Emilio Aguinaldo College

School of Arts and Sciences

PSYCHOLOGY PROGRAM
Congressional East Avenue, Brgy.Burol Main, City of Dasmariñas,
Cavite (+63)046-4164342 loc. 148
www.eac.edu.ph/cavite

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

ALFRED ADLER’S INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

I. OVERVIEW OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

The term individual psychology was used by Adler to stress his belief that each person is an integrated
whole, striving to attain future goals and attempting to find meaning in life while working harmoniously with
others. It presents an optimistic view of people while resting heavily on the notion of social interest, that is, a
feeling of oneness with all humankind.
Adler argued that people may become largely aware of their deepest impulses and fictional finalism
and, with conscious intent, create their own personalities and lifestyles that will achieve their highest goals.
In the end, Adler’s position was almost the complete antithesis of Freud’s which emphasized that our
behaviour is largely determined by forces of which we are unaware.
 Emphasized that our unconscious does not determine personality
 Theory is about the governing internal forces of personality
 Overcome inferiorities
 1st to emphasized the role of family in the development of personality

Freud Adler
Reduced all motivation to sex and People are motivated by social influences and
aggression their striving for superiority and success
People have little or no choice in shaping People are responsible for who they are
their personality
Present behavior is shape by past Present behavior is shape by people’s view of
experiences the future
Put high emphasis on unconscious Psychologically healthy people are aware of
what they are doing and why are they doing it

II. ALFRED ADLER’S BIOGRAPHY (1870-1937)

Adler was born on February 7, 1870 in Vienna, Austria. As a young boy, Adler was weak and sickly and
at age 5, he nearly died of pneumonia. Adler’s poor health was in sharp contrast to the health of his older
brother Sigmund. Several of Adler’s earliest memories were concerned with the unhappy competition between
his brother’s good health and his own illness.
In 1907, Adler published the ―Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Physical Compensation,‖
which assumed that physical deficiencies-not sex- formed the foundation for human motivation.
He finished his doctorate in medicine in 1895 from the University of Vienna. He wrote the book ―The
Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology‖. He died at the age of 67 while on a lecture tour in Scotland.
Summary:
 Born in 1870 in a Viennese suburb, a second son of middle - class Jewish parents.
 As a young child he was weak and sickly (he nearly died of pneumonia at the age of 5), a condition
that contrasted sharply with his strong, healthy older brother, Sigmund.
 The death of his younger brother (infant) motivated him to become a physician
 He was interested in social relationships – siblings and peers
 Adler developed a strong rivalry with Sigmund—a rivalry that was similar to his later relationship with
Freud.
 Like Freud, Adler was a physician, and in 1902, he became a charter member of the Wednesday
Psychological Society
 However, personal and professional differences between Freud and Adler led to Adler's departure from
the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1911.
 Adler soon founded his own group, the Society for Individual Psychology.
  His strengths were his energetic oral presentations and his insightful ability to understand family
dynamics.
 Adler married Raissa Epstein who was a feminist. They had 4 children
 During the last few years of his life, Adler lived in the United States and earned a reputation as a
gifted public speaker. He died in 1937 in Scotland while on a lecture tour.

III. ADLER’S CONTRIBUTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY

 People are born with weak and inferior bodies ->feelings of inferiority and dependence to other people -
feelings of unity with others (social interest)

The following represents the final statement (tenets) of individual psychology.

1. the one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority.
2. people’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality
3. personality is unified and self-consistent
4. the value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest
5. the self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life
6. style of life is molded by people’s creative power

1. Striving for Success or Superiority

The sole dynamic force behind people's actions is the striving for success or superiority.
 The sole dynamic force behind all our actions
 Transformation of drive: aggression ->masculine protest ->Striving for Superiority ->Striving for
success (personal superiority/success)

