are not available for use, then stairs will have to be
bolt cutters to the time to saw through a steel roller door
negotiated. This is a significant time delay due to the need
using a friction cutter. If the premises is a complex, then
to carry BA and other equipment. If neither stairs nor lifts
the time to force entry may be two-fold, being the sum of
are available (perhaps due to fire spread), then access is
the time to force an entry through the main factory gate
not possible and external firefighting operations will be the
and the time to force an entry into the building where the
only option.
fire is located.
If the premises are occupied, it is assumed that entry will 9 – Lift travel time
be unimpeded.
The lift travel time is calculated by multiplying the lift
When keys are required to access the building, time will be speed by the height travelled, plus a time for loading and
taken to gain entry. This is a function of the door type and unloading the tools from the lift. Unless high rise buildings
number of doors. If the premises are occupied and open, are applicable, it is not expected that this time will be
or security staff are present, any additional time to force or significant.
gain entry is zero.
10 – Stair travel time
4 – Is horizontal travel required?
Stair travel time varies depending on smoke obscuration
The majority of fire incidents will require travel in the within the stairwell and the direction of travel. The travel
horizontal direction. speed is calculated on the number of stair risers.
5 – Horizontal travel time 12. – Are stairs also to be used?

Typical horizontal walking speeds in clear air or light smoke In some buildings, the use of both lifts and stairs will be
conditions are provided in Table Q of the accompanying necessary. In high rise buildings, the lift is often used
dataset. The designer must determine, from the smoke to access floors below the fire floor, where a forward
development and spread module, the conditions through command location is set up. Firefighters then proceed to
which firefighters must operate. An appropriate factor the fire floor above, using the stairway.
should then be applied for the subsequent reduced speed
in heavy smoke conditions.

Chart 10 - Time to set up water
1
Begin
3 U 4 Q,T,V
2
Will fire attack Time to position Time to lay and
occur from the fire Yes appliance at charge necessary
appliance? appropriate hose from
entrance appliance
No
Yes
5
7 6 Is additional
CHART 11 Is the water water necessary
No supply from fire Yes
Time to set up water for firefighter
requirements appliance? protection?
No
8
CHART 9
Time to travel from
set up area to fire
area
9
Time to set up water for initial
firefighter protection = sum of times
in shaded boxes along chosen path

Chart 10 notes
1 – Time to set up water 8 – Is additional water necessary?

This chart provides the time necessary for initial water Any additional water requirements may be possible
requirements to provide for firefighter safety. Once a fire by laying additional large diameter hose from the fire
has been confirmed, ready water will always be necessary appliance or will be sourced elsewhere by determination
before commencing internal fire-related activities. If fire through chart 11. Such activities will normally be
spread has involved the entire building and only exposure undertaken simultaneously with the activities in this chart.
protection is possible, initial firefighter protection lines may
not be necessary. 6 – Is the water supply from a fire appliance
Note: This chart is currently designed for charged wet
hydrant systems. If dry systems are planned please consult 7 – CHART 11 – Time to set up water requirements
with the appropriate fire brigade.
8 – CHART 9 – Time to travel from set up area to fire
2 – Will fire attack occur from the fire appliance? area
3 – Time to position appliance at the appropriate

entrance
In order to obtain maximum coverage with the high
pressure hose reel, the appliance may need to be moved
to the most effective entrance. This may occur after
the fire location has been determined. Typical times
for manoeuvring appliances are provided in Table U of
the accompanying dataset. If the appliance is already in
position, this time is zero.
6 – Time to lay and charge necessary hose from

appliance
In many instances, the initial water stream can be obtained
from the appliance via the water tank and high pressure
hose reel which are a common feature of a suburban pump
appliance. If the high pressure hose reel does not reach
the fire area, or the responding appliance does not contain
this facility, or the fire size is too large for application of this
resource, then the designer must either investigate the use
of larger diameter hose laid from the fire appliance or use
chart 11 to determine the time to obtain water via other
means.
See Tables Q, T and V of the accompanying dataset for
times to run the hose horizontally and up stairs.

