Principles of Sport Management First Pages Chapter 42
Principles of Sport Management First Pages Chapter 42
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Sociology of Sport
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Learning objectives
After completing this chapter the student should be able to:
✔✔ Understand the reasons behind the study of ✔✔ Understand deviance in the sporting context
sport in society ✔✔ Explain the effect of commercialisation of sports
✔✔ Identify and understand the different social and how it has changed the way in which certain
theories about sport and society sports are played today
✔✔ Understand what is involved in becoming ✔✔ Identify underlying images and messages that
socialised/involved in a sport are shown in, and selected by, the media
✔✔ Discuss participation and equity issues in sport
4.1 Introduction
Most, if not all, of you have experienced sport we live in: the worlds that are created by indi-
personally, as athletes, spectators or both. You viduals and their actions, relationships and
probably are familiar with the physical and ways of life. People who study sport in soci-
emotional experiences of playing sport and ety are concerned with the deeper meanings
you may know the rules and strategies used in and stories associated with sport in different
certain sports. You may even follow the lives of cultures or ways of life that people create. As
high-profile athletes in your school or on the sport manager, you can use this research to
national sport scene. Most of you have watched develop an understanding of (1) the cultures
sport, read about it, and participated in discus- and societies in which sport exists; (2) the
sions about it. In this chapter, the aim is to go social worlds that are created around sport;
beyond the scores, statistics and personas in and (3) the experiences of individuals and
sport and to focus on the meaning associated groups associated with sport. You can better
with sport – the process through which sport manage and/or plan a situation, programme
becomes part of the social and cultural worlds or event.1
Children around the world grow up with vivid for giving meaning to, and making sense of, the
images of televised games and sport figures. They world. The ideologies that will be mentioned in
play video games based on sports and are encour- this chapter are those of gender ideology, race
aged to participate in sport by parents, teachers, ideology and class ideology.
and the elite athletes who are often presented as Gender ideology6 consists of a set of unified
role models in their lives. People of all ages con- ideas about masculinity, femininity and rela-
nect with sport through the media. Newspapers tionships between men and women. People use
in most cities devote entire pages to the coverage these ideas to define what it means to be a man
of sport. Radio talk shows on sport, and television or woman, evaluate and judge people and rela-
shows like SABC Sport, gsport and SuperSport, tionships, and determine what they consider to
all capture the attention of millions of people be natural and moral when it comes to gender.
around the world as they share their interest in, It is so deeply rooted in our cultural being that
and interactive experiences of, sport. Team logos we seldom think about it and almost never raise
are imprinted on hats, shirts, posters, jackets questions about it. We take it for granted and
and other memorabilia. In turn, there is a direct use it as a form of ‘logic’ to make sense of the
connection between sales and the popularity of world – for example, pink is a colour for girls and
a specific team or athlete. People schedule their blue is for boys, and dolls are for girls and guns
vacations but also their weekends and other free are for boys.
time around playing and watching sport. Dominant gender ideology in most societ-
Sport images are so pervasive today that many ies has traditionally emphasised that men are
young people are more familiar with the tattoos naturally superior to women in any activity that
and body piercings of their favorite sport star involves strength, physical skills and emotional
than they are with the local politicians who make control. Therefore, when a person throws a ball
policies that have a significant impact on their or kicks badly or ineptly, many people learn
lives.5 In conclusion, it is clear that sport and the to say that he or she throws or kicks ‘like a girl’.
athletes partaking in sport can directly influence Consistent with gender ideology is the notion
the society around them and, in turn, that the that sport is physically demanding and there-
surrounding society can also influence sport. It fore assists with turning boys into men. At the
is therefore very important to study this relation- same time, when women excel at a type of sport
ship and understand how the different parties normally associated with men (such as contact
can influence one another. sport), these ideas cause people to become con-
fused and to say that playing sport is unnatural
4.4.1.2 Sport is connected with for ‘real’ women. They assume that heterosexual-
ity, femininity and athletic excellence, especially
important ideas and meanings in life in physically demanding or heavy-contact sport,
We also study sport in society because the two cannot go together. This ideology has also led
are closely linked with how people think about people to describe strong, competent women
and see the world. Sociologists try to understand athletes as lesbian.
these links by studying connections between You can also see this ideology in coaches’
sport and ideologies. behaviour towards men’s sport teams. Male
Ideologies are sets of unified ideas that people players who make mistakes or do not play aggres-
use to give meaning to, and make sense of, the sively enough are often criticised for, or ‘accused’
world. Ideologies are important parts of cultures of, ‘playing like a bunch of girls’. This assumes
because they embody the principles, orienta- that being or showing feminine values means
tion and viewpoints that underlie our feelings, being a failure. These ideas about gender clearly
thoughts and actions. Different people in dif- served for many years to privilege boys and men
ferent societies develop their own set of ideas in sport and disadvantage girls and women, who
were never considered to be equal to men when a luxury in many nations where money and time
it came to allocating resources and providing determine how and where sport is consumed.
opportunities and encouragement to take part Whether one participates actively, attends sport
in sport. Gender ideology regarding the position events and/or consumes media sport is all
of men and women in sport could very easily lead directly dependent on one’s income, education
to discrimination and it is therefore very impor- and occupational status. Athletes from lower
tant to study the relationship between sport and socio-economic classes will take part in less
society by looking at how women and men are costly sports such as soccer, running and netball.
treated within their surrounding society and how People in low-paying jobs do not participate in
this moves into the sporting environment. sport as much as their high-earning counterparts
Sport is a site for many ideological struggles. during the weekends or on holidays. This pattern
Racial ideology consists of a set of unified ideas is seen throughout the life course for younger
that people use to give meaning to skin colour and older people, men and women, where chil-
and to evaluate people in terms of racial classifi- dren in rural areas walk long distances to school
cation. Racial ideology may be used when peo- and manual labourers perform jobs that require
ple evaluate athletic potential or explain athletic high levels of physical labour. Their access to
success in terms of race. The notion that light- sport and sport opportunities (i.e. sport acade-
skinned people can’t jump and that dark-skinned mies, equipment and tours) is low and their ideas
people are natural athletes are expressions of about fitness and sport are much different from
dominant racial ideology in certain cultures. In the ideals held by upper-income earners. For
South Africa, this racial ideology is evident spe- example, if you play golf, you are automatically
cifically in rugby where players of colour are posi- associated with the upper social class, wealth,
tioned in the wing positions as it is believed that success and ambition. In many African coun-
they have good speed. In swimming, it is often tries, not all people have opportunities to achieve
believed that people of colour are too big-boned success and wealth or to take part in sport that
and therefore battle to tread water or swim. It is involves paying membership fees or purchasing
important to understand these racial ideologies sport equipment, for example. The misconcep-
as they are prevalent in the South African context tion often exists that these individuals are not as
and permeate the sporting environment. ambitious as people of a higher social standing
Ideas about socio-economic differences and who can take part in sports such as polo or golf.
social class are also connected with sport. Social
class refers to categories of people who share a 4.4.1.3 Sport is connected to major
similar economic position in society based on a
combination of their income, wealth, education,
spheres of social life
occupation and social connection.7 Another reason to study sport in society is that
Class ideology is a web of ideas and beliefs it is clearly connected to major spheres of social
that people use to: life, including the family, the economy, the
media, politics, education and religion. We will
• understand economic inequalities; discuss these next.
