Q2 - Mod2 - Data-Collection-Presentation-and-Analysis - Co Version 2
Q2 - Mod2 - Data-Collection-Presentation-and-Analysis - Co Version 2
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Quarter 2 - Module 2
Data Collection, Presentation, and Analysis
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Published by the Department of Education
Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio
Management Team
Chairperson: Dr. Arturo B. Bayocot, CESO III
Regional Director
Co-Chairpersons: Dr. Victor G. De Gracia Jr., CESO V
Asst. Regional Director
Mala Epra B. Magnaong
CES, CLMD
Members: Dr. Bienvenido U. Tagolimot,Jr.
Regional ADM Coordinator
Dr. Marie Emerald A. Cabigas
Regional EPS, LRMDS
Practical Research 2
Quarter 2- Module 2
Data Collection, Presentation, and
Analysis
Introductory Message
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our dear learners,
can continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities, questions,
directions, exercises, and discussions are carefully stated for you to understand
each lesson.
Each SLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide you step-by-
step as you discover and understand the lesson prepared for you.
In addition to the material in the main text, Notes to the Teacher are also
provided to our facilitators and parents for strategies and reminders on how they
can best help you on your home-based learning.
Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks on any
part of this SLM. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises and
tests. And read the instructions carefully before performing each task.
If you have any questions in using this SLM or any difficulty in answering
the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator.
Thank you.
What This Module is About
As a researcher, it is important that you are knowledgeable about what type of data
collection technique to use for a certain type of quantitative research study you are planning
to pursue. The importance of data collection cannot be undermined since in the absence of
correctly collected data, your research questions can remain unanswered, or the testing of
research hypothesis is not possible.
This module gives an overview of factors to consider when choosing data collection
method. It also shows a brief description on the different instruments available, its
advantages and disadvantages, and guidelines on how to use the specific instrument
suitable to the research questions and or objectives. Additionally, you will be exposed to the
different statistical tool that you can possibly use to analyze the gathered data.
This is made simple and easy to understand yet contains the maximum and solid
knowledge necessary for you to be able to accomplish the Chapter 4 of your research study.
Furthermore, this module also contains examples and exercises for you to improve your
learning. For enrichment, learners may contact anytime their teacher through messenger,
FB, zoom, call or text at their own convenient time.
1. What data collection method involves tracking of changes during specified time period?
A. Questionnaire B. Observation
C. Interview D. Test
2. Which of the following is defined as an action that the researcher will do to obtain
appropriate data?
A. Data Interpretation B. Data Manipulation
C. Data Collection D. Data Analysis
3. Which of these methods is the most expensive way to collect data per respondent?
A. Personal B. Online
C. Phone Call/Text D. Postal
4. The following are guidelines before conducting an interview. Which one is not?
A. Check if your recording device worked well throughout the interview.
B. Choose a comfortable venue with the least number of distractions.
C. Prepare and rehearse your interview guide.
D. Decide on the duration of the interview.
5. Which of the following should not be part of the informed consent form?
A. Name of Researchers and the Institution affiliated with
B. Name of Participants and the Institution affiliated with
C. Anonymity of the participants and their responses
D. Title of the study and purpose of the study
7. Which of the following data processing techniques refers to ordering the data into a table?
A. Arrangement B. Tabulation
C. Editing D. Coding
10. In a two-tailed test, which should be rejected when the test value falls in any of the two
critical regions?
A. Alternative hypothesis B. Null hypothesis
C. Type I error D. Type II error
A. The graph shows that Friday has the highest recorded number of absences all
throughout the school year.
B. GUNHS students should undergo an intervention and participate in a “Time
Management Seminar”.
C. The graph shows that students from GUNHS are absentees.
D. The graph shows that only few students are absent daily.
15. What is the decision that you will make if the p-value is lower than the alpha level?
A. Do not accept the null hypothesis.
B. Do not reject the null hypothesis
C. Accept the null hypothesis.
D. Reject the null hypothesis.
Due to the COVID-19 global pandemic crisis, many are easily hook into sharing and
believing fake news without processing and verifying the source. Daily figures of these cases
are also gradually changing, creating misinformation and fear. People are anxious about
what is happening, and tensions are inevitable due to security and health threats. Therefore,
reliable sources of data and information are highly needed. The fundamental questions to
ask are: What is data? Why researchers collect data? How is data collected? Who needs the
collected data?