The Final Goal

The final goal of success or superiority toward which all people strive unifies personality and makes all
behavior meaningful.
 Its fictional and has no objective existence
 Product of creative power (age 4 or 5): people’s ability to free shape their behavior and create their
own personality
 Reduces the pain of inferiority feelings and leads the person to either superiority or success
 If children felt neglected or pampered their goals will remain unconscious
 If children experience love and security, they set goals that are largely conscious and clearly understood
 People are not always conscious of their final goal, even though they may be aware of their
immediate subgoals.
 When an individual’s final goal is known, all action is make sense and subgoals takes on new
significance

The Striving Force as Compensation

Because people are born with small, inferior bodies, they feel inferior and attempt to overcome these
feelings through their natural tendency to move toward completion. The striving force can take one of
two courses—personal gain (superiority) or community benefit (success).
 the striving force is innate = feelings of inferiority ->goal of superiority
 The goal is to overcome these feelings through their natural tendency to move toward completion.
 The goal may take many forms. It is not necessarily a mirror image of the deficiency even if it is
a compensation for it
 The striving force can take one of two courses— personal gain or community benefit.

Striving for Personal Superiority

Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority with little concern for other people.
Although they may appear to be interested in other people, their basic motivation is personal benefit.
 Goals are personal ones (sometimes with little or no concern for others)
 Largely motivated by exaggerated feelings of inferiority (inferiority complex)
 Others, although they may appear to be interested in others, their basic motivation is personal benefit.

Striving for Success

In contrast, psychologically healthy people strive for the success of all humanity, but they do so without
losing their personal identity.
2. Subjective Perceptions
People strive for superiority or success to compensate for feelings of inferiority, but the manner in which
they strive is not shaped by reality but by their subjective perceptions of reality, that is, by their fictions,
or expectations of the future.
People's subjective view of the world—not reality—shapes their behavior.

A. Fictionalism
Fictions are people's expectations of the future. Adler held that fictions guide behavior, because
people act as if these fictions are true. Adler emphasized teleology over causality, or explanations of
behavior in terms of future goals rather than past causes.
 People's beliefs and expectations of the future.
 Adler held that fictions guide behavior, because people act as if these fictions are true.
 Example: a belief in an omnipotent God who rewards good and punishes evil

B. Physical Inferiorities
 All humans are "blessed" with organ inferiorities(physical inferiorities) that stimulate subjective
feelings of inferiority and move people toward perfection or completion
 Deficiencies do not cause a particular style of life; they are motivation for reaching goals
 Because people begin life small, weak, and inferior, they develop a fiction or belief system about
how to overcome these physical deficiencies and become big, strong, and superior. But even after they
attain size, strength, and superiority, they may act as if they are still small, weak, and inferior

3. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality

Personality is unified and self-consistent.
Adler believed that all behaviors are directed toward a single purpose. When seen in the light of that
sole purpose, seemingly contradictory behaviors can be seen as operating in a self-consistent manner.
� Adler wished to stress his belief that each person is unique and indivisible. Thus, individual psychology
insists on the fundamental unity of personality and the notion that inconsistent behavior does not exist.

A. Organ Dialect
The disturbance of one part of the body cannot be viewed in isolation; it affects the entire person. In
fact, the deficient organ expresses the direction of the individual’s goal (organ dialect).
People often use a physical disorder to express style of life, a condition Adler called organ dialect, or
organ jargon.
 A boy wetting his bed sends a message that he does not wish to obey his parents

B. Conscious and Unconscious

Conscious and unconscious processes are unified and operate to achieve a single goal. The part of
our goal that is not clearly understood is unconscious(thoughts that are not helpful)
; that part of our goal we fully comprehend is conscious. (helpful in striving for success)

4. Social Interest Gemeinschaftsgefϋhl = a feeling of oneness with all of humanity

The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest.
Human behavior has value to the extent that it is motivated by social interest. Natural condion of
human. It binds society

A. Origins of Social Interest

Although social interest exists as potentiality in all people, it must be fostered in a social environment.
Adler believed that the parent-child relationship can be so strong that it negates the effects of heredity.
 It originates from the mother-child relationship during the early months of infancy.
 both mothers and fathers have crucial roles in furthering the social interest of their children and that
the parent/child relationship is so strong that it negates the effects of heredity. (until age 5)

B. Importance of Social Interest

According to Adler, social interest is "the sole criterion of human values," and the worthiness of all
one's actions must be seen by this standard. Without social interest, societies could not exist;
individuals in antiquity could not have survived without cooperating with others to protect themselves
from danger. Even today an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward a nurturing person.
 Without social interest, societies could not exist, because individuals could not protect themselves from
danger.
  Social interest was Adler’s yardstick for measuring psychological health. Only gauge to be used in
judging the worth of a person.
 Thus, an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward a nurturing person.

