Earth’s Internal Heat

Two Geologic Processes that occur on Earth:

Exogenic processes are those that originate externally to the surface of the Earth and is driven by
exogenic forces. On the other hand, endogenic processes are those that occur beneath the surface of the
Earth and is associated with the thermal energy originating from the interior of the solid Earth.

How hot is the internal of the Earth?

Though not in uniform rate, the temperature of the Earth increases as the depth increases
towards the core. Within the crust, the geothermal gradient of Earth is about 15° to 30°C per km. Then, it
drops off dramatically through the mantle but increases more quickly at the base and increases slowly
towards the core. At the base of the crust, the temperature is approximately 1000°C, about 3500°C at the
base of the mantle and is estimated to 6000°C at the center of the Earth.
Within the lithosphere, temperature gradient varies depending on the tectonic setting. It is lowest in
the central part of the continents and higher in parts where plates collide as well as in boundaries where
plates are moving away from each other.

What makes the internal of the Earth hot?

The Earth’s interior heat comes from several sources which includes heat produced when the
planets formed and accreted, frictional heating and decay of radioactive elements.

Sources of Earth’s Internal Heat

1. Heat from the formation and accretion of planet

This source of heat is a leftover during the formation of planet around 4.6 billion years ago. It was thought
that planetoids had accreted from dust, hurtled around the sun, and crashed into each other to formed
planets. Moreover, the collisions build up a surprising amount of heat-over 10,000 Kelvin (9,726.85 °C).

The history of Earth’s accretion did not stop there. Three other major accretion events happened.
First, less than 100 million years after the Earth’s initial formation, Earth, and Theia (a planet, with an
original mass of about 15–45 percent of Earth’s original mass) merged, increasing Earth’s mass, thus,
producing the Moon. This merging event was considered the most significant after Earth’s initial formation
and had vastly added to Earth’s heat-bank.
Secondly, after the Moon-forming event, Earth received a “late veneer”-a bombardment by large
asteroids and comets.
Lastly, about 3.9 billion years ago, Earth received the late heavy bombardment of large asteroids
and comets.

2. Frictional heating
Frictional heating, caused by denser core material sunk to the center of the planet. As it sunk, the
friction may have generated heating of as much as 2000 Kelvin or 1726.85°C, which is smaller than the
other sources of heat but still extremely significant.

3. Heat from the decay of radioactive elements

Radioactive elements are considered as the major source of Earth’s internal heat. In the early days
about 100 million years, its radiogenic heat was dominated by short-half-life radioisotopes such as
aluminum-26, cesium-135, hafnium-182, iron-60, neptunium237, technetium-97, and plutonium-244. When
it decays, it releases high amount of energy.

At present, the radioactive isotopes uranium-235 (235U), uranium-238 (238U), potassium-40 (40K),
and thorium-232 (232Th) in Earth’s mantle are the primary source. Radioactive decay produced more heat
early in Earth’s history than it does today, because fewer atoms of those isotopes are left. Heat contributed
by radioactivity is now roughly a quarter of what it was when Earth formed.
 The endogenic processes on Earth are the driving force for plate-tectonic motion, and for different
catastrophic events such earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that lead to the formation of different
landforms. Also, it is responsible for melting in Earth to create magmas.

What is magma?
Magma and lava are among of the few words that we often interchanged but technically, these two
words mean different. The main difference between magma and lava is its environment. The former is
within the interior of the Earth while the latter is at the surface.
Magma is composed of liquefied. rocks, crystals, and dissolved gases. It varies in temperature and in
chemical compositions. Figure 4. shows the average elemental properties in magma. The most abundant
element is oxygen(O2) which is about 50% of the total, followed by 25% silicon (Si) and the remaining
elements make-up about the other 25% of the total.

Where does magma originated?

Magma do not form everywhere beneath the surface of the Earth. It is formed from the melting of
rocks in the Earth’s lithosphere, which is the lower part of the crust and in the upper portion of the mantle
known as asthenosphere. Rock melts under tremendous pressure and high temperatures. Molten rock flows
like a hot wax. Most magmas are formed at temperatures between 600°C and 1300°C.
Below is the image of a magma chamber (Figure 4) which collects magma beneath Earth’s surface. It
is located where the heat and pressure are great enough to melt rock. These locations are at divergent or
convergent plate boundaries or at hotpots.