All these questions, and many more can be answered through data collection. As
taught in the previous lesson, a researcher begins by identifying the research problem. Once
the data gathering procedure has been implemented and data has been gathered, the next
thing to do is to analyze and interpret them. Data is obtained with the aid of data collection
instruments which will be the focus in this lesson.
Collecting data is the first step you need to perform before you proceed in writing your data
analysis and interpretation. Data collection is a systematic process of gathering relevant
information, observations, or measurements. Whether you are performing research for
academic purposes, government or business, data collection allows you to gain first-hand
knowledge and original insights into your research problem. While methods and aims may
differ between fields, the overall process of data collection remains largely the same. Before
you begin collecting data, you need to consider: (1) the aim of the research; (2) the type of
data that you will collect; and (3) the methods and procedures you will use to collect, store,
and process the data.
Quantitative research instruments comprise observation, questionnaires, test, and
interviews. On the other hand, data collection approaches for qualitative research usually
involve: (a) direct interaction with individuals on a one-to-one basis, (b) and or direct
interaction with individuals in a group setting.
When developing and utilizing a research instrument, the following steps are to be
considered:
1. Define the aim of your research (research question).
2. Choose your data collection method.
3. Plan your data collection procedures.
4. Collect and verify your data.
5. Present your findings.
Look at the different kinds of research instruments. Check all that seem helpful in
answering your research questions. You may choose more than one.
What Is It
Research Instruments
Questionnaires
Tests are used for measuring various skills and types of behavior, personality,
achievement, performance, as well as for describing some characteristics. It is also used to
develop to measure specific knowledge, skill, or cognitive activity. There are two types of
tests used in quantitative research: standardized test and non-standardized test.
1. Recall Questions. It requires participants to recall information from memory (e.g., fill-
in-the blank test, identification test, enumeration test, etc.)
2. Recognition Questions. It allows participants to select from given choices the best or
correct choice (e.g., multiple-choice test, true or false test, yes or no test, etc.)
3. Open-ended Questions. It allows the participants more freedom in their responses,
expressing their thoughts and insights (e.g., essay writing tests and other
performance-based tests.
2. RECOGNITION TESTS
A. Matching Type- the participants will match the answers from column A to column
B by drawing a line.
Example: Match the terminologies in Column A with their synonyms in Column B.
Column A Column B
Measurement is
1. Acute Angle A. 90 degrees
2. Right Angle B. less than 180 degrees but greater than 90
3. Obtuse Angle C. less than 90 degrees but greater than 0
B. Multiple Choice- the participants will choose the correct/best answer from the
given options.
Example: Which of the following does NOT belong to the group?
A. Acute Angle B. Right Angle
B. Obtuse Angle D. Depressed Angle
C. Dichotomous Type (True or False, Yes or No)- the participants will select only one
option either yes or no or true or false.
Example: Write TRUE on the space before each number if the statement is
correct and FALSE if it is incorrect.
1. 140 degrees angle is acute.
7 CO_Q2_SHS Practical Research 2_Module 2
3. OPEN-ENDED TESTS
A. Performance-based- the participants are expected to perform a given task.
Example: Create a video presentation showing the step-by-step process of
solving quadratic equations.
B. Non-performance based- the participants may answer orally or in a written
manner.
Example: Explain the mathematical procedures you apply to transform the
given quadratic equation to standard form.
Interviews
The questionnaire and quantitative interview are both highly structured, but here’s a
difference between the two:
In quantitative interviews, (1) the items are read to the participants; (2) participants
and researchers may ask questions; (3) helpful to blind or uneducated participants while in
questionnaires, (1) the participants read the questions and answer on their own; (2) the
participants and researchers may not ask further questions; (3) not useful to blind or
uneducated participants.
