Anthropology SCERT KERALA CLASS-11@Pdf4exams
Anthropology SCERT KERALA CLASS-11@Pdf4exams
ANTHROPOLOGY
CLASS - XI
Government of Kerala
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
PLEDGE
India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and
sisters.
I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied
heritage. I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,
and treat everyone with courtesy.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion. In
their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.
Prepared by :
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, Kerala
Website : www.scertkerala.gov.in e-mail : [email protected]
Phone : 0471 - 2341883, Fax : 0471 - 2341869
Typesetting and Layout : SCERT
© Department of Education, Government of Kerala
To be printed in quality paper - 80gsm map litho (snow-white)
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Dear learners,
It is with immense pleasure and pride that the State Council
of Educational Research and Training (SCERT), Kerala brings
forth its first textbook in Anthropology for higher secondary
students. We have been trying to setup a well structured syllabus
and textbook for Anthropology since the introduction of the course
at the higher secondary level. Though we could frame a syllabus,
we could not develop a textbook for Anthropology all these years.
This textbook in Anthropology is a fulfilment of a long - cherished
dream of the teachers and learners of the subject at the higher
secondary level.
Dr P. A. Fathima
Director
SCERT, Kerala
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Academic Co-ordinator
Dr. P. L. Anilkumar
Research Officer, SCERT, Kerala
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Unit 1
CONTENTS
Introducing Anthropology 07
Unit 2
Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology 40
Unit 3
Basics of Biological Anthropology 76
Unit 4
Basics of Archaeological Anthropology 125
Unit 5
Basics of Linguistic Anthropology 169
Unit 6
Marriage, Family and Kinship 197
Unit 7
Political Organisation 236
Unit 8
Economic Organisation 263
Unit 9
Religious Organisation 292
Unit 10
Folkloristic Anthropology 317
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Activity
Trivia
I C T related activities
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UNIT
INTRODUCING
ANTHROPOLOGY 1
CONTENTS
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‘That doesn’t matter’, rejoined the other. ’I tell you, you must go to the van
compartment’.
‘No, you won’t’, said the official .’You must leave this compartment, or else I
shall have to call a police constable to push you out’.
The constable came. He took me by the hand and pushed me out. My luggage
was also taken out. I refused to go to the other compartment and the train steamed
away. I went and sat in the waiting room, keeping my hand-bag with me, and leaving
the other luggage where it was. The railway authorities had taken charge of it.
It was winter, and winter in the higher regions of South Africa is severely cold.
Maritzburg being at a high altitude, the cold was extremely bitter. My over-coat was
in my luggage, but I did not dare to ask for it lest I should be insulted again, so I sat
and shivered. There was no light in the room. A passenger came in at about midnight
and possibly wanted to talk to me. But I was in no mood to talk.
This was one of the bitter experiences that Mahatma Gandhi had in South Africa. In
this case, he explains the gravity of colour difference that led to discrimination. In the
Indian context, the practice of untouchability was the worst form of discrimination that was
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prevailing for centuries. In both these cases, the basis of discriminiation is the difference
between two catagories of people, one on the basis of colour and the other on the basis of
caste. In human life, there could be a number of differences in various spheres of life, some
deep rooted and others merely out of habitual formation. Not all differences may lead to
such behavioural responses and reactions. It is the differences that bring about diversity in
human society. We all encounter
a number of differences in our
day-to-day life. Most often,
people are not ready to accept
and appreaciate human diversity.
We experience diversity in every
sphere of human life. There are
significant variations in various
aspects of human life across
nations and cultures.
Have you experienced or
encountered any kind of
difference or variation at any time
in your life? Fig. 1. 2 Diversity in food, shelter and clothing
How did you react or respond to such variations?
Beals and Hoijer (1971) cite a few examples of such variations in their book ‘Introduction
to Anthropology’.
• Eskimos of the Arctic live almost exclusively upon meat and fish.
• Mexican Indians depend on cereals and vegetables.
• Milk and its products is a luxury among the Bayganda of East Africa but for the
people of West Africa it is least regarded.
• Fish is the main food of many Amerindian tribes but the Navajo and Apaches of
New Mexico and Arizona consider it unfit for human consumption.
• Meat of dog is considered to be very delicious for Mexican Indians.
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nature and culture from a holistic and The word anthropology was
integrated perspective. In this unit, we first coined by Aristotle, the
will examine the nature and feature of Greek Philosopher
anthropology by understanding its
meaning, definition, scope and
relevance along with its origin and
development.
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Is Anthropology a biological
Bio-Social Nature of science as it studies the biological
Anthropology aspects of human beings?
In the definition given by Herskovits, the term ‘man’ implies human as a ‘biological
organism’ and ‘works’ stands for ‘culture’. Anthropology studies organic or biological
factors as well as social/cultural factors of human beings. Both the factors are equally
important and relevant since anthropology studies the biological factors like human origin,
evolution and variation as well as social-cultural factors like society, culture etc. As it
accepts and uses the general principles of
Biology focuses on the genetics,
Biological and Social Science, it is considered
anatomical and physiological aspects
as a bio-social science. It is said that of organisms.
anthropology is the most humanistic among the
sciences and the most scientific among the Psychology focuses primarily on
humanities. mental (cognitive) behaviour of
humans.
Comparative, Integrative and Holistic
Nature: Anthropology is more than a bio- Economics examines the production,
social science. It has many other peculiarities. distribution and management of
material resources.
Examining the contents of shown in the box, it
becomes clear that different subjects deal with History presents a description of past
any one particular aspect of human being. But, events.
anthropology, on the other hand considers
human life in totality. Political Science deals with political
life of human beings.
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2. The following chart indicates the nature and feature of anthropology. Complete
the blank area.
Features Nature
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We have already examined the nature and meaning of Anthropology. From this, it
is evident that Anthropology is a holistic science. In order to understand its holistic nature,
it is important to know the major fields/branches of Anthropology. The branch of
Anthropology that examines human biological features, is called biological anthropology.
Social cultural Anthropology examines the social and cultural peculiarities of human life.
Another area of Anthropological interest is the study of prehistoric culture of human being
which come under archaeological Anthropology. Linguistic Anthropology focuses on the
study of language, symbols and the features of human communication. Thus the scope of
Anthropology includes all the four major branches as given below:
1. Biological Anthropology
Can you answer the following questions?
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monkeys and prosimians. Different stages of human evolution can be understood by analysing
the fossil evidence of the primates. Human paleontology helps us in this regard.
Human Paleontology or Paleoanthropology: Human Paleontology studies the fossil
evidences of human skeletons of different stages and thereby reconstructs the evolutionary
history of humans. This helps in the classification and comparison of the fossils of different
stages to determine the link between the modern humans and their ancestors.
Human Genetics: To understand how evolution works, it is important to know the
mechanisms of heredity. Human genetics is the branch of biological anthropology that
deals with inheritance and
variation.
Forensic Anthropology:
Morphological and genetic Blood cells
variations among humans help Cheek cells
biological anthropologists to
identify individuals, criminals,
victims of mishapes and natural Blood stains
calamities etc. The branch of bone
anthropology specialised in such Semen
Hair Bone marrow
area is called Forensic cells
Anthropology. The knowledge of
Forensic Anthropology is applied Fig. 1.4 Body parts used for forensic examination
to solve the issues related to criminal and legal matters. Forensic anthropologists are called
upon by police and other authorities to identify the remains of murder victims, missing
cases or people who die in disasters. From the analysis of DNA, hair with root, blood
stains, drops of semen, body fluids, skin cells, cells of bone- marrow, finger prints, skeletal
remains etc., forensic anthropologists are able to identify such persons. With some specialised
techniques they can also identify age, sex and other morphological features of the victims.
2. Social Cultural Anthropology
Social Cultural anthropology is the study
of human society and culture. It describes, “Human population
construct their cultures
analyses, interprets and explains the social and
in interaction with one
cultural similarities and differences. Social cultural
another and not in isolation”
anthropology concerns with the study of social
institutions such as family, marriage, kinship, (Wolf 1982, P, IX)
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religion, economic organisation, political organisation, law and the relations between such
institutions. Social cultural anthropology is the study of relations and patterns of life among
different types of people. The study is based on the facts, collected through direct
investigation from the field using anthropological techniques.
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3. Archaeological anthropology
Archaeological anthropology is a branch of anthropology which deals with past
cultures in relation to environment. It examines the origin and development of human culture.
This subject has been derived from the broad field of archaeology. The word Archaeology
is derived from two Greek words- “arkhaios” means ancient and “logos” means study.
So archaeology is the study of human activity in the past. In USA, it is considered as a
branch of anthropology while in Europe it has developed as an independent discipline-
Archaeology. Archaeological anthropology deals with pre-history. Pre-historic cultures
did not make use of writing. Pre-historic period constitute over 99% of the human history
and form the base for the study of archaeological anthropology.
Archaeologists examine the tools, pottery, other material remains left by humans as
well as the remains of humans, plants and animals. The skeletal remains and their materials
help archaeological anthroplogy to reconstruct human past. Historians mainly depend upon
the written records of the past for its reconstruction. But the period before the invention of
writing is considered pre-historic times. Archaeological anthropologists are interested in
documents and material remains of this period. Archaeological anthropologists undertake
site excavations to find out the cultural and biological remains. Different methods are adopted
to date the relative and absolute age of these remains.
Knowledge without any practical ends
has no justification. Every scientific discipline Prepare a chart/collage/
has applied wings. Society is the soul from poster showing the bio social
which anthropologists collect materials to naure of anthropology.
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flourish their discipline. They put back their knowledge in the same field for social use.
Anthropologists learn and teach at the same time. This learning-teaching is not limited to
the class room. It may take place anywhere people live and work. In fact, anthropology is
a part of life.
4. Linguistic Anthropology
19th century linguists were engaged in setting, anthropologist can understand how
describing and classifying languages into people perceive themselves and the world
families and sub families on the basis of around them.
their similarities and dissimilarities. The
subject was then referred as philology and Anthropological linguistics may
not the linguistics also make a significant contribution to our
understanding of human facts. Linguistic
anthropology seeks to discover the ways in which languages are similar or different from
one another. Linguistic
anthropologists study Structural linguistics Grammatical pattern of languages
the origin, nature, Social linguistics Social behaviour in culture
meaning and
development of Historical linguistics Origin, comparison and classification
languages in relation to culture and patterns of speech, patterns of acting, behaving and
communicating as found in different cultures. The areas of linguistic anthropology include
structural linguistics, social linguistics and historical linguistics.
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Anthropology, as we found earlier, embraces all the areas of human life. Moreover,
the anthropological understandings can be applied at various levels of human life. In
anthropology we study about human beings of all times, places and types. Hence
anthropologists are keen to examine the life of even the most isolated, simple tribal
communities, who are otherwise not considered properly. Let us examine the importance
of anthropology in detail.
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cultures, and the opportunity to ‘think outside the box’. In short anthropology is one of the
important disciplines that help to grow oneself according to the needs of the society. As
anthropology equips an individual for different social responsibilities, it provides a wide
range of career opportunities as well. Some of the openings for an anthropology student is
given below.
Career according to the Oxford dictionary refers to: 1) the course or progress through
life or history 2) The way of making a livelihood and advancing oneself and 3) personal
advancement and success in life. Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary also refers to
the advancement in profession or occupation as its meaning. Before one can become an
engineer, an administrator or a statesman, or even a poet, one must become holistic in
one’s perspective and approach. To such a person, nothing in the world is alien and no
path is blocked or closed. It is rightly observed that, anthropology is the best suited discipline
to meet this need. Anthropology, as we know, is a discipline of the whole. It also approaches
worldly ideas in cultural relativistic perspective. According to Margaret Mead the fundamental
values of anthropology are essential for wisdom. It is fundamental for survival. With a
foundation of anthropology, the career options of a student are wide and open.
Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI) has now grown as the world’s biggest
anthropological organisation with large number of professional anthropologists and scholars.
Many Anthropologists find career options among NGOs, who are working for the welfare
and development of all sections of Indian Society. Anthropologists also act as part of the
government in the implementation of welfare programmes.
Anthropologists are, posted at the Office of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes, Social Welfare Departments of the Government of India and State
governments, the Office of the Registrar General of India, the Gazetteer Division of the
state information departments, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts and the Ministry
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of Tribal Affairs. There are anthropologists associated with the country’s major museums
also. There are career opportunities for Anthropology students in the Indira Gandhi Rashtriya
Manav Sangrahalay (IGRMS) at
Bhopal. It had been separated
Anthropology is a distinctive from the Anthropological Survey
subject with vast career of India in 1978. IGRMS is now
opportunities under the Ministry of Culture and
is internationally known as the
‘National Museum of Mankind’,
having direct affiliation to Anthropology. It acts as a facilitator for forging interrelation
between Community and Museums. Anthropologists were deputed in The Indian Museum
at Kolkata and the National Museum in New Delhi. The Government Museum at Chennai,
the Prince of Wales Museum at Mumbai, Gujarat Vidyapith Museum in Ahmedabad all
employ anthropologists and The Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya Museum near Haridwar
also has a section on anthropology. The Central
Bueraou of Investigation also appoints forensic Anthropology is more than a career.
anthropologists to assist the offcials in crime It is a way of life. In everything I
detection.
do, I am an anthropologist -
Anthropologists are also engaged in the Sherlotte Neely, Profeesor of
better-financed, semi-autonomous, inter- Anthropology
disciplinary Institutes. Further anthropology has
been a part at the Indian Science Congress
Association, the Indian National Science Academy, the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) etc. Anthropologists were also employed by the Indian Institutes of
Technology (IIT) , the Indian Institute of Management (IIM) , at Kolkata as well as the
Administrative Staff College at Hyderabad, Udaipur and other similar institutes. Research
institutes like Kerala Institute for Research Training and Development Studies of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes (KIRTADS) , Kozhikode, Kerala Institute for Local
Administration (KILA) also appoint anthropologists in various positions. Anthropologists
also find placements in more than 20 research institutes under Indian Council for Social
Science Research (ICSSR), located in different parts of India.
In spite of lack of facilities and the slow growth rate, India is the second only to the
United States of America in the number of professionally trained anthropologists working
in different institutions. Anthropologists conduct academic and applied research as a means
to understand individual human lives within larger socio-political contexts and to ameliorate
human problems. Anthropologists, both academic and applied, are engaged in many
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contemporary issues that have global, national and community implications for policy-
making and advocacy for individuals and groups.
There are more than forty universities in India with full fledged Anthropological
Departments. Anthropology is also being taught at the undergraduate and Higher Seconadry
level in many states of India.
We should use
anthropological knowledge
Prepare a chart/note/pamphlet and perspective for the
showing the career opportunities benefit of the society
in anthropology.
Applied Anthropology
The term applied is not a recent origin. It was used by D G Brinton in his speech as
early as 1875. But it is used mainly since late 1920s and early 1930s. Applied anthropology
simply refers to the practical uses of anthropology findings. The systematic use of such a
study for an effective administration in India was realised as early as 1807. The court of
directors of British East India Company made a formal decision that such knowledge
would be of great use in the future administration of the country (Roy 1921). As per this
idea, Francis Buchanon was appointed to undertake ethnographic survey.
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The Linguistic Anthropologists serve many practical purposes related with ‘exotic’
languages. Linguistic Anthropologists improve the methods and materials for intensive
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Action Anthropology
Sol Tax, an American anthropologist was the first to use the concept ‘action
anthropology’. The action anthropologists in volve themselves ultimately with social
problems and perceive the study in a context of action. Anthropologists accept a problem
as their own and proceed through trial and error method.
3. Examine the important areas where the knowledge of anthropology can be applied.
The above listed areas clearly indicate that anthropologists are required to involve in
almost all areas of human life. It is also clearly evident that anthropology is related to most
other subjects dealing with human beings. The following area examines how anthropology
relates with other subjects.
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Anthropology is the science of human. But biology examines all living organisms
including human. Both the subjects analyse origin, evolution, heredity, variation and
anatomical and physiological features of human being. Charles Darwin is considered the
father of both the subjects.
But these subjects differ in many respects. While biology is considered a biological
science, anthropology is considered a bio-social science. Biology views human as a
biological entity but anthropology considers the biological and social peculiarities of human.
When biology gives importance to experiments anthropology gives importance to fieldwork.
We know that the subject matter of anthropology is human diversity. In this, biological
diversity is very much significant from the point of view of human evolution and development.
The focus of biological variation unites five special interests within biological anthropology.
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the fossil record of human evolution. They often collaborate with archaeologists, who
study artifacts, in reconstructing biological and cultural aspects of human evolution. Different
types of tools provide information about the habits, customs, and life styles of the ancestral
humans who used them.
The primates include our closest relatives - apes and monkeys. Primatologists study
their anatomy and physiology, evolution, behaviour and social life, often in their natural
environments. Primatology can assist paleoanthropology, as primate behaviour may shed
light on early human behaviour and human nature. For much of the 20th century, the concept
of popular medicine or folk medicine, has been familiar to both medical practitioners and
anthropologists. The term was also used to describe the health practices of aborigines in
different parts of the world with particular emphasis on their ethno - botanical knowledge.
The concept of folk medicine was taken up by professional anthropologists in the first half
of the 20th century to demarcate between magical practices, medicine and religion to
explore the role and the significance of popular healers and their self medicating practices.
Different social sciences study the different aspects of humanbeing and society in
different ways. Anthropology is the science of humans. Anthropology studies human life of
all time, place and types. Hence, historical, comparative and inter - disciplinary analysis is
indispensible for anthropological study. It is clear that the anthropologists gain significant
knowledge input from History, Sociology, Psychology, Political science, Economics and
many other social sciences.
History studies about the social life of the past. It resorts to written documents to
analyse the past culture and society. It examines how humans lived and how their life
differed in different societies. Anthropology also deals with the social life of humans.
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It examines how they lived, how their life changed over time and how they gave birth to
different social institutions, like family, political systems, etc. Thus, both anthropology and
History share a great deal in common.
However, in its traditional sense, there are several differences between Sociology
and Anthropology, in terms of the field of study, approaches, perspectives and orientations
between the two subjects. Anthropology studies culture directly with intensive field work
over a long period. But, sociology studies societies mostly through secondary sources.
Anthropological studies are largely qualitative, while sociological studies, on the other hand,
are quantitative. Anthropological studies are also holistic in nature as it studies both the
social and biological aspects, while sociology examines the social aspect of human beings.
Today, however, particularly in the Indian context, Sociology has absorbed many of the
elements of social cultural anthropology.
Social anthropology and psychology are concerned with human behaviour. Social
anthropology deals with society and culture in which individuals are a part. We have
Psychological anthropology as a branch of social anthropology. It examines the relationship
between human culture and behaviour. Psychology focuses on individual behaviour.
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Both subjects have many common features. Both social anthropology and political
science examine social life of human beings. Political science contributes to anthropology
the facts regarding the organisation and activities of the state, while Social anthropology
contributes to political science the knowledge of origin of the state from stateless society.
When anthropology studies the form of governments in state and stateless societies,
political science studies the institutionalised forms of governments in state system alone.
Moreover, when political science deals with the political life of society, anthropology
concerns with the total social life.
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2. Prepere charts showing the differences between anthropology and other social and
natural science.
3. Examine the uniqueness of anthropology that makes it different from other subjects.
The enquiry in to the human existence and the curiosity to know the secrets of
humnan life, which forms the anthropological thought, has been as old as the humanity
itself. However the systematic efforts to unravel the secrets of humanity can be seen since
the time of the Greek philosophers in the western world and in Vedic literature of ancient
India. In a sense we all ‘do’ anthropology because it is rooted in a universal human trait
‘curiosity’. We are curious about ourselves and about other people, the living as well as
the dead, here and around the globe. Later on people began to enquire about other cultures
with specific objectives like conversion, administration of isolated communities etc. Let us
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1. Formulatory period (before 1835) : This is the first and longest period in the
history of Anthropology. It extends from the time of the Greek historians, philosophers and
naturalists. Penniman considers Herodotus (484 - 425 BC) as the first anthropologist. He
is also considered as the father of Greek Ethnography. He travelled through out the world
and researched about races and customs entirely alien to him. Herodotus asked some
questions like the following:
Is the father natural head of the family or the mother?
How much time must be allowed for the development and diffusion of human varieties?
Thus Herodotus collected a large number of facts about peoples in different cultural
stages. He not only talked about the origin of culture, but also described the spoken language,
physical types, material culture, marriage and divorce, social laws customs etc.
Protagoras (480-410 BC), is another Greek philosopher who has contributed to the
knowledge about human beings and culture. In his opinion “man is the measure of all
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things”. He was the first to propose the theory of relativism. He also introduced the
evolutionary scheme, which explains how different social traits come into existence. Another
Greek scholar of this period is Socrates (470-399 BC). He was of the opinion that every
society is guided by certain universal values. He mainly put forwarded the philosophical
aspect of social thinking. Plato (428 – 348 BC), another Greek thinker proposed the
ideas about state, marriage, education, etc. According to him, humans outside social control,
are but animals and it is really the society that makes the individual, a social being. Like
Plato, Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) also proposed his view of the state and the humans. He
had clearly understood the difference between functional and structural similarities. This is
clear from the fact that he classified bats with the mammals and not with the birds and the
whales with the mammals and not with the fishes. Aristotle believed that the state determines
the behaviour of humans. Without law and justice, humans would be the worst of all animals
and he also proposed that human being is a social animal.
In the medieval period, various travellers and explorers wrote details about the
people they encountered. Among these, Marco-polo (1224-1313) and Vasco-Da-Gama
(1397-1499) contributed a lot towards the enrichment of knowledge on Anthropology.
During the 17th century, Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes formulated different theories
for the study of society. John Lock provided the metaphysical foundation upon which the
Anthropologist formulated their formal definition of culture. German philosopher Immanuel
Kant (1724-1804) wrote the book Anthropology in 1789 suggesting the animal origin of
man and concluded that human knowledge comes from pre-human condition.
There was a lot of curiosity to learn about the different races of human kind during
the 16th century. Demonstration of blood circulation by William Harvey in 1628, and the
discovery of microscope by Leeuwenhoek opened a new world of study. Vesalius had
made an attempt to compare human being with ape. He also tried to dissect the human
body. In 1735, Carl Linnaeus published his book ‘Systema Naturae’ where in he has
clearly mentioned about the inclusion of human in the Zoological classification.
During 16th and 17th centuries, Christian missionaries travelled all around the world
for the spread of Christian ideology and conversion of people into Christianity. They studied
the culture of native people to make their attempt of conversion easy. During the period of
colonisation British administrators conducted many studies on native people to make their
administration easy. Edgar Thurston, (Castes and Tribes of India) William Crook (Tribes
and Castes of the North Western Provinces) , Verrier Elwin, (Philosophy of NEFA)
and John Russel made significant contributions in Anthropology by conducting various
studies on the culture of different groups in India.
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2. Convergent Period (1835-1859) : During this period, divergent views about the
origin of biological and social aspects of human being were expressed by scholars of
different countries. Among these, the contribution of Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) , Charles
Lyell (1797 – 1895), and of William Smith (1769 – 1839) are important. Marx accepted
the dialectical process as the moving power of history. In the field of Archaeology, Boucher
Deperthe’s discoveries of flint implements at Abbeville in 1838 and 1846, Dr. Rigollet’s
discovery at Saint Acheul in 1854 are some of the new developments. Neanderthal’s
discovery at Dusseldorf in 1857 gave a new outlook about human evolution. James Prichard
classified and systematised the facts about races of humankind in his book The Natural
History of Man in 1833 and Physical History of Man in 1836. He proposed the
differences of colour, hair, stature and form and examined the criteria of racial classification.
The convergence of all these ideas was completed with the publication of Charles Darwin’s
book The Origin of Species (1859). In this book, he proposed his theory of organic
evolution popularly known as ‘Darwinism’. With the publication of this book, physical
evolution of human being based on scientific investigation was established. Thus, diversities
of arguments expressed about origin of human being and society came to an end with the
publication of Origin of Species.
3. Constructive Period (1859–1900): During this period Anthropology started as an
independent discipline in many universities. A Department of Anthropology was started in
Oxford University in 1884 and Cambridge University in 1900. Scientific researches and
publications by scholars like E B Tylor, James Frazer, Henry Maine, and L. H. Morgan,
came out during this period. Different branches of anthropology like ethnology, pre-history,
social anthropology and physical anthropology were also evolved.
Apart from England, Germany and USA, anthropological researches had flourished
in France and some other countries as well. Contributions of Emile Durkhiem in France
helped to popularise Anthropology in France. Some important journals like ‘American
Journal of Folklore’, ‘Bulletin of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland’
(now known as ‘Man’) etc. were also started during this period. Large number of
anthropological articles were published in these journals. Colonial administrators had also
published their reports and papers in this journal. The researches done by British officers
like Edgar Thurston, Russel, and others facilitated the growth of anthropological tradition
in India.
4. Critical Period (1900 onwards) : Penniman used the term ‘critical’ to denote this
period because of the crucial contribution made to the development of Anthropology during
this period. Some significant developments had also marked this period. The first chair of
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social anthropology was started in 1908 in the University of Liverpool in Britain. It was
chaired by Sir James Frazer. The first Anthropology department in India was started in the
University of Calcutta in 1920. In 1919, Social anthropology had been introduced as a
subject in the Department of Sociology at the University of Bombay.
During this period, different schools of thought in anthropology were founded.
Functional school of thought, structural school of thought, school of diffusion, and culture
and personality school are prominent among them. Authors of this period specialised in
theorising the concepts, definitions and different aspects of culture. For instance, B K
Malinoswki, based on his field expedition among the Trobriand Islanders proposed his
idea of Functionalism. Radcliffe Brown, based on his study of the Andaman Islanders
established his theory of Social Structure during this period. Similarly, the American scholars
such as A L Kroeber, Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, and Clark Wissler played their own
role in shaping the destiny of world anthropology.
As in the world, anthropology flourished in India at a very slow pace. As a subject
that shares infinite curiosity towards human being, anthropology flourished in India as
well.
Growth and Development of Indian Anthropology
The course of development of anthropological thought and study in India was slow
but steady. Basu Roy describes the following phases of development of Indian Anthropology,
while some other anthropologists differ in their opinion regarding the time span of these
periods.
1. Formative phase (1774 - 1919)
During this period the emphasis of anthropological
studies was on tribal life and the diversity of their customs in
India. Many Encyclopedia on tribes and castes were
published. In addition to the ethnographic reports, revenue
reports of Dalton, Buchanon, and Lord Baden Powell also
examined the social cultural situation of India during this period.
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Some other individual efforts were also initiated during this phase. H H Risley
published his report on the Tribes and Castes of Bengal in 1891. Later he became the
Head of Census operations in India. During this period, the project People of India was
also started. Risley developed a separate wing in the census operations for ethnographic
survey.
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For D N Majumdar (1950) , this phase began in 1938, and carried on to the present.
The earlier anthropologists like Surajit Sinha, called this, the recent phase. By this time,
Indian anthropologists started regularly interacting with foreign anthropologists. Many kinds
of collaborative works were taken up. Moreover, during this period, there was a shift from
the descriptive studies of preliterate societies to the analytical studies of complex societies.
Some anthropologists from abroad came to India to conduct research. Their works
created a momentum to the anthropological researches in India. The villages they studied
became famous. A large number of village study monographs were published in the 1960s
through the Census of India 1961. The first of these was a study of Ghaghra by
L P Vidyarthi. These studies helped to generate new concepts and ideas. The works of
L P Vidyarthi, B K Roy Burman, R M Makhan Jha, P K Misra, K S Singh, and
T N Madan are worth mentioning.
During recent times new areas of Anthropology and different sub-fields within these
areas have been emerging. Interest in Medical Anthropology, Religion, Development studies
and Psychological studies are more evident. Numerous papers have been published by
Anthropologists in India concerning (a) change leading to tribal identity, integration, vanishing
culture and planning, (b) emergence of industrial Anthropology, (c) increased emphasis on
tribal demography, and (d) integrated study of tribal regions. Important contribution has
been made to Action Research, Socio-Psychological Research, and Folk-lore researches,
Studies of Power Structure and Leadership and Anthropology of Religion.