Chart 11 - Time to set up water supply requirements
2
Is hydrant system
1 flow and pressure
Begin
Yes
adequate for initial
firefighting?
No
3 4 W 5
Is adequate water Time taken to
No Is adequate water No
volume available to search for external volume available on
the site? water source site?
Yes 7
Yes 6 X,V
Possible loss
Time to establish
of life or
water supply on
property
site
X,V
10
8 9
Time taken to
Are hydrants Yes Are boosters Yes connect and charge
provided on site? provided?
hoses for boosting
No
11 X,V 12 V
Time taken to Time taken to connect and
connect and charge charge hoses from on site
hoses to the fire hydrants to the fire area
13 14
Are additional CHARTS 2-4, 11, 13 15
resources and Time taken to set up water requirements
Yes Time taken for additional
equipment resources and equipment to = sum of times in shaded boxes along
needed? arrive and set up chosen path
No

Chart 11 notes
1 – Time to set up water supply requirements 5 – Is an adequate water volume available remote from
The time to set up water requirements is that which is the site?
necessary to establish a sufficient quantity of water at If an adequate water supply is unavailable on site, water
the required pressure to undertake prolonged search must be sourced remote from the site. If an adequate
and rescue, fire control, exposure protection, and fire water supply is also unavailable off site, the brigade cannot
extinguishment. This will also be required if the high undertake the necessary firefighting tasks and possible loss
pressure hose reel is unavailable or insufficient for initial of life and property may result.
protection provisions.
Note: This chart is currently designed for charged wet 7 – Are boosters on site?
hydrant systems. If dry systems are planned please consult Boosters enable firefighters to use on site hydrants and
with the appropriate fire brigade. to regulate the pressure necessary for brigade tasks. If
boosters are not provided, the on site hydrants can only
2 – Is hydrant system flow and pressure adequate for be used as a water source (provided adequate flow is
attack hydrant? available). This reduces on site options since the hydrant
must be accessible to an appliance and in a position which
Hydrant systems installed within building allotments that
does not endanger firefighters or the appliance.
can supply adequate pressures and flows will automatically
be used without further intervention by the brigade.
This significantly reduces the time to achieve water set 8, 9, 11, 12 and 13 – Time to connect and charge hoses
up. If adequate flow and pressure is not available within Depending on the fire hydrant system on the site, a number
the building allotment, an assessment is undertaken to of hoses will need to be connected between a number of
establish the connection of a suitable water supply to the sources, including the fire appliance, water source, feed
site. hydrants and attack hydrants. Discussion with the fire
brigade should be undertaken to determine what strategy
3 – Is adequate water volume available on site? and associated resources would be necessary.
If the hydrant reticulation is unsuitable for direct
firefighting use, it must be determined if an adequate 10 – CHART 9 – Time to travel from set up area to
flow capacity exists to the site. This may be in the form booster
of a static water supply, or town main connection with
an adequate flow to the site, but the fire brigade must 14 – Can we progress without additional resources and
increase the pressure so it is suitable for firefighting needs. equipment required?
Additional resources and equipment for water supply
4 – Is adequate water available off site?
may be necessary for firefighter safety or fire control.
If an adequate water supply cannot be sourced off site, For example, additional long hose lengths and pumping
then there would be possible loss of life and property. appliances may be necessary to obtain a suitable water
supply for firefighter set up. While available resources
6 – Time to search for external water source will be utilised immediately, additional resources may be
necessary before firefighters enter the fire area.
If insufficient water is available at the site to cope with
the firefighting needs as determined by fire size, then
15 – Time for additional resources and equipment to
an allowance must be made for firefighters to locate
supplementary water sources, which may be difficult arrive and set up
to find, especially at night. Where pre-fire planning has This time will also involve charts 2-4, 11 and 13 for the
been undertaken, this can minimise delays in accessing arrival kerb side of any additional resources. The set up
necessary water resources. Confirm the pre-fire planning time will follow a similar methodology to this chart.
with the appropriate fire brigade and how this can be
incorporated in the times.