Observation
1. Complete Observer
This is a detached observer where the researcher is neither seen nor noticed by
participants. It’s one way of minimizing the Hawthorne Effect as participants are more likely
to act natural when they don’t know they’re being observed.
2. Complete Participant
This is a fully embedded researcher, almost like a spy. Here the observer fully
engages with the participants and partakes in their activities. Participants aren’t aware that
observation and research is being conducted, even though they fully interact with the
researcher.
3. Observer as Participant
Here the researcher is known and recognized by the participants and in many cases,
the participants know the research goals of the observer. There is some interaction with the
participants, but the interaction is limited. The researcher’s aim is to play a neutral role as
much as possible.
4. Participant as Observer
Here the researcher is fully engaged with the participants. She is more of a friend or
colleague than a neutral third party. While there is full interaction with participants, they still
know that this is a researcher.
1.
USEFUL ONLINE
TOOLS
Google Forms are free online forms that allows the researcher to construct,
administer, and analyze surveys.
5. Likert Scale
7. Star Ranking
10. Matrix
2. PROCEDURES
You will be asked to use the workbook prepared by the Math Society and attend the
math class at the Computer Laboratory. You will also be interviewed via Focus Group
Discussion to obtain information regarding your reactions or responses to the approach.
Specifically, you will be asked to do the following: (1) You will be asked to attend the
Math class that uses the Singaporean approach for the whole term. (2) You will be
interviewed by your math teacher for two (2) hours about your responses regarding the
Singaporean approach of learning Mathematics and the challenges you encounter using
this approach.
The expected duration of your participation is from October 2020 to January 2021.
4. POSSIBLE BENEFITS
The findings of this research will benefit your teachers in expanding their teaching
practices to effectively deal with developing a very potential problem-solving skill among
its learners. This study is also useful for both public and private school administrators in
the country in preparing a math curriculum with an intervention that is anchored upon the
result of this study to develop and enhance the problem-solving skills among high school
students.
5. FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS
No amount will be required from you during your participation in this study.
6. CONFIDENTIALITY
Your identity in this study will be treated with utmost confidentiality. The results will
be published for academic purposes only. However, any data obtained as a result of your
participation in this study may be checked by the sponsor, by the person conducting this
study and or by the research panelists.
9. AUTHORIZATION
I have read and understood this consent form, and I volunteer to participate in this
research study. I understand that I will receive a copy of this form. I voluntarily choose to
participate, but I understand that my consent does not take away any legal rights in the
case of negligence or other legal fault by anyone who is involved in this study. I further
understand that nothing in this consent form is intended to replace any applicable laws.
Directions: Look at the questionnaire below. Answer the questions that follow by checking
the box that best describes you.
Directions: Interview five (5) families in your barangay or other possible options may be
presented depending on the current situation in your community. Create three (3)
interview questions regarding their situation during the COVID-19 pandemic
crisis. Make sure that the responses of your interview questions is quantifiable.
1.
2.
4.
5.
1. How often do you buy mobile accessories for social acceptance purposes?
2. How regularly do you go to malls in a week?
3. How much would you be willing to pay for a mobile app for dating?
4. What are the differences in attitudes towards shopping between men and women?
5. What is the difference in the number of telephone calls made between men and
women?
6. What is the relationship between a grade in math and level of class participation
among Grade 7 students?
7. What is the relationship between the number of COVID-19 cases and travel exposure?
8. What is the relationship between job satisfaction and salary among public school
teachers?
9. Can you describe how you first became aware of the COVID-19 crisis?
10. Can you talk about your thoughts on how the COVID_19 pandemic affects a person,
a family, a school, or a community?
11. How do you see yourself today, in terms of the “new normal”?
12. How does your family view your gender crisis?
13. What does your school or community do to educate you about the COVID-19
pandemic crisis?
14. Can you talk about whether or not you feel safe in your school or community after
the enhanced community quarantine was lifted?