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Let us sum up
l As the very term implies, anthropology is the study of human being. But it is different
in many respects from other subjects dealing with humans.
l While the social science subjects examine the social aspects and biological sciences
deal with biological features of human being, Anthropology analyses both the biological
and social peculiarities of human being. So Anthropology is considered a bio- social
science. More over, it examines humans in a holistic perspective. Human beings of all
places, all types and all the times come under the purview of anthropology. In its
endevour to examine human life and culture anthropologists resort to a field based
methodology.
l The subject is divided into different branches. Social cultural anthropology studies
the human society and culture. Biological anthropology examines the origin, evolution
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and variation among human beings. It includes various areas like primatology dealing
with primates, serology dealing with blood groups and forensic anthropology.
Archaeological anthropology, another branch examines the prehistoric cultures of
human being. Another branch, Linguistic anthropology examines the origin evolution
and variation of languages as part of human culture.
l The distinguishing feature of anthropology is its holistic nature. It is concerned with
humans in all places of the world and it traces human evolution and cultural development
for millions of years in the past to the present day.
l Anthropologists are engaged in various teaching and research institutions, different
Governmental and Non-Governmental Organisations, Museums and Social Welfare
Departments.
l Since anthropology is a bio-social science, it is related to many biological and social
sciences. Anthropology is very much related to biology. Both study the origin and
evolution of human beings. Anthropology is also related to many social sciences like,
Sociology, History, Economics and Political Sciences.
l The enquiry into the human existence and the curiosity about the secrets of human
life, lead to the development of anthropological thought. T K Penniman classified the
origin and development of anthropology into four periods namely Formulatory,
Convergent, Constructive and Critical period.
l Various stages of anthropological development in india, were classified as formative
phase, constructive phase, analytical phase and evaluative phase.
The learner demonstrate the ability to :
w Identify the meaning and definition of anthropology and specify its natrure and scope.
w Distinguish the major branches of anthorplogy and demarcate their scope.
w Appreciate the importance of anthropology and identify areas of its application.
w Relate anthropology with other disciplines and establish its inter-disciplinary nature
with illustrations.
w List out the instances of explorations as a result of human curiosity.
w Identify the major land marks during different periods in the development of world
anthropology as a discipline.
w Identify the major land marks during the different periods in the development of
Indian anthropology.
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Evaluation Items
1. Find the odd item and justify.
a. Serology, ethnography, osteology, palaeontology
b. Economic Anthropology, Forensic Anthropology, Political Anthropology, Familial
Anthropology
2. Draw a flowchart showing different branches of anthropology.
3 Find the pair.
a. Osteology: bones, Serology: ……………
b. Study of pre historic culture: Archaeology,
Study of the relationship between language and culture: ……………. .
4. In a debate conducted in your classroom some students argued that since
anthropology is included in the humanities combination it is a social science. Some
others argued that Anthropology deals with human origin and evolution it is purely a
biological science. What is your opinion? Substantiate.
5. The years given below are related to the development of anthropology in india.
Arrange the years with its corresponding significance in a historical time line.
(1921, 1945, 1784, 1920, 1912, 1919, 1938)
6. Examine the special features of anthropology that make it distinctive from other
disciplines.
7. Examine the meaning, scope and subject matter of anthropology.
8. Match coloumn A, B and C properly.
A B C
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play in the process of learning certain ways of life that are different from another. As human
beings, we all live in a society, each characterised by a distinct way of life, which we call
culture. Hence, there is no human society without culture nor is culture possible in the
absence of society. Yet, the concepts, society and culture are abstract in nature. After
studying this unit, we shall get a vivid picture of what constitutes a society and its culture.
The Branch of Anthropology that concerns with the study of social institutions and
the social and cultural aspects of human life is known as Social Cultural Anthropology. Till
early 19th century, the term Social Cultural Anthropology was not popular. Almost everyone
who was interested in the study of 'primitive' people and their culture was known as
Ethnologist. In Britain the major focus of anthropological studies was social relationship or
social structure. But in America the early anthropologists gave importance to the
understanding of culture or the way of life. In both the countries there are Universities with
Social Anthropology and Cultural Anthropology as subjects. In India, which had been
influenced by both the British and the American traditions, the term Social Cultural (or
Social and Cultural or Socio-Cultural) Anthropology is used increasingly. Hence, the main
focus of study of Social Cultural Anthropology is on both social structure and culture.
However, in different places without much of a difference this is almost interchangeably
referred to as Social Anthropology, Cultural Anthropology, Socio - Cultural Anthropology,
Social and Cultural Anthropology or Social Cultural Anthropology. Yet, all these studies on
how human beings live throughout the world are concerned with the similarities and
differences among the contemporary cultures and societies.
Familiarity with some of the definitions of Social Cultural Anthropology would help
you to make an understanding of its scope.
Definitions
w According to Piddington 'Social Anthropologists study the cultures of
contemporary primitive communities'.
w Charles Winick defines Social Anthropology as 'the study of social behaviour
especially from the point of view of the systematic and comparative study of
social forms and institutions'
w Encyclopedia Britannica defines Social Anthropology 'as a social science engaged
in the comparative study of human societies'.
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w Beals and Hoijer in their book 'Introduction to Anthropology' (1956) state that
'Cultural Anthropology studies the origin and history of Man's cultures, their
evolution and development and the structure and functioning of human
culture in every place and time'.
w M.J. Herskovits, in his book 'Man and His Works' (1955) points out that Cultural
Anthropology studies the way man has devised to cope with natural settings
and social milieu, and how bodies of customs are learnt, retained and handed
down from one generation to the next'.
Analyse the above definitions, by focusing on the italicised part, find out the
characteristics of Social Cultural Anthropology.
l It is a study of pre-literate as well as modern societies
l It is a study of structure and function of societies
l ………………………
l ………………………..
Why do we study Social Cultural Anthropology? The answer is quite evident.
The main aim of social cultural Anthropology is to understand and
appreciate the diversity in human behaviour, and ultimately to develop a science
of human behaviour. This is attained through the comparison of different people
throughout the world.
All Anthropologists agree that some social cultural features are universal. That means,
they are almost common to all cultures. These include family, marriage, kinship, economic
organisation, political organisation, religious organisation, social control etc. Social Cultural
Anthropologists mainly focus on these universal aspects of culture to study the social
relationship. They study how these social institutions have originated and developed. They
also study the changes that have occurred in these institutions from the past to the present.
As you learned earlier, there are several sub-fields in social cultural anthropology. All these
specialised areas are closely related to each other. For instance, in our society, marriage is
formalised with the help and in consultation with other members of the family and society.
It might involve decision making, religious sanction and ceremonies, economic liability, etc.
Hence, the knowledge of the institution of marriage would be incomplete without the
knowledge of its links with other institutions like family, religion, economic and political
organisation, etc. All these aspects are studied in an interrelated manner, in Social Cultural
Anthropology, with an in-depth approach through its specialised fields.
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As we have noticed earlier, while studying the social and cultural aspects of human
beings, emphasis is seen given either to society or to culture or both. This has become
more or less an approach or tradition in Britain and America.
If you had carefully read the definitions of Social Cultural Anthropology given in the
beginning, you would notice that some scholars have used the term Social Anthropology
and some others have used the term Cultural Anthropology. You must be curious to know
why they have used different titles for dealing with same or similar aspects. Likewise, you
might also come across books entitled 'Social Anthropology', 'Cultural Anthropology', as
well as 'Social and Cultural Anthropology' as given below:
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The main focus of Social Cultural anthropology is the study of culture and society. It
is essential to have a detailed understanding of these concepts. We have seen earlier that,
all of us do not have the same child rearing practices, same type of sheltering, and the same
food habits. All these have undergone changes over these years. But take the example of
animals. Have the child rearing practices, sheltering, and food habits of animals undergone
any change? No. Why is it so? What makes humans different from animal species? The
answer is clear. It is the way of life - culture - that makes humans different from animals.
Culture is changing. Hence, changes occur in human behaviour and way of life. This concept
of culture is the core subject of study in Social Cultural Anthropology.
A common way of life makes humans unique among other animals. However, all
human societies have no common way of life. It is culture which differentiates humans from
non-humans and among humans themselves. The term culture is used with different meaning.
As a scientific term, culture refers to all the features of a society's way of life like food
production, mode of dress, living habits, food preference, art, architecture and layout of
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field farms, system of education, beliefs, values, art and literature. Thus, the term culture
stands for the sum total of all human behaviour - verbal and non-verbal - and all human-
made products - material and non-material.
The definitions of culture will help you to understand the concept in a better way.
Definitions of Culture
w According to M. J Herskovites "culture is the man-made part of environment"
w According to Ruth Benedict "culture is not the content of social life, but it is
an order and organisation of social life".
w In the words of Bronislaw Kaspar Malinowski "culture comprises of inherited
artifacts, goods, technical process, ideas, habits and values".
w The first Anthropological definition of culture was given by Edward Burnet Tylor
(1871). To him culture ……."is that complex whole which includes knowledge,
beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of the society".
l Culture is complex
l Culture is created by humans
l Culture consists of material and non-material aspects
l Culture satisfies human need
l Culture is always that of a society and not of an individual
l Culture has the quality of adaptation
l Culture is universal: it exists in all human societies
l Culture is learned: it is obtained through the process of enculturation and not by
hereditary
l Culture is diffused to other places through culture-contact
l No culture is inferior or superior
l ………………………..
l ………………………..
l ………………………..
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From the above discussion we have seen that all human populations have culture.
There is no society in the world without culture. But some cultures are technologically
more advanced than others. Some cultures depend completely on nature for their livelihood,
while some others depend on the most modern technology for food production. Some are
literate and some others are not. The introduction of alphabet created remarkable changes
in all areas of human life. Some scholars, especially the early Anthropologists, considered
it as a stage of development of culture. They termed it as civilisation.
It is the way of life of the people of that period. Simply we can say that the way of
life of a particular society is culture. Some scholars distinguish culture from civilisation and
consider civilisation as the peak of development of culture. To them civilisation is
characterised by civil social organisation in cities. That means, it is based on non-kinship
groups like local kings or rulers. This is in contrast with kinship organisation of traditional
society, where family, lineage and clan exerted influence on the members of the society.
The evolutionists like E B Tylor, L H Morgan and others considered civilisation as a
developed stage of culture. According to them society had passed through three successive
stages of development namely, savagery, barbarism and civilisation. Civilisation is
characterised by the invention of alphabet and writing. All human societies have culture
and civilisation is one form of culture.
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We have seen that culture comprises visible items like dress, ornaments, house, etc.
and invisible items like knowledge, beliefs, morals, norms, customs, values etc. It shows
that some of the cultural elements are observable and others not. Invention of alphabet is
the characteristic feature of civilization. Can alphabet be included under visible items of
culture? Yes, it is visible when it is written. But it is meaningful only to those who recognize
it as a symbol. For others, it is only some meaningless figures, mere signs. Hence, it cannot
be treated as a visible item of culture. Knowledge of the visible and invisible elements of
culture will help you to understand culture in a comprehensive way.
Culture comprises both material and non-material aspects. Those aspects of culture
which are visible are called material culture. According to Malinowski material culture is
the physical aspects of culture. It includes house, household articles, vehicles, dress,
ornaments, road, weapons, means of transport etc.
The aspects of culture which are not visible are non-material culture. These include
knowledge, beliefs, values, religion, social organisation, philosophy, ideas, etc. They can
be understood only through close interactions with the people.
List out the material and non-material elements connected with your
school and prepare a chart/table.
A B
We have seen that the belief systems are important part of culture. There exist different
types of belief systems in different cultures. These belief systems have originated and
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developed within the worldview of a particular culture. These may not be applicable to
other cultures.
Wretched people
…. very delicious
People often try to judge other cultures with their own cultural standards. This has
resulted in creating lots of problems in a multicultural setting. Ethnic violence and cultural
conflicts are the results of these attitudes. Anthropology has always advocated against
judging other cultures with their own cultural standards. This has resulted in two famous
cultural concepts in Anthropology: ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
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attitude dominated the studies of other cultures, during colonial period. The British, who
considered their life, language and culture superior to others, thought that it was 'white
men's burden' to civilise the colonies.
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Each culture views its belief and values as good and upright. For example, the practice
of untouchability, infanticide, and similar other practices are not considered as evil by an
insider (native). But the perception of other cultures may be different. This shows that what
an insider considers as culture may be different from that of an outsider's perception.
Anthropologists understand this difference mainly because they study 'other cultures'. These
two views of culture can be understood by studying the concepts of emic and etic.
What the people think about their own culture is emic and what an outsider thinks
about a culture other than his own is etic. The term emic refers to what insiders do and
grasp about their own culture. It includes people's view of reality and their explanation of
why they do and the way they do.
Observe the emic and etic views from the following examples:
There is a local belief that the nails and hair The etic side of it may be that throwing nails
removed from the body are not to be and hairs carelessly is not hygienic, and it
thrown in the open space, because there is will in turn mix up with food materials.
a chance of the same being used for black
magic causing harm to the person
concerned.
In Hindu families, the elders do not allow Keeping half of the coconut open will lead
the coconut piece (half) open inside the to the coconut becoming dry and unfit for
home saying that it is done on the occasion use.
of death.
Do you know?
The words Emic and Etic had been coined by a linguist Kennath Pike. It has
been taken from the words phonemic and phonetic.
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outsider about same are equally important. Local statements, perceptions, categories and
opinions help the ethnographers to understand how culture works within. At the same
time, an etic view could look to other explanations in an objective way without being
coloured by the emic view. Furthermore, the emic view might represent the hidden rationality
of a particular belief which the insiders might not be conscious of. To be holistic in one's
study, the researcher should utilise both these views.
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values, knowledge, concepts, symbols, gestures, world views, customs, traditions, hand-
shake, greetings, touching of feet, blessing, kissing, sprinkling of water on idols, saluting
flag, walking barefoot etc.
Large number of cultural traits that combine to form a meaningful segment of culture
is called a culture complex. A cultural trait will be meaningless, if it is separated from the
culture complex. For example, a chalk, as a cultural trait, is important only if it is a part of
classroom education. When it is separated from classroom and put in an agricultural situation,
it will be meaningless. School, Family, religion, factory, agriculture, etc. are examples of
culture complexes. If kitchen is considered as a culture complex, then the items like stove,
utensil, mixer grinder, cooker, fridge, knife, glass, plate, the knowledge of making and
preserving food are all culture traits.
List out the cultural traits taking family, religion, marriage etc. as
cultural complexes, and present the same in the form of a chart.
You must have seen the children involved in family role-play, taking up different
roles such as that of father, mother or sibling. From
where did these children learn this game? It is a type of
Family is the basic
social unit for the process role imitation. They have seen their mother, father or
of enculturation other members in the family, in different roles. The
children imitate their elders. Similarly, we have imbibed
unconsciously many things from our family.
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Enculturation
Sometimes a person learns other cultures willingly or unwillingly. For example, the
tribal children, though they have their own language or dialect to transact, learn the language
of other cultures while in contact. Likewise, a person is compelled to learn another language
while interacting with people in a new situation. In both these cases, original culture might
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undergo change due to the influence of other culture. Anthropologists take interest in the
study of this process of culture change.
Acculturation
Acculturation refers to the changes that occur in one's culture due to continuous
contact with other culture. It occurs when one culture dominates over other culture(s). It
may happen intentionally or accidentally. For instance, Indian culture has undergone changes
due to continuous contact with western culture. Similarly tribal cultures in India and elsewhere
also witness widespread changes due to the contact with non - tribal cultures.
Due to the political and technological changes in the past decades, isolated indigenous
populations all over the world are losing their identities. There are various forms of
acculturation like deculturation and transculturation.
Deculturation is the process by which a culture loses its cultural identity due to
contact with other cultures. Many tribal cultures are losing their identity under domination
of external cultures.
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Did you ever come across the situation of culture shock in your life?
Write an account.
There is widespread technological advancement in all spheres of life especially, during
the last decade. You might have seen that even the older generation could not escape from
adapting to these latest technologies. Mobile phones, internet, transport, and other modern
amenities have made life more 'convenient' to a section of people. Even then, some people
are not ready to change their traditional beliefs and way of life. For instance, there are
people who are reluctant to change their beliefs regarding supernatural causes of disease.
Why is this so? Anthropologists are of the opinion that the non-material aspect of culture
changes very slowly as compared to the material aspects of culture.
Culture Lag
W.F. Ogburn in his book 'Social Change' introduced the concept 'culture lag'.
According to him, compared to non-material aspects of culture including beliefs, values,
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morals, etc. material culture changes more rapidly. In other words, the non-material part
always lags behind the material part. The gap between the rate of changes in the material
and the non-material culture is referred to as 'culture lag'.
Due to the rapid development of science and technology, our material culture had
undergone radical changes. We have constructed roads, railways, airports, dams, big houses,
etc. Now, we are more exposed to the latest electronic devices. During the last 200 years
in India, much of the material culture has been borrowed from the west and many cities in
India have been competing with western towns in the adoption of the latest aspects of
material culture. Culture is changing very rapidly in areas like fashion, dress, artifacts,
beautification, art and recreation. However, the pace of change has been very slow in the
sphere of religious beliefs and cultural values. We have always experienced a gap between
the changes in these two aspects of culture. This is called culture lag.
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We have examined different aspects of culture, which is one of the central themes of
Social Cultural Anthropology. Another important theme of Social Cultural Anthropology is
Society. The concept of society has different connotations in different contexts. You might
have already learned what a society is in your previous classes. You have already heard
about different types of societies like Girijan Co-operative Society, Milk society, Tribal
society, Kerala society, Urban society etc. Do humans alone have society? No, ants,
wolves and bees have societies. Then, what are the differences between human society
and the societies found among other organisms? We often use the term society in our daily
life without knowing the exact meaning of the concept. In this part of the unit, we will
examine the various aspects related to the concept of society.
A society is composed of
individuals. They interact with
each other on the basis of some
shared behaviour. It is a network
of relationship between
individuals. So the essence of
society is social relationship and
Fig. 2.4 Society of bees and ants
social behaviour. This social
behaviour shared by the members, known as culture. Thus, society is composed of people
who are interacting on the basis of shared beliefs, values and activities.
In a limited sense, the grouping of bees and ants can also be called as societies as it
is composed of members who are interacting on the basis of certain shared behaviour. But
society among animals is instinctual in nature, formed to meet the basic requirements of
physical needs, and reproduction.
In human society, members are recruited by means of reproduction within the group.
On rare occasions, members are recruited through enslavement, immigration, adoption or
conquest.
On the other hand, the members in occupational or service societies like labour co-
operative society, milk co-operative society, etc. are not recruited by means of reproduction.
They are made up of some individuals with limited goals.
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In short, the basic characteristics of human society can be summed up as the following:
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society while referring to the collective entity of all the people in India. In Malayalam
language, the term community is translated as 'samudayam', and the term society as
'samooham', and the term culture as 'samskaram'. All these three terms in Malayalam have
a common character implying collectivity.
Community
According to Maclver and Page, community refers to a group, small or large, whose
members live together in such a way that they share the basic condition of common life. It
is a small cultural system and its members derive their personal identity from their community
membership. Caste and tribe are some of the examples of community. Some communities
like the tribes, live in a common geographical boundary and share common economic
resources. All people possess the feeling of community sentiments in thinking, thought,
ideologies and common cause of activities.
Activity:
Prepare a chart, distinguishing the characteristics of society and com-
munity.
You have to behave in schools as per the norms and rules. Similarly, as a member of
a society you are guided by the norms and values. The society executes these norms and
values through family, marriage, religion and many other social institutions.
Institution Family is an institution
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Besides these social institutions, there exist different groups in each society, which
are known as associations.
Association
w Have you heard the name of any Association?
w Are you a member of any of the Associations such as Students' Association, Alumni
Association, Residents association ............ etc.
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Group
Like associations, individuals with common interest join together to form different
groups. Associations are different from Groups.
List out the names of the groups in which you are members.
Individuals having common interests may join together to form a group. S F Nadel
(1951) defines group 'as a collection of individuals who stand in a regular and relatively
permanent relationship'.
In some groups, all the members have face to face relation and interact with each
other. This type of group is known as primary group. For example, family, local club,
plays group, tribal settlement, or a village community.
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member of one group could be a member of many other groups like family, lineage, clan,
caste and religion.
Analyse the above chart and make inferences and present in the class.
Check your progress
Society Culture
......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
At home you have some duties to perform. What are they? But when at school your
duties may change according to the situation? What does it show? The duties or roles
change according to the situations and positions .
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Status also implies ranking. It refers to one's ranking in relationship to other positions.
For instance, the ranking of a leader is always at the top of the group. Social status is to be
recognised by prestige. For example in school or college, the status of Principal and students
are different.
There is no status without role, and there is no role without status. Each status
consists of a related role. A set of duties associated with a single status is called role.
Generally there are two types of statuses: one occupied by a person by birth and the
second occupied through one's own effort. The status which an individual occupies by
birth is called ascribed status and the status which an individual acquires through one's
own effort is known as achieved status.
1. Prepare a chart showing different status and roles of a teacher, who is head of a
school, family and an arts club.
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Social organisation is the way by which the activities of different parts of the society
are organised. The arrangement of the activities of the individuals and groups in the society
is social organisation. Thus, social structure is the arrangement of persons in different social
institutions while social organisation is the arrangement of the activities of these institutions.
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Find out the structure and organisation of the following and make a
presentation of the same in the class:
(a) A family (b) A factory (c) A political organization
VII. Ethnography and Ethnology
The concept of society and culture, and its various components like culture trait,
culture complex, status, roles, association, community, group, etc. have been discussed
above. You know that the central theme of social cultural anthropology is the study of
society and culture. To understand society and culture in its comprehensive sense,
anthropologists depended on simple societies. They studied the way of life of these societies
and compared them with other societies to understand cultural similarities and cultural
diversities. Most of the studies in anthropology earlier were categorised under ethnography
and ethnology.
Ethnography
Ethnography is a simple and holistic description of a particular culture, at a particular
period of time. An ethnographer collects data through direct interaction with the people.
The settlement pattern, dressing, food habits, economic activities, political organization,
family, marriage, kinship, beliefs, practices, rituals, customs, etc. are studied in detail in
ethnographic studies. Ethnographic studies had been a primary concern of Social
Anthropology from its very beginning.
For an ethnographic study, two types of data are required, quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative data consists of data pertaining to population, male-female ratio, size of houses,
number and size of different types of house hold equipment, quantity of crops produced,
income, quantity of material used and so on. Qualitative data include data pertaining to
beliefs, sentiments, knowledge, social network of family, marriage, kinship, religious beliefs,
practices and life cycle rituals, etc. Data collection in ethnography is primarily based on
field work. Ethnographic field work involves living in close contact with the people under
study. As all aspects of culture are related, the ethnographer must study the whole of social
life, in relationship to each other. In ethnographic research, the researcher usually selects
small-scale societies.
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Why Social Cultural Anthropologists have shown special interest in the study of
pre-literate societies?
Most of the early Anthropologists were engaged in the study of 'primitive' or pre-
literate societies. It was mainly to understand the way of development of modern societies through
the study of living people with simple technologies. Pre-literate societies are different from non-
literate societies. Non-literates are the contemporaries of historical people with access to writing.
On the other hand, the pre-literates are those who lived prior to or away from the historical people
or the mainstream population. Pre-literate or the so-called primitive people were relatively simple
in their technologies and material possessions as compared to the historical societies. They were
small in number, homogeneous, lived in relatively isolated places and had little contact with the
outside world. However at present anthropologists study all types of societies irrespective of
pre-literate or literate, simple or complex, rural or urban societies.
the 3rd century BC. Herodotus travelled to different places
and met more than 50 different groups of people and Do you know?
described their culture. He was considered as the father of Herodotus is the father of
Greek Ethnographic studies. Greek ethnography
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w Conclusions
w References of text
w Appendix
(Essentials of Cultural Anthropology: A.R.N. Srivastava pp 57-58)
Ethnology
w Ethnology is narrative
w Ethnology is historical
w Ethnology is comparative
w It can be based on ethnographies.
w It need not be based on primary data.
w It studies cultures at different times and in different places.
Now you are familiarised with the contents of Ethnology and Ethnog-
raphy. Prepare a chart showing the difference between the two.
Let us sum up
w The Branch of Anthropology that concerns with the study of social institutions and
the social and cultural aspects of human life is known as Social Cultural Anthropology.
Some scholars have used the term Social Anthropology and some others have used
the term Cultural Anthropology. The term Social Anthropology is popular in Great
Britain and other Commonwealth countries. Cultural anthropology is popular in
America. In India, the term social cultural anthropology is in vogue.
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w The first Anthropological definition of culture was given by Edward Burnet Tylor
(1871). To him culture ……."is that complex whole which includes knowledge,
beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of the society".
w Some scholars distinguish culture from civilisation and consider civilisation as the
peak of development of culture. Culture comprises both material and non-material
aspects.
w Two famous cultural concepts in Anthropology: ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
Ethnocentrism is an attitude of judging other cultures based on the norms and values
present in one's own culture. Opposite to ethnocentrism is the attitude of cultural
relativism.
w The two views of culture can be understood by studying the concepts of Emic and
Etic. What the people think about their own culture is emic and what an outsider
thinks about a culture other than his own is etic.
w The smallest and indivisible unit of a culture is called 'culture trait'. Large number of
culture traits that combine together to form a meaningful segment of culture is called
a culture complex.
w Enculturation refers to the process by which an individual learns the way of life and
behaviour of his own culture.
w Acculturation refers to the changes that occur in one's culture due to continuous
contact with other culture.
w Culture shock is the psychological or social maladjustment, experienced when people
encounter a strange cultural situation for the first time. Ethnocentric people are more
exposed to culture shock. A gap between the changes in the material and non-
material aspects of culture is called culture lag.
w A society is not a culture but it has culture. Culture, on the other hand, is a product
of society.
w Community refers to a group, small or large, whose members live together in such a
way that they share the basic condition of common life.
w Institutions involve socially approved pattern of behaviour of members. It is guided
by the norms and values existing in the society. Family, marriage and religion are
institutions.
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Evaluation Items
1. While arranging some books in the Library, the Librarian asked you 'Why do the
books having same content, have different titles like 'Social Anthropology', 'Cultural
Anthropology, 'and Social Cultural Anthropology' etc. How will you explain to her
about these differences? Explain this based on different traditions of Anthropology.
2. Do you think culture is universal? Identify the universal elements found in all cultures
of the world.
3. Identify the cultural traits from your locality and arrange them into various cultural
complexes, and explain the relationship between both.
4. 'Working of the society is the workings of social institutions' explain this based on
the analysis of different social institutions like, family, marriage etc.
5. 'Family is a social institution and a primary group' justify this statement based on
your knowledge of institution and group.
6. Prepare a time line showing major turning points in the development of field work
for ethnographic studies in anthropology.
7. Prepare auto ethnography.
8. Classify the following terms under two suitable headings:
(Descriptive, racial distribution, comparative study, field work, a cultue, secondary
data, monograph, two or more cultures.)
9. Prepare 10 objective questions and their answers for conducting a quiz competition
in your class on the topic 'Concepts of Society and Culture'.
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Appendix
The toda is a pastoral tribe who live in the Nilgiri hills of South India. The
Todas live there with four other tribes namely Badaga, Kota, Kurumba and Irula. They are
tall, fair, with long and narrow nose, long head with black wavy hair. The word Toda has
been derived from the name 'Tundra' - the sacred tree of the Todas. Numerical strength of
Toda population is very low and government have taken some important measures to
protect them.
Material culture: The Todas present a classic example of pastoral economy. They
know neither hunting nor agriculture, and rear only buffaloes. They make various products
like ghee, cheese, butter, curd from milk of buffaloes. These products are partially consumed
by themselves and the rest is sold or exchanged with the neighbouring tribal communities.