Chart 12 - Time for search and rescue
1
Begin
2 3
Have firefighter Search cannot be undertaken
safety limits been Yes in that enclosure, possible
exceeded in the loss of life or property.
enclosure? Proceed to chart 13
No
4 Y
How many 6 Q,R,S,T,Y
5
search teams are Time to search internal places of
Are there any places
available with a of internal safety in
Yes safety using half the number of
charged line of search teams with a charged line
the building?
hose? of hose (from 6)
No
7 Y
Time to search
required areas using
half the number of
search teams
8
Have firefighter
safety levels been Yes
exceeded during
search time?
No
9 10
Are any other areas CHART 9
11
now requiring Time for reconnaissance of
Search completed
search and rescue? adjacent enclosures = time for
search of adjacent enclosures

Chart 12 notes
1 – Time for search and rescue Extreme condition
Consultation with the relevant fire authority is essential These conditions would be encountered in a snatch rescue
to determine the appropriate search and rescue strategy situation or a retreat from a flashover.
relevant to the fire scenario being assessed. This will Maximum time: 1 minute
include items such as the size of the search and rescue
teams, the conditions under which search and rescue will Maximum air temperature: 160oC (in lower layer)
be undertaken, the areas requiring search and rescue to be Maximum air temperature: 280oC (in upper layer)
undertaken, etc.
Maximum radiation: 4 - 4.5 kW/m2
2 and 8 – Have firefighter safety limits been exceeded?
Search and rescue functions will cease if the limits of safety Critical conditions
for firefighters have been exceeded. The critical factors
Firefighters would not be expected to operate in these
of the environment which affect firefighters and their
conditions, but could be encountered. Considered to be life
equipment are:
threatening.
• air temperature
Time: < 1 minute
• visibility
Air temperature: > 235oC (in lower layer)
• humidity
• incident thermal radiation Radiation: > 10 kW/m2
• air flow past the firefighter
• time for which they are exposed. While firefighters can search under fire conditions which
For the purpose of this model the following criteria have are untenable to building occupants, it is unlikely that
been provided in terms of time, temperature, thermal the occupants will survive in this atmosphere, therefore
radiation and humidity. The final factor of visibility should these conditions are not a satisfactory design criteria for
be determined in consultation with the relevant fire occupant safety. Search and rescue cannot be undertaken
authority, taking into consideration site specific hazards and in a compartment which has reached flashover, and it
probable intervention requirements. is not expected that occupants will survive in such an
environment.
The following results, relative to height of 1500mm above
floor level, apply (Foster & Roberts, 1994): When the smoke layer is less than 1000 mm above floor
level, search speed becomes hampered and time to
undertake this task increases.
Routine condition
4 – How many search teams are available with a
Elevated temperatures, but not direct thermal radiation
charged line of hose?
Maximum time: 25 minutes
The number of people in a search team should be
Maximum air temperature: 100oC (in lower layer) discussed with the relevant fire brigade. Each search team
Maximum radiation: 1kW/m2 should have a charged line of hose set up using previous
charts 10 and 11.
The number of search teams available will depend on the
Hazardous condition number of initial responding appliances and firefighters
Where firefighters would be expected to operate for a and on the availability of additional resources as requested
short period of time in high temperatures in combination by the officer in charge. Obviously, the greater the number
with direct thermal radiation. of search teams, the quicker the relevant areas can be
searched.
Maximum time: 10 minutes
Maximum air temperature: 120oC (in lower layer)
Maximum radiation: 3 kW/m2