15. Which factors mostly distort the approval rating of the president?
Directions: What type of observation is illustrated in the following observation notes? Write
the letter of your choice on the space provided before the number. Choose from
the choices below:
A. complete observer B. observer as participant
C. participant as observer D. complete participant
Directions: Create a Google form related to the study that you are conducting. Follow the
steps in making a Google Form. Make sure to take note of the parts of a
questionnaire. Print/show your output to your teacher.
Directions: Go to the link below and watch the video to enrich what you’ve already learned:
https://bit.ly/31oOcP6
https://bit.ly/3dCKMeg
Directions: Go to the link below and practice what you’ve learned from this lesson:
https://bit.ly/2ZjUNId
https://bit.ly/387QUtD
Directions: Using the space below, write a reflective essay about your learning experience
on the quantitative data-collection techniques. Let your essay reveal how much
you learned about each concept behind each topic dealt with in this lesson.
Express which concepts are the most understood, slightly understood, and the
least understood ones.
Directions: Perform the following tasks. You may write or encode your answer in a long bond
paper. Submit your output to your teacher for checking.
Decide on what type of data collection instrument you will use in obtaining data for your research
study. Why will you use this specific data collection method?
Once you have decided on what data collection instrument to use, it is time to create your
questions as a basis for data gathering. Make sure to align each of your questions or items to the
research questions.
Write also a draft of your one-page informed consent.
Additional Activity
Directions: Now that your data collection method and tool have been approved, it is now
time to gather your data (float your questionnaire or test/ conduct your interview
or observation). Make sure that your informed consent and questionnaire have
been checked before distributing them to your participants. Reproduce your
materials according to the target number of participants.
What’s In
In the previous lesson, you were presented with options as to how you will gather
your data. Once the data are collected, you need to encode and organized them for
systematic purposes. This will be the focused of this lesson. In this process, you will need to
edit, code, tabulate and summarize information through graphs and tables for presentation
and interpretation purposes. The process also allows the removal of unnecessary
information.
Data presentation and analysis is one of the most essential part in your research
study. An excellent data presentation can be potential for winning the hearts of the panelists,
clients, or simply the readers. No matter how good your data, if it is not well presented, you
will not be able to earn the preferences of those whom you are trying to persuade. Good
data presentation matters.
The following are the significant steps you need to take note in preparing and writing
your data analysis after gathering the data:
(1) encode and organize your data for analysis according to the data asked by your
research questions;
(2) use your data for statistical tests you have identified in Module 4. You may ask
assistance from your statistics and research teacher;
(3) present the result in tabular or graphical form appropriate for your data and
research purpose;
(4) write the interpretation for each table or graph highlighting the significant results
and its implications;
(5) support your findings from relevant literature and studies you have cited in the
Chapter 2 of your research paper; and
(6) edit the grammatical and typographical errors in your interpretation. You may use
www.grammarly.com to edit your work.
(7) Submit your work using the format given to you. Remember the institutional
format of your school.
Remember to organize your data based on your research questions. The data
processing involves three actions: editing, coding, and tabulation.
Editing raw data is the first step in analysis. Editing detects errors and omissions,
corrects them whatever possible. Editor’s responsibility is to guarantee that data are –
accurate; consistent with the intent of the questionnaire; uniformly entered; complete; and
arranged to simplify coding and tabulation.
Sleepy – 1
Student's
Lack of Tired – 2
Motivation Bored – 3
What’s New
Source: https://psa.gov.ph/
2. If you will be asked to present again the data, how will you arrange and label it? Use the
space to draw your presentation of the data.
The next step after editing, coding, and tabulating the data is to present them into
graphical or visual presentation called non-prose materials. The purpose of presenting the
data in this way is to make the outlined of the results more presentable. Non-prose materials
are composed of graphs, bars, tables, charts, diagrams, illustrations, drawings, and maps. .
In quantitative research, tables and graphs are usually used. Standard format in
presenting the data into a table or a graph like its title, labels, contents, and many more can
be followed as well when school institutional format is not provided or identified. You may
visit APA, CMOS, or MLA on how to do so.
Tables
Table helps summarize and categorize data using columns and rows. It contains
headings that indicate the most important information about your study.