Division of labour: Each family is engaged in caring large number of buffaloes. The
males of the house take the animals to the field regurlarly. In the morning the Females are
not allowed to enter into the dairy house because of the taboo - Milk is indispensible in the
socio-religious life of the tribe. Milking is done twice a day - early in the morning and in the
evening. The buffaloes are of two types, some are regarded as the ordinary type and other
are sacred. The ordinary buffaloes are maintained by an individual family a for ordinary
use, whereas sacred buffaloes are kept in the special shed. Milk from the sacred buffaloes
is offered to gods.
Food: The Todas are purely vegetarians. Their favourite dish is rice, boiled in milk. They
also prefer curd, churned milk and plain milk. They take vegetables and green leaves as
their principal meals. Meat of the sacrificed buffaloes is considered as sacred, so they take
this during annual festivals. Both males and females of the Toda community are addicted to
liquor. The habit of smoking also prevails among both the sexes.
Reciprocity: The markets of the Todas are actually the homes of the neighbouring people.
Neighbouring communities like Badaga supply them agricultural products in exchange of
milk, the Kotas supply the various utensils made of clay and iron and the Irula and Kurumba,
the hunting gathering group bring different forest products like honey fruit, tubers, vegetables
etc.
Settlement: The Toda village consists of ten to twelve huts called 'Mandu'. The huts are
of two types. The first type is half-barrel in shape. A hut is divided into two portions, inside
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room and outside room. Inside room is used as a workshop where the females have no
entry. The outside room is meant for living and other house hold work. The second type of
hut is not barrel in shape. It is circular in shape and made of stone. This type of hut is used
to keep the sacred buffaloes.
Dress: Todas are simple people. The males use a long strip of white loin cloth which has
to be thrown over the shoulders, after covering the waist. This is their traditional dress.
Sometimes they use clourful cloth for covering the upper part of their body. Women use
long thick cloth covering almost the entire body. They keep long hair in plait. They use
ornaments like ear- rings, nose-rings, nose pin etc. The Toda women are expert needle
workers.
Social Organisation: Todas are endogamous, marriage alliances occur exclusively within
the tribe. The tribe is divided into two subdivisions called moiety - Tartharol and Teivaliol.
Each of these two moieties are again endogamous. The members of Thartharol consider
themselves superior to the Teivaliol.
Family: Todas exhibit polyandrous type of family. A woman with her multiple husbands
and children usually form this type of family. The husbands may or may not be brothers.
Children are known after their 'mother'.
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UNIT
BASICS OF BIOLOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
3
CONTENTS
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Do you think such disputes can be solved in this way in the modern times?
In one case, a 13 month old child was in the news. A young woman launched a legal
battle against a man, who took away the baby within two days of its birth. This man
and his legally wedded wife claimed the baby to be theirs. However the hospital
records showed that the woman who registered the case was the real mother. To
resolve the dispute the supreme court took resort to DNA profiling technology and
ordered the test to be conducted for the couple, petitioner and the child.
You have already studied about DNA and RNA in your previous classes. Along
with DNA there are many other factors that distingiuish an individual from another. So we
know that the biological variation of human is affected by hereditary factors and environment.
It would be interesting to understand such biological variations of human along with knowing
in detail his/ her biological origin and evolution. This unit on biological anthropology would
help to understand all these areas of human life by examining various theories of evolution,
concepts related to heredity and, variations.
We have learned earlier that as human beings we are curious about so many things.
As you know, anthropology addresses those questions of curiosity that concern all about
human beings. The following are such questions related to our biological nature.
w How did the humans originate? Where did they originate?
w Are we related to other animal organisms including the apes and monkeys?
w Why did the offspring look like or look different from their parents?
w Why do the humans look so different from each other?
w What is the basis for human variation and diversity?
w Is there anything common among all human beings?
We can go on and on with a number of questions as shown above. These are some
of the questions that the biological anthropology is concerned with, in its attempt to explore
the human species in its totality.
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ecological zones. Biological anthropology looks for scientific evidences in its analysis and
inferences. In the process, it uses some of the general principles of biology and utilises the
findings of anatomy, physiology, embryology, zoology, paleontology etc.
For a systematic study of this kind, there are many fields of specialisation within
biological anthropology as the following:
l Paleoanthropology
l Primatology
l Human Genetics
l Forensic Anthropology
l Serology
l Dermatoglyphics
l Anthropometry and Craniometry
l Paleopathology
l Bio-archaeology
l Neuro- Anthropology
l Biomedical Anthropology
Let us take a brief look into these specialised areas of biological anthropology before
proceeding further.
Palaeoanthropology earlier known as human palaeontology is the study of human
origin and evolution, particularly as inscribed in the fossil record. Palaeo anthropologists
are interested in reconstructing the evolutionary stages of humans, based on fossil evidences.
They work with archaeologists, and geologists, in unearthing fossil remains from many
parts of the world. The knowledge of osteology helps them to examine, measure, and
reconstruct these remains to understand the course of human evolution, and identify the
possible lines of descent from our ancestors to the present form, Homo sapiens.
Primatology is the study of primates, the group to which prosimiians, apes, monkeys
and humans belong. It focuses on how the behaviour of non-human primates is similar to
that of the humans. The anatomy of non-human primates especially monkeys and apes has
been studied to ascertain the similarities and differences between these primates and humans.
This type of study helps to trace the evolutionary relationship between human and
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of human evolution, human genetics and human variation. The present unit focuses on
each of these aspects for a detailed examination.
The most important question that has always been exciting human mind is about
human origin and destination. Where did we come from and where are we heading to?
Modern palaeantological evidences and scientific developments tried to find out an answer
to these questions by reconstructing the human past. We were able to trace back to our
origin with evidences based on the theories of evolution. To understand the human origin
and evolution, we have to first look in to the emergence of life on the earth.
You must have studied in your previous classes, some of the basics of the begining
of the universe and about the formation of life on the earth. The earth is one of the planets
that revolves around the sun. It is believed that the earth was formed about 4500 million
years ago. According to one theory, it is thrown into the sun's gravitational field by the
explosion of a star called Supernova. There was no life on earth until half of its life span.
About 3000 million years ago life appeared on earth in the form of protoplasm (protozoa)
at the meeting place of water and land. It is believed that life is originated from inorganic
matters due to many physical-chemical conditions prevalent at the time of earth's evolution.
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Along with knowing the time of origin of life, it is equally important to know how life
forms originated as well. Different theories were proposed about the origin of life. Let us
examine those earlier theories of evolution.
Theory of Divine Creation: A Spanish monk Father Sudrez proposed this theory.
According to Genesis of the Old Testament of the Bible, the world was created by
supernatural power. The theory specifies that all creations including plants, animals and
human on earth were created during those 6 days. Since all the species were created
individually by God, the theory does not accept the idea of origin of new species from
ancestral forms.
Theory of Eternity: This is an orthodox theory. It believes that some organisms were
already parent, from the very beginning of the universe. Those organisms still exist and will
continue to live in future, in addition to some new forms. According to this theory the
original forms are eternal and they have been preserved automatically.
Theory of Virus: Some scientists believed that virus was initially responsible for the
emergence of the life. The viruses hold a transitional stage between living and non-living
forms. By nature, virus is non-living, but when it reaches into the body cell of the living
host, it behaves as living. Therefore, it is believed that such a creature might possess a role
in the emergence of life.
Theory of Cosmic Origin: Richter developed this theory and was supported by Thomson,
Helmholtz, Von Tieghem and others. This theory advocated that the first life seed had been
transported through the cosmic particles from other planets. According to these scholars,
the meteorites that travelled through the earth's atmosphere, contained embryos and spores
in them, which gradually grew and evolved into different types of organisms.
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catastrophe, relatively higher forms of animals appeared to replace the situation. According
to him, a series of catastrophes were responsible behind changes, where previous sets of
living creatures got replaced by new creatures of complex structures. As per his scheme,
corals, molluscs and crustaceans appeared in the first phase. Then came the first plants,
followed by the fish and reptiles. The birds and mammals appeared thereafter and in the
last phase, human beings emerged.
w What do you think about the shortcomings of these theories?
w Are the propositions in any of these theories based on solid evidence?
w Do they have any scientific basis?
The earlier theories mentioned above were not accepted by scholars, as they lacked
scientific basis. But later theories tried to explain the phenomena of organic evolution
based on various evidences. Let us examine them in the following section.
Theories of Organic Evolution
The term evolution was first applied by the English philosopher Herbert Spencer, to
mean the historic development in life. In this context, human biological evolution started
with the origin of life. The first successful formation of protoplasm initiated the life, and the
continuous development proceeded towards complexity to give rise to different life forms
of evolved types.
In the theory of evolution it is a universally accepted fact that there is a change in the
form of organisms from the past to the present and also from the present to the future. This
transformation of animals and plants into new and different species resulted in the
diversification of life forms. We cannot perceive this process of diversification in our life
time. It moves from simplicity to complexity and from homogenity to heterogenity. Evolution
is a process that results inheritable changes in a population spread over many
generations.
First living existence was very minute and unicellular. As the time passed on, most of
the unicellular forms were transformed into multi-cellular forms. Along with this, the
geo-environment of the earth also underwent a process of continuous change. As a result,
simple forms of organisms were transformed into very complex types of organisms. This
process of change has been designated as organic evolution.
Scholars agree that evolution was the important factor of origin of new life forms.
But they proposed it in different ways. To get a comprehensive view of organic evolution,
let us examine each of them in detail.
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Lamarckism
Jean Baptist de Lamarck (1744-1829) was a French
biologist. Who for the first time, recognised that all life on
earth is the product of evolutionary change. Lamarck spent
the early part of his life as a botanist. Then at the age of 50,
he turned his attention to zoology, particularly to the study
of invertebrates. His extensive studies on invertebrates
formed a base in zoological classification. He was the first
scholar to recognise the distinction between invertebrates
and vertebrates. As a result of his systematic studies, he
became convinced that species were not constant but rather
were derived from pre-existing ones. By consolidating all Fig. 3.2 Jean Baptist Lamarck
these ideas, he proposed his theory of evolution in his book
Philosophie Zoologique 1809 which is known as
Lamarckism.
Lamarck believed that organic changes seen in animals resulted from the influence
of environment. According to him, when the environment changes, animals need to change
their body structure as well. In certain environmental conditions, organisms have to use
certain body parts more. It may cause for changes in body structure. He postulated that
such changed characters are variations in organisms. These characteristics would be
transmitted to the offspring. Lamarck proposed these ideas as two different laws as the
following.
i) The law of use and disuse: According to Lamarck, a living body is influenced by
the environmental factors and ultimately this phenomenon initiates an adaptation of
organisms to its surroundings. As per necessity, some parts of the body may be used
more and more. Therefore, those parts tend to show more development or changes
in course of time, while, the other parts of the body, which may not be required
much, will become weak or degenerate due to constant disuse. Thus Lamarck argued
that, if an organ is put to continuous activity it will develop to the maximum extent
and disuse of the same may lead to degeneration.
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acquired during its life time in adaptation to the environment are automatically
transmitted to the next generation and so become a part of heredity.
To support his theory, Lamarck presented several examples. The most remarkable
one is associated with the long neck and tall front legs of giraffes. According to Lamarck,
the ancestors of giraffe were normal animals with reasonably long neck and forelimbs.
They depended on grass and bushy vegetation for their survival. But a sudden scarcity of
leafy vegetation due to some environmental factors, forced
the giraffe to depend on leaves of tall trees and for that
they had to stretch their neck and forelimbs. The
continuous stretching of these organs resulted in the long
neck and long forelimbs of present day giraffe.
In another example, he mentioned that the ducks
are unable to fly because their wings became weak, when
they stopped flying. Again, the birds that started to live in
an aquatic environment, gradually acquired webbed feet
through the conquest of survival. Lamarck also cited other Fig. 3.3. According to Lamarck
continuous stretching of neck and
examples like limblessness in snake and certain cave- forelimbs resulted in evolution of
dwelling forms. All these changes were held to be organs among giraffes
cumulative from generation to generation and also
hereditary.
Do you think that all the acquired characteristics in one generation will be transmitted
to the next generation?
Criticism of Lamarckism
Lamarck's theory had been criticised from many angles. Most of the scholars did
not accept this theory. The German scientist August Weismann criticised the essence of
Lamarck's theory of inheritance acquired characters by his experiments, which involved
cutting off the tails of mice for over twenty one generations. All tailless mice in all generations
produced their offspring with tails. Therefore, he reached to the conclusion that the
environmental factors might have an influence on the body cells, but it is not enough to
profess a change of reproductive cells.
Characters of an organism would not be inherited unless the change could occur in
the reproductive cells. According to Weismann the body of an animal is composed of two
parts viz. germ plasm (germ cells) and somatoplasm (body cells). Only those characters
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which are located in the germ plasm will be inherited. As a result of these experiments,
Lamarckian law of inheritance of acquired characters lost its evolutionary ground. But the
effort towards finding facts related to organic evolution continued. Charles Darwin's interest
in this field gave birth to new findings. Later on it became the basis of evolutionary principle.
Any study of organic evolution will be incomplete without the examination of Darwin's
theory, commonly known as Darwinism.
Darwinism
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species, which clearly indicates a struggle for existence. In other cases, a single
species may be used as food by different species. A tiger and lion may fight to get a
deer.
c. Environmental struggle: Organisms of different species struggle against the
environmental hazards like earthquake, flood, drought etc. Only those species with
better adjustment with the environment will survive.
Darwin believed that the struggle is a continuous process and it is the way to survival.
Struggle is predominant among the members of the same species as they depend on identical
requirements of life.
Variations: Variation is the tendency of an organism to deviate from the parental generation.
Darwin observed that variety is a universal phenomenon seen among members of the same
species in terms of structure, function, physiology, behaviour etc. These variations play a
very important role for adaptations in the environment. Some variations are considered as
favourable and others are unfavourable. Organisms with unfavourable variations easily get
defeated in the struggle for survival. In course of time, they become eliminated from the
world. On the other hand, variations that are useful to adapt to the pressures of the
environment survive long. The new trait of advantageous characteristics is passed on to the
future generations.
Survival of the Fittest: The struggle for existence, leads to the survival of the fittest.
When there are too many of an organism in an area, they compete for resources such as
food and perhaps shelter, for example trees and caves. Darwin found that those organisms
more suited to their environment or better adapted are more likely to survive. Those that
are unfit will get eliminated. The surviving species will reproduce more number of offspring
than those who are less adaptive.
Natural Selection: The surviving individuals will give rise to the next generation. The
successful variations are transmitted to the succeeding generations. The accumulation of
advantageous traits in future generation gradually brings changes in species. Successive
generations in this way tend to become better adapted to their environment. As the
environment changes, further adaptations occur. The operations of natural selections occur
for many generations. As a result, further changes occur in the organism. Eventually, a new
species may evolve. Furthermore, certain members of a population with one group of
variations may become adapted to the environment in one way, while others, with a different
set of variations become adapted in a different way or become adapted to different
environments. In this way two or more species may arise from a single ancestral stock.
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The organisms always struggle to maintain their existence, as nature decides the survival of
the fittest. Adaptive traits preserved through natural selection gradually bring changes in
the characteristics of the species and thus evolution occurs.
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Neo-Darwinism
Darwin could not explain systematically how variations exist. Hugo-de-Vries (1840-
1935), a Dutch botanist, proposed the mutation theory of evolution in 1901. According to
this theory, new species evolve from earlier species not by natural selection but by sudden
heritable changes in the genotype of an organism (characteristics of individuals), which he
called 'mutation'. According to him, mutation is the chief cause of variation which leads to
the formation of new species. Mutation theory distinguished heritable variations from
environmental variations, which Darwin failed
to understand in his theory of natural selection.
Combination of Mutation theory and Darwin's Genetic Drift
theory of Natural Selection together is said to
The random changes in the
be New-Darwinism. gene frequency occurring
by chance alone are called genetic drift.
Synthetic Theory of Evolution The effect of genetic drift is very small
in a large population but it is large in a
Darwinism, in its original form, failed small population.
to explain satisfactorily, the mechanism of
Gene Recombination
evolution and the origin of new species. The
inherent drawback in the Darwinian ideas was The reshuffling of gene combinations
which provides new combination of
the lack of clarity as to the sources of variation existing genes during crossing over is
and the nature of heredity. In the middle of called gene recombination. Since,
twentieth century, scientists had come to a recombination adds new gene
consensus to employ all sorts of knowledge, combinations in the gene pool, it is
considered as an agent of evolution.
genetic, ecological, geographical,
morphological, paleontological, etc. in order
to examine the actual mechanism of evolution.
Such consensus on evolution includes factors such as natural selection, gene recombination,
reproductive isolation, mutation, migration, hybridization and genetic drift. With these factors,
evolution at different contexts was explained in an effective way.
The synthetic theory of evolution does not discard all previous propositions, rather,
it considers them as partially important. Therefore, we find the amalgamation of various
concepts namely natural selection, mutation, Mendelian principles, genetic drift,
gene recombination and population genetics in this theory of evolution. But it is interesting
to note that modern genetics does not acknowledge the mutation theory in its original form,
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Activity:
1. Let us collect more information about creationism and evolutionism from
various sources like, books internet etc and conduct a debate on the topic
'Creationism vs Evolutionism'.
2. Conduct a seminar on 'Theories of Organic Evolution and the Future of Humans'.
Check your progress
3. Identify the most scientific theory among the different theories of organic evolution.
Substantiate your answer.
We have discussed the various processes related to evolution. The main concern of
anthropology is human being. So it is important to examine how each process of evolution
worked in the evolution and formation of human beings.
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reproduction, i.e. through cell division (e.g. amoeba). The sub-kingdom metazoa, to
which the humans belong, have multiple cells, and the feature of sexual reproduction.
w Metazoa consists of two Phylums, chordata and non-chordata. Chordate, to which
Humans belong, possesses a dorsal nervous system starting from the brain. It moves
along with spinal column. The internal bony segments of the spinal column put humans
in the sub-phylum vertebrates.
w Chordate is classified into different classes, of which, the humans come under the
mammals. The mammals are placed in the topmost position among the vertebrates.
They are warm blooded and are able to maintain a constant body temperature.
They have two sets of teeth, deciduous and permanent which are embedded in the
sockets. The teeth are of different types (heterodont), such as incisors, canines,
premolars, and molars. Mammals have breasts and the mothers nourish their babies
with their own milk. The females of the mammals not only feed the young ones after
birth but also establish a social relationship with their offspring. This trait of establishing
social relationship is a milestone in human evolution.
w The class Mammals or Mammalia is again divided into three sub-classes namely
Prototheria, Metatheria and Eutheria, the last of which includes the placental animals
including humans. Among them, the unborn young are developed in the maternal
womb. The mother possesses placenta to nourish foetus during its development
before birth, directly from the blood stream of the mother through placental plate.
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w The sub-class Eutheria is again divided into different orders, of which, the Primates
are placed at the top, as the term means 'the First'. The human is placed in the order
Primates. The following are some of the characteristics of the order Pimates:
l The brain is large in proportion to body size.
l prehensile hand - (ability to grasp)
l Developed fingers, nails and toes
l Flexible fore arm
l Opposable thumb
l Reduced canines
l Centrally placed foreman magnum
l Remarkable reduction in prognathism
l Erect posture
l Loss of opposability of great toe
l Eyes are located forward on the skull.
l They have the tendency to give birth only one offspring at a time.
l They have a prolonged growth of maturity.
w The order Primate is divided into two sub-orders namely, Prosimii and Anthropoidea.
Tupiforms (Tree Shrews), Tarsiforms (Tarsiers - Malaysia), Lumeriforms (Lemur -
Madagascar) and Lorissiforms (Lorise of Africa and Asia) are included in the sub-
order prosimii. Humans, along with apes and monkeys are included in the suborder
Anthropoidea. It is characterised by frontally located eyes, stereoscopic vision and
the bony eye socket.
w The sub-order Anthropoidea
contains three super families -
Ceboidea (Old World monkey).
Cercopithecoidea (New World
monkey) and Hominoidea. The
humans along with apes belong
to the super family Hominoidea.
They are characterised by the
absence of tail and cheek Fig. 3. 7 Comparison of Hominoidea skeletons
pouches, presence of 32 teeth,
modified pelvis suited for upright posture, etc.
w The super family Hominoidea consists of three families namely Pongidae,
Hylobatidae and Hominidae. The larger apes namely Oranguttan, Chimpanzee and
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Gorilla are included in the family Pongidae, while Gibbon is included in the family
Hylobatidae. The humans including the extinct and the living come under the family
hominidae which is charecterised by the nasal bridge, vertical fleshy nasal groove,
lumbar curve, bony chin, true erect posture and less body hair.
w The family Hominidae consists of different genus like Austrolopithecus, Ardipithecus
and Homo. Humans are included in the genus Homo.
w The genus Homo includes different species like habilis, erectus and sapiens. Human
is considered a 'sapien'. This species is further divided into the sub-species Homo
Sapiens Neanderthalensis and Homo Sapiens Sapiens'. Thus anatomically modern
human is scientifically known as Homo Sapiens Sapiens.
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usually walk on four limbs. The body is covered with black hair except chest and face.
Face of the gorilla is almost flat with a slightly elevated nasal bridge. Shape of the face
resembles humans while nose is similar to other apes. Lips are also very thin like other
apes. Gorilla is the strongest of all primates. You may have visited zoos and observed the
physical features of apes. What are the features that make the apes different from humans?
As in the case of physical structure, human is very much different from apes in
functional aspects also. For instance, humans walk bipedally with an accurate erect posture.
Bipedal-walks among apes are occasional with semi-erect posture. The thumbs among
apes are quite short, the size of brain is much larger as well as developed among human
with complex cortical structure, which
is not found in apes. Human has the
power of articulating speech.
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The following chart will give a comparative picture of humans and apes.
Cranial capacity Lowest about Highest about Highest about Highest about
1000cc 500cc 550cc 425cc
Forehead Well developed Not much Not much Not much
developed developed developed
Nasal bridge Well raised Absent Absent Absent
Nasal bones Short and broad Short and flat Long long
Chin present Absent Absent Absent
Canine small Large, Very large, Large,
pointed, sharp pointed, sharp pointed, sharp
Placed anteriorly
Foraman at the base of the Placed Placed Placed
magaum skull posteriorly posteriorly posteriorly
In the phylogenic chart we found that the family Hominidae includes three genus
Ardipithecus Australopithecus and Homo,. We trace human evolution by examining the
fossil evidences of such earlier specimens. So paleontological evidences are important in
reconstructing the evolutionary sequence of human. The evoluation of human and pre-
hominid forms present fascinating evidences in support of human evolution. Here, let us
examine the early Hominids that represented the different stages of human evolution.
In 1871, Darwin published his book 'The descent of man' in which he described in
detail the evolution of human. He observed that humans had evolved from some more
primitive forms. According to him the common ancestor of humans was hairy, tailed,
quadraped (four limbed), probably with arboreal habits. That common ancestor had evolved
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Humans are the most motivating, stimulating, talented and exceptional of all organisms
on earth. In course of evolution, humans are the only animal that gained the capacity to
create and sustain a way of life- culture. The biological make up, unique to humans, helped
them to develop culture. Culture itself is the product of organic evolution. Culture gave
humans capacity to adapt biologically with environment. The biological modifications like
erect posture, bipedal locomotion, the grip function of hands and stereoscopic vision
helped humans to develop articulation of speech, and other social cultural behaviour.
Dryopithicines who lived 20 million years ago regarded as ancestor of both apes and
human. It consists of 3 varieties namely Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, and Gigantopithecus.
Dryopithecus and Gigantopithecus are included in the family Pongidae and Ramapithicus
is included in Hominidae. Human evolution, based on fossil skeletal remains, shows that it
had passed through four important stages namely Ausralopithicines, Pithecanthropines,
Neanderthals, and Cro-magnon. It is believed that about 4 million years ago, in pliocene
epoch, the first undoubted hominid named Australopithecus having biped, erect posture
appeared on earth.
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700 cc. Strongly built supra-orbital bridges, massive jaws, absence of forehead and a
number of other features resemble with apes. However, they differ from the apes as they
lack projecting canines, downward facing foreman magnum and extended and expanded
ilium. Australopithecene include different varieties like Australopithecus Africanus,
Australopithecus Afarensis, Australopithecus Boisei and Australopithecus Robustus.
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Homo Ergaster
Homo ergaster is an extinct species of Homo that lived in eastern and southern
Africa during the early Pleistocene between 1.8 million and 1.3 million years ago.
The south African palaeontologist St. John T Robinson first discovered a mandible of a new
hominid in South Africa in 1949. He named it Telanthropus capensi. The most complete skeleton
of Homo ergaster was discovered at Lake of Turkana ,Kenya in 1984 by Palaeontologists
Kamoya Kimeu and Alan Walker. They nick named the 1.6 million years old specien as ‘Turkana
Boy’. Homo ergaster was probably the first hominid to use ‘what we would recognise as a human
voice’. The well developed brain and physical capabilities suggest the use of linguistic or
symbolic communication of ergaster.
Pithecanthropines: The second stage of human evolution is represented by
Pithecanthropines. It includes a variety of specimens like Homo erectus, Java man, Peking
man and Homo heidelbergensis.
Homo Erectus: In the early 1891, the first fossil of Homo
erectus, the 'erect ape' man was found on the tropical Island
of Java, by the Dutch scientist and the Army doctor Eugene
Dubois. The fossil is popularly known as Java man. In 1894,
he named this fossil as Homo erectus or Pithecanthropus erectus.
Dating shows that, it is 1.9 million years old. Subsequently many
discoveries were made from different regions in different times
and are known by different names such as pithecanthropus,
sinanthropus (China), atlanthropus (North Africa), telanthropos
(South Africa), etc. All these are variants of a single species
called Homo erectus and shows a close resemblance to human. Fig.3.17 Homoerectus
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The Swanscombe man: The fossil remains of Swanscombe (hu)man were discovered
from Swanscombe in Kent, England during 1935-1936. In form and features, the bones
are almost same to modern English women. The cranial capacity is 1325cc which shows
similarity with that of modern skull. Important exception is that remarkable thickness and
the great breadth of the occipital bone.
The Grimaldi Man: In 1901, Prof.Verneau discovered two skeletons from a cave
named Grotte des Enfants in the village of Grimaldi on the Mediterranean coastal regions.
One of the skeletons was of a woman about 30 years and the other of a baby of about 15
years. Both the skulls are long, narrow, and high. The cranial capacity of the female skull is
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1265cc. The boy skull is 1455cc.The forehead is straight and well developed as well as
bulging to some extent. The face is broad; it is narrow below the cheek bones. The supra-
orbital bridges are feebly developed. The orbits are large and rectangular. The chin is
poorly developed and there is a marked facial prognathism. It is a Negroid feature. The
teeth are large and prominent. The dental characteristics resemble the Australian aborigines,
but the majority of the characteristics show affinities to the negritos.
The Grimaldi man is comparable to the modern Negro. Prof. Sollas and Boule have
pointed out the strong resemblance of Grimaldi with the Bushmen of South Africa. Some
believe that Cro-magnan and Grimaldi were two non-distinct racial groups with many
distinct common features.
Homo Sapiens Sapiens: Homo Sapiens Sapiens is the scientific name of anatomically
modern humans. They have settled in different environmental conditions and acquired
distinctive traits. The skull consists of two parts, the cranium and the face. The cranial
capacity ranges between 1300 cc to 1450cc. The forehead is bulging and supra-orbital
bridge is diminishing. The power of vision is stereoscopic. Canines are reduced in size.
The big toe is no more opposable. The arms are shorter than the legs. The vertebral
column has four curves. The body is more
or less hairless. They have the power to
articulate speech. These special attributes
placed human to the top place in the animal
kingdom. Fig. 3. 21 Trend in Human evolution
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hominoids. Still we possess most of the characteristics of the early humans. How did these
features transmit from generation to generation. To know this fact, we require the
understanding of genetics.