• identify their class position; and
• evaluate the impact of economic inequalities The family
on the organisation of social worlds. Organised youth sport plays an important role in
the life of the family in South Africa. It serves as
In all societies, class ideology influences who a unifying agent, because it may bring the family
plays sports and who watches sport. Participation closer together; parents and siblings support the
patterns are closely related with power, money athlete, taking him or her to practices and attend-
and privilege. Organised sport can be regarded as ing games. The family may unite as spectators,
watching televised or live events. Today, the daily At the highest levels, sport involves gold med-
routine and/or weekend schedule of many fami- als, world records, championship cups and
lies is often geared around the children’s involve- global awareness. A worldwide, leading brand
ment in sport. The family can act as an influence, such as Coca-Cola wants to associate itself with
a socialising agent, when it comes to the involve- such excellence and will choose the Olympics
ment of the individual in sport. The degree of and World Cup events for its sponsorships. But
support and encouragement (i.e. having a par- in order to personalise and localise its image and
ent who is a past Olympian and who encourages activity, Coca-Cola also supports grassroots sport
his or her child to take part in sport) can push to reinforce its global message. Smaller compa-
the individual to participate in a specific sport, nies can also benefit from improved awareness,
open doors, and decide the level on, and serious- image and sales through sponsorship at a local
ness with which, the individual will participate or regional level. The principles are the same: the
in sport. Conversely, if parents view taking part only difference is scale.
in sports as a waste of time and money, they will Sponsorship is a commercial agreement
most likely discourage their child from taking between a company and a sport. Both par-
part in sport and the child might even feel nega- ties enter into this agreement for promote
tive towards sports in general. their interests. The sponsoring company gives
a financial contribution and receives rights
The economy 8 to use a sports organisation’s name commer-
The relationship between sport and the economy cially in return for doing so. Familiar sponsor
cannot be overlooked as we examine the other exposure includes using the company’s name
social institutions. The money spent by consum- on the athlete’s clothing, merchandise, flags,
ers on tickets, concessions, club fees, member- banners, and in programmes that outline the
ship fees, sport equipment and clothing, and sport event. In a sponsorship deal, the com-
gambling has a direct effect on the economy. pany uses the name of the sports organisation
Corporations seem to have ever-increasing bud- (club or team), the individual athlete and/or
gets for advertising and sponsorship of sport- the event in its campaigns and promotions.
ing events, particularly the Olympic Games; an Sponsorship also involves the team and/or
advertiser may spend millions of dollars to have athlete actively using the company’s products
its name associated with such an event. to endorse them. Examples of sponsorships are
The connection of major corporations with Manchester United’s Vodafone sponsorship and
sport and other contests is clearly evident in the Tiger Woods endorsing Nike products.
sporting world. In South Africa, for example, the Companies use sports sponsorship for a
Proteas team is sponsored by Castle Lager, and variety of reasons; to attract sponsorship, it is
the Blue Bulls rugby team is sponsored by, and important for a company to understand which
named after, Vodacom. The amount of money objective it is addressing:
paid to teams, coaches and/or athletes is directly
associated with the value and marketability of • Brand or corporate awareness – seeks to put
the sport in society. Sponsors look to sport to a name in front of the consumer so that he or
add value to the brand proposition. In almost she will give it favourable recognition when
all sectors of all markets there is intense com- exposed to other specific marketing messages.
petition among companies and brands. Often • Brand or corporate image – attempts to cre-
there is little to choose from in terms of qual- ate a personality and style that distinguishes
ity, content or price. In order to make a brand a product from another in the market and
stand out from the crowd, a sponsor will use allows, for example, premium pricing.
sport to create a unique position in the mind of • Customer relations – sports sponsorship
the consumer. can open dialogue between companies,
showing the sponsor as a global player hard work and success. The economies of most
worthy of recognition and suitable for doing countries, especially the wealthy post-industrial
business with. Sponsorships can also serve countries, have been affected by the billions of
as hospitality vehicles for meeting and doing dollars spent every year for game tickets, sport
business with clients. equipment, participation fees, athletic club
• Employee relations – sports sponsorship memberships and bets placed on favourite
can encourage company pride and loyalty to teams and athletes. Most countries use public
help attract and retain staff. taxes to subsidise teams and events. The build-
• Community relations – sponsorship can ing of five new world-class soccer stadiums and
show that a company cares about its com- the facelift of the other five (at a cost of R11.5 bil-
munity and is prepared to invest in its future lion) for the 2010 FIFA World Cup caused much
and the welfare of its citizens.9 public debate.10 The Cape Town Stadium, situ-
ated in Green Point, caused bitter local fighting
This issue raises numerous questions, par- as thousands of people were uprooted from the
ticularly regarding the worth of entertainment surrounding areas and abandoned in a make-
and entertainers (sport and athletes) compared shift area considered a ‘temporary’ arrange-
to that of other institutions within our society, ment in order to clean up the environment for
such as education. The question is, why is so international visitors. This settlement, known as
much money being spent on entertainment and Blikkiesdorp (Tin Town), has become perma-
sport, which is for the minority middle- to upper- nent and its inhabitants have been increasingly
income class, when companies could sponsor marginalised.11
more important projects that make a sustainable
difference to deserving individuals and commu- The media
nities by supporting charitable organisations and The 2010 FIFA World Cup South Africa made
projects in the following main areas: R19.264 million through the sale of televi-
sion rights. Overall, the 2010 FIFA World Cup
• Education, which includes school-based accounted for 87 per cent of FIFA’s total revenue.12
educational projects, early childhood devel- Television networks and stations pay billions
opment (ECD), rural school refurbishment, of rands for the rights to televise major games
teacher training, tertiary education and and events. The National Broadcasting Station
other government-identified priorities; (NBS), an American commercial broadcast tele-
• Community development, with a particular vision and radio network, paid the i nternational
focus on initiatives that support and care Olympic Committee (IOC) $1.181 billion for the
for communities in need and vulnerable rights to the 2012 Olympic Games. Similarly, the
groups; broadcaster SuperSport won the rights to broad-
• Skills development, which includes training cast the 2014 and 2016 Olympic Games in South
enterprise support and development; and Africa and 43 sub-Saharan nations on the conti-
• Health, which includes interventions for nent. SuperSport acquired broadcasting rights on
people with disabilities, diseases like HIV/ satellite pay-television, the Internet and mobile
Aids, cancer, diabetes and TB, as well as for South Africa and sub-Saharan Africa, which
community training and infrastructure includes populous nations such as Nigeria,
development. Ethiopia, the Democratic Republic of Congo,
Kenya and Tanzania, among others. Broadcasting
The political and economic ideologies of a rights revenues, the biggest source of income for
country affect how its society regards the impor- the IOC, have already raked in more than R32
tance, value and place of sport. Much impor- billion for 2014 to 2016, with some territories still
tance is placed on the values of competition, to be decided.13
Mega-sporting events have become dependent require the most skill, as well as the importance
on the media and would not be as widely followed of sport; interprets concepts such as the athletic
or watched without it. The images and messages body, femininity and masculinity; and creates
presented in the media coverage of these sporting sport heroes and anti-heroes. The media has pro-
events communicate certain themes and ideas moted sport as a product and the athlete as an
that influence how people see and think about entertainer. There is no doubt that sport provides
sport and social life. Themes that are presented a great deal of enjoyment for the participants and
in media coverage are, to name a few, success, spectators; however, the value of sport, how that
achievement and triumph. Hence, Vodacom value affects our culture and the role that power
sponsors three top soccer teams in South Africa: plays in the representation of sport by the media
Kaizer Chiefs, Orlando Pirates and Bloemfontein cannot be overlooked.15
Celtic. This symbolizes Vodacom’s success and
triumph as a brand.14 Similarly, consumers who Sport and politics
are soccer fans or who follow these soccer teams Despite frequent complaints about mixing sport
are more tempted to buy into Vodacom products and politics, most people around the globe give
as the company is associated with winning teams. no second thought to displaying national flags
The consumer will also feel like a winner for being and playing national anthems at sporting events,
part of South Africa’s leading cellular network. and some may quickly reject athletes and other
In addition, satellite technology has made it spectators who don’t share their views and feel-
possible for the images and messages associated ings about the flag and the anthem. Various the-
with a single competitive event to be w itnessed ories propose how sport and politics use each
by billions of people simultaneously. In the other. Although countries use sport to enhance
process, athletes become global entertainer- their image and power or the image of their
celebrities, and the corporations that sponsor leaders, sport has also been used as a medium
mediated sport – sport that is promoted and cov- to unite and bring about peace. The challenge
ered by different media channels such as TV, the of building South Africa into a stable and united
Internet, radio and newspapers – imprint their nation has continued to preoccupy South African
logos in people’s minds and promote a lifestyle leaders across different historical epochs.