Sample 1
Table 1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Student’s Overall Performance in Pre- Calculus
Pretest
Sample 2
Looking at Table 4, there is a significant relationship between the classroom interaction that facilitates
positive discipline and sense belonging (r (39 = .973, p = 0.000). The feeling of being safe and welcome in
school is significantly related to how the teachers manage classroom interaction. This result is supported by
the early studies on classroom management by Brophy and Avertson (1976) that though variety of teaching
behaviors affect effective teaching; classroom management appeared to be one of the most critical aspects
as viewed by students.
Table 3. Correlation Analysis of Positive Discipline and Sense of Belonging
Graphs
Graphs are visual representations which focuses on how a change in one variable
affects to another. They are used to organize information to show patterns and relationships.
A graph shows this information by representing it as a shape. Researchers and scientists
often use tables and graphs to report findings from their research. In choosing what type of
graph to use, determine the specific purpose of the presentation. Line Graph illustrates
trends and changes in data over time, Bar Graph illustrates comparisons of amounts and
quantities, while Pie Graph (Circle Graph) displays the relationship of parts to a whole.
Figure 2. Students Quarterly Average Grade by Sections in Elective Mathematics (S.Y. 2019-2020 Figure 2 showed
Figure 3 showed the result of the survey conducted to Grade 7 students when asked
about their dream job. From the graph, forty percent (40%) and thirty percent (30) of the
participants wanted to become a doctor and an engineer, respectively with just thirty percent
(30%) left for other professions. Only about five percent (5%) wanted to become a teacher. From
the data, more than 70% of the Grade 7 students will likely pursue STEM strand courses when
they graduate in high school.
What’s More
Directions: Present the following data using a specific non-prose material according to its
purpose. Use a separate paper for your presentation.
1. There are a total of 24, 137 Active Cases of COVID-19 in the Philippines (Data as of June
27, 2020) with the following breakdown:
Asymptomatic - 898 persons
Mild - 23, 090 persons
Severe - 125 persons
Critical - 24 persons
2. These are the data on hospital beds and mechanical ventilators for COVID-19 patients
with the following breakdown:
Ward beds - 3, 179 (41.15% occupied)
Isolation Beds - 8,925 (37.93% occupied)
ICU Beds - 1, 313 (36.63% occupied)
Ventilators - 1, 883 (22.89% in use)
Directions: Interpret each figure given below. Follow the guidelines in interpreting the graph.
Write a brief interpretation of the data on the space provided for each figure.
Source: https://bit.ly/3eHeujB
Interpretation:
Source: https://bit.ly/2AaLu4J
Source: https://bit.ly/3i7Td4A
Interpretation:
Directions: Go to the link below and use it to run statistical analyses quickly and directly in
your browser.
Directions: Interpret the table following the suggested guidelines. Write brief interpretation on
the space provided.
Interpretation:
Go to the link below and practice what you’ve learned from this lesson:
https://bit.ly/3c8t01w
https://bit.ly/2A7L6DE
https://bit.ly/2TGK4Fr
https://bit.ly/2BkEbI2
Directions: Using the space below, write a reflective essay about your learning experience
on the quantitative data presentation and interpretation. Let your essay reveal
how much you learned about each concept behind each topic dealt with in this
lesson. Express which concepts are the most understood, slightly understood,
and the least understood ones.
What I Can Do
Directions: Perform the following task. You may write or encode your answer in short bond paper.
Submit your output to your teacher for checking.
Since you are done gathering your data, it is now time to tally the obtained data on a
separate sheet of paper. Decide on what type of data presentation you will use in your
research study. Why will you use this specific graph? Once you have decided on what data
presentation to use, it is time to create your interpretations. Follow the guidelines given.
Additional Activity
Directions: Now that your data presentation and interpretation have been checked and
approved, it is now time to include your output in Chapter 4 of your research
paper.
What’s In
In the previous lesson, you were presented with options on how to present
and analyze your data through tables and graphs. As mentioned previously, data
analysis goes hand in hand with data presentation and is considered a time-
consuming task because it involves a series of investigations, classifications,
mathematical calculations, and graphical recording, among others.