IV Human Genetics
Genetics is a branch of biology, dealing with heredity and variation. The term genetics
is derived from the Greek word 'gen' which means to generate or to grow. The term was
coined by William Bateson in 1905. Human genetics is the study of human heredity and
variation. It is found that offspring resemble their parents. The individuals of a particular
human population show some general similarities and also differences among themselves.
The similarities are produced due to inheritance of parental characters. Some inherent
characters of human are biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Human
genetics deals with the principles that explain the similarities between parents and their
offspring and the differences among the individuals of a single species.
Inheritance involves the activity of a distinct functional unit known as genes, which
are transmitted from parents to offspring and govern the development of the characters of
an individual. The character or trait denotes morphological, anatomical and physiological
features of an organism. The variations of characters are produced due to variations in
genes. Genetics is a science of inheritance and variation. It may be defined as the science
dealing with the structure, organisation, transmission and functions of genes and
origin of variations in them.
One of the most important features of reproduction in organisms is that each new individual
bears a close resemblance to his/her parents. Though children resemble their parents, they
are not identical. They differ in certain traits from their parents. Thus, all the offspring are
not alike. They show differences among themselves.
The tendency of the offspring or the young ones to resemble their parents is called
heredity. Heredity may be defined as the transmission of characteristics from one generation
to successive generations of living beings. The tendency of the offspring to differ from their
parents and also among themselves is called variation. The variations which are transmitted
from one generation to another are called heritable variations. But the variations which are
brought about by external factors are called non-heritable variations. They are not-
transmitted. Variation is a rule of nature and variability is the characteristics of all living
organisms.
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The basic principles of heredity and variations were put forward by Gregor Mendel.
He pointed out that the inheritance of traits was carried out through certain 'factors', which
was later called genes. Genes are the hereditary unit of an organism. In all organisms the
hereditary traits are transmitted from parents to offspring. The genes have three major
functions as follows.
1. They have the ability of self-duplication and are hereditary in nature.
2. They are susceptible to an occasional change by way of mutation.
3. They carry all the information essential to the functions of a cell.
The genes are located on the chromosomes in both male and female gamete. So
chromosomes carry and transmit the hereditary traits. The chromosome itself is formed by
two chemical substances, namely DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic
acid). Recent experimental evidences have revealed that DNA is a genetic material.
From similar results with other six traits, Mendel concluded that although a dominant
form could mask the other form in hybrid, the recessive was not destroyed. Recessive
traits would appear in unaltered form in later generations because genetic traits were inherited
as discrete units. Mendel discovered that heredity is determined by discrete particles or
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units. These particles or units are known as genes. The genes are located in the
chromosomes. Chromosomes are arranged in pairs. Humans have 46 chromosomes,
arranged in 23 pairs, one in each pair from the father and the other from the mother.
Mendelian genetics is based on two laws namely, Law of Segregation and Law of
Independent Assortment.
The law of segregation states that alleles, the unit of heredity, exist within the individual
in pairs. The pairs are segregated during the production of gametes, so that a gamete has
only one pair of each kind.
Law of Independent assortment states that the separation of one pair of genes does
not influence the separation of other pair of genes. Gene pairs on one set of homologous
chromosomes do not influence the distribution of gene pairs on other chromosomes; they
separate independently from one another during meiosis and are randomly assorted in the
gametes.
Cell Division and their Genetic Significance
Cell is the basic unit of all forms of life. Basically two kinds of cells are directly
involved with heredity; somatic cells and sex cells. The body is composed of various kinds
of specialised tissues consisting of billions of somatic cells continuously being manufactured
to replace those that have died. Sex cells are similar to somatic cells but play no part in the
structural composition of the body. They originate in the testes of males and ovaries of
females and their function is to transmit life and hereditary traits from parents to offsprings.
In all organisms the focal point of heredity is the nucleus, which is located in the centre of
the cell and separated from the cytoplasm by a thin nuclear membrane.
In contrast, human sex cells or gametes are produced through the process of meiosis-
two successive cell divisions that produce cells with only half the number of chromosomes
(23). Meiosis reduces the amount of genetic material to half to prepare for sexual
reproduction. During fertilisation when the two sex cells are joined together, they reproduce
a new organism with 46 chromosomes. It is during meiosis and sexual reproduction that
Mendel's principles of segregation and independent assortment operate.
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V. Human Variation
Humans are varied in nature in many respects. The human variation can be in terms
of the physiologicalfeatures, emotional and psychological differences. The important
observable feature is in terms of the bodily factors. Based on such physical features, we
can classify human beings into different races.
Human Races
The term race is used with a variety
of meanings. Sometimes, it is taken as Race is defined as a collection of individuals
synonymous with nationality like Chinese, sharing in common certain observable
physical traits transmitted through
Russian, American, etc. In another sense, it biological inheritance.
applies to a group of people speaking the
same language, such as Aryan race, German, Dravidian etc. The term race, some times,
refers to any group of individuals who have been bound together for a considerable time
by a common habitat, history, tradition, language and religion . But the most authentic
meaning of race is physiological. The concept of race is deeply rooted in colour, facial
features and stature. These characteristics are hereditory in nature, which are transmitted
from one generation to another.
As the paleontological evidences prove, the entire human species have a common
origin and all of them are Homo sapiens. Differences are found to exist between the physical
characters of humans due to heredity and environment. On the basis of physical characters,
human beings are grouped into different races. There is nothing called pure races of the
world. The process of mixing of races originated long back. Human races can be classified
only on the basis of physical traits and not in relation to any kind to mental or intellectual
superiority or inferiority. The inner capacity for pre-development of mind and culture is
found equally in every race. Hence, distinction between races is not based on cultural
difference or intelligence.
In determining a race, physical characters are examined. Physical characters are of
two types
1. Indefinite physical traits: This cannot be measured using instruments. It can only
be observed. e.g. colour of skin, hair and eye.
2. Definite physical traits: This can be measured using instruments. e.g. height,
structure of nose, face, etc. Naturally humans are classified according to these
features. Let us examine various criteria used for racial classifications.
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On the basis of nasal index, noses are classified into broad nose, medium nose, and
narrow nose.On the basis of nasal bridge it is classified into short, medium and long.
8. Head forms: Head is a measurable character and based on the head index or
cephalic index, it is classified into narrow head (Dolicocephalic), medium head
(Mesocephalic), and broad head (Branchycephalic). This classification is made based on
the calculation of cephalic index. Cephalic Index = Head breadth / Head length X 100
9. Blood groups: Blood group is a trait which remains constant and unaffected by
environment. There are four types of blood groups namely. A, B, AB, and O. In every
race, people who have these blood groups are found but the proportion of their members
differ from race to race. We shall learn this in detail at the end of this unit.
10. Stature: On the basis of stature Stature Male Female
humans are classified into five groups,
namely: very short, short, medium, tall Very short Below 4'11" 4'7"
and very tall. Average stature of Short 5'0"-5'3" 4'8"-4'11"
modern man is 5'6''. However, a usual
Medium 5'4"-5'7" 5'0"-5'3"
range varies from 4'3" to 6'6" for
males and 3'11" to 6'2" for females. Tall 5'8"-5'11" 5'4"-5'6"
Very Tall 6 '0"and above 5'7" and above
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Major Races of the World: In the absence of standard techniques of measurement and
definite knowledge about the racial significance of the various physical traits in human,
various schemes of classifications have been made by different scholars. The most commonly
recognised classification is that which include three major races, namely Negroid, Mongoloid
and Caucasoid, which are further subdivided into as many as 30 sub-groups.
1. Negroid Race: Negroid races are originally found in Africa.
They are characterised by brown to black brown skin, very broad
and flat nose, low nasal bridge, strong prognathism, brown to black
hair, coarse texture of hair, woolly hair, slight body hair, brown to
brown black eye etc. The Negroids have been divided into African
Negroid and Oceanic Negroid and they are again sub-divided into
many other groups.
2. Mongoloid Race: Mangoloid races are characterised by yellow Fig. 3.27 Negroid
brown or reddish brown skin colour, broad and flat face, brown to
brown black hair, coarse texture and straight form of hair, brown to
dark brown eye, medium stature, broad and flat face with prominent
cheek bones. The Mongoloids are again sub-divided into many types
namely Central Mongoloid, Northern Mongoloid, Southern
Mongoloid, and American Mongoloid.They are mainly found in Asia
and America.
3. Caucasoid Race: Caucasoid races are found in Europe, Fig. 3.28 Mongoloid
Palestine, Iran, Northern India, Baluchistan etc. They are
characterised by features such as pale reddish white to olive brown
skin colour, medium to tall stature, wavy and straight hair, dark brown
hair colour, light blue to dark brown eye colour and high nasal bridge.
The Caucasoid races are further divided into a number of ethnic
groups such as Mediterranean, Nordic and Alpine.
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Leptorrhine
Medium nose
Blood Groups
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considerable period of time with an anticoagulant, we can find the faintly yellow fluid plasma
full of numerous suspended particles known as blood corpuscles. The red blood corpuscles
(RBC) or erythrocytes usually settle at the bottom of the tube leaving white blood corpuscles
(WBC) or Leukocytes above. But on the top of the test-tube, maximum portion of faint
yellow fluid forms with plasma layer.
ABO Blood Group System: In 1900-1902 Karl Landsteiner divided the human beings
into three groups with reference to their blood groups,
which later on increased to four as shown by Sturli and
Decastello. However the groups are denoted by the letter
A, B, AB, and O, based on the presence or absence of
antigens.
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two antigens, a person might have one in the cell or might contain both or none. Thus, the
whole human population can be identified into four categories as regard to the presence of
antigens in the RBC. A person having antigen A in the RBC is referred to as A group, a
person having antigen B in the RBC is referred to as B group. The person having both
antigen A and antigen B in the RBC is referred to as AB group. If both antigens A and B are
absent in RBC, the person belongs to O group.
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recipient are known before hand. If the donor and the recipient have the same blood
group, agglutination (blood clotting) does not occur.
Does it cause any harm No.... any healthy adult can donate
to me, if I donate blood? blood in every 3 months. By
donating blood, we can save a life.
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Inheritance Pattern of Blood Groups: The heredity pattern of blood group is now fully
known. The three genes in the chromosomes i.e. A, B and O are responsible for blood
group variations in the persons. It seems that A and B type possesses equal expressive
power while the O is recessive in both A and B. It is also observed that the internal mixtures
of these genes produce six different genotypes. But as Phenotypes Genotypes
O is recessive we find only four phenotypes of blood
groups. Corresponding to four blood groups i.e. A, B, A AA, AO
AB, and O, there are four types of genotypes. Blood B BB,BO
group A possess genotypes AA, AO, blood group B AB AB
possess genotype BB, BO blood group AB possess
genotype AB and blood group O possess genotype O OO
OO. This is given in the table 3.3. Table 3.3 Phenotypes and Genotypes
Now you will be able to find how blood groups are inherited from the parents to the
offspring. Following are some of the problems in which you are required to find the possible
blood groups of the children. You can refer to the example given below.
Problem: If the parents have blood groups A and O, what would be the blood groups
of their children?
Group A x Group O
Genotypes & Phenotypes
AA, AO x OO
Possibility 1 Possibility 2
AA x OO AO x OO
AO AO AO AO AO AO OO OO
A A A A A A O O
Ratio. A= 100% Ratio. A =50%, O = 50%
Let us examine the following problems and try to find the possible
offsprings to each of the parents
Problem 1- Parents: A X B
Problem 2 -Parents: B X O
The inheritance pattern of blood groups from parents to the offspring is now well-
known. Do you know that marriage between persons having certain blood groups will
cause some diseases? It is caused by the incompatibility of certain blood groups.
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Apart from the commonly seen ABO blood groups, there are some other groups
prevalent in human populations. Some of them are the following:
MNS System: Thirty years after the discovery of ABO blood groups, in 1927, Landsteiner
and Levine found another blood group system known as MNS system. It consist of two
antigens namely M and N. These two antigens possess no natural antibodies. They are
present in the red cells of all human beings. When the red cells of a person show M
antigen, the blood group is designated as M. Similarly, the presence of N antigen marks
the blood types as N and when both M and N are present, the blood group is termed as
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MN. The M and N antigen are equally dominant. The M and N factors exist simultaneously
along with A, B, AB and O factors, in the same blood without having any relation to them.
In 1947, Sanger and Race found out another antigen known as S. It occurs especially
among the individuals who possess M, N or MN blood types. Unlike M and N antigens,
S antigen possesses an antibody also. The M, N and S antigens show very close affinity
with each other and are known by the name MNS system.
Bombay Blood Group: This is a rare blood type which was first discovered in Bombay
by Dr. Y.M.Bhende in 1952. The individuals with the rare Bombay phenotype do not
express the H antigen, the antigen which is present in the blood O. As a result, they cannot
make A antigen or B antigen in their red blood cells, because A antigen and B antigen are
made from H antigen. For this reason, people who have Bombay phenotype can donate
RBC to any member of the ABO blood group, but they cannot receive blood from any
member of the ABO blood group system,. They can receive blood only from the people
who have Bombay phenotype.
Determine the blood group and find out the possibilities of donation in
the animation movie provided virtual lab facility available in your school.
Check your progress
1. Imagine that your friend, who belongs to AB blood group is in need of blood
transfusion.Find the blood groups that he/she can he receive? Substantiate your
answer.
2. The blood group of father and mother is O. Find the possible blood group of their
offspring with the help of diagrams.
3. Prepare a table showing the antigens and antibody of blood groups A, B and AB.
The knowledge of biological anthropology will be of great help in the day-to-day life
of human. The application of this knowledge is discussed below.
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primate evolution. Studying distinctive human traits may help us to understand why
the lines of primates that led to humans branched away from the line leading to
chimpanzee and gorilla.
w No one trait is unique to primates. However, primates do share many features such
as relatively large brain in proportion to body size, prehensile hand, flexible forearm,
opposable thumb, developed fingers and nails, stereoscopic vision, long maturation
of the young and a high degree of dependence on social life and learning.
w Within the Order Primates, the humans belong the Sub Order Anthropoidea, Super
Family Hominoidea, Family Hominidae, Genus Homo and the species Sapiens.
w The fossils, comparative anatomy and behaviour and the knowledge of ancient
environments give us enough idea of when, where and how primates emerged and
diversified.
w Dryopithecine who lived 20 million years ago is regarded as the ancestor of both
humans and apes. The earliest hominid Australopithicine appeared in Africa about
4 million years ago. The succession of species from Australopithicine to Homoerectus
then to Neanderthal (hu)man and the further evolution of Neanderthal to Cro Magnon
and to the modern homo sapiens represent the course of human evolution. Homo
erectus, emerged about 1.8 million to 1.6 million years ago, was the first hominid to
live in Europe and Asia, and to learn to use fire .
w Neanderthal is often referred to as early Homo sapiens, who lived in Europe, North
Africa, and parts of Asia during the period from about 1,00,000 to 35, 000 years
ago.
w The fossil evidences of Cro-Magnon was discovered by Louis Lartet in 1868.
from Cro-Magnon hills of France. Cro-Magnon man produced stone and bone
tools. Cro-Magnon people had also made beautiful cave paintings.
w Human genetics deals with human heredity and human variation. The basic principles
of heredity and variations were put forward by Gregor Mendel, who pointed out
that the inheritance of traits was carried out through certain factors which was later
called 'genes.'
w The genes are located on the chromosomes in both male and female gametes,
which, in turn, are formed by two chemical substances, namely DNA (Deoxy
ribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid).
w On the basis of physical characters human beings are grouped into different races.
The commonly held classification of human population was mainly into three races,
namely, Negroid, Mongoloid and Caucasoid.
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w Racism is the belief that one race is 'superior' to another and is associated with
discriminatory acts and attitudes towards the 'inferior' race. From the biological
anthropological view, racism is a cultural phenomenon that has no genetic basis. All
humans of whatever race are currently classified by the anthropologist or biologist
as belonging to one species i.e., Homo sapiens sapiens.
w The study of blood group has an important role in Biological Anthropology,
particularly in population genetics. The whole human population can be classified
into 4 categories as regard to the presence of antigens in the RBC. These include, A,
B, AB, and O.
w As there is no antibody in the AB group, the AB group persons can accept blood
from any group and hence, they are called universal recipient. The O group persons
can give blood to members of any group and hence they are known as universal
donors. If the Rh factor is present in the blood, that blood is grouped as Rh positive,
and if absent, it is Rh negative.
The learner demonstrate the ability to
w Identify multiple theories of biological evolution and evaluate and appreciate the
scientific nature of the theories of organic evolution?
w Locate humans' place among the primates, compare the features of human and apes
and categories and arrange the fossil evidences of human evolution?
w Identify the basic principles of human genetics, appreciate the Mendel's Law of
inheritance and make out the genetic significance of cell division?
w Identify the racial characteristics of human population and observe races as an
adaptive variation?
w Identify blood groups as a factor of human variation and distinguish blood group
compatibility and incompatibility?
Evaluation Items
1. Prepare a seminar paper on theories of organic evolution with the help of the following
hints:
a) Survival of the fittest, struggle for existence, variation, over production.
b) Inheritance of acquired characters; use and disuse theory
c) Mutation, Genetic drift, Chromosomal aberration
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2. Prepare a flow chart showing the phylogenic position of human beings in the animal
kingdom.
a. The chart should include order, sub-order, super family, family, genus, species
etc.
b. Write four main features of primates and Homo sapiens.
3. List out six features that distinguish humans from an ape, based on your observation.
4. Fill the blanks choosing from the options given below.
A B C
7. Distribute the six racial features given below under the three major races
(a) Moderate body hair (b) Dark brown skin colour
(c) Scanty body hair (d) Little body hair
(e) White skin colour (f) Yellow skin colour
8. Write three classifications of human skull, based on the index of length and breadth.
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9. Name the Branch of anthropology that focuses on the study of blood groups.
10. The following table shows the agglutination reaction of blood samples. Identify the
blood groups and explain the agglutination reaction in each blood group. Draw the
diagrammatic representation of blood transfusions.
11. A gynecologist advises a woman to take an anti Rh vaccine after her first delivery.
What would be the reason? How would this vaccine help her in the next pregnancy?
12. The blood groups of two couples are given below. Explain the genotypic and
phenotypic blood groups of their offspring with the help of diagrams.
a. AB X O b. A X AB
13. Imagine that your father belongs to the AB blood group. In case of emergency ,
from which blood group can he receive blood ? Substantiate your answer.
14. Choose the correct genotype of ABO blood group from below
15. Prepare a table showing the antigens and antibody of blood group A, B and AB.
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UNIT
BASICS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY 4
CONTENTS
I. Meaning and Scope of Archaeological
Anthropology
· Archaeological Anthropology and Introduction
Pre-history
II. Geological Time Scale You are now well aware that, some
· Formation of earth anthropologists are interested in the human
· Geological ages - Era, Period, Epoch fossil record, DNA and how humans
III. Basic Concepts in Archaeology
evolved and vary as a species. Some other
· Tool · Artifact
· Site · Assemblage anthropologists live in communities around
· Industry · Tradition the world for months or even years together
· Culture · Culture Complex to understand their respective customs,
IV. Three age System behaviour and way of life. Some other
· Dawn of Stone Age - Eolithic anthropologists focus their attention on the
· Stone Tool Typology
symbolism of language as the tools of
· Stone Tool Technology
· Stone Tool Tradition communication, its origin as well as its
V. Life and Culture in Stone Age underlying the super structures, and its social
· Palaeolithic Period - Lower, Middle and functions and cultural elements. Again, some
Upper anthropologists excavate the ancient remains
· Mesolithic Period
of past cultures to find out what our
· Neolithic Period
· Stone Age in India
ancestors did and how they lived. The job
· Megalithic culture of an archaeologist is a tiresome one. But
· Megalithic evidences in Kerala an archaeological discovery would unravel
VI. Dating methods the mysteries related with human culture.
· Relative Dating
· Absolute Dating Archaeological discoveries were
VII. Modern trends in Archaeological many times quite accidental. The discovery
exploration
of a Homo Sapiens baby, popularly known
as archaic baby was a similar discovery.
Archaic baby is a fossil of the Middle
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Did you ever think of the following and wanted to find an answer?
How were the earth formed and the culture originated on earth? Who made the first
tool and where did it first appear? When did people start developing stone tools? Who
were the first artists and painters? When did humans start agriculture and who first started
it? How can archaeologists date objects from the past? Who built umbrella stones and
other large monumental structures made out of laterite rocks? Why these megalithic
monuments are abundant in Kerala?
You will get an answer to these questions by learning this unit in the process of your
exposure to the basics of archaeological anthropology. Let us start with the meaning and
scope of archaeological anthropology.
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Activity:
From the conversation given above, what are your conclusions regard-
ing:
w The relationship between archaeology and anthropology.
You can discuss it and present it in your classes suitably - either in the form of a
poster, comparative chart, or discussion note.
By looking at the above conversation, you will now be in a position to understand
the nature of archaeological anthropology. Let us look into the details one by one.
We have been talking about pre-history. Do you know the importance of pre-history
in archaeological anthropology? Pre-historic cultures did not make use of writing. This
period constitutes over 99% of the human history and form the base for the study of
archaeological anthropology. Many a times, Archaeology and Archaeological Anthropology
as used interchangeably.
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w In Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar and New Zealand between 300 AD and
1280 AD .
w Homo sapiens lived as hunters gatherers around 10 0000 years BP.
w Homo sapiens began to practice agriculture about 12,000 years BP.
w Writing appeared on earth around 5000 years BP, i.e. human had acquired capability
of written language relatively very recently.
Formation of Earth
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A closer look at this imaginative clock would reveal that during the long history of
earth humans appeared at one minute seventeen seconds at midnight. Dinosaurs were
wandering earth just before 11 pm (11:39). You can look at this info graphic to find out the
emergence of earth and origin of other organisms on earth. The study of the physical,
chemical, and biological processes and products of the earth is very much essential in
archaeology to understand the pre-history.
The study of earth
II. Geological Time Scale is called Geology
Each era includes a number of periods. Periods are again subdivided into epochs.
The oldest time periods are usually shown at the bottom of the geological time scale
and the most recent time period on the top. Differences exist among geologists regarding
the time periods in geological time scale. Modern Geologists have divided the geological
time span into five eras as follows:
1. Archaeozoic (4000 million to 2500million years ago)
2. Proterozoic (2500 million to 541million years ago)
3. Palaeozoic (541million to 252million years ago
4. Mesozoic (252 million to 66 million years ago) and
5. Cenozoic (66 million years ago to the present)
Each of these eras has been named after its most characteristic form of life. The
smaller sub divisions of eras are called Periods. There are four such periods. They are
Table. 4.1 Geological time scale- based on data provided by Geological Society of America
(2012)(Source: www.geosociety.org)
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Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary periods. The sub divisions of the period are
labeled as Epochs.
In the above chart the first era is called Archaeozoic where elementary form of life
first appeared in Archaeozoic sedimentary deposits. The second era is known as
Proterozoic which corresponds with pre-Cambrian epoch. The third era is called
Palaeozoic which is divided into six epochs. They are Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.
The last five epochs of Palaeozoic era, starting from Ordovician to Permian is
categorized as Primary Period. Primary period has been regarded as the 'Age of fishes
and ancient Life'. The fourth era is Mesozoic which has been classified into three epochs
namely, the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous. These three epochs under Mesozoic era
are categorized as Secondary Period. The last era called Cenozoic is classified into two
major periods - Tertiary and Quaternary. The tertiary period comprises of five epochs
namely Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene. Paleocene epoch
witnessed the emergence of earliest Primates like primitive Lemuroids and Tarsioids.
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Pluviation
During the Pleistocene epoch, there was an extended period of abundant
rainfall lasting many thousands of years. Four major phases of rain
fall was noted. Each phase is called a pluvial period and it corresponds to glacial
period. Inter Pluvial period appeared between two pluvial periods like inter glacial
periods. Inter-pluvial periods are marked for comparatively lower rain fall. As
result of pluvial and inter-pluvial periods, rise and fall of water level is noted in
lakes and rivers. Pluvial episodes in East Africa are known by different names
like, Kageran, Kamasian, Kanjeran and Gamblian with three inter pluvial- periods.
Abundance of small Prosimians was noted during eocene epoch. That is why this
epoch is termed as the 'Golden age of Prosimians'.
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What is the use of your thumb and other fingers? Humans have an opposable
thumb. How does this opposability help humans to manipulate small objects with
thumb tip-to-finger tip precision grips? Opposable thumbs allow the digits to grasp
and handle objects and are characteristic of primates. Opposable thumb was an
important step in evolution of humans. It was tool making that really placed humans apart from
other organisms. Hence tools defined our species. And if tools define our species, then it is our
thumb we have to thank.
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introduction of agriculture, tools were replaced with mechanical tools. With the development
of nanotechnology, tools were becoming microscopic in size.
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different tools, artifacts, traditions and industries are there in pre-historic times. After Stone
Age, technology and materials used of making tools were changed. Archaeologists classified
the human past in to different stages. This classification is made on the basis of tools made
and used by the people.
IV. Three Age System
The entire period of pre-history is
divided into three ages. These periods are
collectively known as three age system in
archaeology. The categorization of pre-
historical archaeological periods into three
ages was developed by Danish archeologist
C J Thomson (1788-1865), and it was the
first ever artifacts classification in the world.
They include Stone Age, Bronze Age and
Iron Age. The three age system of
classification argued that the three different Fig. 4.6. Some eoliths
technologies were progressed through, in a linear fashion from Stone Age to Iron Age
through Bronze Age. However, these three age classifications have their drawbacks because
some cultures never developed through a linear progression. Instead, certain cultures moved
directly from Stone Age to Iron Age. Moreover, some Stone Age cultures still exist in
isolated areas. However, these classifications provide a useful way to study the human
cultural progress and development. Later another Danish archaeologist Worsae classified
Stone Age into Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods based on field experience.
In the ongoing sections, we will concentrate on the cultural development during the
Stone Age. You have already studied something about Stone Age and its cultures in your
lower classes. We will now study in detail about the types of tools and implements. used
by the pre-historic people and the technology used by them for the preparation of tools
and implements. The life and culture of Stone Age people will also be examined in this
section.
Humans are unique primates. Though several other primates and some other non-
human primates make and use tools, only humans make and use many types of tools.
Humans also use tools to make other tools. This particular trait makes humans a unique
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primate. The earliest tool users were now regarded as hominids who are the closest
ancestors of humans.
Stone Age refers to the pre-historic time period when people made stone tools.
Apart from this, wood, bones and other materials were also used for tools. The Stone Age
literally starts with Palaeolithic period. However, some earlier authorities tried to prove the
existence of a 'pre-palaeolithic period', also known as 'Eolithic' or 'Dawn of Stone Age'.
At the same time, this classification has not been accepted by many pre-historians. In the
Eolithic culture, the stones have been slightly worked. Sometimes, it is very difficult to
determine whether these stones have been worked or not. The Greek word 'eos' means
Greek Goddess of dawn and 'lithos' means stones. Hence, eolith means the dawn of
Stone Age. There is no clear proof of human handy work on eoliths. Moreover, eoliths
were not found along with any human skeleton. Some believe that the tool makers of
Eolithic culture lived in pre-pleistocene or late pliocene period. That is, eoliths might be
present in the early Pleistocene epoch. But all these are based on speculations. A lot of
studies on Stone Age cultures revealed that if eoliths are to be human-made implements,
they must be placed in the Palaeolithic tools, the earliest period of Stone Age.
The Stone Age has been divided mainly into three periods namely Palaeolithic,
Mesolithic and Neolithic. During these periods different types of stone tools were made
and used by pre-historic people. They have resorted distinct methods and techniques for
the preparation of different types of stone tools. The technology used for making such
tools has progressed from simple to more complex styles over the passage of time. On the
basis of the evidences of stone tools, we shall now discuss stone tool typology, technology
and morphological factors.