C. Three Major Tasks in Life to be able to Develop Social Interest:

1. Occupational Tasks – through constructive work, the person helps to
advance society.
2. Social Tasks – this requires cooperation with fellow humans (division of labor).
3. Love and Marriage Tasks – relationship between this tasks and the continuance of society is
clear.

D. Four types of people according to their degree of Social Interest:

a. Ruling – Dominant Type – attempts to rule or dominate people;
b. Getting – Learning Type – expects everything from others and gets everything he/she can
from them.
c. Avoiding Type – such a person avoids failure by never attempting anything.
d. Socially Useful Type – confronts problems and attempts to solve them in a socially useful way.
The first three types have faulty lifestyles because they lack proper social interest. Only the socially
useful type can cope to live a rich, purposeful life.

5. Style of Life
The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life.
The manner of a person's striving is called style of life, a pattern that is relatively well set by 4 or 5 years
of age. However, Adler believed that healthy individuals are marked by flexible behavior and that they
have some limited ability to change their style of life.
� Style of life is the term Adler used to refer to the flavor of a person’s life. It includes a person’s
goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitude toward the world.
� Pattern of life developed as we reach for goal
 product of interaction of heredity, environment and person’s creative power
Different types/styles are:
� Ruling Type (Dominating)
� Getting Type (Parasitic)
� Avoiding Type (Denial; Avoidant)
� Socially useful type (Ideal) – appropriate actions to problems, accept weaknesses, willing to change

- Parenting
(Too protective = personal superiority
(Uninvolved = inferiority/unwantedness

Creative Self
-Freedom to create own style of life
-Individual is product of environment and heredity
- Individual influences environment

6. Creative Power
Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
Style of life is partially a product of heredity and environment—the building blocks of personality—but
ultimately style of life is shaped by people's creative power, that is, by their ability to freely choose a
course of action.
 freedom of choice
  Their creative power places them in control of their own lives, is responsible for their final goal,
determines their method of striving for that goal, and contributes to the development of social interest
 Ultimately style of life is shaped by our creative power; that is, by our ability to freely choose
which building materials to use and how to use them.
 People have considerable ability to freely choose their actions and their personality.

IV. Adler’s Concept of Abnormal Development

A. General Description
According to Adler, the one factor underlying all types of maladjustments is underdeveloped social
interest. Besides lacking social interest, neurotics tend to 1. set their goals too high, 2. live in their own private
world, and 3. have a rigid and dogmatic style of life.

 Creative power is not limited to healthy people; unhealthy individuals also create their
own personalities.
 The most important factor in abnormal development is underdeveloped social interest.

B. External Factors in Maladjustment

Adler also recognized three external factors, anyone of which is sufficient to contribute to abnormality.
The following are the external factors which tend to create a faulty lifestyle:
1. Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies- people with exaggerated physical deficiencies sometimes develop
exaggerated feelings of inferiority because they overcompensate for their inadequacy. They tend to be overly
concerned with themselves and lack consideration for others.
 Severe physical defects do not by themselves cause abnormal development, but they may contribute to it
by generating subjective and exaggerated feelings of inferiority.

2. Pampered Style of Life- pampered people have a weak social interest but a strong desire to perpetuate
the pampered, parasitic relationship they originally had with one or both of their parents. They expect others to
look after them, overprotect them, and satisfy their needs.
 develop low levels of social interest
 continue to have an overriding drive to establish a permanent parasitic relationship with their mother
or a mother substitute.
 They believe they are entitled to be first in everything
 They have not received too much love rather they feel unloved (parents doing too much for them)

3. Neglected Style of Life- children who feel unloved and unwanted are likely to borrow heavily from
these feelings in creating a neglected style of life. These children are distrustful of other people and are unable
to cooperate for the common welfare.
 Children who feel neglected often use these feelings as building material for a useless style of life—one
characterized by distrust of other people.