How are magmas formed?

Temperature and pressure differences as well as structural formations in the mantle and crust cause
magma to form in different processes.

Ways to Generate Magma

1. Decompression Melting
Considering the different sources of the Earth’s internal heat that would cause rock at Earth’s surface to
melt, Earth’s mantle is almost entirely a solid rock. It remains solid at those temperatures because the rock is
under high pressure. Remember that pressure is the most important factor in the formation of magma. As the
depth increases towards the center of the Earth, the pressure also increases due to the overlying rocks above.
This means that if rock is already hot enough and pressure is reduced, melting will proceed even without the
addition of heat triggered by a reduction in pressure is called decompression melting. This process involves
the upward movement of the Earth's mantle to an area where pressure is reduced, and rock molecules are
given more space. Thus, the reduction in overlying pressure enables the rock to melt, lead in decompression
melting to magma formation.

This process usually occurs at divergent plate boundaries, wherein the two tectonic plates are moving away
from each other. It also occurs at mantle plumes, columns of hot rocks that rise from the Earth’s high-
pressure core to the lower pressure crust.

2. Increase in Temperature
Though it is considered as the least among the three process, magma formation is also possible with
this process. Recall the previous lesson on Earths internal heat, as the depth increases towards the core, the
temperature also increases. With the increasing temperature, the solid rock masses begin to vibrate then the
bonding between them breaks and finally convert into magma.

3. Flux Melting
This process occurs when impurities such as water H2O or carbon dioxide CO2 are added to rock. These
compounds cause the rock to melt at lower temperatures. As a result, magma will form in places where it
originally maintained a solid structure. When addition of CO2 and H2O takes place in the deep Earth where
temperature is already high, lowering its melting temperature could cause partial melting of rock to generate
magma.
Furthermore, flux melting also occurs around subduction zones. In this case, water overlying the subducting
seafloor would lower the melting temperature of the mantle, generating magma that rises to the surface.
Since magma are less dense than the surrounding rocks, it will therefore move upward. It tries to
escape from the source through openings such as volcanoes or existing cracks on the ground. Extrusive or
volcanic rock form if magma crystallizes to the surface while intrusive or plutonic rock form if it will
crystallize before it reaches to the surface.

Types of Magma
Properties of magma depends on the rock that initially melts, as well as the process that occur during partial
melting and transport.

Magma is classified into three, these are Mafic or Basaltic, Intermediate or Andesitic, and Felsic or
Rhyolitic. Take note, chemical analyses are usually given in terms of oxides of silica (most commonly,
SiO2), since O2 is the most abundant element. In terms of oxides of silicon, rhyolitic has the highest and
basaltic has the lowest content. On the other hand, basaltic has the highest content of iron (Fe), magnesium
(Mg) and Calcium (Ca) and lowest in potassium (K) and sodium (Na) while rhyolite has low Fe, Mg, and Ca
content and high in K and Na.
Furthermore, nearly all magmas at the depth of the Earth contain gases such as CO2, H2O, small
amount of S, Cl, and F. As shown in Table 1, felsic magma has the highest gas contents. In terms of
viscosity, the resistance of a liquid to flow, felsic is the most viscous while basaltic is the least. It is also
shown in Table 1 that magma with higher SiO2 and with low temperature, most likely to contain higher
number of gases to be more viscous.
In addition, viscosity is a significant property in determining the eruptive behavior of magmas. As
shown in Figure 6, viscous magmas, like felsic, which are high in silica, tend to stay below the surface or
erupt explosively. On the other hand, if magma is fluid and runny, like low-silica mafic magma, it is not
viscous. This magma often reaches the surface by flowing out in rivers of lava.
 ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONS

There are three main sources of heat in the deep earth: (1) heat from when the planet formed and
accreted, which has not yet been lost; (2) frictional heating, caused by denser core material sinking to the
center of the planet; and (3) heat from the decay of radioactive elements.

It takes a rather long time for heat to move out of the earth. This occurs through both "convective"
transport of heat within the earth's liquid outer core and solid mantle and slower "conductive" transport of
heat through non-convecting boundary layers, such as the earth's plates at the surface. As a result, much of
the planet's primordial heat, from when the earth first accreted and developed its core, has been retained.