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of this classification is mainly the technology resorted by the people to make these tools.
So, on the basis of technology, stone tools can be classified into three types. They are core
tools, flake tools and blade tools. We shall discuss each tool types in detail.
1. Core tool types
A piece of rock or pebble or nodule can be shaped into a stone tool by flaking.
Flaking means striking the stone from the nucleus of the original rock or pebble with the
help of another hard rock. In such cases, the detached stone particles are called flakes.
These flakes are treated as waste products in core tool tradition. After detaching the flakes,
the main rock, pebble or nodule is called core or core tool. Core tools are of two types -
one is single edged core tool and the other is bi-facial core tools. Core tools are mainly
found in lower Palaeolithic period. The hand-axe tradition contained the core tool cultures.
Single edged core tool: Single-edged core tools are made by flaking either on one
side (e.g. chopper) or on both the sides (e.g.
chopping tool) of the cutting edge and they are Artifacts or Geofacts -
made mainly on pebbles. A “great” mistake
Bi-facial tool: Bi-facial tools are mostly In the late 1960s Louis
made on core and are made by flaking around Leakey, one of the first
Paleoanthropologists, claimed
the periphery. It is a more or less pointed and its
that a place in California, called
upper and lower surfaces are worked. They are
Calico Hills contained early
made both on core and larger flakes and are the human tools. This claim was met
principal element of hand axe tradition of lower by disbelief, as no evidence of
Palaeolithic period. early humans has been found in
North America. It had to be taken
2. Flake tool types
seriously because the claim was
In the case of core tool, the nodule made by none other than Leakey.
becomes the tool, while the flakes are considered A group of Paleoanthropologists
met at the site on Leakey’s request.
as waste products. However, when these pieces
What was the result? The alleged
of flakes are utilized for tool making, they are
tools were natural objects, not
called flake tools. The core is the basis of flake made by humans.
tool. But the difference is noticed in its production.
(Source: Vance Haynes, “The Calico Site:
Sometimes large flakes are served as the core Artifacts or Geofacts? Science ,181
for further flaking. (1973) 305-10, taken from Ember Carol
R , Melvin Ember and Peter N Peregrine,
Anthropology, p. 106)
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Tool Technology
There are various methods for flaking employed at various times during the Stone
Age. Direct percussion method or block-on-block method, indirect percussion
method, Controlled percussion method and Grinding and Polishing method were
the important methods employed by Stone Age people for tool preparation.
a) Direct percussion method or block-
on-block method: Flaking by direct blow is
called direct percussion. It is purely block-
on-block devise. Three different types of
techniques have been distinguished. They are
called anvil-stone, stone-hammer technique
and cylinder-hammer technology. In anvil-
stone technology, some massive tools were
produced by hitting the core against a large Fig. 4.7. Direct percussion method
fixed stone called anvil. In stone-hammer
technique, the lump of stone which has to be flaked is held by hand. On the other hand, a
pebble of suitable size is selected as striker. The lump is stricken repeatedly at some
particular point. The cylinder-hammer technique is an evolved form of stone-hammer
technique. The technique involves a powerful blow, with skillful control of finger.
b) Indirect percussion method: An indirect flaking technique with the help an
intermediate tool is the feature of this indirect percussion method. This intermediate tool is
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somewhat like a chisel. It is placed on a particular point from where a flake is supposed to
be detached. This technique requires more control of skilful fingers in comparison to
direct percussion method. Stone Age tool makers greatly depended upon indirect percussion
method because it can produce large number
of flakes and blades without much wastage.
Since punch has been used in producing
flakes it is called punching technique. Since,
at the end of the process, a fluted core is left
out, it is also called fluting technique.
c) Controlled percussion method:
Controlled percussion means flaking with
pressure involving patience and skill. Here,
small flakes are removed from some definite
point of the core with the help of a suitable
implement made of stone or bone. This Fig. 4.8 Indirect percussion method
method requires great precision. Implements with fine cutting edge can be produced by
this method. Controlled percussion methods apply to trimming the cutting edge of tools.
d) Grinding and polishing method:
Grinding and polishing method came into
being for making smooth-faced cutting edge
for axe-head and adze-head. These types
of tools are for making wood carvings
especially for boat or dwelling construction.
This new method was well-flourished in
Neolithic period. After flaking, the whole
surface and the cutting edge have to be
rubbed on a large sand stone slab. Sand may Fig 4.9.Two methods of pressure flaking- A
wooden tool or antler was used to press rather
be used as an abrasive. than strike off small flakes.
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pointed tip and rounded butt end. The cutting edge of the chopping tool is not straight. It
has a single straight or curved cutting edge flaked from a pebble or from a chunk of stone.
2. Hand-axe tradition
The hand axe tradition includes three cultures namely Pre-Chellian culture, Chellian
or Abbevillian culture and Acheulian culture.
(b) Chellian or Abbevillian Culture: Previously, this culture was named as Chellian
after the site Chelles in
Northern France. The name
Abbevillian was taken from
the site Abbeville in France.
It is mainly a bi-facial core
tool culture. Mostly, crude
hand axes are the important
tools of this type found in the
lower Paleolithic period.
The Hand axes are Fig. 4.11. Abbevillian type hand axe
manufactured either with
stone-hammer or with anvil-stone technology. Direct percussion method or block-on-
block technique was employed. Besides hand-axes, knifes on flakes are also found in this
culture. It can be the first tradition of the bifacial core-tool culture of the lower palaeolithic.
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required. At first core is prepared which looks like the back of a tortoise. Then the flake is
detached from this tortoise core. As a result of direct blow, the flake is split-off from the
tortoise core.
(c) Mousterian Culture: Mousterian culture is associated with the middle Palaeolithic
period. The difference between Lower Palaeolithic and middle Palaeolithic is mainly from
typological point of view. Hand-axes and flake tools were present in the lower Palaeolithic,
whereas, Core-tool cultures have totally been transformed into flake tool cultures. The
rock-shelter of Le-Moustier in France is the site of Mousterian culture. It is mainly a flake
tool culture, without hand-axes.
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(b) Aurignacian Culture: Aurignacian culture is named after a rock shelter known as
Aurignac in Southern France. The bone was also extensively used as javelin points, chisels,
perforators and arrow straighteners. The geological age of this culture is upper Pleistocene
and Cro-Magnons are responsible for this culture. The Aurignacian culture is traceable all
over Europe. It is also found in Africa and India.
(c) Solutrean Culture: Solutrean culture is named after the site located at Solutre in
France. The Solutrean tools are more or less thin and flat. Tools like shouldered points
existed along with earlier tools like
gravers or burins, end scrapers, side
scrapers, points and bone tools. The
Solutrean culture has limited
distribution in Central Europe. Cro-
Magnon might be responsible for this
Solutrean culture.
Fig. 4.19. Solutrian tools
(d) Magdalenian Culture:
Magdalenian Culture is named after the rock-shelter of La Madeline in France. Magdalenian
culture is the last phase of Palaeolithic period. It is noted for the abundance of bone and
antler tools. These include tools such as scraper heads, barbed points, and harpoons for
spearing fish and hammers. The typical Magdalenian tools are long and parallel-side blade
implements. Upper Palaeolithic art
reached its full richness during this cultural
period. The geological age of
Magdalenian culture relates to the final
part of Upper Pleistocene epoch. The
Chancelade group of people might have
been responsible for Magdalenian Fig.4.20. Magdalenian tools
culture.
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Draw different types of stone tools ranging from core tool, flake tool,
and blade tool with descriptions and prepare a picture album.
Check your progress
1. Palaeolithic Period
The first pre-historic culture is known as Palaeolithic. The Greek word 'palaios'
means old and 'lithos' means stones. So Paleolithic means Old Stone Age. Palaeolithic
period is divided into three phases. They are lower Palaeolithic, middle Palaeolithic and
upper Palaeolithic. The sequence of European Palaeolithic culture is different from African
and Asian Palaeolithic cultures. The European Palaeolithic culture belonged to the entire
Pleistocene epoch which is divided into lower, middle and upper categories. The estimated
age of European Palaeolithic period is in between 2,000,000 years BP to 10,000 years
BP. The evolution and development of tool tradition and culture is noted from core tools to
blade tools through flake tools. How life and culture evolved during the stone ages would
be very much helpful to understand the cultural progress of Homo Sapiens Sapiens over
the course of time. Let us examine the progress of life and culture in lower, middle and
upper Palaeolithic period, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods.
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of australopithecines (380-450cc). They have powerful and relatively long arms and were
partially arboreal. They appeared around 2.3 million years ago. The oldest stone tools
including core tools (choppers) and flakes were found at the very bottom of famous Olduvai
Gorge site. This lower Pleistocene material gives important information on the life style of
early hominids.
The entire culture of Homo erectus, the second stage of hominid evolution, is often
regarded as Lower Palaeolithic. The artifacts and tools dating from 1.5 million years to
200,000 years BP have been mostly produced by Homo erectus. It seems some of the
tools during this period were produced by hominids other than Homo erectus. The Acheulian
tools dating back from 1.5 million years BP to more than a million years BP are very much
similar. Homo erectus is the only hominid that covers this entire period. Hence, Homo
erectus is mostly responsible for Acheulian culture. Likewise, Chellian or Abbevillian culture
was also contributed by early form of Homo erectus. The Acheulian tools are widely found
in all areas of the old world.
Some Acheulian sites have the evidence of big game hunting. Some experts argue
that big game may have been scavenged. Another important milestone in the history of
human culture is the use of fire. Earlier evidences of fire are noticed during the lower
Palaeolithic period. Homo erectus thought to have hunted animals using fire. The fire drives
is a technique still used by contemporary hunters and gatherers. They learned to control
fire for warmth. Evidences of camp sites are reported from Acheulian sites. Some huts are
said to have work space and central hearths.
(b) Middle Palaeolithic period
The middle Palaeolithic is different from the lower Palaeolithic mainly from the tool
types. The hand-axes or bifaces were replaced by the end of the middle Palaeolithic. The
core tool cultures have been transformed into flake tool cultures during this period. Though
Clactonian and Levalloisian flake tool cultures evolved during the lower Palaeolithic, it
became further developed during the middle Palaeolithic. Apart from this, Proto-Mousterian
and Mousterian tools were also developed during this period. The Mousterian culture
shows complete absence of core tools. However, in early Mousterian levels in France,
small hand-axes from flakes were found together with Mousterian tools. The tool
assemblages of this period in Africa are known as Acheulian.
The middle Palaeolithic also witnessed the transition from Homo erectus to Homo
sapiens. The cultural period is also associated with the Neanderthals in Europe and dates
back from 300,000 years to 40000 years BP. Homo sapiens have been found in many
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parts of the Old World - Africa, Asia and Europe. Some of these Homo sapiens may have
lived earlier than the Neanderthals in Europe. For Africa, the term middle stone age is
used instead of middle Palaeolithic.
Most of the excavated Middle Palaeolithic home sites in Europe and Africa are in
caves and rock shelters. So we can say that Neanderthals lived mostly in caves or rock
shelters. However, open-air sites have been found in Europe. Some of the occupants of
the famous Moldova site of Western Russia lived in river-valley houses framed with wood
and covered with animal skins. Skeletal evidences of wolf, fox with their paws missing
revealed that animal skins were made into clothing. They hunted a wide variety of animals
both big and small, birds and collected fish.
Neanderthals were the first humans to purposely bury their dead. This is evident at
Le Moustier where a skeleton of a 15-16 year old boy was found with a beautifully fashioned
stone axe near his head.
(c) Upper Palaeolithic period
The last part of the Old Stone Age is termed as upper Palaeolithic. It covers
approximately 1/10th of entire Palaeolithic period. The Upper Palaeolithic period
dates back from about
40,000 years BP to 10,000
years BP. Though short in
life span, pre-historic
humans made great cultural
progress during this period.
In Africa, this cultural
period is known as later
Stone Age and may have
begun much earlier. Fig .4.21 Upper Palaeolithic bone tooth horn-ODK tools.
During the upper Palaeolithic period, more specialised stone tools were made and it
is termed as blade tools. The hand axes and flake tools were replaced by blade tools
during upper Palaeolithic period. Another characteristic feature of upper Palaeolithic is the
introduction of bone tools. Apart from flint and rock, bones were also used as a material
for making tools. The ivory, antler, bone, teeth and horns were utilized for tool making. So
this culture has been referred to as Osteodontokeratic (bone tooth horn-ODK) culture.
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The upper Palaeolithic culture also showed the beginning of cave art. The blade tool
tradition of the upper Palaeolithic comprises three tool cultures namely Aurignacian,
Solutrean and Magdalenian. Among these, the Aurignacian is again sub-divided into
Chatelperronian (Lower Aurignacian), true Aurignacian, (Middle Aurignacian) and the
Gravettian (Upper Aurignacian). Later some scholars have noticed the existence of another
culture belonging to upper Palaeolithic known as Perigordian between Mousterian and
Aurignacian culture.
The life-styles during the Upper Palaeolithic period were similar to life-styles before.
People were mainly hunters, gatherers and fishers who lived in small bands. They made
their camps out in the open, in skin-covered huts and in caves and rock shelters.
Fig 4.22 Bison painting in Altamira a cave in Spain and Bhimbetka rock painting in India
However upper Palaeolithic is characterised by the emergence of art. The Upper
Palaeolithic art includes painting on cave walls and stone slabs, and carving tools, decorative
objects, and personal ornaments made out of bone, antler, shell and stone. The usual
subject matter of the pre-historic art is the animals of that period. The figures of those
animals have been portrayed in paintings, engravings and sculptures. But the most important
feature of Upper Palaeolithic art is the absence of complete scene. The art tradition of the
Upper Palaeolithic period can be divided into cave art and home art. Home art includes all
types of objects that have been projected in engravings and carvings on stone, bone,
antler, ivory and the round shaped sculptures of that time. Apart from certain geometric
forms in stylised designs, several engravings of human figures are included in home art. The
artistic productions on the walls of the caves are immobile in nature and called as the mural
art or cave art. Most Archaeologists believe that human population increased considerably
during the Upper Palaeolithic period. Other important new inventions like the bow and
arrow, the spear-thrower, and tiny replaceable blades that could be fitted into handles
appeared for the first time.
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2. Mesolithic Period
Mesolithic or microlithic Age is part of the Holocene epoch. The Mesolithic period
has been counted as 10,000 B C and it was a brief period in human history in comparison
to Palaeolithic period. The time span of the Mesolithic period in Europe is considered to
be in between 23000 BP and 12000 BP. Some Archaeologists claim that it is between
15000 BP to 8000 BP. Some non-lithic innovations were made during this period. Microliths
were the characteristic tools of Mesolithic age. These tools are small in size i.e., it measures
only 3/16 inch or even less in size. Bow and arrow were invented and pottery were
introduced.
The stone tool types in Mesolithic Europe have been classified as Azilian, Tardenoisian,
Austrian, Maglemosean, Kitchen, Kitchen Midden or Ertebolle, and Campignion. Lot of
environmental changes were also noticed during Mesolithic period. Rapid increase in
atmospheric temperatures was noticed. Animals found in cold climates like mammoths,
reindeers, woolly rhinoceros withdrew themselves or died. New species succeeded them.
Change of climate forced people to change their diet. Mesolithic people diverted their
attention to items like fish, shell fish and water fowl. Apart from food gathering, fishing and
collecting were added. Though Upper Palaeolithic people invented bow and arrow for the
first time, its material evidence was mostly found during the Mesolithic period.
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The true Neolithic culture is also marked by agriculture and domestication of animals.
Such evidence is almost not available in India. Polished Celts, bone awls and polished
black-coloured pottery were also found from different parts of India. On a comparison of
the Indian Neolithic sites with the South East Asian Neoliths, it can be seen that the tool
types of the Neolithic period of India have almost a continuous distribution in South East
Asia.
Megalithic Culture
In late Neolithic period, the custom of erecting gigantic monuments became popular.
This great structure built on large-size stone is called megaliths. The Greek word 'megas'
means great and 'lithos' means stone. These great structures served funerary or cult purposes.
Unlike palaeolithic people, Neolithic people gave importance to burials.
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Most of the 'megalithic monuments' are made by stone blocks available in nature. A
few of them are slightly shaped; others are rude. Megalithic monuments are classified
differently. These classifications are made on the basis of number of stone blocks. They
are: Menhir which made of large single stone pillar, Cromlech, a circle of menhirs. Dolmen:
The word Dolmen is derived from two words such as Dol (means table) and men (means
stone or rock). It is composed of vertical stone blocks which support a roof slab, like
tabletop. Megaliths are found all over the world. It flourished in Europe around 2000 BP.
Megaliths occurred first in Neolithic but continued through Bronze Age till late in the Iron
Age.
Megalithic evidences
in India: Megaliths are
found all over India
except in a few areas like
the plains of Punjab,
Ganga basin, deserts of
Rajasthan, and parts of
North Gujarat. They are
concentrated in
peninsular India,
especially in the states of
Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Andhra Fig. 4.24. Umbrella stone Ariyannur Trissur, Kerala.
Pradesh. Source, Archaeological survey of India, Kerala
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(a) Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is based on the principle of 'super-position of layers'. The law of super-
position says sedimentary layers are deposited in a time sequence. The layers on the bottom
will be the oldest and the layers on the top will be the youngest. That means in undisturbed
situations, oldest layers are deposited first and newest layers are deposited last. Likewise,
archaeological materials found in the lowest stratum will be the oldest, whereas, the materials
found in the uppermost stratum will be the recent ones. However, some geological activities
like, earth quake and volcanic eruptions, shift the position of materials found in layers or
stratum. This will adversely affect the dating of the material, and hence, the need for alternative
dating methods.
(b) Fluorine Analysis
Fluorine is a non-metallic element in the form of pale yellow highly reactive gas.
Bones lying in the earth absorb fluorine dissolved in percolating water and result in the
formation of stable fluor-apatite. Therefore, older a fossil is, higher is its fluorine content.
This method cannot give an absolute chronological age, because the amount of fluorine
differs from soil to soil. But this method is suitable for the relative dating of bone materials
found in the same site.
(c) Seriation
Pottery making technology was not known to humans for pretty long time. Usually
pottery has been found in the sites of agricultural practices while hunting and gathering
people seldom exhibited this. Handmade pottery differs in size, shape, surface-finish and
decoration. The style of craftsmanship changed from time to time. Therefore, it is possible
to arrive at certain conclusions regarding where the ceramics had been in use for a long
time. Thereby, the relative age of the pottery can be established.
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the climatic changes. It is also helpful in reconstructing the stages of forestation after the
glaciations in Europe. It is understood that birch trees came first, followed by pine and oak
respectively. So a kind of relative dating is possible with Pollen grains. Pollens also bear
the evidence of agricultural activities in Neolithic sites.
(a) Dendrochronology: A tree builds up new layer on its trunk every year. By counting
the annual layers one can easily find out the age of the tree when it is cut down. The width
of the rings and the relative distance between the rings reflects climatic variations over a
period of time. For example some rings look thick and some others are thin. During the
years of plenty of rainfall, a tree absorbs more nutrients, moisture, etc., and tree rings grow
wide. Likewise, during drought season tree rings will become narrow. Since all trees in an
area are affected in the same manner, the ring sequences follow a general pattern. By
comparing the tree ring layers in two areas, one can differentiate the climatic conditions
between two regions. But its method is complicated and trained personnel are needed.
Experience in handling, recording, and interpreting the sequence and competence to take
decision on the absolute date are necessary. Dendrochronology cannot be applied to all
kinds of trees in all kinds of environment. Sample from the same environment may be used.
(b) Radio-Carbon method: Radio-carbon dating is a very valuable and widely used
method of dating. It is based on the measurement of the decaying rate of radioactive
carbon, known as Carbon-14 (C14). In 1941, Willard F Libby discovered the Radio-
active atom of carbon. The element of carbon has three isotopes, namely Carbon-12,
Carbon-13, and Carbon-14. The first two isotopes are more or less stable and Carbon-
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14 is unstable and unsteady. It gives out radio-active rays and changes. All living matter
possess a certain amount of a radioactive form of carbon (C14). The quantity of C14
normally present in organisms has been estimated. Radioactive carbon is absorbed from
the air by plants and then consumed by animals that eat the plants. After an organism dies,
it no longer takes any of the radioactive carbon. Carbon 14 decays at a steady and slow
pace. The rate at which the carbon decays is known as "half life". C14 has a half life of
5730 ± 40 years. The materials to be dated is burned in very high temperature in laboratories
and reduced to exact carbon and that is measured. The objects like leather, hair, cloth,
charcoal, wood and bone can be dated using this method.
The radio carbon method is not free from disadvantages. First of all, it is not possible
to cover a long span of time, not more than 60,000 years. Secondly, radio-carbon level is
generally calculated in terms of present day atmosphere, but we are not sure whether the
same level of radiocarbon was present in the past.
(c) Potassium-Argon method: This method also follows the principle of radio carbon
method. A radioactive form of potassium-40 is utilised here the rate of decay of which is
known. After disintegration, it produces Argon-40 and Calcium-40. Therefore the ratio of
Potassium-Argon may be measured to ascertain the date of minerals and rocks in a deposit.
It does not date fossil specimens directly. The half life of radioactive potassium is 1330
million years. It works well in case of the sites which are 500,000 years or more. So, this
method is quite useful to date very old pre-historic materials. Very old archaeological sites
have been dated by this method. This method is also not free from drawbacks. This method
of dating can be applied to rocks and sediments which are rich in potassium. Such types of
rocks are available only in volcanic areas. Now, you know why potassium-argon method
cannot be applied to the sites of South Africa, while East Africa yields good result.
(d) Thermoluminescence method: This method is related with pottery and minerals.
Thermo-luminescence is the emitted light from pottery, which can be measured. If the
ground-up pottery is heated to about 500 degree Celsius, some sort of light comes out.
This phenomenon is the result of radioactive influence of the metallic element like uranium
and potassium present in the clay and surrounding soil. The geological thermo-luminescence
was driven out at the time of original heating of pottery. But, as the pottery remain further
exposed to a steady natural radiation, it again revives the capacity of thermo-luminescence.
Age of pottery can be determined by measuring this thermo-luminescence.
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is an attempt to locate previously unknown sites in a region. Survey was not widely
practiced by earlier archaeologists. They were mainly interested in discovering the locations
of monumental sites and excavating the visible features.
The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area in foot
or with mechanical devices to search for artifacts visible on surface. We cannot unearth
sites or features buried under earth or overgrown with vegetation.
Computer Aided Mapping
An archaeologist has to acquire map-making skill. Exploration and excavation with
the help of maps is integral part of archaeological research. For map-making, earlier
archaeologists used materials like compass, tap to measure, ruler and pencil.
Under water Archaeology
Underwater archaeology is practiced underwater. It is a lesser developed branch
due to the difficulties of accessing and working underwater sites. The branch was initially
emerged from the skills and tools developed by shipwreck salvagers. This branch of
archaeology studies past human life and cultures under the sea, estuaries and rivers.
Researches in underwater and terrestrial sites are complementary because both consider
economic, geographic, social, political and many other factors related to human life. A
multi-disciplinary approach, incorporating specialists from various disciplines including pre-
history, historical archaeology, maritime archaeology, anthropology are resorted in under
water archaeology. India has realized the importance of its long coaster area, and established
a separate wing for under water archaeology in the Archaeological Survey of India.
1. ............... survey is conducted to study the features in total from a top-down (bird's
eye) view.
2. Underwater archaeology is practiced ...............
Let us sum up
w Archaeological anthropology is that branch of anthropology which deals with past
cultures. The word Archaeology is derived from two Greek words- "arkhaios" meaning
ancient and "logos" meaning study. Archaeological anthropology deals with pre-history.
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Pre-historic cultures did not make use of writing. Pre-historic period constitute over
99% of the human history and form the base for the study of archaeological
anthropology.
w The study of formation of earth and an understanding of the time scale over which
humans developed in pre-historic period is very much important in archaeology. The
whole history of earth can be organized chronologically which is known as geological
time scale. The largest sub division of geological time is recognized as Eras. Each era
includes a number of periods. Periods are again subdivided into epochs. Archaeozoic,
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic are the four eras. The smaller sub-divisions of
eras are called Periods. There are four such periods. They are Primary, Secondary,
Tertiary and Quaternary periods. The sub divisions of the period are labeled as Epochs.
w The last era called Cenozoic is classified into two major periods -Tertiary and
Quaternary. The tertiary period comprises of five epochs namely Paleocene, Eocene,
Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene. The tertiary period is named as 'Age of Mammals'.
The Quaternary period of Cenozoic era is divided into two epochs - Pleistocene and
Holocene. The early forms of modern humans like Homo erectus, Neanderthals, and
Cro-Magnon evolved during this epoch. Humans are, therefore, considered as
Pleistocene animal and Pleistocene epoch is regarded as epoch of humans.
w Tool, artifact, assemblage, industry, site, tradition and culture are the important concepts
in Archaeological Anthropology. A tool is an object especially designed and thoughtfully
made by humans for a particular purpose. An artifact is an object that may or may not
be modified through the working of humans, but bears use mark. A site in archaeology
refers to a specific space where tools and artifacts have been found. Assemblage is a
collection of pre-historic artifacts in one region. Any set of artifacts fashioned or used
by a single human group of pre-historic days is called an industry. If a particular group
of tools are found continuously through time, it may be called as a tool tradition. In
archaeology, culture means the tradition of a broad period. Culture complex refers to
a group of traditions under a single culture in a cluster of sites in a geographical area.
w The entire period of pre-history is divided into three ages- Stone Age, Bronze Age
and Iron Age. Dawn of Stone Age is known as Eolithic. On the basis of technology,
stone tools can be classified into three types. They are: core tools, flake tools and
blade tools. Core tools are of two types - one is single edged core tool and the other
is bi-facial core tools. Core tools are mainly found in lower Palaeolithic period. The
hand-axe tradition contained the core tool cultures. In the case of core tool, the
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nodule becomes the tool, while the flakes are considered as waste products. Blade
tools are very well made flakes.
w For the preparation of a stone tool, different tool making technology is resorted.
Direct percussion method or block-on- block method, indirect percussion method,
controlled percussion method and Grinding and Polishing method were the important
methods. The stone tool making tradition of stone ages can be divided into four.
They are chopper-chopping tradition, hand-axe tradition, flake tradition and blade
tradition. The characteristic tools of the Chopper chopping-tool industry were the
chopper. The hand axe tradition is further sub divided into three cultures namely Pre-
Chellian culture, Chellian or Abbevillian culture and Acheulian culture. The flake tool
tradition is a major tool tradition of the middle Paleolithic period. It is divided into
Clactonian of the lower palaeolithic period and Levalloisian and Mousterian in middle
Palaeolithic period. The blade tool tradition of Upper Palaeolithic comprises of four
cultures namely, Perigordian, Aurignacian, Solutrian and Magdalenian cultures.
w The entire culture of Homo-erectus is termed as lower paleolithic. Core tools and
flake tools were widely used during this period. The core tool cultures have been
transformed into flake tool cultures during Mesolithic period. Pre-historic humans
made great cultural progress during upper palaeolithic period. More specialised
blade tools and bone tools were made during this period. Microliths were the
characteristic tools of Mesolithic age. Humans became food producers in the Neolithic
period.
w India has a strong and rich pre-history. Soan Culture, Madras culture and Bhimbedka
are some of the examples. The megalithic monuments found in different parts of India
are another instance of our rich cultural heritage.
w There are two approaches of establishing the chronology - relative dating and absolute
dating or chronometric dating. Stratigraphy, fluorine analysis, seriation and pollen
analysis are some of the relative dating methods. Dendrochronology, Radio-Carbon
method, Potassium-Argon method and Thermoluminescence method are some of
the absolute dating methods. Aerial Survey (Remote sensing), Ground Survey with
modern equipments, Computer Aided Mapping and Under Water Archaeology are
the modern trends in archaeological excavation.