5 – Are there any places of internal safety in the systematically searching by touch into the centre of the
building? room. If, after conducting the initial perimeter search, the
room is found to be large and there remain unsearched
Places of internal safety, such as refuges for mobility- portions in the centre of the room, then guide lines will be
impaired occupants, would need to be searched by fire laid and the search extended.
fighters and any required rescues undertaken.
Guide lines serve two important functions:
6 and 7 – Time to search internal places of safety and • to determine what area has been searched if BA
all other required areas using half the number of search replenishment or staged search occurs
teams with a charged line of hose (from 6) • to enable firefighters to retreat quickly or be located if
required.
The time to travel to the search area, the time to undertake
the search and the time to rescue occupants should all be Further information on rate of search in terms of perimeter
calculated in this task using the appropriate data from the traversed and area searched can be found in Table Y of the
appropriate tables. This should include perimeter searches accompanying dataset.
and area searches as appropriate. The strategy adopted will
be particular to the building and fire scenario and should 9 – Are any other areas now requiring search and
be discussed with the relevant fire brigade. rescue?
Utilising half the number of search teams provides for Over the time it has taken to undertake the necessary
crew rotation to address issues such as fatigue. However, search and rescue activities, it should be determined if fire
the search and rescue strategy and procedures should be and/or smoke development occurred or any other events
discussed with the relevant fire authority. occurred that require search and rescue of other areas.
The duration of breathing apparatus (BA) should be
considered as part of the time for search and rescue for 10 – Time for reconnaissance of adjacent enclosures
each search team to ensure appropriate safety procedures
A reconnaissance of the adjacent enclosures will occur to
are followed. This should be discussed with the relevant
ensure that smoke has not remained in rooms remote from
fire brigade.
the fire. This is not undertaken as a search technique, but
Search tasks in smoke-logged conditions are conducted rather a visual check of the enclosures.
by the search team initially feeling their way round the
The search and rescue strategy should be discussed with
perimeter of the room to establish its size, and then
the relevant fire authority.

Chart 13 - Time for exposure protection
2
3
Is prevention of
1 CHART 14
fire spread the only No Time to protect
Begin
consideration?
uninvolved contents
(salvage operations)
4 Yes
CHART 9
Time to travel from set up area
to area of exposure hazard
5 6
Is radiation a No exposure
No
threat to adjoining protection required
property?
Yes
8
7
Water required = 10L/s for
Determine area of
each 200m2 of exposure or
exposure risk
part thereof
9
10
Is sufficient water
CHARTS 2-11
available on site to No
Time to obtain
protect exposures?
additional water
Yes
12 Z
11
Time to set up
Is aerial equipment Yes
aerial equipment
required?
No
13 14
Is hose stream CHART 11
Yes
needed? Time to set up hose
stream
No
16
15 Is exposure 17
Begin exposure successful and fire Yes Time for exposure
protection growth stemmed? protection

Chart 13 notes
1 – Time taken for exposure protection 11 – Is aerial equipment needed?