You are fully aware that planning your research study is needed. Thus, it is
assumed that when you begin your research study, you have already identified the
scale of measurement to use in your research study. Comprehensive statistical
analysis is important before making conclusions about your study.
Statistical methods and techniques were already discussed in the previous modules.
Sample Size Determination was also introduced in Module 4, Lesson 2. This lesson will
discuss deeply the five most useful statistical techniques specifically in quantitative research:
Percentage, Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlation, Regression, and Hypothesis Testing.
The computational procedure for hypothesis testing (Chapter 3) will also be shown in
this lesson because this is where your decision-making skill will be tested. You will
investigate and evaluate the claims about your study before writing your conclusions.
What’s New
Directions: Look at the table below. Check your level of conceptual knowledge and
computational skills of these statistical techniques.
Statistical Techniques
Example:
Here’s a data gathered by Purok A City High School administration regarding the
number of Grade 7 parents who opted to receive digital copies of the learning modules.
Table 1: Percentage of Parents who Opted to Receive Digital Copies of Learning Modules
2. Mean or average is the middlemost value of your list of values, and this can be obtained
by adding all the values and divide the obtained sum to the number of values.
𝑆𝑈𝑀 𝑂𝐹 𝐴𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝐿𝑈𝐸𝑆
Formula: 𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑁(𝑋̅) =
𝑁𝑈𝑀𝐵𝐸𝑅 𝑂𝐹 𝑉𝐴𝐿𝑈𝐸𝑆
Example:
1. Ungrouped Data
Refer to Table 1 above, to get the mean or average number of parents who opted to
receive digital copies of learning modules, do the following:
24+25+16+11 76
𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑁 (𝑋̅) = 4 =
4 = 19
2. Grouped Data
Here’s the data gathered from the survey on Study Habits conducted by the Grade 12
students to the 150 Grade 7 students of Purok A City High School.
Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation Distribution of the Study Habits of Students
One need to get the range from which the mean of a five-point Likert can be
interpreted. There are two methods to do this, if we treat the Likert scale as interval/ratio.
First, the usual way is to calculate the interval by computing the range (e.g., 5 − 1 = 4), then
divided it by the maximum value (e.g. 4 ÷ 5 = 0.80). Ultimately, we get the following result:
From 1 to 1.80 represents (strongly disagree).
From 1.81 to 2.60 represents (do not agree).
From 2.61 to 3.40 represents (true to some extent).
From 3:41 to 4:20 represents (agree).
From 4:21 to 5:00 represents (strongly agree).
The other way is to treat the selection as the range themselves, and so we get these
results:
From 0.01 to 1.00 is (strongly disagree);
From 1.01 to 2.00 is (disagree);
From 2.01 to 3.00 is (neutral);
From 3.01 to 4:00 is (agree);
From 4.01 to 5.00 is (strongly agree)
Example:
Here’s a data of five students with their corresponding grade in Math (Independent
Variable) and grade in English (Dependent Variable). Is there a significant relationship
between the grade in Math and the grade in English?
Step 2. From the table of values, there is a strong positive correlation between the grade in
Math and the grade in English.
5. Regression Analysis can be used to explain the relationship between dependent and
independent variables.
Formula: 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑏
(∑ 𝑦)(∑ 𝑥2)−(∑ 𝑥)(∑
𝑏=
𝑥𝑦) 𝑛(∑ 𝑥𝑦)−(∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)
𝑛(∑ 𝑥2)−(∑ 𝑥)2 𝑚= 𝑛(∑ 𝑥2)−(∑ 𝑥) 2
Example:
Using the same data from Table 3, answer the following questions:
a. What linear equation best predicts the grade in English given the grade in Math?
According to this model, for every 1point increase in the Math grade, there is a
corresponding average increase of 1 point in the English grade.
Interpretation:
The Math grade is directly proportional to the English grade because the slope
is positive.
6. Hypothesis testing. A hypothesis test helps you determine some quantity under a given
assumption. The outcome of the test tells you whether the assumption holds or whether
the assumption has been violated.