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5. Fill in the blanks from the options given below and give suitable examples
a) The simplest unit of a culture in anthropology is .........................
Example.........................
b) The simplest unit of a culture in archaeological anthropology is .........................
Example......................... (Options. Industry, trait, artifact, complex,
assemblage, Hand axe, festival, cave art, piano)
6. Arrange the following archaeological materials according to the stages of development.
(Materials: Mousterian flake tool, Aurignacian blades and points, Pottery, Umbrella
stone, Microliths, Acheulian hand axe )
Archaeological stages Materials
1. Megalithic
2. Neolithic
3. Mesolithic
4. Upper Palaeolithic
5. Middle Palaeolithic
6. Lower Palaeolithic
7. Arrange the following from the simple to complex sequence.
(Assemblage, culture, artifact, industry)
8. Identify the term used to denote a place of pre-historic evidence.
Options: (Assemblage, Industry, Site, Culture, Glacier)
9. Arrange the following in a table under Upper Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic, and
Lower Palaeolithic periods.
a) Acheulian tool tradition b) Mousterian tool
c) Emergence of art. d) Post Acheulian tool.
e) Bow and Arrow f) Flake tools.
g) Homo erectus h) Neanderthals.
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UNIT
BASICS OF LINGUISTIC
ANTHROPOLOGY
5
CONTENTS
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we returned to the house, every object which I touched seemed to quiver with life.
That was because I saw everything with the strange new sight that had come to me”.
w This is an account of Helen Keller, an American Political activist, who was the first
deaf and blind person to earn a BA Degree. She became blind and deaf, after a
fever at an early stage of her life. Here, she explains how language reflected thought.
w Have you ever experienced any such mysterious power of language? Did you find
any limitations to language? Share it in your group.
We all, in our infancy, had made different kinds of sounds to denote various objects
around us. It was the early way of our communication. Later, after acquiring language our
communication became more specific and accurate. Since human being is a social animal,
interaction among the members of society is important for a collective living. So in society,
it is important for us to express ourselves and to listen to others.
These are some of the interesting points we shall discuss in this unit ‘Linguistic
anthropology’. The study of culture which forms an important area of anthropology would
be incomplete without understanding the different dimensions of language, because language
is an indispensible part of culture.
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On the other hand, Linguistics studies the origin, development and classification of
language. Linguists quite often focus on written languages and are interested in describing
different languages and grouping them into different language families and subfamilies to
understand the similarities and differences in different languages. Till 19th century, the focus
of this study was classical languages and this branch of knowledge was known as Philology.
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Even though Linguistics and Linguistic anthropology share many aspects in common,
Linguistic anthropology differs in many other respects. Linguistic anthropology studies
languages with an anthropological perspective for which it uses distinctive anthropological
methodology. It examines the origin, development and classification of languages in relation
to different aspect of culture. But Linguistics studies languages as language 'per se' and
as a medium of communication. It studies the origin, development and classification of
language in abstract terms without considering culture. Moreover, Linguistics gives least
importance to anthropological methods.
1. Complete the blank area by identifying the distinctive features of Linguistics and
Linguistic Anthropology
Let us form into different groups and enact a role play on the
theme ‘The World Without Language’
In such a world, we shall find that human life would not be as we live today. It is also
evident that language is not merely a medium of communication but the most significant
factor for development and transmission of culture. In other words language is a vehicle of
culture.
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cannot think of snow as it is implied in English. Thus, Linguistic determinism proposes that
language, to some extent, determines the way we think about the world around. As the
thought pattern changes, the cultural situation of that society also changes accordingly.
b. Language indicates Social Roles and Statuses: In your local language, there may
be different words to denote ‘death’ of a person. The use of these terms may vary according
to caste, gender, age and social status.
Let us find different local terms to denote marriage, house etc. used
among different communities, classes and castes and prepare a
dictionary/report of linguistic variations.
w Have you noticed any difference in the use of language among different groups
depending on caste, gender and class?
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colours. Moreover many individual speakers of the language have to agree on the central
meaning of the word. The number of basic words for colours varies from society to society
(language to language). Berlin and Kay (Basic colour terms 1969) suggest that the number
of basic colour words increases with cultural complexity. More complex societies may
require a large number of basic colour words because they have more decorated objects
that can be effectively distinguished by colour.
d. Language helps to share Cultural Symbols: One of the features of culture is its
nature of shared practice. To ensure this sharing in society, we require the medium of
language. We learn the beliefs and practices of our culture through language.
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You might have identified some special features of animal communication. Your
observation will prove that human communication is distinctive in many respects. Let us
examine some of them.
Non-humans cannot combine their sound units to communicate new meanings.
In contrast in human language the same sounds can be combined and re
combined to form different meanings. As an illustration the sounds usually
represented by the English letters p, t, c, and a have no meanings on -their
own. But they can be used to form meaningful words like pat, tap, cat, apt, act, tact, pact
and so on. The Hawaiian language, with only 13 sound units (phonemes) has almost 3000
words consisting of different combinations of 3 sounds and more than 5 million words
formed by combination of 6 sounds. Phonemes that may have no meanings can be combined
and re combined to form as many meaningful units as people want. Primates and other
animals do not have this ability.
1. Productivity
Human languages are basically flexible and creative. Even small children can create
sentences never heard before. We can express different thoughts, meanings and experiences
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2. Displacement
Field studies and laboratory experiments have proved that meaning of a sound of a
non-human animal is closely related to specific type of stimulus. Thus, a growl or scream of
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a chimpanzee will not happen without a threat. Similarly, parrots can learn to imitate variety
of words. But they cannot substitute or displace one word for another. The capacity for
displacement helps us to communicate with one another using highly abstract concepts. A
chimpanzee will not be able to communicate that “a tiger is coming tonight” or “a tiger
attacked yesterday”. Instead, it can only express about anything experienced at the present
time. But humans can communicate about a situation happened in the past and that are
likely to occur in future. This ability of human language is called displacement. Among
humans, the languages use displaced domains including reference to people and events
that might have never existed at all in the past or would never exist in future.
3. Arbitrariness
Words are not required to have any connection with the objects or abstract symbols
they represent. In English, we say one, two, three… to refer to the numbers. Whereas, in
Hindi, we use ek, do, theen … to denote them. So there is no inherently ‘correct’ words
to denote the numbers. Thus, meanings are assigned to different words arbitrarily.
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the word ‘crying’ is a symbol. It is a combination of sounds to which we assign the meaning
of an action. Whenever we want to communicate this action, we use this combination of
sounds. The alphabets or scripts are the signs in language. These signs are the manifestations
of sounds. Punctuations and other signs used in language also help us to get the meaning of
the symbols correctly.
Philosophers have long recognised that there are different kinds of signs. Immanuel
Kant, in his book Anthropology from a pragmatic point of view (1798), distinguished
arbitrary and natural signs. Letters representing linguistic sounds would be an example
of arbitrary sounds. There is no necessary
relationship between the shape of a particular
letter and the quality of the sound or sounds Broca’s area and
it stands for. The same sound is represented Wernicke’s area
by different letters in another language. A The process of identifying the
letter represents a sound within a language parts of the brain that are involved in
language began in 1861. Paul Broca,
community. That sound is assigned by
a French neurosurgeon and
convention by a community. So it is an anthropologist examined the brain of
arbitrary sign. On the other hand, when the a recently dead patient having an
smoke alerts us about fire, the sign is not unusual disorder. He had been able to
established by convention, but by the understand spoken language and did
not have any disability with mouth or
knowledge of a recurrent natural
tongue. But he could neither speak a
phenomenon. There is a cause and effect complete sentence nor express his
relationship between the sign (smoke) and thoughts in writing. The only
the phenomenon it stands for (fire). Based articulate sound he could make was
on the belief that “if smoke, then fire,” a the syllable “tan”, which had come to
be used as his name. When Broca
person seeing smoke can infer that it might
autopsied Tan’s brain, he found a
come from a nearby fire. These signs are sizable wound in the left inferior
natural signs. But linguistic signs are arbitrary. frontal cortex. Subsequently, Broca
studied eight other patients, all of
As we discussed earlier, linguistic whom had similar language deficits
communication is unique for human beings. along with lesions in their left frontal
Various physiological modifications through hemisphere. This led him to make his
famous statement that “we speak with
evolution have helped us to master this the left hemisphere” It helped him to
achievement. Let us examine the unique identify, for the first time, the existence
physiological characteristics that helped us of a “language center” in the posterior
to speak. portion of the frontal lobe of this
hemisphere. It is now known as Broca’s
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The larynx serves to hold air in the lungs and to control its release. These vocal organs
work in connection with the tongue, lips and nose to produce speech. The nasal cavity, lips
and tongue can regulate or stop the flow of air at any point. It helps us to make vowel and
consonant sounds.
We are lucky to have evolved brain and
In the case of vocal organs, the
modified vocal organs, or else we would
major difference between chimpanzees not be able to speak and use language.
and modern humans is the lower position
of the larynx and consequent lengthening
of the upper vocal tract in humans. This
change is said to have occurred through evolution. It has enabled humans to speak
languages.
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change in the meaning. The study of sound pattern in language is done under a branch of
study called Phonetics/Phonology. It is the systematic identification and description of
the distinctive sounds of a language.
2. Morpheme
Usually, the phonemes are combined with other phonemes to form a meaningful set
of sounds. Often, these meaningful set of sounds make up what we call words. Words may
be composed of a number of smaller meaningful units. This combination of meaningful
sounds is called Morpheme. Thus, it is the arrangement of phonemes that makes a
morpheme. It is Morphology that studies about the morphemes in a language. People do
not usually pause between words when they speak. If we did not know our language, a
sentence would seem like a continuous stream of sounds. We separate one word from
another only when we write it. A word is only an arbitrary sequence of sounds that has a
meaning. We would not ‘hear’ words as separate units, if do not know the particular
language.
Just as phoneme may have one or more phones (sounds), one or more morphs
(smallest unit of language with a meaning) with the same meaning may make up a morpheme.
For example the prefix ‘in’ as in ‘indefinite’ and the prefix ‘un’ in ‘unclear’ are morphs
that belong to the morpheme meaning ‘not’. Although some words are single morphemes,
many words are built on a combination of morphemes. For example ‘cow’ is a word with
a single morpheme but the word ‘cows’ contains two meaningful units. A root – cow and
a suffix ‘s’ pronounced ‘z’ meaning more than one.
3. Syntax
As language is an open system, we can make meaningful sounds that we heard
earlier. But in every language there are certain rules for making phrases and sentences.
These rules are termed syntax. These rules determine whether a subject is to be before or
after a verb or an object follows a verb etc. We generally learn these rules from schools.
But children know many of them before going to school.
4. Semantics
Semantics is the study of the meanings of symbols, words, phrases and sentences of
a language. Linguistic anthropologists focus on the meaning of language as it is related to
beliefs and patterns of thoughts in different societies. Separate area has evolved to study
about meanings of concepts and terms, like kinship terms and other cultural phenomena.
This special field is known as Ethno-Semantics. Ethno-semantics is very much related to,
if not similar to Cognitive Anthropology.
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It would be interesting to find out the changes that have occured in the usages,
wordings, layout and many other linguistic factors over time. The linguistic features may
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sometimes help to analyse the changing social situation. Historical Linguistics is concerned
with the study of this area. Historical linguistics is the study of origin and changes of
language over time and the historical relationship among different languages.
The field of historical linguistics started as early as 1786. During this time, Sir William
Jones identified certain similarities between different languages of the world. He suggested
that there are linguistic similarities among Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, German, and English. It
indicates a common ancestral origin of all these languages. It was considered that all these
languages are part of one single family, the Indo-European. They even share some words
and grammar. For example, the English word ‘three’, is trayas in Sanskrit, tres in Latin,
tries in Greek and drei in German. Thus, scholars generally agree that the Indo European
languages derive from one language spoken about 5000 to 6000 years ago. This ancestral
form of Indo European language is called Proto-Indo European ((PIE). The languages that
are included in the proto-Indo- European language family is given in the chart.
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Human infants are born with the ability to speak. But they are not pre-programmed
to speak a particular language after like English or Malayalam. We learn our culture through
the process of enculturation. Similarly, we learn the phonemes and morphemes of a particular
language after being exposed to that. Different scholars have proposed different ideas
regarding acquisition of language.
V. Language Acquisition
There are different views regarding the acquisition of language. One of the widely
accepted proposi-tions was put forth by an American linguist Noam Chomsky. Noam
Chomsky examines how people acquire grammar. Most people actually cannot state the
rules of language. But they use these rules to form understandable sentences. According to
Chomsky, all children acquire these complex rules readily. They
do not feel any difficulty in producing meaningful statements even
though they did not learn the grammar rules. Thus, Chomsky
proposes that humans are born with a brain pre-wired that enable
language acquisition. Chomsky calls this pre-wiring as Universal
Grammar. The universal grammar serves like a model. The
universal grammar of human mind helps the child to acquire any
language and to produce sentences never heard before.
Anthropologists had earlier assumed that languages could
vary in different areas. Chomsky also opines that there is a critical Fig. 5.5 Noam Chomsky
period for the acquisition of language. It is the period
for the acquisition of language between birth and the Noam Chomsky is an
starting of puberty. During this time language American Linguist and
acquisition must happen. If children are not philosopher. He was born
acquainted with language, during this period, they on December 7, 1928. His theory of
may never be able to acquire it. Or they may be transformational generative grammar
able to learn language only in its rudimentary form. changed the cognitive and linguistic
science. The basis of Chomsky’s
linguistic theory is that the principles
Don’t worry about learning a
foreign language. Our brain is underlying the structure of language
designed in a way to learn any are biologically determined in the
language. human mind. So it is transmitted
genetically. He argues that all humans
share the same underlying linguistic
structure.
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Chomsky believes that the human brain contains genetically programmed blue prints
or modules for language learning. It enables children to learn language as part of his/her
growth. Human languages appear in greatest diversity but Chomsky opines that they are
more alike than different. In a hypothetical situation, a Martian linguist visiting earth, will
consider that all humans speak different dialects of human language.
Apart from linguistic communication, we also use our body parts for conveying
messages. Facial expressions, gestures, body movements etc. are involved in another type
of communication termed non-verbal communication.
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Some times to get the attention of others, instead of calling them, we make some
sounds. Use of sounds, not in the form of language, also helps us to communicate. Let us
examine this type of communication in detail.
VII. Para-Language
Para language involves the communication based on the modulation and variation of
sound. Here sound is not used as a property of language.
There are no signs to these sounds, as used in language.
Thus, para - language involves vocalisations like giggling,
groaning, gasps, yawns, sighing etc. Para-language considers
‘how one said’ rather than ‘what is said’.
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background characteristics of a speaker’s voice. These involve pitch range, lip control,
rhythm control, glottis control, tempo etc. Slurred speech of an intoxicant is an instance
how voice changes in certain situations. The use of words rapidly, with increasing pitch
indicates that the speaker is genuinely excited about the matter. The second instance is
Vocalisation. Rather than background characteristics, these are actual identifiable noises.
The sounds of crying, yelling, whispering and yawning are the examples of vocalisation.
Gasp is the sudden and sharp inhalation of air through the mouth. It
may indicate emotion of surprise, shock or disgust. Sigh, yawn, moan
etc. also indicate a particular emotional and physiological state. A
sigh is deep and especially audible, exhalation of air out of the mouth or nose. It
communicates positive emotions such as relief particularly in response to some
negative situation.
We can realise that many of the cultural practices of earlier times have changed very
much. Some of them have completely disappeared. Did you notice such a change in
languages? Did you find any change in your mother tongue? There are campaigns to save
Malayalam. Most often this change was due to the over importance given to other languages
and subsequent disregard to the mother tongue. But there has also been a cry for a global
language in the globalised world.
As students of anthropology, we are concerned with the task of identifying the
disappearing languages, because any change in language, in turn, affects the related culture
as well. We are expected to develop a positive attitude to document and if possible take
efforts to preserve them as well. Franz Boas, the pioneering American anthropologist
advocated for documentation of languages and cultural traditions that seemed on the verge
of extinction. This enterprise is activated under Salvage Anthropology. An insight into the
vanishing languages may help you in this regard. Let us examine it in detail.
VIII. Language Loss and Revival
There are more than 5000 languages distributed throughout the world. But a large
number of these languages disappeared over time. Perhaps the most powerful force for
linguistic change is the domination of one society over another. Five hundred years of
European colonisation was one such instance. In many cases, foreign political control has
resulted in linguistic erosion or a complete disappearance of a language.
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It is estimated that over the last 500 years, about 3500 languages have become
extinct. In Western Europe, hundreds of languages disappeared due to the expansion of
agricultural empires. Rulers of these empires imposed their language on conquered people.
In the course of the expansion of Roman Empire many tribal languages disappeared. They
were replaced by Latin. When Columbus discovered America, there existed more than
2000 languages among different Native American people. But most of these local languages
disappeared due to the Spanish and British invasion of this area. Different factors like
warfare, epidemics or forced assimilation may have been the cause for it. Anthropologists
predict that the number of languages spoken today will be reduced to half by the year
2100.
Children born in ethnic minority groups are no longer using their ancestral language
at schools or workplaces. In complex societies, there is the tendency to learn and practice
a single commonly shared language. Flourishing of information technology, popularisation
of internet and short messages in cell phones promote global spread of one common
language, English. It helps people from different ethnic background to communicate. But
there is the risk of disappearance of other languages too. Today, internet content exists
only in limited number of languages.
Internet really is a powerful tool for maintaining and enhancing disappearing languages.
UNESCO has started some positive steps to ensure linguistic and cultural diversity. Promotion
of multilingualism on the internet is one among them. It helped to bridge the digital divide.
UNESCO’s Constitution includes the maintenance and perpetuation of language diversity
as a basic principle:
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We all share the responsibility of ensuring that no language disappears and that all
languages are maintained and perpetuated for the future generations. The reason why we
must fortify the diversity of language is, indeed, captured by a Navajo elder:
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2. Identify different nonverbal cues of communication and examine the changes according
to the cultural differences.
3. Prepare a note listing out your arguments for the need to revive the endangered
languages.
Let us sum-up
w Linguistic anthropology is the study of language as part of social life. It considers
language, as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice. Linguistic
anthropologists employ the methods and techniques used in anthropology. The scope
of linguistic anthropology includes the structure of language, its properties, the origin
and evolution of language and language families.
w The core vocabulary of language is directly related to the culture of the concerned
group. It is very much evident that language to some extent determines the way of
people’s thinking and their world view. This concept of linguistic determinism is
associated to the research of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf. Their proposition
is named as Sapir Whorf hypothesis. Language also is related to the social roles
and status. People using a particular language may use it differently according to the
social statuses, gender and class. Language also acts as the medium for sharing
cultural symbols and transmitting culture from generation to generation. The processes
of enculturation, acculturation, and cultural diffusion are also influenced by language.
w One of the features of human communication is the ability of productivity. Human
beings, different from other animals can make necessary changes in communication
style according to the situation. They can also displace the words to a different time
and situation. We can speak about the events of past, present and future while
animals can communicate only about the present.
w The symbols used in linguistic communication do not have any universal meaning.
But meaning is assigned to each symbol by particular societies. Different biological
modifications helped us to use language. The changes occurred in human brain and
the vocal organs enabled us to speak.
w Structural linguistics deals with the properties of language like phoneme, morpheme,
syntax etc. Another area is Historical linguistics that examines the historical evolution
of language and how it varies from one another. Historical linguists classify all languages
into different language families on the basis of their lineage.
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w Compare the features of Linguistic anthropology with that of Linguistics and evaluate
the relationship between language and culture?
w Analyse the language acquisition capacity of humans, evaluate the contribution of
Noam Chomsky and analyse the structure of language.
w Identify the development of language, judge changes in language over time and
analyse the structure of language?
w Realise the need to protect the endangered language and to revive the lost one?
w Identify the increasing scope of nonverbal communication and para- linguistics and
delineate the role of non-verbal communication in contemporary situation?
w Judge the physiological modifications that helped human to speak and to analyse the
distinctiveness of human communication.
Evaluation Items
a. Study of the mutual influence between language and culture :Ethno linguistics
Study of the relationship between language and society : ........................
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UNIT
MARRIAGE 6
FAMILY AND KINSHIP
Introduction
CONTENTS
I Marriage
Cultural anthropology is concerned
· Definitions of Marriage with different social institutions like economic
· Forms of Marriage organisation, political organisation, religious
· Functions of Marriage organisation and family. Among these, family
· Origin and Evolution of Marriage is the smallest and basic social unit. Family
· Universality of Marriage involves different relationships among its
· Universal Definition of Marriage
members. It can be either based on marriage
· Rules of Marriage
· Ways of Acquiring Spouse or blood relationship. For the formation of
· Marriage Payments a social unit, like family, marriage forms the
base element.
II Family
· Definitions of Family
Among the Bhil (a tribal group of
· Forms of Family
· Functions of Family
Rajastan), during the holy festival, young
· Universality of Family men and women dance round a pole or a
· Universal Definition of Family tree, to the top of which a coconut and a
III Descent
piece of jaggery are tied. The women
· Rules of Authority make an inner ring of dancers and men
· Kin Groups make the outer ring. The trial of strength
IV Kinship
begins when a young man from outer
· Types of Kinship circle breaks into the inner circle of
· Kinship Symbols and Abbreviation women dancers and climbs the pole or
· Rules of Residence tree to eat the jaggery and break open
· Degrees of Kinship the coconut. The women dancers may
· Kinship Terminology resist the young man's efforts by pulling
· Kinship Behaviour
him down, by striking him with broom
sticks, by tearing at his clothes and hair.
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Among religious groups, marriage outside the caste or clan (gotra) is still considered
as sin or taboo. It often results either in outcasting the members involved or in killing them.
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In many situations, may results in riot and communal unrest. All these show that marriage
is not a simple process but involves complex procedures like mate selection, rules and
regulation and residence pattern. However, marriage as an institution exists in all societies
in one form or other. So it is a cultural universal. It will be interesting to know the following:
w How did marriage evolve?
w Why should one marry?
w How many partners one should have?
w What are the rules of mate selection?
I Marriage
Generally, marriage as institution regulates
sexual relationship among humans. It gives cultural
sanction and social approval to the union between Patrilocal Residence
males and females. In the mountains of the
Hindu Kush Himalayan
It is an established fact that every human region the male domination in the
society; from the most simple to the most society is prevalent. The main pattern
complex, has the institution of marriage. of living is Patrilocal Residence. Once
However, cross-cultural variation exists regarding couples are married, the women are
its form and nature. The various definitions of forced to live with the husband and the
rest of his family. Marriages are
marriage reveal these variations. Hence, in order generally arranged by the parents.
to have a comprehensive understanding of
marriage, we have to look into the various
definitions of marriage.
Definitions of Marriage
w "A universal institution that involves residential, cohabitation, economic co-operation
and formation of nuclear family" - G.P. Murdock (An American anthropologist)
w "A relationship between a woman and one or more other persons, which provides
that a child born to the woman under circumstances not prohibited by the rules of
relationship is accorded full birth status, rights common to normal members of his
society for social stratum" - Kathleen Gough, British anthropologist.
w "As a relation of one or more men to one or more women which is recognized by
custom or law and involves certain rights and duties both in the case of parties
entering the union and in the case of children born of it" - Westermarck, Finnish
anthropologist.
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w "Marriage is a union between a man and a woman, such that children born to the
woman are recognized as legitimate offspring of both the parents" (Notes and Quieries
in Anthropology; 1951).
A close examination of the above definitions will yield some of the features of marriage.
Features of Marriage:
w Marriage is a universal institution.
w It satisfies biological and psychological needs.
w It ensures economic co-operation.
w It establishes co-operation in the daily life of family.
w …………………………………
w ………………………………
Analyse these definitions and try to list out the other features of
marriage and formulate a definition to it.
Generally there are two forms of marriage, namely, monogamy and polygamy which
are commonly seen all over the world. Here, the form of marriage depends upon the
number of spouses involved in the marriage. Different forms and sub-forms of marriage
are given in the following chart.
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(a) Polygyny is the sub-form of polygamy in which male has multiple wives at any time.
Naga, Baiga and Gond are some of the tribes who practice polygyny. Polygyny
exists in two types: sorroral polygyny and non-sorroral polygyny.
Sorroral polygyny is a form of polygyny in which the multiple wives of a male are
sisters. Sororal polygyny was practiced by the tribes of Andaman Islands, the Kanikkar,
and Urali tribes of Kerala.
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of this form of marriage has been referred to by some scholars as polygynandry. Eskimos
in northern Alaska is an example for this form of marriage.
3. Distinguish between
w polygyny and polyandry
w sorroral and non sorroral polygyny
w fraternal and non fraternal polyandry
w serial and non- serial monogamy
Read the beliefs of Chukchi and Eskimos given in the box. Like this situation, there
are many culture-specific beliefs about the marital relationship between man and woman in
patrilineal, patriarchal societies.
Why should one marry? It has to fulfill certain functions. What are the functions
fulfilled through marriage?
Let us examine.
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Functions of marriage
Chukchi of Siberia say a man needs a
Some of the major functions woman to dress the meat and skins of the
game he kills, to cook
of marriage are given below: food and to make clothing, and
therefore a man and a woman are
w Biological function united. The Eskimo(Inuit) man
w Economic function from Baffinland, a Canadian island
in Arctic Ocean marry because,
w Social function
women have to do rowing of the
large boats while men have to steer
Biological functions the boats.
Like other species, human Source: M .Sooryanarayana – Fig. 6.2 Chukchi
beings must mate in order to ‘An Introduction to Social Anthropology‘Page.44
reproduce themselves. Sex is one
of the basic needs of human individual. Through the bond of marriage, mating, reproduction
and child rearing is regulated. It also ensures psychological satisfaction of having children.
It is through reproduction that human species are replicated. This requires a stable union
between male and female. Thus marriage serves a biological function.
Economic functions
Marriage provides proper environment for economic co-operation. It is not possible
for human being to organize livelihood single-handedly. Marriage is one way to solve the
problem. The institution of marriage solves the problem of work-load among the members
of the family. Marriage, thus, facilitates division of labour between members. This institution
of marriage performs economic function in the form of bringing economic co-oporation
between man and woman.
Social functions
Marriage is always to acquire new kins. Through marriage one adds not only a
spouse but most of the relatives of spouse to one's own kin group. Institution of marriage
formulates person to person relation and linking of one's kin group to another kin group.
Thus, it helps to widen the web of social relationships.
Is marriage meant to satisfy the biological needs along? If yes, any male cannot
marry any female. However, it is not possible because, there are certain rules and regulation
in selecting mates prescribed by the society.
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Dependence regarding procreation and child rearing can be observed among human
as well as non-human organisms also. How is this dependency addressed? Among some
animals, females after child birth, can simultaneously
feed themselves and their babies without the
The Malabar Grey Hornbills
assistance of a male partner. They do not have stable are not capable of making
mating. Animal species that have no feeding problem, their own nest to lay eggs.
after birth, need not have permanent mating. Their So, they find trees with large
cavities for laying eggs during the breed-
babies like calves immediately after birth are able to ing seasons. This species prefered such
travel along with their mothers or like baboons and nests in large trees as an adaptation to
kangaroos, the mothers can carry these babies as they protect their eggs and offspring from
move on. predators. This species is monogamous,
which means they have only one life
mate. The same nest is used by the pair
Contrary to this, the female hornbills after child year after year. The female hornbill locks
birth, cannot feed themselves nor their babies. So they up herself within the cavity by sealing
require a mate to look after the mother and baby in its entrance with the cement made from
her droppings. She then lays three or
some occasions. Hence, stable mating is an four eggs and begins a complete moult
adaptation. The male hornbill collects food and of her flight feathers. The entrance to
watches the nest. Read more in the trivia. the nest retains a narrow hole through
which the female receives food and re-
w How does the permanent mating relationship move excreta from the nest. The male
among the horn bills become helpful to them? brings all the food needed for the fe-
male and for the young ones. He looks
w Can you site instances of similar types of long after them like a responsible husband
lasting emotional bond among other animals? and father. Male knocks the tree as a
signal of his arrival with food. The food
items are being passed to the female
Among the human beings, especially in the early through the hole. In case the female and
stages of human evolution, the females had the the offspring or eggs are destroyed by
problem of food collection after delivery. In food the predators, the male hornbill will not
take any food and he starves to death.
collecting societies, the mother could not engage in If anything happens to the male horn-
hard work like gathering and hunting along with their bill, the female hornbill will die in the
infants. In such situations, she requires stable and lock up (nest). The ‘emotional bond ‘be-
tween male and female hornbill is like
continuous assistance from a mate. Thus stable mating that of husband and wife.
becomes important for such a collective living. This
stable mating situation led to the establishment of the
institution of marriage among the humans from the
early period. Thus, marriage, as an institution, has
undergone changes and evolved to the present form
through various stages of its development. The food
problems after delivery had forced the humans into a Fig. 6.3 Hornbill
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relatively stable male-female bond, which materialized, in the course of time, into the
institution of marriage.