This chart determines the time taken for firefighters to set
up and to protect exposures such as other property. 12 – Time to set up aerial equipment
Depending on the height and configuration of the buildings
4 – Time to travel from set up area to area of exposure involved or exposed, aerial equipment may be required.
hazard To set up this equipment takes time and consideration of
ground conditions, placement and operational preparation
Utilise chart 9 to determine the time it takes to travel from factors.
the set up area to the area of the exposure hazard.
Table Z of the accompanying dataset provides times for this
5 – Is radiation a threat to adjoining property? activity.
The potential radiant heat flux received by adjoining 13 – Is hose stream needed?
properties should be assessed to determine whether there
is the potential for piloted or non-piloted ignition. If there is
14 – Time to set up hose stream
the potential for ignition to occur in an adjoining property,
then exposure protection would need to commence. The protection of the exposure may include hose line
teams operating from the ground. The time for these
Please Note:
teams to be established, including water supply, is to be
Legislation in some jurisdictions may specify particular determined.
values, however the values used must be agreed with the
stakeholders as part of the PBDB. 15 – Begin exposure protection
Exposure protection is maintained until either the water
7 – Determine area of exposure risk
is spent, or the radiation received is reduced to less than
The area (m2) which requires exposure protection will be that required for ignition or continuation of fire spread.
dependant on the threat determined in box 5. This should Consideration should be given to the critical radiant heat
also be discussed with the relevant fire brigade to ensure flux under piloted and non-piloted ignition conditions.
consistency with operational strategies. If the threshold is reached, it can be assumed that the
exposed property is now on fire. The fire engineering
8 – Water required = 10 L/s for each 200 m2 of analysis should justify the values used and be agreed upon
exposure or part thereof by the stakeholders.
When the area of exposure is determined, the amount Note: Legislation in some jurisdictions may specify
of water required to protect the exposure has been particular values, however the values used must be agreed
estimated. It is assumed that 10 L/s will provide one with the stakeholders as part of the PBDB.
firefighting hose line, and sufficient firefighters (at least two
firefighters per hose line) must be available to operate each 16 – Is exposure protection successful and fire growth
required hose line. stemmed?
For a growing fire, the resources mobilised within the
9 – Is sufficient water and resources available on site to available time may not immediately deal with the threat.
protect exposures? A catch up situation may arise with the whole process
It must be determined if there is sufficient water available needing recalculation at different points in time as extra
on site to provide for exposure protection considering the resources become available to deal with the situation.
water being used for other tasks. An assessment is made
of the resources that are present on scene, eg. firefighters,
equipment, water supply, and the tasks allocated to each
of them.
10 – Time to obtain additional water and resources

(charts 2-11)
Depending on the resources and water required, additional
tasks using charts 2 to 11 will need to be completed.

Chart 14 - Time to protect uninvolved contents (salvage operations)
1
Begin
2
Time required
to survey those 3 4
parts of the Time to Are sufficient
building and determine resources available No
other premises equipment at the fire scene?
subject to fire, and personnel
smoke and water required
damage
Yes
5
6 CHARTS 2-4
CHARTS 6 AND 7 Time to notify
Time to don BA and communications,
travel to location dispatch resources
and travel to scene
7
Time to carry
out tasks
8
Is the heat release Yes
rate reducing over
time?
No
9
10
Does the strategy
Yes No Total time to cover equipment with tarpaulins,
need reassessment?
redirect water flow, cut holes etc

Chart 14 notes
1 – Time to protect uninvolved contents (salvage 8 – Is the heat release rate reducing over time?
operations) If, during this work, the heat release rate of the fire is
This work involves the protection of building contents, increasing, then close attention will need to be paid to the
usually outside the fire compartment, from the effects of impact of the fire on these remote locations (including
fire and in particular firefighting operations. Much water structural deformation). In such instances, the fire will need
will permeate through a building fabric while firefighting to be monitored and the strategy adjusted as necessary to
operations are under way. An immediate need may be to ensure that firefighters are not exposed to unnecessary life
cover valuable items of plant and equipment to protect safety threat.
them from the dirty acidic water which may drip from
above. Other salvage operations may involve the physical
removal of valuable items and the channelling of water
run off from the fire so that minimal damage occurs. These
activities are generally labour intensive and will require
large numbers of personnel, some needing the protection
of breathing apparatus.
2 – Time to survey building
3 – Time to determine equipment and personnel

required
Time must be allocated to access the non-fire-affected
areas to determine what impact the fire or firefighting
operations are having on these areas and what resources
will be needed to combat this impact.
4 – Are sufficient resources available at the fire scene?

If insufficient resources are available at the fire scene,
then additional help will need to be mobilised by
communications (see charts 2-4). When sufficient
resources are available, the areas they will be required to
operate in may have untenable atmospheres and require
the use of breathing apparatus (see charts 6 and 7).