From Module 3, you were exposed to creating your Null hypothesis (𝑯𝟎) which
states that there is no difference between the two values or variables and the Alternative
hypothesis (𝑯𝟏) which states that there is a difference between two values or variables.
The statistical test uses the data obtained from a sample to decide about whether
the null hypothesis should be rejected. In a one-tailed test (left-tailed or right-tailed
test), when the test value falls in the critical region on one side of the mean, the null
hypothesis should be rejected.
On the other hand, in a two-tailed test, the null hypothesis should be rejected when
the test value falls in either of the two critical regions.
To perform hypothesis testing, you compute the mean from the sample and compare
it with the mean from the population. Then, you decide whether to reject or not reject the
𝐻0true 𝐻0𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
Hypothesis testing can be done using the following t-value approach or critical value
approach and 𝑝-value approach.
1. The Critical Value Approach is used to determine whether the observed test statistic is
more extreme than a defined critical value. Hence, the observed test statistic (calculated on
the basis of sample data) is compared to the critical value, from t-table. If the test statistic
(𝒕∗) is more extreme than the critical value (t), the null hypothesis is rejected. If the test
statistic is not as extreme as the critical value, the null hypothesis is not rejected.
A random sample of 10 Grade 7 students has grades in Math, where marks range
from 90 (Good) to 98 (Excellent). The general average grade (Gen. Ave.) of all Grade 7
students as of the last 5 years is 93. Is the Gen. Ave. of the 10 Grade 7 students
different from the population’s Gen. Ave? Use 0.05 level of significance.
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Math Grade 90 98 97 93 94 91 97 93 93 94
2. P-value Approach involves determining the probability (assuming the null hypothesis
were true) of observing a more extreme test statistic in the direction of the alternative
hypothesis than the one observed. If the P-value is less than (or equal to) 𝛼 then the null
hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. And, if the P-value is greater
than 𝛼, then the null hypothesis is not rejected.
Example:
Use the same data from Example 1 of Critical value approach:
Computational Procedure:
1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis
𝐻0: There is no significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7 students
from the population’s gen. average of 93.
𝐻0: 𝜇 = 93
𝐻1: There is a significant difference between the gen. ave. of 10 Grade 7 students
from the population’s gen. average of 93.
𝐻1: 𝜇 ≠ 93
2. State the alpha and the degree of freedom.
𝛼 = 0.05
𝐷𝑓 = 𝑛 − 1 = 10 − 1 = 9
3. State the decision rule.
One-tailed Test: |𝑡| > 𝑧𝑎𝑧;𝑎 Reject 𝐻0
Two-tailed Test: |𝑡| > ; Reject 𝐻
2 0
4. Calculate the Test Statistic.
𝑋̅ −𝜇 0 94−93 =1.18
𝑡= 𝑠 = 2.68
√𝑛 √10
5. Use statistical software or an online calculator (https://www.statology.org/t-score-p-
value- calculator/) to find the corresponding p-value.
One-tailed P-value: 0.13412
Two-tailed P-value: 0.26825
Examples:
What’s More
Directions: Here’s a data gathered by Purok A City High School administration regarding the
number of Grade 7 parents who opted to receive printed copies of the learning
modules. Fill out the boxes for total and percentage. Then write a brief
interpretation of the table.
Interpretation:
3. What linear equation best predicts the posttest given the pretest in Math?
4. If a student made a pretest score of 43 in Math, what grade would you expect the
posttest score the student will obtain?
Directions: A random sample of 10 Grade 7 students has grades in MAPEH, where marks
range from 90 (Good) to 98 (Excellent). The general average grade (Gen. Ave.)
of all Grade 7 students as of the last 5 years is 95. Is the Gen. Ave. of the 10
Grade 7 students different from the population’s Gen. Ave? Use 0.05 level of
significance.
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
MAPEH 92 95 95 96 97 98 95 94 98 92
Grade
Direction: Go to the link below and practice what you’ve learned from this lesson:
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https://bit.ly/36EfqBZ
https://bit.ly/3gmMbYS
https://bit.ly/2ZGYNEu
https://bit.ly/2A7L6DE
https://bit.ly/2TGK4Fr
Using the space below, write a reflective essay about your learning experience on
using statistical techniques in data analysis. Let your essay reveal how much you learned
about each concept behind each topic dealt with in this lesson. Express which concepts are
the most understood, slightly understood, and the least understood ones.