The amount of heat that can arise through simple accretionary processes, bringing small bodies
together to form the proto-earth, is large: on the order of 10,000 kelvins (about 18,000 degrees Farhenheit).
The crucial issue is how much of that energy was deposited into the growing earth and how much was
reradiated into space. Indeed, the currently accepted idea for how the moon was formed involves the impact
or accretion of a Mars-size object with or by the proto-earth. When two objects of this size collide, large
amounts of heat are generated, of which quite a lot is retained. This single episode could have largely melted
the outermost several thousand kilometers of the planet.

Additionally, descent of the dense iron-rich material that makes up the core of the planet to the center
would produce heating on the order of 2,000 kelvins (about 3,000 degrees F). The magnitude of the third
main source of heat--radioactive heating--is uncertain. The precise abundances of radioactive elements
(primarily potassium, uranium and thorium) are poorly known in the deep earth.

In sum, there was no shortage of heat in the early earth, and the planet's inability to cool off quickly
results in the continued high temperatures of the Earth's interior. In effect, not only do the earth's plates act
as a blanket on the interior, but not even convective heat transport in the solid mantle provides a particularly
efficient mechanism for heat loss. The planet does lose some heat through the processes that drive plate
tectonics, especially at mid-ocean ridges. For comparison, smaller bodies such as Mars and the Moon show
little evidence for recent tectonic activity or volcanism.

We derive our primary estimate of the temperature of the deep earth from the melting behavior of
iron at ultrahigh pressures. We know that the earth's core depths from 2,886 kilometers to the center at 6,371
kilometers (1,794 to 3,960 miles), is predominantly iron, with some contaminants. How? The speed of sound
through the core (as measured from the velocity at which seismic waves travel across it) and the density of
the core are quite similar to those seen in of iron at high pressures and temperatures, as measured in the
laboratory. Iron is the only element that closely matches the seismic properties of the earth's core and is also
sufficiently abundant present in sufficient abundance in the universe to make up the approximately 35
percent of the mass of the planet present in the core.

The earth's core is divided into two separate regions: the liquid outer core and the solid inner core,
with the transition between the two lying at a depth of 5,156 kilometers (3,204 miles). Therefore, If we can
measure the melting temperature of iron at the extreme pressure of the boundary between the inner and outer
cores, then this lab temperature should reasonably closely approximate the real temperature at this liquid-
solid interface. Scientists in mineral physics laboratories use lasers and high-pressure devices called
diamond-anvil cells to re-create these hellish pressures and temperatures as closely as possible.

Those experiments provide a stiff challenge, but our estimates for the melting temperature of iron at
these conditions range from about 4,500 to 7,500 kelvins (about 7,600 to 13,000 degrees F). As the outer
core is fluid and presumably convecting (and with an additional correction for the presence of impurities in
the outer core), we can extrapolate this range of temperatures to a temperature at the base of Earth's mantle
(the top of the outer core) of roughly 3,500 to 5,500 kelvins (5,800 to 9,400 degrees F) at the base of the
earth's mantle.

Difference Between Exogenic and Endogenic Forces

Endogenic Forces Exogenic Forces

These are internal forces that exist deep inside the These are external forces that operate and act on the
Earth. surface of the Earth.
These forces are also known as ‘constructive forces’ These forces are also known as ‘destructive forces’ as
as they create relief features on the surface of the they at times result in destruction of the existing
Earth. landforms through weathering and erosional activities.
The ultimate source of energy behind forces that Weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition are
drive endogenic movements is earth’s internal heat. the main exogenic processes.
Differences in temperature and pressure All the movements either within the earth or on the
(temperature gradients or geothermal gradients and surface of the earth occur due to gradients– from higher
pressure gradients) among various layers of the levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low pressure
earth give rise to density differences and these etc.
density differences give rise to conventional
currents.
Convection currents in the mantle drive the The exogenic forces derive their energy from the
lithospheric plates (crust and upper mantle) and the atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy from the
movement of the lithospheric plates (tectonics) is sun and also the gradient created by tectonic factors.
the cause behind endogenic movements. Those slopes on earth surfaces are mainly created by
tectonic factors or earth movements due to endogenic
forces.
Endogenic forces produce after-effects that are Exogenic forces create changes visible over a period of
visible only after it causes sudden damage. thousands or millions of years.
Examples: Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Examples: Winds, rivers, glaciers etc

Endogenic Processes:
The energy emanating from within the earth is the main force behind endogenic geomorphic processes. This
energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and primordial heat from the origin
of the earth.