Chart 15 - Time to control and extinguish the fire
1
Begin
2
4
CHART 11
3 Assess heat release
Time required to set up
Determine fire size rate over time based
hose streams and apply
on water application
water
5 6
Is the heat release Time to extinguish
rate reducing over
Yes
fire and control
time? smoke spread
No
7
8
Is sufficient water
CHART 11
available on site
for fire control and
No Time to obtain
sufficient water
exinguishment?
Yes
9
Time to extinguish fire = times in
shaded boxes along chosen path

Chart 15 notes
1 – Time to control and extinguish the fire Assuming water is at an initial temperature of 10oC,
The time to control and extinguish a fire, while not a Energy input required to heat water from 10oC to 100oC:
building code objective, has been included to provide the = (100 – 10) x 0.00418 MJ/kgoC
designer with an option to factor this requirement into the
design process if applicable. This activity, or part thereof, = 0.38 MJ/kg
may also be necessary to ensure life safety (ie. to control
To vaporise water at 100oC:
the fire while search and rescue is undertaken) or to ensure
other property is protected (ie. to prevent fire growth so = 2.26 MJ/kg
exposures are protected).
To heat the steam further:
2 – Time required to set up hose streams and apply = (T – 100) x 0.00201 MJ/kgoC
water where T is steam temperature
The time required to prepare for fire control and
If we assume that flashover has occurred in an enclosure,
extinguishment is a function of the availability of water, the
the temperature within that enclosure can be taken as
availability of resources, and the time to set up equipment,
between 500oC and 600oC. In this case, the energy to heat
run hoses and apply water. These issues are addressed in
the steam from 100oC to 550oC:
chart 11.
= (550 – 100) x 0.00201
3 – Determine fire size = 0.9 MJ/kg
4 – Assess heat release rate over time based on water Within the enclosure of the fire, the energy input necessary
application to transform 1 kg of water at 10oC to 550oC:
At this time, the fire size is determined from the fire = 0.38 + 2.26 + 0.9
development sub-model. The applied water, as determined = 3.5 MJ/kg
from the available water supply and equipment, may then
have an impact on the heat release rate in three ways: If we assume the density of water as 1000 kg/m3, 1 kg = 1
litre, and the application of water in L/s can be assumed to
• it has no effect on the fire, ie. the fire continues to
have the following cooling capacity:
grow unimpeded
• it controls the fire, ie. results in a constant heat release For firefighting purposes every L/s of water can
rate at the time of application theoretically cool 3.5 MW.
• it extinguishes the fire, ie. results in fire decay at the For extinction of diffusion flames, this theoretical absorption
time of application. capacity should be multiplied by a factor of 3 because it is
sufficient to only remove 30% to 35% of the released energy
The effect of hand-held hose streams on the heat
from diffusion flames to gain extinguishment (Rasbach,
release rate has been estimated from literature obtained
1986). This results in a theoretical extinguishing capacity of
internationally, including experimental tests. While
10.5 MW for each L/s.
the results are not conclusive, they are believed to be
reasonable approximations. Actual performance of hand- For practical purposes, the minimum flowrate necessary
held hose in extinguishing fires is very dependent on the for application is 5 L/s for interior hose lines and 10 L/s for
operator: skill, equipment, conditions, danger, fatigue, exterior hose lines. The firefighter tenability criteria (chart
strength, experience, etc. These attributes cannot be easily 12) determines whether or not hose lines are internal or
modelled individually, so an efficiency factor has been external. The efficiency of water applied varies greatly
introduced. This also takes into account the amount of with firefighting skill, equipment type, fire size, enclosure
water which will not actually reach the fire target area. dimensions, water droplet size, etc. Research has shown
the efficiency of water applied is in the order of 5% to 30%.
The basis for determination of the fire extinguishment
capability can be estimated theoretically by the heat There are numerous scenarios likely to be encountered
absorption capacity of water applied to the fire, taking into in respect of the variations which influence the efficiency
account the efficiency of application (Särdqvist, 1996). of water applied. A simplification is necessary, based on
firefighting within the enclosure of fire, and external to the