Marriage in some form or other exists in all human societies. Most anthropologists
agree that the institution of marriage gradually evolved from one form to another in successive
stages. The earliest form of marriage was the promiscuous relationship between male and
female. It gradually evolved through different stages to reach the current stage of monogamy.
However, it may be noted that the stages of evolutions of marriage proposed by some
scholars are not based on any evidences, but are mere historical speculation. L.H Morgan
an American anthropologist suggests the following sequence in the evolution of marriage.
Sexual Promiscuity: According to Morgan, in the early period of human life there was
no formal institution of marriage. But there was no restriction among the members in the
society regarding sexual relationship. It is believed that there might have existed an unregulated
animal-like sexual anarchy. Since there was no restriction upon sexual relationship, the
status and role of father was not relevant in the family.
Group marriage: Group marriage was the next stage in the evolution of marriage. In
certain cases all the brothers of a family married all the sisters of another family. This is an
instance of group marriage. However, there was restriction upon sex relationship with
persons of other group. Group marriage was followed by polygamy in which one could
have multiple spouses at a time. Monogamy is the latest stage of the evolution of marriage
where an individual has single spouse at a given time.
In short, men and women used to live together in the past and maintaned sex relation
with one another. The men in course of time became the protectors and food gatherers,
while women's job remained confined to giving birth and rearing of children. Later, due to
intra-group conflict, the unit with a pair of adult men and women came into being. The
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bond was strengthened by the custom and regulations, thus letting marriage to become
institutionalised in human society.
We can safely conclude that marriage is culture-specific. Purpose of marriage varies
from society to society and the institution of marriage is found in all societies. Thus marriage
is an universal institution.
Universality of Marriage
The institution of marriage exists in almost all societies though the customs related to
it remains varied. However, how does one marry? Whom does one marry? How can a
person marry at a time? Answer to these varies from society to society. The religious
communities, castes and tribes in India, present a complex society of rules and customs of
marriage. The pictures ( figure 6.1) shown demonstrate some of these peculiarities.
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Seligman and Kathleen Gough. Do you think these definitions are applicable to all societies?
There are evidences of societies like that of traditional Nairs of Kerala, who practice
sambandam type marriage. Among them husbands and wives used to live separately.
They do not have economic co-operation and do not form the basis of nuclear family. The
marriage among Nairs is peculiar that, it hardly fits in to these definitions which are supposed
to be universal.
Rules of marriage
The rules of marriage can be categorised into prescriptive and preferential. This
can be expressed in a chart:
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(a) Prescriptive rules guide whom a person can marry. It refers to the do's and don'ts
of marriage. It can be in the form of Exogamy and Endogamy
Endogamy: It is the rule, which compels the members of a group to marry within the
caste, tribe, and religion. All the tribes and caste groups are endogamous. This means a
man with a particular tribal identity marries a woman from his own tribal group.
Reasons behind practicing endogamy are:
w People prefer their own group as the group shows more or less similar physical
characteristics.
w Concepts of high and low rank between groups
w Differences in religion lead to differences in norms and values.
Exogamy: It is the general rule of marriage which
insists on a person to marry outside his or her kin or An extreme example of
endogamy is India’s caste
a territory. A family, clan and lineage are some of system, which was formally
the exogamous groups and village exogamy is the abolished in 1949. Castes are
rule in the North Indian population. There are stratified groups in which membership is
definite reasons for practising exogamy: ascribed at birth and lifelong. Indian caste
is grouped into five categories or Varna.
w Kin group members are considered as blood
Each is ranked relative to the other four,
relatives. Therefore marriage within the group and these categories extend throughout
members is considered as marriage among India. Each Varna includes large number
brothers and sisters. of sub castes (jati) each of which includes
w Attraction gets lost due to close relationship people within a region who may intermarry.
Occupational specialisation often sets off
in a small group. one caste from another. A community may
include caste of agricultural workers,
(b) Preferential rules: Under preferential rule merchants, artisans, priest and sweepers.
of marriage, a person is expected to prefer The untouchable varna includes sub caste
certain categories of relatives over other whose ancestry, ritual status and
categories of relatives, for marriage. Parallel occupational status are considered so
cousin marriage, cross cousin marriage, impure that higher caste people consider
uncle-niece (Elder Sister's daughter) even casual contact with untouchables to
be defiling. The beliefs that inter-caste
marriage, levirate and sorrorate are the best sexual unions leads to ritual impurity for
examples of preferential marriages. the higher caste partner has been
important in maintaining endogamy.
Cross cousin marriage is the marriage which
occurs between the cousins whose parents are Source : Conrad Philip Kottak, p- 407
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brothers and sisters. A person's cross cousins include his father's sister's children (paternal
cross cousins) on the one side, and his mother's brother's children (maternal cross cousin)
on the other side.
Parallel Cousin marriage refers to the marriage between the children of the sibling of the
same sex. This includes marriage between children of brothers, and between children of
sisters.
Sorrorate is a custom by which a man is obliged to marry the sister of his deceased
wife.The term Sorrorate originates from the Latin word sorror means sister
Levirate is a custom by which a woman is obliged to marry the brother of her deceased
husband. If the widow remarries her husband's younger brother, it is called junior levirate.
If the widow remarries her husband's elder brother, it is called senior levirate. The term
Levirate originates from latin word Levir means brother.
Uncle-niece (Elder Sister's daughter) marriage is a custom by which the girl marries
her maternal uncle (mother's brother).
In traditional India there were certain other rules regarding marriage, as follows:
Hypergamy (Anuloma) is a situation whereby an upper social group man is permitted to
marry a lower social group woman. In this system, man does not lose his caste/ social
status or ritual purity. The elements of hypergamy are manifested in a different form at
present.
Hypogamy (Pratiloma) is a situation where a higher social group woman marries a
lower social group man. In this system, woman loses her original caste/ social status and
is held as ritually impure. So it was restricted by the then prevailing social rule.
Incest taboo is the most universally prohibited sexual relationship among close
kins. It prohibits mating between father-daughter, mother-son, and brother-sister. Prohibition
of sex relations between such primary kins is called incest taboo. In traditional societies,
violation of incest taboo leads to punishment from nature. Any violation of incest taboo is
treated as an offense and severe punishment is given to the offender.
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1. Distinguish between
(a) Endogamy and Exogamy
(b) Levirate and Sorrorate
(c) Hypergamy and Hypogamy
(d) Parallel cousin and cross cousin marriage
2. Mention any two reasons behind practicing endogamy and exogamy
3. Examine the functions fulfilled through marriage?
4. Find out the different forms of marriage in your area and examine the group who
practice this marriage. Prepare a discussion note and present in the class.
In India, marriages are generally arranged either by consultation with the elders or
with the approval of the society. Social sanction was necessary for marriage. Those who
violate the norms or rules would be penalised. The way of mate selection is different in
different societies. Moreover it has undergone great many changes over the years. Let us
go through different ways of acquiring spouse that prevail in different societies.
Acquiring mate refers to the manner in which a spouse is selected. It is the procedure
or method of finding or obtaining a wife or husband. Is the way of spouse selection uniform
in all societies? Have you noticed any difference? Let us discuss this topic. In some
societies people are free to choose their partners but in some other, individuals are restricted
from selecting partners by themselves. Marriages are arranged by their parents and kinsmen.
Consideration regarding age and personal qualities sometimes influence spouse selection.
Different ways of spouse selection that prevailed are the following.
w Acquiring spouse by negotiation
w Acquiring spouse by exchange
w Acquiring spouse by trial
w Acquiring spouse by elopement
w Acquiring spouse by probation
w Acquiring spouse by intrusion
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Acquiring spouse by Trial: Here, the boy has to prove his qualities of courage and
bravery for choosing a mate of his choice. Story of the Rama - Sita swayamvara is a good
example for this type of marriage`. Here Rama breaks the bow 'thrayambaka' for acquiring
Sita. Such practice is now widespread among the Bhils of Central India.
Acquiring spouse by probation: This is the marriage where bride groom is allowed to
stay in the bride's house, a few days before the marriage. It involves consent of girl's
parents besides the consent of girl herself. Otherwise they separate and for the second
situation the boy has to compensate the girl's parents with cash payment. Such way of
acquiring spouse is found in Kuki community.
Acquiring spouse by Intrusion: Here, a girl forces a boy to accept her as his spouse.
When a girl is fond of a boy who does not want her to marry, she herself intrudes in his
house and begins to stay there without the permission of his family members. The girl has
to face harsh treatment, is often beaten, turned out and refused food, but she refuses to
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abandon her intension, and finally she is accepted as the legal wife of the boy. This is
observed among the tribes like Birhor and Ho.
Acquiring spouse by capture: Here, the boy carries away the girl by force and marries
her. It is of two forms Physical capture and Ceremonial capture. In physical capture a
boy adopts a procedure whereby he carries away the girl by force and marries her. In
ceremonial capture, a boy adopts a procedure whereby he surprises the girl by marking
her forehead with a symbol of marriage. Ceremonial Capture takes place among the Kharias
and Birhors. Mock capture is also practiced in Africa, Melanesia and China.
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Dowry: Dowry is the compulsory payment from bride's family to the groom or to the
groom's family. Dowry includes goods or money or both. Expensive ornaments, clothing,
and other useful materials are often offered to the groom or groom's family by bride's
family. It indicates the special position of bridegroom in the society. In India, the custom of
dowry system in some form or other is prevalent, though it is legally prohibited. Often
there has been bride burning or dowry deaths caused by this system.
Bride Wealth
The custom of making payments to the bride's parents by the groom/ family is common
in most societies. This custom is called as 'bride wealth' which was earlier referred to as
'bride price'.
w The Oraons of Chotanagpur take cloths for bride and her relatives.
w Nuer of South Africa take cattle.
w Nagas take baskets of paddy.
Activity
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Conduct a survey in the locality to find out the gravity of the problem
of divorce. Based on the data collected, a report can be prepared
and presented in the form of a seminar.
Now you know that marriage is a union, between a male and a female sanctioned by
the society. It is an institution seen in all societies. It varies in its forms, rules and in marriage
payments. Many anthropologists have defined marriage but it is impossible to arrive at a
universal definition which is fit to all societies. Marriage leads to the formation of family.
II Family
Read the instance of Israel Kibbutz system given in the box. The Kibbutz is a social
group in Israel. Members in the group share an emotional attachment with co-operative
and collaborative living. But they are not formed based on kin relationship. In our society,
a group which is based on the basis of kin relationship is called family. Do you think Israel
Kibbutz is a family? What differentiate Israeli Kibbutz from family? What are the differences
between a family in your area and that of Kibbutz? To answer these questions let us
examine the meaning and definition of a family.
A family is the basic social unit of human society. The nature and the structure of the
family vary from society to society. Basically a family is a social and economic unit consisting
of parents and their children. Members of the family have certain rights, norms and
obligations. The interpersonal relationship within the family makes the family an endurable
social unit. Family members usually live in a single household. It provides a learning
environment for children. Thus, a family is a universal institution that exists in all societies
while it varies in its forms and types.
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Definition of Family
Israel Kibbutz system
Like marriage, family also has been defined
by many anthropologists. Let us go through Israel Kibbutz is a
collective engaged in joint
different definitions. farming. It is a small society of people
w "A family is a social group characterized who live together according to socialist
by common residence, economic co- principle of equality. Each member of
the Kibbutz is treated as equal. They
operation and reproduction. It includes both work together for the good of all. A
sexes, at least two of whom maintain a small percentage of Israeli population
socially approved sexual relationship, and lives in Kibbutz. A study revealed that
one or more children, own or adopted" - out of 3,000 marriages only 14 of them
were between children from the same
George Peter Murdock, An American group of Kibbutz. Of those 14, none
anthropologist. (1957, World ethnographic has been reared together during the
sample). first six years of life. However
Anthropologists have criticised the
w "A family in general is a group based on validity of this effect that childhood
marriage and marriage contract, including proximity cannot, in itself, produce
recognition of the rights and duties of sexual avoidance, without existence of
social norms. That means, social norms
parenthood, common residence for husband play an important role in family maker.
wife and children and reciprocal economic Children were encultured in gender
obligation between husband and wife" - equality, communal way of life and
William Newton Stephens, an American other process of socialization. Formal
education was also provided in
anthropologist. Kibbutz. The Kibbutz wanted to give
w "Family is a group based on marital women the opportunity to continue
their work in the agricultural sector and
relations, rights and duties of parenthood, industrial sector. As such communal
common habitation, and reciprocal relations education is the first step towards
between parent and children" - Robert H woman’s liberation. They created the
Lowie, an American anthropologist. communal Children’s Houses where the
children would spend most of their time,
List out the features of a family learning, playing and sleeping. Parents
spent 3 to 4 hours a day in the afternoon
evident from the above definitions. with their children after work and before
dinner. In the children’s houses, trained
w Common habitation nurses and teachers were the care-
w Emotional relationship givers.
w …………………………..
w ………………………..
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Forms of Family
Broadly, there are two types of families namely, Nuclear family and Composite
family.
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(b) Extended family consists of two or more nuclear families formed by parent-child
relationship. Depending on the residence after marriage, the extended family is
divided into patrilocal family, matrilocal family, avanculocal family and bilocal family.
(i) Patrilocal family consists of two or more nuclear families formed as a result of
father-son relationship. It consists of parents, their sons, sons' wives and their
children.
(ii) Matrilocal family consists of two or more nuclear families formed as a result
of mother- daughter relationship. It consists of the parents, their daughters,
daughters' husbands and children.
(iii) Bilocal extended family consists of two or more nuclear family formed through
patrilocal and matrilocal families.
(iv) Avanculocal family consists of two or more nuclear families formed through
the relationship of maternal uncle and sister's son.
There is difference of opinion regarding the merits and demerits of joint and nuclear
families. Debate on this point.
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With the passage of time, family has undergone changes gaining and loosing various
shapes and characteristics. The present stage of economic and cultural development has
posted some new challenges to the institution of family. Most of the traditional joint families
have changed over to small nuclear family. Even though, the structure of family has undergone
changes, there are not many changes in the functions of family. In spite of the changes in
structure, family as an institution continues to exist all over the world.
As a family requires residential cohabitation, there are certain rules regarding the
residence after marriage. Couples most often live along with the parents of the groom.
But the type of residence differs from culture to culture. Let us examine them.
Check your progress
1. Analyse different families and find out the different forms and residential types of
family in your area
2. Distinguish between,
w Nuclear and composite family
w Polygamous and extended family
w Polygynous and polyandrous family
w Patrilocal and matrilocal family
w Avunculocal and amitalocal residence
You know that the basic unit of society is family. If it is so, it originates with varieties
of functions. Let us now discuss about the functions of family.
Functions of Family
Like marriage family has also distinct functions, which can be categorized as the
following
w Economic functions
w Biological functions
w Psychological functions
w Educational functions
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Economic functions: The family has certain economic functions to perform. It takes care
of the primary needs such as food, shelter and clothing of the individuals. Distinct division
of labour can also be seen among the family members. In most human societies, the men
undertake outside the domestic sphere while women tend to perform routine works such
as caring the child, domestic chores, etc. what is your opinion about the sex-based division
of labour? Are there anything called masculine and feminine works? What are its
implications? Is it universal? Does it have any sanctity? What is your experience from your
observation of the contemporary society?
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Universality of Family
Like marriage, family is also a cultural universal. The concept of family exists in all
societies in the world. All societies have parent-child social groups, but the form and size
of family varies from society to society. Moreover, there exist different types of families
even within societies. Families vary in structure. The nature of a family is both permanent
and temporary. Family is permanent as an institution but in its organizational aspect it is
transitory. The institution of family never dies out, even if there are changes in it.
As cited earlier, different scholars have given different definitions of family. Do you
think all these definitions are applicable to all the family grouping among different human
populations? Let us examine it.
Universal Definitions of Family
You know that family is universal in the sense that it can be seen in all societies and
in all cultures. If family is universal, which definition could be considered as universal and
applicable to all societies? Let us recollect the definitions.
Can we consider Murdock's definition as universal or the definitions of Stephens?
These definitions give importance to marriage, common residence, reproduction and
reciprocal relations between parents and children. Do you think these are the only criteria
for a group to be regarded as family? Only a few families fulfill the above criteria. For
example among the traditional Nairs of Kerala practicing Sambandam relationship, common
residence and economic co-operation are absent and are not compulsory to form a family.
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Thus it is evident that a universal definition applicable to the families of all the societies
is not possible. So, scholars have given different definitions according to the cultural situations
and social practices.
Different family members may share a common ancestry. They can trace relationship
from a remote common ancestor. Such a sentiment helps them to form a larger group
comprising of different families. Let us examine such larger grouping with kin relations and
how they share the 'we' feeling among them.
III Descent
A descent group is a permanent social unit whose members consider they have
ancestors in common. Its members believe, they share and descend from those common
ancestors. This group persists even though its members changes by birth and death.
Membership of descent is determined by birth and is lifelong. Descent groups frequently
are exogamous.
The rules which affiliate each person to a particular and definable set of kin are
called rules of descent. Such rules vary from society to society. Let us go through each rule
in detail.
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Patriarchal family: In this system, authority is vested on the paternal side. The father or
husband controls the activities of the family.
Matriarchal family: In this system, authority is vested in the hands of mother or wife, and
the status, name and inheritance are transmitted through the female line. Supreme authority
rests with the senior women.
We have already seen that family is an example of a kin group. But there are some
other larger groups formed based on kin relationship. Members of these groups are related
either according to marital ties or as per blood relationship. The following are some of the
kin groups other than family.
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Kin Groups
Clan: When the new members are born into the lineage, its membership becomes too
large to support lineage resources. It splits into smaller lineages under a single clan. A clan
is a unilineal kin group larger than a lineage. Here the members are supposed to be
descendent from a common ancestor but the genealogical links are not specified. The
members cannot demonstrate their actual lineage relationship through a genealogical table.
Descent is traced to a mythical ancestor. It may be a human, plant, animal or an inanimate
object. Clans are exogamous in nature i.e., marriage partners always come from two
different clans. A particular animal or plant associated with the name of a clan is called a
totem
Phratry: Two or more clans, make a phratry. It is therefore a unilineal descent group
larger than a clan. Members of phratry are not able to demonstrate their genealogical links
with the common ancestor, though they strongly believe in a common ancestor. A phratry
may or may not be exogamous. Phratry is derived from the Greek word phrater means
brother.
Moiety: It is the largest unilineal kin group, which resulted from the splitting of a society
into two halves on the basis of descent. Like Clans and Phratry, the members of each
moiety believe in a common ancestor but cannot specify the exact link. Moieties are generally
exogamous.
Tribe : Tribe is a unilineal endogamous descent group. It consists of several bands/ lineage/
clans. The members of a tribe claim descent from a common ancestor.
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As we observed earlier, family is the basic social group. But it differs from other
groups in many respects. The most important feature of family is the intensive emotional
attachment among the members. It is due to the type of relationship that they have. All the
members of the family are related either through blood or through marriage. Thus the
study of family as a social institution will be complete only after examining the type of
relationship among its members. Let us examine it.
IV Kinship
Family is a group consisting of close relatives and these relatives are known as kins.
Kinship is the relationship between persons by blood or marriage. It is a method of reckoning
relationship. In a society, a normal adult individual belongs to two different nuclear families.
The family in which one was born and reared is known as the family of orientation and
the family in which one establishes marriage relation is known as the family of procreation.
"In all societies, people are bound together in groups by various kinds of bonds. The
most universal and the most basic of these bonds, that which is based on reproduction
and inherent human drive, is called kinship" - D.N. Majumdar, an Indian anthropologist
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In a family, the relationship between husband and wife is not like that of father/
mother and children. Husband and wife are related by marriage, but father/mother and
children are related through blood ties. Thus family involves two basic types of relationships.
Types of Kinship
Kinship or kin relationships are usually classified into two broad categories -
Consanguineal relationships and Affinal relationships.
Affinal relationship : When kins are related by marriage it is called affinal relationship.
The relatives formed through marital relationship are called Affinal kins. Relatioship between
husband and wife and their relatives come under affinal kinship. To reckon the kin
relationship we use different symbols and abbreviations in anthropology as follows:
These symbols are standardised and used universally by anthropologists all over the
world. When these symbols are represented in a chart form it is called genealogical chart.
Ego is the person through which kinship ties are drown.
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w Figure 6.9 depicts a joint family. Here the relationship is traced from 'ego' Sam. He
married Christina. They have twin daughters named Irine and Miranda. Sam's
father Thomas married Elizabeth after divorcing his first wife Rose. Twinkle is Sam's
sister who married Jimmy. Thomas' father Joseph and mother Marry are not alive.
Like kinship symbols, anthropologists use some standardized abbreviations to denote
kin relations. Here 'ego' is the reference point, from which kinship ties are traced.
Find the usually used abbreviations in the box.
Rules of Residence
Residence is the place where the newly married couple lives. After marriage the
newly married couples resides in a house. It can be on bride's side as well as on groom's
side. Family types can be identified on the basis of the residence. The residence can be of
different types such as,
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A B
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3. Prepare the genealogical chart of your family covering at least three generations and
identify the types of marriage and family.
4. Define kinship
5. Distinguish between Consanguineal and affinal kinship
In figure 6.8, given in the previous page, the relationship of family members is direct
and close. But in figure 6.9, the relationship between Sam and George is not much close
and direct. Hence, in any family we can observe different levels of relationship as mentioned
below.
Degrees of Kinship
The degree of kinship refers to the extent to which
one is directly or indirectly related to another by means
of blood or marriage. Degrees of kinship can be identified
as primary kin, secondary kin and tertiary kin.
Primary kin: If a person is directly related to ego
then s/he is ego's primary kin. Let us examine figure 6.10.
'A' is the 'ego' in the diagram. 'B' and 'C' are his primary
kins. 'B' is the Primary affinal kin and 'C' is his
primary Consanguineal kin. Thus, one's father is one's
primary Consanguineal kin and one's wife is one's Primary
affinal kin. Fig. 6.10 Degrees of Kinship
Secondary kin: Any kin related to ego through ego's primary kin is his/her secondary
kin. Here 'E' and 'D' are secondary kins. 'E' is the secondary consanguineal kin and 'D' is
the secondary affinal kin.
Tertiary kin: Any kin related to ego through ego's secondary kin is his/her tertiary
kin. 'G' and 'F' are the tertiary kins. 'G' is the tertiary Consanguineal kin and 'F' is the
tertiary affinal kin.
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We can find that different terms are used to denote different relatives in a family as
shown below.
Kinship Terminology
Let us go through different terms used to address kin. Kinship terms are the label,
name or designation applied to relatives. It can be classified into three different types.
1. Classification by mode of use
2. Classification by linguistic structure
3. Classification by range of application
Classification by mode of use
According to mode of use, kinship terms are classified into terms of address and
terms of reference.
Term of address is used, to call someone directly. Example Atta in Telugu; Amma
in Tamil/Malayalam
Term of reference is how you address someone when talking about them. It is
used to designate a relative in speaking about the person to a third person. For Example,
in traditional Kerala society, some women used to refer to their husbands in third person as
'the father of the children' instead of using 'husband'. In Telugu, father's sister is referred
to as 'Menatta' but addressed as 'Atta'.
Classification by linguistic structure
As per linguistic structure, kinship terms are classified as Elementary, Derivative and
Descriptive types.
Elementary term consists of an irreducible word. For example 'father' or 'mother'.
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According to the range of application, kinship terms are classified into Denotative
and Classificatory term.
A denotative term denotes only one category of kins. For example in English,
father, mother, husband and wife are denotative terms as they denote a single relationship.
Relationship within the family may vary from person to person according to the role
and status they have in the particular family. Some relative tries to share lighter moments
with each other, while they keep distance with some others. You can observe such kinship
behaviour in your family setting as well.
Kinship Behaviour
Kinship behaviour towards a particular relative is not same in all societies. Most of
the behaviour is culture-bound and therefore vary from society to society. Let us go through
different types of such behaviour.
Avoidance: In many societies all over the world individual relatied to one another observe
a kind of distance towards daughter-in-law, mother in law, father-in law, younger brother's
wife, etc. For instance a man maintain avoidance relationship with his daughter-in-law
according to traditional norms. In the same manner a woman tries to avoid the presence of
her son-in-law. Such relationship exists between a person and his younger brother's wife.
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Avunculate: In some matrilineal societies, maternal uncle assumes many of the duties of
the father. His nephew and niece remain under his authority. They inherit maternal uncle's
property. Trobriand Islanders of Melanesia exhibit such kind of behaviour.
Amitate: This usage is similar to avunculate and found among patrilineal people. Here,
father's sister gets great respect and prime importance. She is more than a mother to her
nephew and exerts her authority on him in many events of life. Polynesian Tonga exhibits
this kinship behaviour.
Couvade: This is a peculiar practice whereby the husband is required to imitate the process
of pregnancy and all the behaviour that is enjoined upon his wife for the sake of the child's
welfare. The husband leads an inactive life and imitates the taboos which the wife is supposed
to follow in connection with child's birth. Tribal communities like the Todas, Uralis and
Nayadis used to practice this custom.
Activity
1. Identify the kinship terms used in your family and categorise them under mode of
use and range of application.
2. A particular kinship behaviour in which husband leads an inactive life during the
period of wife's pregnancy is………………….
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3. A particular kinship behaviour in which one calls her husband as 'father of her child'
is……………….
4. Distinguish between
w Amitate and avunculate
w Joking and avoidance relationship
Let Us Sum up
w Marriage is socially approved sexual and economic union usually between a man
and a woman. Marriage varies greatly in its form and rules it may involve an elaborate
ceremony and varies among and within societies
w Different forms and sub-forms of marriage are Monogamy, Polyandry and Polygyny.
Economic element of marriage includes bride wealth and dowry. In bride wealth the
groom or his family gives money or goods to the bride's family. Dowry is the payment
of goods or money by the bride's family to the groom's family.
w Rules of marriage tells people whom they can marry and whom they cannot. The
rules of exogamy, require marriage outside one's own kin group or community while
rules of endogamy recquired a man to marry within one's group. Some societies
prohibit cross cousin and parallel cousin marriages while others permits or allow
such marriage.
w Family exists in all societies but vary in its form and structure. There are different
forms and sub-forms of family like nuclear family, composite family polygamous
family, polygynous family and polyandrous family.
w Family has several functions like economic, educational, social, biological etc. There
are different types of residence like patrilocal residence, matrilocal residence, bi-
local residence, avunculocal residence, amitalocal and neolocal residence.
w Kinship is the relationship between persons by blood and marriage. There are two
types of kin group affinal (through marriage) and consanguinal (through blood). The
rules which affiliate each person to a particular and definable set of kin are called
rules of descent. They are patrilineal descent, matrilineal descent, ambilineal descent
and double descent. There are several kin groups. A kin group refers to a group of
kins. These kin groups are family, lineage, clan, phatry and moiety.