based on product consumption. The reason for South African state elites rather ingeniously
this is that these logos become associated with saw sport and sport mega-events as a means to
a famous sport star and/or associated with one’s unite a divided society and provide a focus for
favourite sporting event. In turn, a conclusion is national identity and, in particular, to pursue the
made that this logo, brand and/or sporting event much-vaunted national agenda of racial recon-
is automatically the best, because one’s favourite ciliation. The process of a democratic transition
sport star’s name is associated with it. from the apartheid regime to inclusive democ-
The future direction and success of varsity, racy is seen as an important project of the ‘rain-
professional or Olympic sport has been paved bow nation’.16 Affirmative action was introduced
by the broadcast media. However, the manner to counter the effects of apartheid and ensure
in which all forms of the media inform, inter- that qualified people from designated groups
pret, create drama, and establish particular ideas have equal opportunities in the workplace.
about sport and society must be realised and However, the first democratic elections took
examined. For example, the media provides con- place 20 years ago, yet affirmative action poli-
siderable knowledge about sport, and the ways cies have strengthened. The policies, although
in which the media choose to characterise or implemented for an admirable purpose, have
emphasise certain aspects of sport contribute to done the economy and morale of the country’s
the mindset of individuals in society. The media citizens some harm. In sport, affirmative action
defines which sporting activities are important or took the form of racial quotas. The quotas require
that a certain number of ‘players of colour’ (with demographically representative and did not con-
an emphasis on black Africans) be included in tain ‘at least six black and/or coloured players’.18
teams selected for various competitions, such as Another controversial example is the use of
the second-tier professional rugby competition, race quotas in women’s netball. Netball South
the Vodacom Cup. These quotas are reminiscent Africa announced in 2007 that it had been
of similar measures implemented during the decided that ‘instead of docking points from
early years of South Africa’s post-1994 democ- teams that do not meet the quota, any team that
racy, and represent the highest-profile measure had the required five-two ratio [of black African to
employed in the name of transformation of sport white players] on court at all times would receive
in a country that was characterised by the notori- an additional six goals’.19 If they fielded a 6:1
ous apartheid policies of racial division and sys- ratio, they would receive three additional goals.
temic disadvantage experienced prior to 1994. In the past, some teams were docked so many
Earlier attempts at ensuring ‘representative’ points that they went into negative territory.
sports teams included some controversial exam- Most troubling from a moral perspective, how-
ples. In the run-up to the 2000 Sydney Olympic ever, is the fact that such race quotas have also
Games, the National Olympic Committee of South been applied at the level of youth sport, and it is
Africa (NOCSA) disqualified the men’s national unknown how many young athletes have been
hockey team from participating in the Games. impacted negatively by such measures in the past
Even though this team was, at the time, the con- two decades. The South African Games, held in
tinental champions in Africa, NOCSA’s selec- Port Elizabeth in March 2004, were tainted by an
tion criteria for Sydney included a provision that incident in which a young white tennis player,
‘[teams would be considered for participation in Adele van Niekerk, was stripped of her medal by
the Games] if the qualifying team, individuals or tournament director David Kampele, apparently
combination of athletes are made up of an accept- because her team did not meet the required 50
able portion of athletes from the historically disad- per cent black quota as prescribed. A month ear-
vantaged sector of South African society.’17 lier, white athlete Erna Wedemeyer’s team was
The manager of team preparation for inter- disqualified from the South African Lifesaving
national competition of the more recently Championships because the team did not comply
established iteration of the country’s national with the prescribed racial quotas.
Olympic committee, the South African Sports South Africa’s Constitution contains a Bill of
Confederation and Olympic Committee Rights, which is generally recognised as one of
(SASCOC), told the parliamentary sports com- the most progressive of such instruments to be
mittee in June 2007 that South African sporting found anywhere in the world. Section 9 of the Bill
codes that do not have at least an equal number of Rights contains the equality clause, which pro-
of black and white athletes would not be allowed vides that everyone is equal before the law and is
to send teams to the Beijing Olympics in 2008. entitled to equal protection under law. This sec-
One wonders whether this stance of SASCOC tion also provides for the passing of legislation
reflected the proper function of a national to promote equality.20 The question remains, are
Olympic committee under the Olympic Charter. quotas being utilised ethically and morally?
These events followed an earlier incident in which Since the end of apartheid, South Africa has
the controversial ANC chair of the parliamentary hosted four sporting mega-events, namely the
sports oversight committee, Butana Komphela, 1995 Rugby World Cup, the 1996 Africa Cup of
threatened that government would request the Nations, the 2003 Cricket World Cup and, most
Department of Home Affairs to withdraw the recently, the 2010 FIFA World Cup. This can be
passports of white rugby players in the national considered a great achievement for a country
team who were scheduled to tour to France for that has experienced international isolation,
the IRB Rugby World Cup 2007 if the team was not including suspension from FIFA in 1961.21
The reason for South Africa’s interest in host- the success or failure of its sport teams. Students
ing such high-profile sporting events after apart- have even been known to choose a school or uni-
heid is threefold. Firstly, through these events, versity based not on the academic programme
post-apartheid South Africa has been able to in which they will enrol but on the success of the
announce its presence globally following years institution’s sport teams. There is no question
of isolation. Secondly, post-apartheid South that sport creates positive values and opportuni-
Africa can be best described as an ‘aspirant ties for all students; however, one must carefully
nation, which recently gained democracy and is examine the extent to which the value of sport is
plagued by a weak sense of nationhood hence placed above the value of education. Educational
South Africa is using sporting events to build institutions need to address why varsity sport has
the nation’.22 Lastly, post-apartheid South Africa become a marketable product instead of an edu-
aspires to be a leader in the southern African cational programme.
region and on the African continent in general.
Therefore, by successfully hosting sporting mega- Sport and religion
events South Africa creates a positive image that Athletes performing religious rituals – for example,
projects its leadership credentials. stopping to pray as they step onto the field – are
Furthermore, when it comes to politics in sport, becoming increasingly prevalent at sport events.
the display of flags and the playing of national Athletes in some cultures have become increas-
anthems have raised controversy at Olympic and ingly likely to display religious beliefs as they play
other international competitions, because of the sport, and even to define their participation in
interpretation that such displays promote political religious terms. Not only do churches sponsor
ideologies. Sport does offer a setting for national leagues, but athletes themselves publicly profess
pride and unity but at the same time raises ques- and promote religious beliefs. Organisations for
tions about issues of power, particularly in regard Christian athletes in particular have been estab-
to the selection of athletes for international com- lished for such purpose (e.g. Athletes in Action).
petition and the control of sport events. People in Just as family schedules have been altered by par-
many societies link sport to feelings of national ticipation in sport, religious services have been
pride and a sense of national identity. These events changed to accommodate practitioners so that the
allow spectators at sporting events and television start of a contest is not missed. College and profes-
audiences to experience widely shared feelings sional athletes often openly engage in religious
and to reaffirm their sense of national identity. practices or rituals before, during, or after a con-
test. Sports fans go to outrageous lengths, wearing
Sport and education lucky jerseys or religiously watching every game
Sport is inextricably intertwined with the insti- to prove their loyalty for their teams. There have
tution of education in our society. At all levels been claims that the majority of preaching about
of education, but particularly high school and Christian faith now comes from televised sports
tertiary level, high-level competitive sport or and entertainment instead of inside churches.
varsity sport competition is present. The value of Religion has become overwhelmingly promi-
sport within education raises numerous ques- nent in sports; it may even be appearing more in
tions, because sport has become so important people’s lives from watching football games than
that a school or university’s worth is judged by attending church services.23
principles, rules and values that form key life 4.5.2 Socialisation function
skills, such as how to learn from defeat or encour-
age self-discipline and drive through the rewards Socialisation is the process through which people
of deserved success. learn the expectations of the society in which
But such approaches may also cause problems they live. Through socialisation, people absorb
in society. Some have argued that winning is val- their culture (customs, habits, laws, practices,
ued more highly than lessons of self-improve- language, etc.) and form their own identity. The
ment or social co-operation. In other words, how socialisation function allows for the acceptance
well you play the game takes a backseat to victory. of cultural morals and beliefs, social values and
There are five basic social functions of sport. personality characteristics of an individual to
take place. Traits such as friendships, commu-
The socio-emotional
4.5.1 nication skills, co-operation and respect for the
rules of a game are highlighted in this function.24
function Sport fosters identity and friendship and, in turn,
The socio-emotional function of sport is seen to helps to create a social identity. In high school,
operate at the level of the individual and is con- youths who participate in organised sports activi-
cerned with the socio-psychological stability ties view sports as a place to meet other young
of the individual. The stable functioning of the people who have at least one shared interest.