enclosure of fire. For firefighting in Australia, an efficiency • The heat release rate will decay at an appropriate
of 15% is chosen for interior firefighting, and for firefighting rate (given the heat release rate at time of water
external to the building, an efficiency of 5% is selected. application) and the fire be extinguished over time if,
at the time of water application, the cooling capacity is
In addition to the cooling effect, steam produced will
equal to or greater than 110% of the heat release rate.
exclude the oxygen required for combustion, and
may dilute any unburnt products, Therefore, varying • The heat release rate will be controlled and remain
the concentration of volatiles to a level beneath their constant if, at the time of water application, the
flammability range. cooling capacity is within a ±10% range of the heat
release rate.
For the purposes of this model, interior firefighting hose
• The heat release rate will remain unaffected and
streams delivering water at 5 L/s have an extinguishing
the fire continue to grow if, at the time of water
capacity of 8 MW, comprising the theoretical absorption
application, the cooling capacity is equal to or less
capacity and the smothering effect of the steam. For
than 90% of the heat release rate.
external firefighting, 10 L/s of applied water has an
extinguishing capacity of 5.25 MW. Note: ±10% is a range for uncertainty.
In order to relate this to time, it will be assumed that there Table 5.4 provides an example of the application of this
are three possible outcomes of water application: procedure:
Effect of internal fire attack

Applied water Extinguishing
hrr (MW) 110% hrr 90% hrr Result
(L/s) capacity (MW)
5 5 5.5 4.5 8 Decay
10 10 11 9 16 Decay
20 30 33 27 32 Constant
20 40 44 36 32 No effect
30 40 44 36 48 Decay
30 50 55 45 48 Constant
Effect of external fire attack

Applied water Cooling capacity
hrr (MW) 110% hrr 90% hrr Result
(L/s) (MW)
10 5 5.5 4.5 5.25 Constant
20 10 11 9 10.5 Constant
30 10 11 9 15.75 Decay
40 15 16.5 13.5 21 Decay
40 30 33 27 21 No effect
Table 5.4: Effect of water application on heat release rate
5 – Is the heat release rate reducing over time? 7 – Is sufficient water available for fire control and
If the fire continues to grow, either more water must be extinguishment?
sourced (chart 11) or the brigade must retreat and attempt If the fire continues to grow or cannot be brought under
to prevent spread by protecting adjacent exposures (chart 13). control, more water is requested. This is either available, in
which case time is necessary to set up, or additional water
6 – Time to extinguish fire and control smoke spread sources must be found (chart 11).
The application of water will continue until the fire is under
control or burns out. The time that this occurs is important
should search and rescue be required, or where property
damage is required to be assessed.

Chart 16 - Time to protect the environment
1
Begin
2
Time to determine 4
what is burning and Does water run off
the likely impact have the greatest
Yes
this will have upon impact?
the environment
No
3
Does the fire impact
on both atmosphere
Yes
and water?
No
6
5
CHART 11
Does fire only
Yes Time to mobilise
impact on the
necessary resources to
atmosphere?
fight the fire
No
7
Can the fire be
allowed to burn
out?
9
CHARTS 2-8
Time to mobilise necessary
resources to prevent
8 firefighting water run off
No action necessary entering the environment
(eg. water table, rivers,
storm water etc.)

Chart 16 notes
1 – Time to protect the environment 7 – Can the fire be allowed to burn out?
The time to protect the environment, while not a building
code objective, has been included to provide the designer 8 – Time to mobilise necessary resources to prevent
with an option to factor this requirement into the design firefighting water run off contaminating the
process if applicable. Consideration of this activity may be environment
necessary to comply with the requirements of legislation
If firefighting water run off will damage the environment
other than that applicable to building construction.
without a significant effect upon the atmosphere, then
the first option is to allow the fire to burn itself out. If
2 – Time to determine what is burning and the likely this option is not viable, for example, due to the threat to
impact this will have upon the environment adjoining property, then time will be required to mobilise
This is the time by the firefighters to determine the additional resources to contain water run off and prevent
contents of the building, including the reading of water course and water table contamination.
emergency information manifests, the assimilation of Generally, water run off will have the most serious short-
information on displayed notices such as ‘Hazchem’, and term impact upon the environment. Where this is the case,
the necessary communications with specialist services to minimum quantities of water will be used, and water ways
determine the likely environmental impact of the materials and the like will need to be dammed with earth or sand.
involved in the fire.
An example of serious environmental damage due to water
run off occurred during a fire in a chemical storage building
3 – Does the fire impact on both atmosphere and
in Switzerland. The Rhine River and its associated water
water? table through many European countries was seriously
polluted as a result of the fire.
4 – Does water run off have the greatest impact?
If the contents of the building have an adverse
environmental impact on both the atmosphere and water
courses and water tables, then a decision will have to be
made as to which impact is the greater.
5 – Does the fire only impact upon the atmosphere?
6 – Time to mobilise necessary resources to fight the