Exogenic Processes:
The exogenic processes derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy from the
sun and also the gradients created by tectonic factors. Gravitational force acts upon all earth materials
having a sloping surface and tend to produce movement of matter in down slope direction. Force applied per
unit area is called stress. Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling. This induces deformation.
Forces acting along the faces of earth materials are shear stresses (separating forces). It is this stress that
breaks rocks and other earth materials. All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general
term, denudation.

 Planetoid is another term for asteroids, which are also called minor planets. Planetoids are small
celestial bodies that orbit the Sun. 

 Asteroids are rocky objects revolving around the sun that are too small to be called planets. 

 Comets are cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, rock, and dust that orbit the Sun. Comets are often
referred to as "dirty snowballs."

 The term late veneer refers to the late accretion of asteroidal or cometary material to terrestrial planets.
Iron and nickel segregation during core formation leaves the mantle of the planets depleted in
siderophile elements, notably platinum-group elements. The modern abundances of these elements in
the terrestrial mantle greatly exceed the level expected from such a wholesale removal of metal. It is
therefore surmised that 0.5–1.5% of chondritic or cometary material was brought to the planet by the
late veneer after core formation 

 Early Earth suffered constant threat of attack from leftover planet-building material. From about 4.5 to
3.8 billion years ago, failed planets and smaller asteroids slammed into larger worlds, scarring their
surface. Near the end of the violence, during a period known as the Late Heavy Bombardment, impacts
in the solar system may have increased. The increased activity most likely came from the movement of
the giant planets, which sent debris raining down on the smaller rocky worlds.

 The Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB), or lunar cataclysm, is a hypothesized event thought to have

occurred approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years (Ga) ago,[1] at a time corresponding to
the Neohadean and Eoarchean eras on Earth. According to the hypothesis, during this interval, a
disproportionately large number of asteroids collided with the early terrestrial planets in the inner Solar
System, including Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.[2] These came from both post-
accretion and planetary instability-driven populations of impactors.[3] Although generally accepted,
[4] it remains difficult to prove conclusively.[5]
 Evidence for the LHB derives from lunar samples brought back by the Apollo astronauts. Isotopic
dating of Moon rocks implies that most impact melts occurred in a rather narrow interval of time.
Several hypotheses attempt to explain the apparent spike in the flux of impactors
(i.e. asteroids and comets) in the inner Solar System, but no consensus yet exists. The Nice model,
popular among planetary scientists, postulates that the giant planets underwent orbital migration and, in
doing so, scattered objects in the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, or both, into eccentric orbits, and into the
path of the terrestrial planets.[3] Other researchers argue that the lunar sample data does not require a
cataclysmic cratering event near 3.9 Ga, and that the apparent clustering of impact-melt ages near this
time is an artifact of sampling materials retrieved from a single large impact basin.[1] They also note
that the rate of impact cratering could differ significantly between the outer and inner zones of the Solar
System.[6]

 Friction heat: It is produced between the outer core and the mantle. It is the heat energy that is released
as a result of the friction produced by the different response of the outer core and the lower mantle face
to the force fields generated by the Moon and the Sun (tidal forces).

 The heat of Earth’s interior comes from two main sources, each contributing about 50% of the heat. One
of those is the frictional heat left over from the collisions of large and small particles that created Earth
in the first place, plus the subsequent frictional heat of redistribution of material within Earth by
gravitational forces (e.g., sinking of iron to form the core).
 Radiogenic decay of isotopes: It is produced at the crust and the mantle. The rocks forming the
lithosphere (the sum the crust plus upper mantle) are rich in minerals that contain radioactive isotopes
such as 235U, 238U, 232Th and 40K. The decomposition reactions of these isotopes are exothermic.
The radiogenic isotope decay is the process that brings more heat to the surface of the Earth. It should
be taken in mind that the temperature of the earth increases inwards from a surface global average of
15 ºC to more than 5000 °C in the inner core.
 The other source is radioactivity, specifically the spontaneous radioactive decay of 235U, 238U, 40K,
and 232Th, which are primarily present in the mantle. As shown on this figure, the total heat produced
that way has been decreasing over time (because these isotopes are getting used up), and is now roughly
25% of what it was when Earth formed. This means that Earth’s interior is slowly becoming cooler.