individual as a member of society depends upon Indeed, quality sport programmes can help to
his being ‘well adjusted’ psychologically and develop and maintain healthy relationships
socially. Examples of this function are evident in amongst youth.25
two socio-emotional components: Additionally, sport may help boys and girls to
socialize in different ways, which may be a posi-
• The management of tension and conflict tive or a negative consequence of taking part in
-- Participation in sport is believed to help sport. Sport participation socialises boys into
release frustrations and aggression, known traditional gender roles, while similar partici-
as catharsis, avoiding people releasing this pation socialises girls into non-traditional gen-
on others in everyday life. der roles. Sport has an additional social benefit
-- Sport allows for extreme emotions – such for female high school student athletes who
as sadness, joy and hate – to develop in find participation in sports to be a way to break
ways that are considered non-threatening gender stereotypes, enhancing their sense of
to the self and to others. possibility and identity. Youth sports can also
• The production of feelings of community help children to learn to interact with adults
and camaraderie such as parents and their teachers. Quality
-- Sport helps to reduce the social distance sport programmes that can benefit interactions
between people. The 1995 Rugby World between children may also benefit exchanges
Cup, 1996 All Africa Cup of Nations between youth and adults. Parents promote
and 2010 FIFA World Cup are examples children’s social development and social skills
of this. by enrolling them in sport programmes and
-- Fans of specific clubs unite to become these skills can improve children’s relation-
‘one’ and feelings of belonging are ships with their teachers.
generated in non-participants. In other
words, even if people are only spectators, 4.5.3 The integrative function
they also feel that they ‘belong’ to the Sport brings people together. It is a universal
team and automatically have something language and creates a common bond between
in common with other supporters of people who might have nothing else in common
the team. and who might have had no reason to interact
with one another in the past. That said, sport is used politically as a means of sanctioning other
seen as a medium that promotes a shared sense countries and expressing a nation’s feelings over
of belonging and participation and may therefore the actions of another country.
also be an important tool for the integration of
people from different backgrounds. The integra- • Examples of a nation using sport to sanction,
tive function focuses on the unification of sepa- and express its feelings about the actions of,
rate individuals into a group and their identifica- another nation:
tion with that group. -- Zimbabwe pulled out of Twenty20 Cricket
World Cup in 2009
4.5.4 The political function -- South Africa was sanctioned because of
The political function is concerned with sport apartheid laws
being used as a political instrument. As an exten- • Examples of sport uniting a country:
sion of the integrative function, sport can be used -- 1995 IRB Rugby World Cup
to unite a country. However, sport can also be -- 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Sono went to the USA and played for New York Cosmos alongside the greatest footballer of all time, Pele. After
his stint in the USA, Sono purchased the Highlands Park club and renamed the team Jomo Cosmos.
being manipulated and oppressed for profit the marginalised a voice. South Africa is a good
and the personal gain of the economic elite – example of critical theory in that affirmative
sport is used as an opiate. Those who play sport action in sport was brought about to rectify past
have no effective control over the conditions of power imbalances.
their preparations; this is left up to the coach Weaknesses of the critical theory include the
or trainer. following:
Weaknesses of the conflict theory include the
following: • There are no clear guidelines for identifying
and assessing forms of resistance and strate-
• It assumes that all social life is driven and gies for producing transformation.
shaped only by economic factors (‘market • There are no unified strategies for dealing
needs’) with social problems, conflicts and injustice.
• It ignores the importance of gender, race,
age, sexual orientation and other factors in 4.6.4 The interactionist theory
social life. According to the interactionist theory, society
• It ignores cases in which sport participation is created through social interaction. It stud-
consists of experiences that can empower ies sport through the meanings and symbols
groups and individuals. that people create through social interactions.
People use these meanings to make decisions
4.6.3 The critical theory in their everyday lives, which also govern their
The focus of the critical theory is explanations involvement in sport. Interactionist theorists
of culture, power and social relations. It con- are interested in researching how individuals
sists of various approaches designed to under- experience sport and how identities are cre-
stand where power comes from, how it operates ated through the social processes of becom-
in social life and how it shifts and changes as ing, being and unbecoming an athlete. Our
power relations (in the political, historical and identities influence our choices, actions, rela-
economic context), narratives and discourses tionships and the processes through which we
change. It sees sport as a social construct. form and change our social worlds. In turn,
The critical theory assumes that sport is more the interactionist theory is often used when
than a reflection of society, so it studies the people study the experiences of athletes and
struggles about the meaning and organisation their relationships with others, and the ways in
of sport and of sport as a site for cultural transfor- which athletes make sense of their participa-
mation. It focuses on how dominant narratives tion in sport. This theory sees sport from the
and images are used to form and give meaning individual’s perspective.
to sport.
4.6.4.1 Using the interactionist
4.6.3.1 Using the critical theory in everyday life
theory in everyday life Using the interactionist theory in everyday life
Critical theories are based on concerns of fair- is based on lived realities as people engage with
ness and the desire to understand, confront others and give meaning to the complex world
and transform systems of exploitation and in which they find themselves. Interactionists
oppression in social life through sport. The call for changes that increase discussion and the
critical theorists are interested in increasing mutual sharing of ideas, experiences and under-
diversity in sport, challenging the dominant standing of sport experiences.
debates and ideologies in sport, challenging The interactionist theory has two main
those in power in sport and society, and giving weaknesses:
• It does not explain how meaning, identity sport. Feminists use sports as sites of empower-
and interaction are connected with social ment of women and promotes forms of sport that
structures and material conditions in society. reflect women’s interests.
• It ignores the issues of power and power Weaknesses of the feminist theory include the
relations in society and how they affect following. The feminist theory focuses on social
sport, sport participation and sport justice, equality of opportunities and existing
experiences. ideologies that undermine fairness related to
gender, sexuality, social class, race, ethnicity
4.6.5 The feminist theory and disability. However, there is no clear guide-
The feminist theory is based on the assump- line on the interrelated experiences of women of
tion that knowledge about social life requires an different ages, race, ability and religions across
understanding of gender and gender relations. cultures. Not every woman experiences the
This theory has grown out of a general dissatis- same discrimination and/or unfairness within
faction and frustration that intellectual traditions the same context or in the same way. Secondly,
base knowledge on the values, experiences and feminists assume that there is a unified ‘wom-
insights of men and ignore or devalue those of en’s interest’, while many women argue that this
women. Social life is regarded as pervasively is not their interest. Certain women are happy
gendered in a patriarchal, or male-dominated, to uphold the traditional gender role that is
world. Sport, in turn, is regarded as a set of gen- expected of them (i.e. motherhood and feminin-
dered activities based on masculine values and ity) and believe that sport is a ‘man’s territory’.