fire
If the fire impacts solely on the atmosphere, then all
available resources must be deployed to extinguish the
fire. Further time may be spent establishing zones of safety
including the rescue of residents trapped within unsafe
zones.

Supporting discussion
References
Australian Building Codes Board. (2020, February 6). BCA History. Retrieved from National Construction Code: https://ncc.
abcb.gov.au/ncc-online/About/BCA-History
Fire Code Reform Centre. (1996). Fire Engineering Guidelines (1st ed.). Canberra: Australian Building Codes Board.
Rasbach, R. J. (1986). The Extinction of Fire with Plain Water: A Review. Fire Safety Science: Proceedings of the First
International Symposium, 1145-1163.
Särdqvist, S. (1996). An Engineering Approach to Fire Fighting Tactics. Lund: Lunds universitet. Department of Fire Safety
Engineering.
The Warren Centre for Advanced Engineering. (1989). Fire Safety and Engineering Project Report and Technical Papers:
Books 1 and 2. Sydney: University of Sydney.


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Fire Brigade Intervention

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL i

About this document........................................................................................................................................................ iii

Section 2. Structural Firefighting Operations.....................................................................................................................4

Section 3. Fire engineering and fire brigade intervention................................................................................................10

Section 4. Overview of model..........................................................................................................................................18

Section 5. The Fire Brigade Intervention Model...............................................................................................................20

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL ii

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL iii

Purpose Statement of engagement

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 1

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 2

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 3

firefighting operations • availability of that firefighting force to attend an

• prior to the incident When confronted with a fire in a building, it is unrealistic

1 A generalisation of the objective of fire brigade legislation in Australasia.

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 4

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 5

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 6

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 7

fire These requirements are almost mandatory across

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 8

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 9

Fire engineering Occupant characteristics directly impact on the brigade’s

and fire brigade required in determining relevant criteria to establish life

intervention and the fire brigade.

This section discusses the relationship between FBIM and

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 10

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 11

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 12

3.3 Application of FBIM in predetermined boundary conditions. A range of methods for

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 13

Fire safety hazards Reassess design

verification criteria Yes

Proceed with End

PBDB group includes fire brigade representatives

Figure 3.3 Relationship of FBIM to the design process in Australasia

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 14

The procedure for obtaining the desired percentile

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 15

Setting out a calculation may follow a typical tabular approach as below:

Final scenario Σµ = A Σσ2 = B

Desired percentile e.g. 90% Corresponding k-value e.g. 3.17

and rescue cannot be carried out due to flashover.

Figure 3.5 Brigade response sensitivity

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 16

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 17

• notification • acceptable, if the fire is controlled by the installed

• response • reasonable, if occupants are safe and fire requires

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 18

assessment and strategy • Environment conditions

4.5. Set up time •

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 19

Brigade Intervention Then, depending on available resources and whether

Model information provided from the evacuation model), the

5.1. Philosophy strategy. For example:

FIRE BRIGADE INTERVENTION MODEL MANUAL 20

Fire spread and

Smoke development Fire detection and

Time for fire brigade PBDB

Fire initiation and Occupancy

Time to assess and Time for search and

Time to travel to set Time for other