Directions: Perform the following task. You may write or encode your answer in a long bond
paper. Submit your output to your teacher for checking.
Based on your methodology, decide what statistical technique/s you will use to
analyze deeply your data. Why will you use this tool? Use the statistical tool that you have
decided upon to compute the significance of your study with relevance to the null and the
alternative hypothesis. Conduct hypothesis testing. Indicate your data analysis.
Additional Activity
Directions: Now that your statistical computations and hypothesis testing have been checked
and approved, it is now time to include your output in Chapter 4 of your research
paper. Get ready for presentation of your written Results and Discussion. The
rubrics below will served as a guide on how you will be rated by your teacher.
The 4C (content, coherence, creativity, communication) technique will be used
so that you can easily remember.
Criteria 5 4 3 2 1
Content (35%)
The Research Instruments directly and
clearly gathered the needed data.
Sufficient data are gathered that answers
the research questions.
Appropriate statistical technique was used,
and computation is accurate.
Presentations of data are clear and well
labeled in a table or graph.
Interpretation and analysis highlight the
significant results.
Discussion of the findings is well
supported with relevant literature.
Implications of the results were presented.
Coherence (25%)
Cohesive of devices are effectively used.
Organization of ideas, presentation, and
discussion is smoothly presented.
Creativity (25%)
Writer’s voice is showcased.
Paper uses variety of sentence structures.
Uses appropriate language.
Communication (15%)
Sentences are well structured
Grammatical conventions are observed.
Correct spelling and proper research
format are followed.
Multiple Choice. Answer the question that follows. Choose the best answer from among the
given choices.
3. What kind of correlation exists when two variables have no relationship with each other?
A. Strong Negative Correlation B. Strong Positive Correlation
C. Negative Correlation D. No Correlation
5. A study is conducted to determine the relationship between the time spent in studying and
scores in a quarterly exam among 100 students of GRSHS-X. The result shows a
correlational value of 0.98. What is the interpretation of this obtained result?
A. The amount of time spent on studying is strongly associated with the score in a
quarterly exam.
B. The amount of time spent on studying is not associated with the score in a
quarterly exam.
C. The score in a quarterly exam is moderately associated with the amount of time
spent on studying.
D. The score in a quarterly exam is negatively associated with the amount of time
spent on studying.
8. What is the outcome when you reject the null hypothesis when it is false?
A. Incorrect decision
B. Correct decision
C. Type I Error
D. Type II Error
10. Which of the following is not necessary when preparing your data analysis?
A. Create a conclusion after gathering your data.
B. Encode and organize your data for analysis.
C. Prepare your research instruments.
D. Begin gathering your data.
11. To fight boredom, Cindy is trying her luck by selling milk tea during the COVID-19
pandemic lockdown. The table below shows the number of cups sold from March to July
2020. What is the best interpretation of the graph below?
A. The graph shows that Cindy’s milk tea sales is doing good every month.
B. The graph shows that the month of May is the best-selling month.
C. The graph shows that Cindy’s milk tea sales is not good.
D. Cindy’s milk tea business is going to shut down soon.
13. Which of the following statistical technique uses rankings instead of actual values in
computing the correlational values between two sets of data?
A. Analysis of Variance B. Spearman’s Rho
C. Pearson’s r D. t-test
14. What observational role is evident if an observer is known and recognized by the
participants as part of their group or community but has limited interaction with them?
A. Observer as participant B. Participant as observer
C. Complete observer D. Complete participant
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Page 34
Lesso
n3
Fraenkel, Jack R. and Wallen, Norman E. 2020. How to Design and Evaluate Research in
Education. 6th ed., McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC. Accessed June 3, 2020.
https://bit.ly/3eBIVrs
https://www.surveygizmo.com/resources/blog/new-ways-to-ask-quantitative-research-
questions-in-online-surveys/
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