experiences. The widely accepted norms and the
celebration of strong, aggressive and tough male 4.6.6 The figurational theory
athletes exclude women, who are expected to The figurational theory is a theory in which figu-
display femininity and look beautiful in sports rations of humans – evolving networks of interde-
like tennis and gymnastics or fill caring and pendent humans – are the unit of investigation. It
supportive roles. Feminists are interested in sees sport as a social phenomenon. Also known
researching how sport reproduces patriarchy as process sociology, the figurational theory
through physicality, sexuality and the body, how explains that social life consists of networks of
women are (mis)represented in media coverage interdependent people in formations or ‘figu-
of sport and how women can use strategies to rations’ over time (i.e. many amateurs in sport
resist or challenge dominant gender ideology. led to the social trend of amateurism; similarly,
figurations of professional athletes surfacing
4.6.5.1 Using the feminist theory in sport led to the sociological trend of profes-
sionalism in sport). These social connections
in everyday life shift and change, which gives special meaning
Using the feminist theory in everyday life is to the social worlds that are formed and recog-
mainly focused on our awareness of how culture nised through them. Shifts and changes within
informs sporting practices and gender-related the figurations happen according to changes in
issues in sport. For example, we know that gen- power relations within the economic, political
der equity is difficult to achieve because it often and emotional dimension of social life. Sport
requires that men share resources, which mostly is seen as important as it is regarded as a set of
leads to competition. Homophobia influences ‘collective interventions’ that provides people in
the participation in sport as well as the experi- highly regulated modern societies with forms of
ences of heterosexual women, who may face enjoyable excitement. Those who use the figu-
being called gay if they participate in sporting rational theory are concerned with how social
activities usually associated with men. This the- figurations emerge and change over time, how
ory also looks at the experiences of gay women in modern sport emerged and became important in
certain societies, and the complexities of global consequences of oppressive power relations and,
sport and local and national identities. in turn, has not given enough attention to the
experiences of women and the gender inequi-
4.6.6.1 Using the figurational theory ties that affect their lives.
Theories are tools that help us to ask
in everyday life q uestions, collect and analyse information,
Studying the development of pastimes and folk and interpret the implications of our analy-
games into competitive sport provides insights ses. The decision about which theory is best is
into national and global figurations. The global influenced by the goals and political agendas of
migration of athletes, the global sport industry, the sport manager, organisation, community,
the global media, and the impact of global sport or nation. The best theories are those that help
on national identity formation as global phenom- us to find ways to make the world more demo-
enon have helped us to understand sport from cratic. In the management of sport, no single
a global perspective. This theory is based on the theory is suitable on its own. An integrated
idea that knowledge about social life is cumula- perspective and a combination of the various
tive and enables people to develop the knowledge theories should be used to study and interpret
that will give rise to strategies for controlling social phenomena accurately so that the right
expressions of violence, exploitation and the strategy or plan is chosen and its implementa-
abuse of power, and will increase access to sport tion is successful. Take, for example, the need
participation among the historically powerless. to introduce a sport programme, to compile
The primary weakness of this theory is that it a sport marketing plan or to organise a sport
gives too little attention to problems and strug- within a community. Failure to understand the
gles that affect day-to-day lives: it focuses on the community within which you are working in
long-term historical interconnections between will make your strategy, sport programme or
people. It understates the immediate personal sport marketing plan ineffective.
with three basic understandings related to their Figure 4.1: Predictors of participation in physical activity
own role in moulding their participation habits,
Personal attributes
namely:
careers and chose to aversively socialise from league. A junior high school boy who has not
their sports. reached his height potential may be drawn
These two socialisation models, the social away from the high school basketball team.
learning model of sport and exercise and the The transitions and phases that form and shape
role of transition within sport and exercise, can the athlete or participant’s transition through
help us to understand why some individuals sport can assist a manager to understand and
do not choose to participate in physical activ- describe the barriers that children, teens and
ity. For example, the personal attribute of being adults face in developing and maintaining a
female predicts a low likelihood of participation physically active lifestyle.
in a male-dominated sport such as a football
is a growing belief that the world is a dangerous means that participants in competitive
place for children and that merely allowing them as well as recreational programmes are
to play outside in the garden or on the road would encouraged to evaluate their experiences
be unsafe. Organised programmes in closed and in terms of the progress they make in
supervised environments, with organised activi- developing skills and achieving higher
ties that are planned and involve skills, discipline levels of competition.
and supervision by an adult, are seen as being • There has been an increase in private,
of more benefit to children and as keeping them elite training facilities that are dedicated
out of trouble. to producing champion athletes who will
Since the early 1990s, cultural values have be able to compete at the highest levels in
changed in terms of what it means to be a good youth sport.
parent. Good parents are those who can account • There is increased parental involvement and
for the whereabouts and actions of their children concern about the participation and success
at all times. This has led many parents to seek of their children, and parents are most likely
organised, adult-supervised programmes for to act in extreme ways as they support the
their children. Lastly, parents favour organised interest of their children.
programmes because they provide their chil- • Participation in alternative or action sport
dren with adult leadership, predictable sched- has increased. Many young people prefer
ules and measurable indicators of a child’s unstructured, participant-controlled sports
accomplishments. such as BMX events and skateboarding.
As a sport manager involved in youth sport, • Make play spaces safer and more accessible
you can use Table 4.1 to identify the type of to as many children as possible.
model that is being practised in your immediate • Be sensitive to social class and gender patterns.
environment and address the possible shortcom- The gender exclusion that exists in certain
ings of the programme. alternative sports is especially problematic
and begs for creative solutions that make the
Recommendations for
4.8.5 cultures of those sports more inclusive.
• Introduce a hybrid sport model that combines
improving youth sport characteristics of informal, player-controlled
Many positive changes can be made to encourage games and organised, adult-controlled sport.
the improvement of youth sports. The following
are a few of the main recommendations: As more adults learn that positive child devel-
opment requires involvement in unstructured
• The challenge for adults is to be supportive play and informal games as well as formal, adult-
and provide guidance without controlling controlled organised sport, there will be attempts
young people who need their own space to to facilitate the hybrid sport model for organised
create physical activities. youth sport.
symbols, whereas a more muscular body is per- sponsorship) and environmental (unsafe travelling
ceived to be unnatural and ‘butch’. or training conditions). Women of colour also cite
The issue of equity in gender and sport also the absence of role models because South African
relates to national priorities, access to resources, female sports stars are predominantly white
budget cutbacks and priorities, females in profes- (Penny Heyns, Elana Meyer, Amanda Coetzer and
sional sport vocations, emphasis on ‘cosmetic fit- Zola Budd).34
ness’, media presentation of sporting females, and The under-representation of women in all
the limited coverage and trivialisation of female aspects and at all levels of sport – be it at the
sport. Girls are also cast in the role of glamourising level of participants, decision-makers, officials
competitive male sport by acting as cheerleaders or coaches, and national role-players – should
or pom-pom girls. The marginalisation of female be recognised in order to address cultural and
sport is, however, linked to the process of cultural socio-economic problems as well as the lack of
production, ideology and media presentation. recognition and funding. However, despite resis-
The relatively high political profile of women tance in some countries, girls and women around
and the movement for equity in political debates in the world now participate in a variety of school,
South Africa, which is somewhat absent in media community and sport club programmes, which
debates and intellectual research, outlines and did not exist 35 years ago.
reflects the local male orientation among sport
leaders and decision-makers.33 South African 4.9.1.1 Factors that could inhibit
women’s participation in sport and leisure has
the future increase of female
been restricted, marginalised, under-reported
and mediated to reproduce male stereotyped ver- participation in sport
sions of feminine sporting bodies. Female sport Increases in sport participation rates for girls
is seldom televised in prime-time viewing, which and women have not come easily. They are the
results in women being socialised to a large extent result of the dedicated efforts of many individuals
(by their sport-loving husbands, male friends or and groups. Progress has been remarkable, but
sons) in becoming active supporters of prominent gender equity still does not exist in many sport
male sports such as rugby, cricket and soccer. The programmes in most areas around the world.
main obstacles that women face in their sports par- If we look at the participation numbers and the
ticipation or that cause them to drop out of sports number of events for women at the Olympics, we
participation are ideological (their role as wife and note a gradual increase, but the participation of
mother and gender discrimination), structural women makes up only 44.2 per cent of the total
(the lack of user-friendly facilities, transport and number of participants.35
There are five reasons to be cautious about the passage of Title IX, an anti-gender-discrimination
pace and extent of future increases in the sport law – is often credited with sparking a boom in
participation rate of girls and women: women’s sports.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
1. Resistance among those who resent changes v=fQt4TkDUHew
favouring strong women
2. Under-representation of women in deci-
sion-making positions
3. Continued emphasis on ‘cosmetic fitness’
2. Under-representation of women in
4. Trivialisation of women’s sport
decision-making positions
5. Homophobia and the threat of being Despite large increases in the number of sport
labelled as gay. participation opportunities for girls and women
since the mid-1970s, women have suffered
1. Resistance among those who resent setbacks in the ranks of coaching and sport
changes favouring strong women administration in women’s programmes. It
When women play certain sports, they become is very important for young girls and women
strong. Strong women challenge the gender ide- to see that key decision-making roles within
ology that men are stronger and more powerful sport programmes are filled by other women.
than women. Both women and men who resent In South Africa, programmes such as gsport,
changes favouring strong women do all they with commentator Kass Naidoo, promote
can to discredit most women’s sport and strong sportswomen and their sporting structures.
women athletes, and they call for the return of This will encourage women to believe in the
the ‘good old days’ when men played sport and importance and relevance of female sport in
women watched and cheered. As a sport man- the future and to take their participation in
ager, one could possibly provide workshops sport seriously.
and educate both men and women on ways in
which they could work together to achieve better
3. Continued emphasis on ‘cosmetic
equality in sport.
fitness’
There are many competing images of female
bodies in cultures today. Many girls and women
see and hear confusing, and sometimes contra-
Battle of the sexes
dictory, messages about the ‘ideal’ body type.