TERMS TO BE REMEMBERED:
Inferiority Feelings
- Compensate for inferiorities

Sources of Inferiorities:
- Physical Appearance
- Parenting
- Socioeconomic status
- Psychological Mentality

Complexes
- Negative coping to inferiorities

Inferiority Complex
-Incompetent self
-Justify Failure
Superiority Complex
-Develop when a person over compensates for normal inferiority feelings
-Believes he is greater than others

Compensate – process of developing one’s abilities in order to overcome real or imagine inferiorities
� Overcompensate may lead to inferiority and superiority complex

Striving for Superiority

-Man’s Ultimate goal
-Psychologically Healthy

Ways Developing superiority:

- Be aggressive – actively seek opportunities to improved
- Be powerful (positive) - apply skills
-Be superior – mastery of skills

Direction
• Negative – take advantage of others
• Positive – help other

C. Safeguarding Tendencies- patterns of behavior to protect exaggerated sense of self-esteem against

public disgrace. These protective devices enable people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their
current style of life. The following are the common safeguarding tendencies:
 Safeguarding tendencies are largely conscious, Means of protecting their fragile self-esteem. These
safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic status quo and protect a person from public disgrace.
 Safeguarding tendencies only with reference to the construction of neurotic symptoms.
1. Excuses- in this protective device, people first state what they claim they would like to do- something
that sounds good to others- then they follow with an excuse. Excuses are typically expresses in the ―Yes, but‖
or
―If only‖ format. Examples of excuses:

―Yes, I would like to go to college, but my children demand too much of my attention.‖
―Yes, I agree with your proposal, but company policy will not allow it.‖
―If only, my husband were more supportive, I would have advanced faster in my profession.‖
 Frequently take the form of "Yes, but" or "If only." By making excuses for their shortcomings,
people can preserve their inflated sense of personal worth.

2. Aggression- this protective device is used to safeguard the exaggerated superiority complex, that is, to
protect their fragile self-esteem. Safeguarding through aggression may take the form of depreciation,
accusation, or self-accusation.
 Behaving aggressively toward themselves or others.
 May take the form of depreciating others' accomplishments, accusing others of being responsible for
one's own failures, and accusing self as a means of inflicting suffering on others.
Depreciation- this is the tendency to undervalue other people’s achievements and to overvalue one’s own.
Accusation- this is the tendency to blame others for one’s failure and to seek revenge, thereby safeguarding
one’s own tenuous self-esteem.
Self-accusation- this safeguarding tendency is marked by self-torture, including masochism, depression,
and suicide, as means of hurting people who are close to them.

3. Withdrawal-the style of running away from difficulties. This is a safeguarding through distance. Adler
recognized the following four modes of safeguarding through withdrawal:
Moving backward- this is the tendency to safeguard one’s fictional goal or superiority by psychologically
reverting to a more secure period of life.
 Standing still- people who stand still simply do not move in any direction; thus, they avoid all
responsibility by ensuring themselves against any threat of failure.
Hesitating- this includes procrastinations which eventually give them the excuse ―It’s too late now.‖
Constructing obstacles- people using this safeguarding tendency creates problem and showing people that
they are capable of overcoming the problem or obstacle they created.
 Try to escape from life's problems by running away from them; maintaining distance.
 People can withdraw psychologically by moving backward, standing still, hesitating, or constructing
obstacles.

D. Masculine Protest
Both men and women sometimes overemphasize the desirability of being manly, a condition Adler called
the masculine protest. The frequently found inferior status of women is not based on physiology but on
historical developments and social learning.

V. APPLICATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

The applications of Adler’s individual psychology are divided into the following four areas:
A. Family Constellation- this includes birth order, the gender of siblings, and the age spread between them.
Although people’s perception of the situation into which they were born is more important than numerical rank,
Adler did form some general hypotheses about birth order.
Firstborn children (eldest) are most likely to have intensified feelings of power and superiority, high
anxiety, and overprotective tendencies. Firstborn children occupy a unique position, being an only child for a
time and then experiencing a traumatic dethronement when a younger sibling is born. This event dramatically
changes the situation and the child’s view of the world.
 First borns are likely to have strong feelings of power and superiority, to be overprotective, and to have
more than their share of anxiety.
 Excessive attention seeker; feels inferior after birth of 2nd child; greatest number of problem; third
parent, achiever

Second born children (middle) begin life in a better situation for developing cooperation and social
interest. Typically, the second born children mature towards moderated competitiveness, having a healthy desire
to overtake the older rival.
 Second borns (like Adler himself) are likely to have strong social interest, provided they do not get
trapped trying to overcome their older sibling.
 Easiest; Tries to dethrones first born; competition; Insecure

Youngest children are often the most pampered and, consequently, run a high risk of being problem
children. They are likely to have strong feelings of inferiority and to lack a sense of independence. They are
often highly motivated to exceed older siblings and to become the fastest runner, the best musician, the most
skilled athlete, or the most ambitious student.
 Youngest children are likely to be pampered and to lack independence, whereas only children may have
even less social interest and tend to expect others to take care of them.
 Least amount of power in family; most pampered and protected
 Only children are in a unique position of competing, not against brothers and sisters, but against father and
mother. Living in an adult world, they often develop an exaggerated sense of superiority an inflated self-
concept.
 Spoiled; Pampered; unsociable (having difficulty)

B. Early Recollections (ERs)- these are the recalled memories which can yield clues for understanding
patients’ style of life. Adler did not consider these memories to have a causal effect to personality.
 Adler believed that ERs are not chance memories but templates on which people project their current
style of life.
 ERs need not be accurate accounts of early events; they have psychological importance because they
reflect our current view of the world.
C. Dream Analysis- is a method wherein a person’s dreams are used to provide a way of dealing with the
person’s life problems. By analyzing how to confront problems and how to plan future events through dream
analysis, a great deal could be learned about the person’s style of life.
 provide clues to solving future problems.
 dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually require interpretation by another person.
D. Psychotherapy- the chief purpose of Adlerian psychotherapy is to enhance courage, lessen feelings of
inferiority, and encourage social interest. Through the use of humor and warmth, Adler tried to increase the
patient’s courage, self-esteem, and social interest. He believed that a warm, nurturing attitude by the
therapist encourages patients to expand their social interest.
Adler innovated a unique method of therapy with problem children by treating them in front of an
audience of parents, teachers, and health professionals. He believed that this procedure would enhance
children’s social interest by allowing them to feel that they belong to a community of concerned adults.
 create a relationship between therapist and patient that fosters social interest. The therapist adopts both
a maternal and a paternal role.
Criteria for Evaluating a Theory Concept of Humanity
Characteristics Theory Determinism High on Free Choice
vs. Freedom
Capacity to generate Research Above Optimism Vs. High on Optimisim
Average Pessimism
Falsifiability Low Causality Vs. Very Low in Causality
Teology
Ability to Organize Data High Conscious Vs. Moderate on Unconscious
Unconscious Influences
Ability to Guide Action High Biological Vs. High on Social Influences
Social
Influence
Internal Consistency Low Uniqueness High on Uniqueness
Vs. Similarities
Parsimony High
Prepared by:

BAUTISTA, JUNO C. MP-CP, RPm

Psychology Program Head

References:

Feist, Feist & Roberts (2017). Theories of Personality, ninth Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill

Feist, Feist & Roberts (2013). Theories of Personality, eight Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill

Bischof, L.J. (1970). Interpreting Personality Theories 2nd Edition. New York: Harper & Rows, Publishers.

Burger, J.M. (1986). Personality Theory and Research. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Feist, J & Feist, F. (2008). Theories of Personality, Seventh Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill

Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.J. (editors) (2008). General Psychology for Filipino Students. Manila, Philippines:
Ateneo De Manila University Press.