On September 20, 1973, women’s tennis star These messages include that women should be
Billie Jean King faced off against Bobby Riggs in ‘firm but shapely, fit but sexy, strong but thin’.
an exhibition match dubbed the ‘Battle of the Although women see images of powerful female
Sexes’. The 55-year-old Riggs, a former athletes, they cannot escape the images of very
Wimbledon champion, believed he could still beat thin fashion models. These images might deter
any woman player, and, after much prodding, King young girls and women from taking part in
eventually took him up on the challenge. Riggs certain sporting activities out of fear that they
hyped the contest with a slew of misogynistic would acquire more muscular features. Sport
comments, including that ‘the best way to handle managers could facilitate workshops that sen-
women is to keep them pregnant and barefoot’. sitise sport journalists to the continued empha-
Yet King ended up eviscerating him 6-4, 6-3, 6-3 sis on ‘cosmetic fitness’ so that female bodies
in front of more than 30 000 fans at the Houston are not associated with sexual innuendos. The
Astrodome, the largest crowd ever to watch a focus should also be on the athletic ability of the
tennis match. King’s victory – along with the female participants and not necessarily on their
physical attributes.
situation, and started to contribute to the draft- the movement for women’s rights was called
ing of the proposed Gender Equality Bill. The ‘feminism’ or ‘women’s liberation’. Women
Women Empowerment and Gender Equality wanted the same pay as men, equal rights in
Bill, published in the Government Gazette of law, and the freedom to plan their families or not
August 2012, mainly focuses on addressing have children at all. The International Council
issues of discrimination and mainstreaming of Women (ICW) was the first women’s organ-
gender in South African society. Within the isation to work across national boundaries for
Sport and Recreation Ministry, gender was the common cause of advocating human rights
integrated into the second National Sport and for women. The global women’s rights move-
Recreation Amendment Bill. The government’s ment over the past 30 years has emphasised that
policy directives on transformation stipulate an females are enhanced human beings when they
equity clause (paragraph 9 of the Bill of Rights). develop their intellectual and physical abilities.
Under the heading ‘Equality’, the section states The global women’s rights movement has also
that: (1) Everyone is equal before the law and helped with national and international aware-
has the right to equal protection and benefit of ness of promoting women and has helped to
the law; (2) Equality includes the full and equal define occupational and family roles. This has
enjoyment of all rights and freedoms. To promote given more women the time and resources they
the achievement of equality, legislative and other need to take part in sport activities.
measures designed to protect or advance per- In South Africa, gender equity became a
sons, or categories of persons, disadvantaged by political issue in the late 1980s as part of the
unfair discrimination may be taken; (3) The state dismantling of apartheid and the unification of
may not unfairly discriminate directly or indi- racially segregated sport structures. Government
rectly against anyone on one or more grounds, structures such as the Gender Equity Task Team
including race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital (GETT) and the Women’s National Coalition
status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual ori- focused mainly on legal and political empower-
entation, age, disability, religion, conscience, ment. The racial divide produced unique forms
belief, culture, language and birth; and (4) No of gender oppression, with little shared identity
person may unfairly discriminate directly or indi- and sisterhood between black, Indian, Coloured
rectly against anyone on one or more grounds in and white women. Despite the divide between
terms of subsection (3).38 ‘womanists’ (predominantly black women) and
However, after 20 years of democracy, South ‘feminists’ (predominantly white women), gen-
African women still face an uphill battle when der inequality united them.
it comes to competing against their male coun-
terparts, especially in the workplace. Although 4. The health and fitness movement
the country has a number of legislative proce- Since 1970, a great deal of research has been
dures in place to uphold the rights of women done regarding the health benefits of taking
and girls – such as the Promotion of Equality and part in physical activity. This created wide-
Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act (2000), spread awareness about the positive effects
the Employment Equity Act (1998), the Domestic that physical activity can have on people’s
Violence Act (1998), and the Constitution physical and emotional well-being. This
of South Africa (1996) – there is still work to awareness has encouraged women to seek
be done.39 opportunities to exercise and play sport.
Initially, the emphasis was on being thin and
3. The global women’s rights movement sexually attractive to men, but there has been
Women’s rights have become an important issue a shift towards emphasising the development
in the English-speaking world. By the 1960s, of strength and competence. This, however,
has also led to the debate about femininity gender ideology and gender role ideology refer
versus masculinity, which will be discussed in to attitudes towards the appropriate roles,
Section 4.9.2. rights and responsibilities of women and men
in society. The concept can reflect these atti-
5. Increased media coverage of tudes generally or in a specific domain, such
women in sport as an economic, familial, legal, political and/
Even though female sporting events and female or social domain. Traditional gender ideolo-
athletes are not covered as often or in the same gies emphasise the value of distinctive roles for
manner and detail as male sporting events women and men. According to traditional gen-
and male athletes, young girls and women der ideology about the family, for example, men
can now see and read about the achieve- fulfill their family roles through instrumental,
ments of other female athletes who take part breadwinning activities and women fulfill their
in a variety of sports in a variety of formats. For roles through nurturing, home-making and
example, we can read about female athletes parenting activities.40
in magazines, see them taking part in sport- Gender ideology is based on a simple
ing events on television and see them endorse binary classification model. According to this
products via advertisements and other forms model, all people are classified into two sex
of media. Seeing female athletes on television categories – male or female. These categories
and reading about them in newspapers and are defined in biological terms. All people in
magazines encourages girls and women to the male c ategory are believed to be naturally
be active as athletes and to act as socialising different from all those in the female cate-
agents. gory and they are held to different normative
expectations when it comes to feelings, appear-
4.9.2 Ideology and culture ance, thoughts and actions. These expectations
The term ‘dominant ideology’ denotes the shape the ways in which people define and
attitudes, beliefs, values and morals shared identify gender – that is, what is considered
by the majority of the people in a society. masculine and what is considered feminine in a
As a mechanism of social control, the domi- group or society.
nant ideology frames how the majority of the
population thinks about the nature of, and its
4.9.2.1 Gender ideology in sport
place in, society. Ideologies are often so deeply Throughout the past century, gender roles have
entrenched in our social worlds that we sel- started to change greatly in our society and espe-
dom think about or question them. We simply cially in the world of sport. Women have begun to
take them for granted and use them as forms participate in many previously male-dominated
of cultural logic to make sense of the world. sports and have represented masculine values of
This is also the case with gender ideology. aggression, violence and strength. Some of these
Gender ideology influences our gender iden- sports, such as soccer, rugby and hockey, have
tities and relationships, as well as how we been perceived as ‘manly’ sports and many feel
organise our social worlds. It influences how that women should not participate in them due
we present ourselves, what we wear and how to their physically demanding nature. Instead,
we think. women are expected to participate in sport that
Gender ideology varies from culture to cul- represents feminine values such as grace and
ture. The culture of a society is expressed and elegance and do not involve body contact, such
transformed through various outlets, such as tennis, gymnastics and golf. Caster Semenya
as schools, commercial shopping centres, is a good example of gender ideology hindering
the mass media, the Internet and sport. Both sporting successes.41
Reasons for gender inequality in society and • Structures (low representation of women in
sport fall into three main categories: media structures and decision-making posi-
tions); and
• Environment (patriarchal or • Ideology (beliefs of a people, group, nation
male-dominated); or culture).
were strange, immoral or primitive. These sys- they are based on arbitrary distinctions related
tems were used to justify colonization, conver- to continuous physical traits.
sion, and even slavery and genocide. According
to these systems, white skin was the standard, 4.10.4 Prospect for change
and dark skin was associated with intellectual It is clear that people do not give up racial and
inferiority and stunted development. Ideas that ethnic beliefs easily, especially when they come
people use to give meaning to skin coloor and in the form of well-established ideologies rooted
to evaluate people in terms of racial classifica- deeply in their culture. Those who have bene-
tions are seen in both the non-sporting and the fited from widely accepted racial ideology resist
sporting world. changes in the relationships and social structures
that are built on their beliefs. These individuals
4.10.2 Racial ideology and sport also tend to focus on concepts that reinforce their
Traditional racial ideology used in sport beliefs and tend to ignore concepts and ideas that
describes the achievements of white athletes as would disprove these deep-rooted beliefs. Sport
due to their character, culture and organisation, may bring people together, but it does not auto-
and the achievements of black athletes as due matically lead people to question how they think
to biology and their natural physical abilities. In about race or ethnicity or how they define and
South African rugby, black and Coloured players interact with people from other racial or ethnic
are mainly played on the wing as they are per- groups. For example, white team owners, general
ceived to have exceptional speed.42 managers and athletic directors in South Africa
work with black athletes for years before they hire
4.10.3 Racial
ideology and its black coaches, and it continues to require social
and legal pressures to encourage those in power
shortcomings positions to act more affirmatively when it comes
The problem with racial ideology is that research to hiring procedures.
shows that race is not a valid biological concept For racial and ethnic relations to be improved
because external traits are not linked with pat- through sport, those who control sport teams and
terns of internal differences. Secondly, race is sport events must make organised, concerted
a social construct that is based on social defi- efforts to bring people together in ways that will
nitions and the meanings that people give to encourage them to confront and challenge racial
physical traits. Furthermore, racial classification and ethnic issues.
systems to vary by culture and over time, and
people to guide their behaviour in families, fan violence and hooliganism, illegal betting on
religious congregations, classrooms and work the outcome, financial irregularities and player
settings. Compulsive or self-destructive behav- violence are all examples of negative defiance.
iour, the use of drugs, ignoring the physical Off-the-field deviance includes players and/or
well-being of others to the point of causing spectators getting involved in pub fights and
injuries, and using the ends (winning) to jus- using alcohol or drugs before, during or after a
tify the means (violating the rules), are not as sporting event.
quickly condemned in sports as they are in Sport deviance often involves overconfor-
other activities. mity or positive deviance. It is possible to
Deviance or deviant behaviour is defined move away from the norm without an inten-
as unacceptable behavior that is sharply differ- tion to do harm or break the rules. Examples of
ent from a customary, traditional, or generally this are an athlete who trains or plays so hard
accepted standard. Studying deviance in sport that he or she injures himself or herself, or an
presents unique problems because participants athlete who plays when injured (often praised
in sport are allowed, and even encouraged, to by media). Because these athletes’ actions are
behave in ways that are prohibited or defined as within the rules of the game and are an attempt
criminal in other settings. to win, their deviance form the norm is seen
Cases of deviance among athletes, coaches, in a positive light. One could also argue that
agents and others connected with sport have an athlete who accidentally injures another
attracted extensive attention in recent years. player within the rules of the game is display-
Regular media coverage of on-the-field rule ing positive deviance.
violations and off-the-field criminal actions Deviance can also be relative to time and
has led some people to conclude that deviance place, because what is considered deviant
in sport is out of control. Criminal charges in one social context may be non-deviant in
against athletes as a result of their behind-the- another (e.g. fighting during a hockey game
scenes drug and substance use have attracted versus fighting about the outcome of hockey
ample media attention. Because popular game). In other words, actions that are con-
beliefs have emphasised sport participation as sidered acceptable in sport but unacceptable
a character-building experience, these highly in society are regarded as relative deviance.
publicised cases of deviance among athletes, For example, players in a rugby match might
coaches and others in the sporting arena have get into a scuffle on the field. This is gener-
shocked and disappointed many people. As ally seen as part of the game and, to a certain
a manager in the sporting arena, it is help- extent, is accepted. However, when specta-
ful to be able to examine and understand tors start fighting over the result of the rugby
deviance and how one deals with this issue. match, it is seen as unexpected, immature and
We can distinguish between three types of unacceptable. In some cases, the issue goes
deviance. beyond the governing body of the sport to the
Negative deviance is violating the norms police. Examples are Marion Jones, who was
of society or underconforming to the rules. jailed for six months for lying to investigators
Negative deviance or underconformity occurs about using performance-enhancing drugs and
when a player, manager, spectator or anyone her role in a cheque-fraud scam; Ben Thatcher,
involved with the sporting activity in ques- who was charged with Actual Bodily Harm
tion behaves in a way that knowingly breaks (ABH) for his forearm smash that hospitalised
the rules or ethics of the sport. Using perfor- Pedro Mendes; and Oscar Pistorius, who was
mance-enhancing drugs, cheating within a charged with culpable homicide for shooting
contest, being bribed to influence the results, his girlfriend.43
Normal behaviour
Relative deviance
Source: Coakley, J.J. (2015). Sports in society: Issues and controversies. New York: McGraw-Hill.
4.11.1 Causes of deviance • The rewards for winning are so great that
people are prepared to risk deviance;
The following are some of the causes of deviance • Deviant behaviour is more common and less
in sport: socially unacceptable in some societies;
• Governing bodies feel less able to punish,
• Individuals lack the moral restraint to resist; owing to commercial interests or fear of
• Individuals value winning more than they being taken to court; and
fear the prospect of punishment; • Growing emphasis on self-medication.
uniform designs, the scheduling of events, • Sport organisations look for global markets.
how the media covers events, and even what -- FIFA, the NFL, the NBA, etc. seek global
announcers say during coverage. media exposure and expansion.
• Corporations use sport as a vehicle for global
expansion.
4.12.1 Conditions for the -- One goal of this is to make money through
emergence and growth of advertising and global expansion.
commercial sport -- Another goal is to sponsor enjoyment
and pleasure so that the consumer will
Commercial or commercialised sport is organised associate a good time with the sponsoring
and played for profit. Commercialised sport grows corporation’s product.
best under five social and economic conditions:
4.12.2 Changesin sport due
• A market economy – sport is most preva-
lent in a market economy where material
to commercialisation
rewards are highly valued by athletes, team Commercialisation has influenced, and keeps
owners, event sponsors and spectators. influencing, the structure and goals of most
• Large, densely populated cities – c ommercial newly developed sport (e.g. Twenty20 cricket,
sport exists in societies that have large, BMX and rugby sevens), but it has not produced
densely populated cities with a high concen- dramatic changes in most long-established
tration of potential spectators. sports (e.g. tennis, soccer, rugby). Established
• A standard of living that provides people sports have undergone some rule changes to
with time, money, transportation, and media make the events more exciting and to ensure that
access – commercial sport is regarded as a the rules are easy enough for spectators to follow
luxury and it grows when the standard of and understand. In Twenty20 cricket, beach soc-
living is high enough for people to have the cer and sevens rugby, for example, rule changes
time and resources to play and watch events. have increased the pace of the action so that
• Large amounts of capital (for venue con- fans do not get bored. This includes increasing
struction and maintenance) – commercial scores and scoring chances to create excitement
sport requires large amounts of funding to for spectators and TV audiences. Furthermore,
build and maintain stadiums and arenas in rule changes have brought about a greater bal-
which matches are played and watched. ance between competitors, making the outcome
• A culture emphasising consumption and of the sport events more uncertain. This results
material status symbols – commercial sport in more frequent dramatic moments, heighten-
flourishes in cultures where lifestyles empha- ing attachment to players and teams and provid-
sise consumption and material status sym- ing commercial breaks for sponsors to advertise
bols. This enables everything associated with their products.
sport to be marketed and sold – for example, Commercial sport is a visible part of many
athletes (including their names, autographs societies today and it grows and prospers best
and images), merchandise, team names in urban and industrial areas. The recent world-
and logos. The success of commercial sport wide growth of commercial sport has been
depends on selling symbols and emotional increased by sport organisations seeking global
experiences to audiences, and then selling markets and corporations using sport as a vehi-
audiences to sponsors and the media.45 cle for expansion. Commercialisation has led to
changes in the structures and goals of certain
Reasons why corporations buy into commer- sport that is now packaged as entertainment
cial sport include the following for spectators.
sport, but certain online services focus solely masculinity. The media often sees the physical
on reporting on sport events and news related attributes of sportsmen as powerful weapons of
to sport. While very few books or films have destruction and domination, symbolising both
focused on sport in recent years, some exam- mental and physical toughness that defines
ples are Rocky (1976) and its five sequels, Million images of masculinity. In literature, it has been
Dollar Baby (2004) and Invictus (2009), which noted that sport media concentrates on success
told the story of South African rugby during stories about men and, more specifically, on the
apartheid and Nelson Mandela’s relationship theme of fighting back from adversity, such as
with Francois Pienaar.47 injury or drug addiction. Indeed, the media does
not ordinarily focus on men who fail to measure
4.13.4 Media representations up in sport or life. Traditional ideals of femininity
are reflected in media coverage of sportswomen.
of sport Coverage is dominated by references to grace,
To say that sport is ‘mediated’ is to say that it is beauty and finesse. The coverage of female ath-
represented to readers, listeners and viewers letes usually emphasises their appearance and
through selected images and/or narratives. A attractiveness rather than their athletic skills. The
growing number of people who study sport in media tends to focus on female athletes as sexual
society conduct research that involves breaking beings rather than serious performers.
these selected images and narratives down to Tennis is a good example of a sport in which
identify the ideas or themes presented through attention on sportswomen centers on feminine
men in decision-making positions who are enti- beauty. Players such as Anna Kournikova and
tled to exclude women’s sport and to decrease Maria Sharapova receive more media cover-
women’s participation in sport. age for their attractiveness than players whose
Sporting events covered by the media reflect physiques are muscular and powerful, such
dominant ideologies and cultural ideas about as Arancha Sanchez and Serena Williams. The
gender and gender relations. Indeed, medi- most lucrative financial sponsorships and the
ated sport seems to reflect the balance of power highest volumes of positive media coverage
between the sexes in sport and society more go to ‘sexy’ players. Whereas male athletes are
broadly. Established images of manliness in print ‘valorized, lionized and put on cultural ped-
media, such as the newspaper, tend to frame rep- estals’, 48 female athletes are infantilised by
resentations of sport in the media. Masculine ide- sport journalists who refer to them as ’girls’
als such as strength, toughness and aggression are or ‘young ladies’ – while referring to male
celebrated and reinforced in the media. Violence athletes as ‘men’. It is difficult to understand
and aggression on the playing field is often the social life today without giving serious atten-
focus of media photographs and narrative. This tion to the media and media experiences. This
type of ritualised aggression has strong links is why we study the relationship between sport
with the values and behaviours of maleness and and media.
4.14 Summary
Sport is a social construct, meaning that we this chapter was to provide a foundation for the
play a role in making it what it is today and different sociological themes that exist within a
what it will be in the future. As sport manag- specific context and to use this information to
ers, we can play this role actively by envisioning make the best choices about planning, organis-
what we would like sport to be and then work- ing, executing or evaluating the management
ing towards making this a reality. The goal of of sport.
GLOSSARY
➜➜ Aversive socialisation: A long-term withdrawal from ➜➜ Relative deviance: When actions that are
sport and physical activity due to possible heightened considered acceptable in sport are considered
stress levels and pressure unacceptable in society
➜➜ Class ideology: A web of ideas and beliefs that ➜➜ Resocialisation: Resocialisation is when individuals
people use to understand economic inequalities, transfer from one level, form or role in the same
identify their class position and evaluate the impact activity to another
of economic inequalities on the organisation of ➜➜ Social class: Categories of people who share a
social worlds similar economic position in society based on a
➜➜ Desocialisation: The process by which individuals combination of their income, wealth, education,
leave sport roles temporarily, for example because of occupation and social connection
moving from one city to another, making an ➜➜ Socialisation: An active process of learning and
independent decision to quit, being dropped by the social development, which occurs as we interact with
coach, suffering injury, or any other reason that could one another and become acquainted with the social
cause an individual to stop taking part in a world in which we live
particular sport ➜➜ Socialising agents: Significant people in one’s life
➜➜ Deviant behaviour: Unacceptable behaviour that is who provide social influence
sharply different from a customary, traditional, or ➜➜ Socio-psychological stability: The stable
generally accepted standard functioning of the individual as a member of society,
➜➜ Gender ideology:49 A set of unified ideas about dependent upon being ‘well adjusted’ psychologically
masculinity, femininity and relationships between and socially
men and women ➜➜ Sociology of sport: Also referred to as sport
➜➜ Intergenerational: Occurring between generations sociology, the study of the relationship between sport
➜➜ Intragenerational: Occurring within a generation and society
➜➜ Mediated sport: Sport that is promoted and covered ➜➜ Sponsorship: A commercial agreement between a
by different media channels such as TV, the Internet, company and a sport to enter into a joint venture to
radio and newspapers promote their mutual interests
➜➜ Negative deviance: Behaviour that violates the ➜➜ The conflict theory of sport: A theory of sport that
norms of society or underconforms to the rules sees sport as an opiate
➜➜ Neo-liberal society: A society in which individualism ➜➜ The critical theory of sport: A theory of sport that
and material success are highly valued, and in which sees sport as a social construct or form
there is a decline in publicly funded programmes ➜➜ The feminist theory of sport: A theory of sport that
and services sees sport as pervasively gendered
➜➜ Personal attributes: Descriptive features that ➜➜ The figurational theory of sport: A theory of sport
characterise an individual that sees sport as a social phenomenon
➜➜ Positive deviance: Behaviour that moves away from ➜➜ The functional theory of sport: A theory of sport
the norm without an intention to do harm or break that sees sport as an inspiration
the rules and that overconforms to the rules ➜➜ The interactionist theory of sport: A theory of sport
➜➜ Primary socialisation: The process by which that sees sport from an individual’s perspective
individuals first learn a sport or physical activity role
➜➜ Racial ideology: A set of unified ideas that people
use to give meaning to skin colour and to evaluate
people in terms of racial classification
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Multiple-choice questions
1. The functions of the media as well as D. A and C
the media within sport are to: E. Only C
A. Provide information, interpretation,
entertainment and opportunities for 4. Sociologists have done a great deal of
interactivity research on the different experiences
B. Make a financial profit that children have in formally organised
C. Influence cultural values sport. The following are experiences
D. Provide a public service that come from adult-controlled sports:
E. All of the above A. Friendships
B. Discipline and skills
2. Some sociologists hold that because C. Freedom of expression
sport is a product of society, it can often D. Both A and B
reflect larger elements of the society
that created it. The five basic social 5. The saying ‘white men can’t jump’ in the
functions of sport are: sport of basketball is representative of:
A. To assist someone to socialise into A. Gender ideology
sport and with people B. Lack of power in the legs
B. To bring people together C. Race ideology
C. To be used as a political instrument D. The culture of the basketball game
D. Only A and C
E. All of the above 6. Sport once seemed to be a social
institution that was immune to deviant
3. Sport sociologists use theories to better behaviour; this is no longer true. Which
understand sport in society. Which of of the following are types of deviance
the following are regarded as social that can be found in sport?
theories? A. Positive and negative deviance
A. Sport seen as an inspiration B. Neutral deviance
B. Male theory C. Positive deviance
C. Feminist theory D. Negative deviance
Review questions
1. Describe in your own words how sport factors that can inhibit female participa-
has become commercialised. tion in sport and four factors that would
2. Increases in sport participation rates for support female participation in sport.
girls and women have not come easily and 3. Describe your own personal socialisa-
are the result of the dedicated efforts of tion into sport by making use of the two
many individuals and groups. Discuss four socialisation models.
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