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Evaluation items
1. Find the odd item and justify your answer
(a) Tribe, religion, phratry, moiety, lineage
(b) Polygamy, polygyny, endogamy, polyandry
(c) Endogamy, incest taboo,monogamy,exogamy
(d) Father, uncle, mother, daughter
(e) Uncle, neice, father, nephew, aunt
2. Draw the genealogical chart of your family and your neighbouring family and identify
the family type, lineage and descent type
3. By analysing a marriage you have recently participated, find out the following:
w Ways of mate choice and marital residence.
w Rules of marriage
4. Do you think that the institution of marriage and family are universal? Explain.
5. What is the difference between polygyny and polyandry? Support your answer
with an example.
6. Write the kinship symbols for the following
a) marriage b) descent
c) dead male d) two sisters
7. Prepare a flow chart showing different forms of marriage. Select any two types and
prepare a brief note.
8. The following are different types of family. Draw suitable diagrams for each category
using kinship symbols and explain,
a) Polygynous family b) Nuclear family
c) Polyandrous family
9. Prepare a genealogical chart of a family covering three generations and identify the
following by giving numbers
(a) primary, secondary and tertiary kins, cross-cousins, parallel-cousins, MBH
and FZH of the ego
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UNIT
POLITICAL
ORGANISATION 7
CONTENTS
• Chiefdom
persuasion. For example, if he wants to
• State clean up a place in preparation for a
IV Social Control Mechanisms
feast, he must start sweeping it himself,
• Social Control – Formal and Informal
hoping that his co villagers will relieve
• Social Sanctions – Positive, Negative him. He lacks the right to issue orders.
- Formal, Informal He will be called on as a mediator when
V Customary Law conflict arises within the village. If a
• Sources, Nature
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also have politics. Politics is the domain of politicians- whether it is formal or informal.
Their endeavours are referred to as ‘leadership’ or ‘public service’. Leaders take decisions
and try to implement them. Anthropologists are interested in such political organisations as
well as modern political systems with a global and comparative perspective.
We have seen the role of social institutions like family, marriage and kinship for a
collective and cooperative social life of humans. Political organisation is one of such
institutions for maintaining order in society.
• What do you think is an important requirement for a peaceful social life which ensures
social security?
• Can you live properly if you are always in the threat of attack from others?
Naturally people have to regulate their behaviour and action to ensure social order.
Consequently it results in making laws, executing it and its adjudication. Although not all
societies have a formal legal code, judiciary and law enforcement mechanisms, all societies
do have some means of social control. This is a basic requirement for a peaceful social life.
This ensures social security. This behaviour became an institutionalised form to make the
political organisation.
Today we have well developed state systems, legal code and law enforcement for
settlement of disputes to ensure the welfare of the citizens. It has not been developed all of
a sudden but through a gradual process.
Let us discuss different types of political system, its evolutionary development, social
control mechanisms and the means for dispute settlement in different cultures.
Imagine a situation where there is no office of the Principal in your school? Likewise
what will happen if there is no leadership or social control mechanisms existing in a society?
It will definitely lead to anarchy and disorder. Hence, every society consists of a system of
rules and regulations, which control the behaviour of the people. Such political systems are
necessary for the smooth functioning of any institution. To understand this, we
have to look into the meaning and scope of political organisations from anthropological
point of view.
I. Meaning and scope of Political Organisation
In a simple society the family, band or tribe as the case may be, exerts control over
the members. But in modern society social control comes from both written and unwritten
laws. This is exercised through coercive or peaceful means. The laws are passed by the
state or its organs which have legitimate power and authority to control the people.
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Political organisation refers to the way by which a society maintains social order
internally and regulates its affairs with neighbouring groups. It is the means a society uses to
maintain social order and reduce social disorder. Power distributed and established in
every society is used to co-ordinate and regulate behaviour of its members. Political
organisation deals with the way power is distributed and established in society.
Political Anthropology
Political anthropology deals with political affairs of all types of societies, whether it is
preliterate or modern. The major focus areas of it include political administration, law,
government and the rules of punishment. Some other areas it studies are justice, sanction,
crime, court and trial.
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w Your homes?
w Your school?
w Your peer group?
w .............................. ?
w .............................. ?
Why are such persons able to take decisions? They may have some particular qualities
or powers.
Why are such persons obeyed? They may have the authority to function like that.
Let us examine the distinction between power and authority.
According to C Wright Mills, authority means the right to take decision and the
capacity to influence the behaviour of others, according to their wishes or even against the
wishes of the persons concerned.
Can you point out examples of power and authority from your surroundings?
Authority may be classified into traditional authority, charismatic authority and legal
authority. A tribal chief or a king is obeyed by the people under them. He is accepted
because it has been a traditional authority. A person with extra ordinary qualities is
often obeyed by the people who have faith in him. That denotes charismatic authority.
Legal authority is formal and law defines its privileges. Hence the power is not in the
person but in the positions s/he holds. When s/he loses that position the power is also lost.
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building a house, farming or education. Some members of the family control these decisions.
The power of grandfather, father, mother and elder brother is the illustration of social
authority.
The village or community head, the tribal chief, the king and the elected president
have the right to take decisions. They can influence the decision of other people associated
with government. In modern times this power resides in the state and the government.
They receive this power through force, authority and law. The force of the state or the
power is also expressed in the form of the police and military. Only the state has the legal
rights to award punishment.
Did socio economic development have any impact on the development of political
system?
Are there differences between the political systems existing among the hunters,
gatherers and agricultural societies?
Definitely socio economic institutions and the development of political systems are
closely related. The simple societies with hunting, food collecting and farming were organized
through the family, lineage and kinship. These organisations had heads, chiefs, bigman or
leaders. They are controlled by folkways and customs. In agrarian societies the size of the
communities grew with the expansion of territories. Later monarchy developed in place of
heads and chiefs. Big empires arose across the world as a result of surplus production in
agriculture, expansion of commerce and development of transport. The form of political
power and the system of control was feudal or monarchic in those societies. Development
of industrial social system resulted in the stratification of societies and the emergence of
ideologies of freedom, equality and individualism. These ideologies were responsible for
the development of the democratic political system and later resulted in the formation of
the state.
In many societies, political activities were organised by the small communities (band
or village). The authority structure in such societies did not involve any centralisation. There
was no political authority whose jurisdiction included more than one community. In other
societies political activities were traditionally organised sometimes on behalf of a multi
local group, but there was no permanent authority at the top. Still in other societies political
activities were often traditionally organised on behalf of multifocal territorial groups, and
there was a centralised or supreme political authority at the top. In the modern world,
however, every society has been incorporated into some larger, centralised political system.
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1. Fill in suitably
a) When one uses her/ his influence over another person irrespective of her/his
will, it is called .......................
b) When a person uses her/his influence over another, who willingly accept it we
call it...........................
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This type of society is termed as ‘cephalous society’. All societies except tribe and band
are termed as non-egalitarian societies. Surplus storage and private property created a
new social system termed as non-egalitarian society. Subsistence economy created
egalitarian society whereas, extra production paved way for enough time to engage in full
time political activities. Separate leadership is another important criterion for non-egalitarian
societies.
Centralised and decentralised political systems
Centralisation is the process where the authority and power of an organisation is in
few hands. All the important decisions and actions at the lower level are subject to the
approval of top management. Advantages of centralisation include an organisation’s ability
to keep a tight grip on all aspects of the business.
Decentralisation is a systemic delegation of authority at all levels of management and
organisation. An advantage of decentralisation is that there tends to be faster decision
making. Decentralisation is intended to reach the fruits of development to the grass root
level of population by way of planning and implementations. That means, local resources
are effectively utilised and actual beneficiaries can be identified. It also means that lower
level managers have the opportunity to gain valuable experience and develop more because
there is more room to grow.
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l Visit the grama sabha in your locality and record the proceedings
over there and write a report on the gramasabha meeting. The com-
positions of participants, procedure of meetings, issues discussed
and decisions taken have to be reported.
l Condut a debate on the topic Decentralisation versus Centralisation
Check your progress
2. Distinguish between
(a) State and stateless political system
(b) Egalitarian and non-egalitarian society
It is believed that the earliest form of government evolved from within the family.
Political organisation was formed when a leader appeared to command the people and the
common people also desired to be protected to resist attacks of the hostile groups. The
temporary leadership and organisation became permanent and more diversified according
to the circumstances. A political unit is usually classified on the basis of its size, composition
and other social characteristics. It starts from a small scale local autonomy, to reach a large
scale regional unification of a number of societies such as band, tribe, chiefdom and state.
The anthropologist Elman Service (1962) listed four types or levels of political
organizations: band, tribe, chiefdom and state.
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tribal chief is the leader of the tribal organisation. The qualification for this position are,
being hardworking and generous, excellent hunter, farmer and possessing good personal
skills.
Big man
Does our society
Another system of political leadership found among have equivalents
some horticultural group is the big man. The big man is the of big man?
head within a village but with several supporters from other
villages. He persuades people to organise feasts. In many
areas of Melanesian island and other places such men are
called big man. They owe their status to their individual
personalities rather than to their inherited wealth of position.
Chiefdom
Chiefdom is the intermediate political unit between tribe and state. It is a larger unit
than tribe. A Chiefdom has some formal structure that integrates more than one community
into a political unit. The formal structure could consist of a council with or without a chief,
but most commonly there is a person-the chief-who has higher rank or authority than
others. Most societies at the chiefdom level of organisation contain more than one multi
community political unit or chiefdom, each headed by a district chief and higher level chiefs.
Compared to tribal societies, societies with chiefdoms are more densely populated and
their communities are more permanent and have greater economic productivity.
The chiefdom should have a council headed by chief, whose position is hereditary
and is generally permanent. Chiefdoms are ranked societies and the chief and his family
exert greater prestige. The chief may redistribute goods, plan and direct the use of public
labour, supervise religious ceremonies and direct military activities on behalf of the chiefdom.
In most chiefdom the chief did not have the power to compel people to obey them. People
would act in accordance with the chief’s wishes because the chief was respected and often
had religious authority.
Among the North American Indians two kinds of chiefs are found - the war chief
and the peace chief. War chief is the head of military that function only in warfare, whereas
the peace chiefs are the civil governors to supervise the internal tribal relations.
State
A state is an autonomous political unit, including many communities within its territory.
It has a centralised government with the sovereign power to collect taxes, draft men for
work or war, and enforce laws. States then have a complex centralised political structure
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that includes wide range of permanent institutions with legislature, executive and judicial
functions and a large bureaucracy. In states, the government tries to maintain monopoly in
the use of physical force. This monopoly can be seen in the development of formal and
specialised instruments of social control such as a police force military service, army etc. A
society has state organisation when it is composed of one or more political units that are
states.
A state may include more than one society. It is the result of conquest or colonial
control and imposes a centralised government over a territory with in different societies
and culture. State societies are generally supported by intensive agriculture.
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Government in state societies considers the issue of aggression, violence and many
other law and order problems through enactment of laws, adjudication through courts and
implementation of rules through government offices, police and military. These are the
formal means of social control mechanisms. Formal means of social control includes external
sanctions enforced by government to prevent the establishment of chaos in society.
Apart from these, social norms and values exist in societies play an important role in
maintaining social order. In pre-literate societies customary laws, moral values and social
sanctions function as informal means of social control. These social norms and values are
transmitted through generations through the process of socialisation. Hence informal means
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of social control includes internalised norms and values. Thus social control means any
control, either formal or informal that is exerted by a group.
Identify the social control mechanisms and classify formal and informal
means of social control in your society.
Social Sanction
Sanction is a social force which approves or disapproves a mode of behaviour.
Measures for social sanctions are suggestion, persuasion and encouragement. In the society
some activities of the members may demand approval and some disapproval. For instance,
violation of marriage rules may invite disapproval by the members of the society. Negative
sanction is violating social rules leading to punishments and positive sanctions rewarding
socially approved behaviour. Reward (positive sanction) and punishment (negative sanction)
regulate the behaviour in social situations.
Sanctions, also serve to integrate a society. In societies without formal legal
institutions, such as court of law, sanctions are often imposed directly. This may include
ridiculing, dueling, injuring, seising of property or killing the offender or a member of the
respective group. Among the Eskimos, for example, the appropriate punishment for a man
who steals another man’s wife is to be ridiculed in a nasty song made up by the injured
man.
Positive sanction
Positive sanction signifies the appreciation of certain kinds of behaviour. An individual
following the social norm is respected. His social position also promoted. Some believe
that ancestors and other spiritual beings are pleased by good conduct. Positive sanctions
are pleasant things and we can do it or try to make people conform and behave in a
routine, predictable, fashion. Giving communal feast can be considered as positive sanction.
In the primitive law positive sanctions are based on commonly approved customs and
traditions which have integrative factors to bind together the clan men or the villagers or
members of the tribal society.
Negative sanction
There are vast numbers of negative sanctions that we can use in our society ranging
from not talking to people if they annoy us, through beating them up to putting them in
prison. The ultimate negative sanction perhaps is to kill someone. Negative sanction is
concerned with the destructive and disintegrating factors prevailing in the society.
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For example if someone breaks the incest taboo or clan exogamy or dishonors the totemic
belief the council of elders tries to stop these activities, by giving punishment.
Formal sanction
A formal sanction is referred to as a clearly defined reward or punishment with
specific people authorised to deliver it. It can also refer to as social norms enforced through
the laws of the criminal justice system. It encourages people to comply with legislation. e.g.
statutes, rules, laws enforced by Governmental agencies through things likes fines or
imprisonment.
Informal sanction
Social values present in individuals are the products of informal social control,
exercised implicitly by a society through particular customs, norms and mores. Individuals
internalise the values of their society through socialisation and enculturation. Traditional
society relies mostly on informal social control embedded in its customary culture to socialise
its members.
Informal sanctions include shame, ridicule, sarcasm and disapproval which cause an
individual to stray towards the social norms of the society. In extreme cases sanctions may
include social discrimination and exclusion. Informal control usually has more effect on
individuals because the social values become internalised, thus becoming an aspect of the
individuals personality.
Internal control is a form of social control that we impose on ourselves. For example:
you may not choose to wear casual wears while going to a formal function. It is not because
there is a rule against to wearing it but you have internalised the norm of dressing in a
formal situation.
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V. Customary Law
Law is a part of society and functionally related to the structure of that society. It is
a rule of conduct essential for the society. The imposition is done by the authority and
accepted by all the members of the society. The primitive law was, by and large, based on
customs and practices of a given society. Majumdar and Madan are of the opinion that
‘primitive law consists of a set of principles which permit the use of force to maintain
political and social organisation within a territory. Primitive law is based on clans and
phatry organisation. In primitive law punishment is awarded in the form of fine compensation,
communal feast etc. Breach of law is taken as to affect not only an individual but the whole
tribal society.
Sources of Customary Law
Different social control mechanisms exist in societies for the smooth functioning of it.
These mechanisms exert control over its members, so that, social order is maintained. The
sources of such customary law are found in the customs, social organisations, public opinion,
religion and social panchayaths.
Customs: Like civilized societies, the pre-literate societies also have laws of one
kind or the other to regulate their individual and social life. There are many sources of these
laws. Among the pre-literate societies, Social custom is an important source. In the struggle
for human existence some of the human behaviour is found to be harmful while others are
useful. Harmful behaviours are mal-adaptive for social existence and treated as anti-social.
One has to give up harmful behaviours and has to adopt useful ones. These social customs
are regarded as compulsory because the person who disobeys them is neglected or punished
by society. The system of punishment on breach of custom is gradually evolved; gradually
the customs became a social law. In this way most of the laws in simple as well as modern
societies have their source in custom. Social customs are handed over from one generation
to another.
Social organisation: Generally there is social organisation in every simple society.
In most of the social organisation, the chieftain or the leader holds the highest position and
keeps a control over the society members. Sufficient powers are given to this chieftain or
a leader, although they are not allowed to do anything against the interest of the tribe as a
whole. In most of the cases, the order of chieftain is law and every man and woman has to
obey it.
Public opinion: Public opinion in a simple society is very important. Public opinion
has an important role in awarding punishment to an individual. In this way the public opinion
controls the actions of men and women in the form of law.
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Social Panchayath: In simple societies there exist social panchayats, which keep
control over the individuals of the society and settle the mutual disputes. The decision of
panchayat is regarded as law and an accused is punished for disobeying it. This punishment
is mostly in the shape of a feast to be given to an entire village and as long as the accused
does not give the feast he is neglected by the people of his clan.
Like any other social institution law is a part of society. It is a rule of contact essential
for the stability of the society .The imposition is done by an authority and accepted by all
members of the community. In simple societies the force of public opinion or a decision
arrived at by democratic procedures are impelled on the accused. The community or
council act as the court. Such customs are still in vogue in many communities in different
parts of Indian villages.
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On examination of the above nature of customary law, there are some similarities
and differences between primitive law and modern law. To understand the modern law in
a comprehensive way, one has to look into the customary laws.
Primitive law and Modern law
Kinship bonds are highly emphasized in primitive laws. Both the internal and external
problems are dealt with the kin groups. Clan elders possess the right to punish the offenders
and settle the disputes. Modern law is entirely different from this. Primitive law coincides
with ethical principles and rooted in public opinion. In simple societies, public opinions
powerfully influence the life of the people.
Though modern law has its root in customary law it has undergone many changes in
terms of enactment of laws, implementation and maintaining social justice. Examine the
following table to find out the differences between primitive law and modern law. You have
to complete the table after collecting information from a legal practitioner.
…...................................................... …..................................................
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• Find out how far the root of our modern law is based in the customary
law. After examining the above table, you can interview a legal
practitioner/advocate in your locality to collect details on: how to
file a case, jurisdiction of courts, trial, evidence and punishment. Discuss your
findings in groups and present it in your class.
• Let us have a debate on: Should Capital Punishment be Banned? Is it Against
Human Rights?
Why do we have a law, whether customary law or modern law? It is mainly for the
maintenance of social order. Anthropologists are of the opinion that humans are not innately
violent. The social disorder emerged as a result of cultural evolution. Cross cultural
ethnographic evidences show that modern stratified societies are more prone to violence
than tribal societies. A comparison of horticulturist tribes and hunter gatherer bands revealed
that tribal societies are more prone to violence than hunter-gatherer bands. However,
disputes in one form or other occur in all cultures, all of which have inner cultural mechanisms
to sort out such problems. Dispute settlement mechanisms have undergone changes during
the course of cultural evolution. Let us examine the dispute settlement in pre-literate societies.
VI. Dispute settlement in the pre-literate societies
There is great deal of variation among
societies regarding settlement of disputes. Justice
is established after a series of procedures starting
from evidence collection to awarding punishment.
Establishment of guilt is always important for the
administration of the justice. In Indian villages we
can see locally assembelled, nattukoottams and
urukoottams functions on the basis of customary
laws prevailing in societies. These social
assemblies settle disputes or award punishments
after public trial. Fig. 7.2 Nattukkoottam
In simplest societies, judges are the people themselves. A judge may be an elderly
kinsman, where council of elders is called into being and they constitute the judges. The
authorized persons get together to hear a case and pass the judgment. In most of the cases
accused denies the particular charge against him. Until and unless his innocence is proved,
he does not get mercy. Therefore judgment essentially comprises of two parts - evidence
and punishment.
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Evidence
The process by which the innocence or guilt of a person is established is called
evidence in the simple societies, and no judge or prosecutor is found who is expert in cross
examination. Therefore to get the accurate facts people have to rely on super natural
support. However, the two main ways of setting the evidence are oath and ordeal
Oath is a promise in the name of God not to tell a lie. It is said that, if the facts
furnished by a person is proved false, the person will be punished by the God. This is a
technique of compelling one to confess his own guilt voluntarily .Usually a sinner does not
conceal his guilt for the fear of supernatural wrath.
Among the Oroans and Mundas of Chotanagpur an individual before producing his
evidence is asked to take an oath sitting on a tiger’s skin or tiger’s jaw. The guilty person
never dares to tell a lie for fear of being killed by a tiger. Similarly, in modern law also
witness had to take an oath before giving evidence.
Ordeal is a process of determining the guilt or innocence by submitting the accused
to a dangerous or painful test under supernatural control. Among the pre-literates such
tests are usually done with fire, charcoal and water. For example, among the Oraons a
piece of burning charcoal is placed on the palm of two men who are suspected of theft. If
one of them is enable to bear the hot charcoal on his palm, he is considered as innocent
whereas the other is guilty.
Even now media reports are pouring in on the ‘third degree methods’
adopted by law enforcing authorities for establishing crime.
Is this is a blatant violation of human rights?
Is it due to lack of awareness of law of the land?
What can we do? - discuss it in your groups and present it in your class.
Pre-literate as well as modern societies make sure that the guilty is punished. For
punishment also, a variety of methods are adopted in different societies.
Punishment
Most of the tribal people believe that crime is a violation of divine system or rules.
Hence, it is believed that the criminal is evil who should be given suitable punishment, so
that s/he may become free from evil. Besides retribution another basis of punishment is
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compensation of loss. Punishment in the form of fine is usually based on this principle.
Principle of collective responsibilities is another important feature of simple society. According
to this principle punishment is not necessarily awarded to individual who has committed
the crime but his family, clan and local group may also be punished. For example punishment
of death is for murder but this punishment may not be awarded to him who has murdered.
In his place some other members of his family group or clan may be killed, since the group
is collectively responsible for the criminal act of each other.
In general, one finds some rudimentary form of trial before the award of punishment.
Both the petitioner and the defendant present their cases before the chief and the council of
elders who carefully hear them and sometimes cross question them.
In some societies different types of physical injuries are inflicted as punishment. The
criminal is publically insulted by blackening his face and carrying him through the entire
village seated on a donkey. Among the American tribes-an unfaithful wife is given the
punishment of death by being drowned in the water. Among some tribes of Uganda, there
is a provision of jail, but if the crime is very serious, criminal is fixed to a pole till he dies.
Among the Oraons clan where exogamy exists, the member must choose his mate
from other clans. In the case of violation of these rules the man is brought before the village
council for trial. Outcasting is a usual punishment.
Weir guild (Compensation): Like the civilised societies most of the simple societies
have provision for compensation for the loss due to crime. The fine may be charged in cash
or in kind or in both, depending upon the seriousness of the crime and the capacity of the
culprit to pay it. Among some of the native Americans compensation is sought by destroying
some valuable possession of the criminals. Among Samoan tribe a criminal has to give
some valuable presents as compensation. In some other tribes, compensation is in the
form of a feast to the whole village.
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What will you do if there are differences of opinion between your friends?
How are disputes in your locality settled?
Are all cases of differences settled with the intervention of police or courts?
What are the mechanisms prevailing in your locality to settle disputes?
The answers to these questions will naturally lead us to conclude that there are
different types of dispute settling mechanisms in every society. In pre-literate societies
there were specific mechanisms for these purposes, both peaceful and violent.
Peaceful and Violent Means of settlement of disputes
We have already seen that humans are not innately violent. Violence is seen as an
acquired behaviour. In simple societies they have their own dispute settling mechanisms
through which majority of the disputes are peacefully settled. The advent of over production,
market, private property, colonialism and globalisation intensified violence, warfare and
aggression.
Peaceful means of settlements
Modern industrialised states have formal institution and offices such as police, court
and penal system to deal with minor disputes and more serious conflicts that may arise in
societies. All these institutions generally operate according to the codified laws. Many
societies lack such specialised offices and institutions to deal with conflicts. They have
peaceful regularised ways of handling at least certain disputes. These include avoidance,
community action, negotiation and mediation, apology, oath ordeal and adjudication.
Avoidance
In this, violence can often be avoided, If the Do we also practice
parties to a dispute voluntarily avoid each other or avoidance in our daily
are separated until emotion cooled down. Foragers life as a means of
particularly like to use this technique. People may settling disputes?
move to other bands or move their dwelling to
opposite ends of the camp. Shifting horticulturist may
also split out when conflict get too intense.
Community action
Collective action is common in simpler societies that lack powerful authoritarian
leaders. Many Inuit societies frequently resolve disputes through community action. Family
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is regarded as autonomous in most matters. They believe that spirits can determine much
of a person’s fate. Consequently people carry out their daily task within a complex system
of taboos.
Negotiation and Mediation
In many conflicts, the parties to a dispute may come to a settlement themselves by
negotiation. Sometimes an outside or third party is used to settle the disputes. Among the
Nuer of East Africa, a pastoral and horticultural people, disputes within the community is
settled with the help of an informal mediator called the leopard-skin chief. The man is not
a political chief, but a mediator. His position is hereditary. Minor disputes like cattle stealing
rarely come to the notice of the leopard-skin chief. Those will be settled then and there by
the parties involved in their own private way. Major crimes like murder will be dealt with
the leopard-skin chief himself and the culpritS are punished. He will be allowed to stay
with the chief to protect him from the victim’s family. In the mean time chief will negotiate
and mediate with the relatives of the victim and settle the dispute in way of compensation
to avoid feud.
Apology
The desire to restore a harmonising relationship may also explain ceremonial apologies.
An apology is based on difference. The guilty party asks for forgiveness. Among the Fijians
of the south pacific, there is a strong ethic of harmony and mutual assistance, particularly
within a village. When a person offends some one of higher status, the offended person
and the other villagers begin to avoid, and gossip about the offender. If the offender is
sensitive to village opinion, s/he will perform a ceremony of apology called soro, means
surrender. In the ceremony the offender keeps her/his head bowed and remains silent,
while an intermediary speaks, presents a token gift, and asks the offended persons for
forgiveness. The apology is rarely rejected.
Oath and Ordeal
An Oath is the act of calling upon a deity to bear witness to the truth of what one
says. An ordeal is a means used to determine guilt or innocence by submitting the accused
to dangerous or painful tests believed to be under supernatural control.
Adjudication
Adjudication is when a third party acts as judge and takes a decision that the disputing
parties have to accept. Judgment may be regarded by one person, a panel of judges, a
young, or a political agent. Our own society relies heavily on codified law and courts to
resolve disputes peacefully.
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People are likely to resort to violence when regular, effective alternative means of
resolving a conflict are not available or satisfactory. Some societies consider violence between
individuals to be appropriate under circumstances. When violence occurs between political
entities such as communities, districts or nation we call it warfare.
Individual violence
Violent behaviour itself is often used to try to control behaviour. In some societies a
person trespasses a property considers it for justification of a crime.
Feuding
Raid
Raiding is a short term use of force, that is planned and organised to realise a limited
objective. This objective is usually the acquisition of goods, animals or other forms of
wealth belonging to other, often neighboring community.
Large scale confrontation involves a large number of persons and planning by both
sides of strategies of attack and defense. Large scale warfare is usually practiced among
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Let us Sum up
• Political organisation refers to the way by which a society maintains social order
internally and regulates its affairs with neighbouring groups. It is the means a society
uses to maintain social order and reduce social disorder. Political anthropology is
the cross-cultural study of political systems, of formal and informal political institutions.
It deals with political affairs of all types of societies, whether it is primitive or modern.
• Different types of political systems include state political system and stateless political
system. In states government tries to maintain a monopoly by the use of physical
force such as police and military. In stateless political system laws are not written.
They are based on oral transmission of tradition and customs.
• In simple pre-literate societies, family, band and tribe regulate the behaviour of the
people. Societies with a band type of political organisation are composed on fairly
small, usually nomadic type.
• Societies with tribal organisation are similar to those with band organisation. But
they are food producers and have higher population density.
• Chiefdom organisation defers from tribal organisation in having formal authority
structures that integrate multi community political units.
• Political organisation in tribe and band are generally known as stateless.
• States are generally characterised by class stratification, intensive agriculture, high
population density, high degree of economic and other specialisation.
• In state political system, laws are enacted implemented and justice is maintained
through specialised agencies like courts, police, government offices etc. In stateless
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political system customary laws, moral values are given more importance.
• Customary law in the form of positive and negative sanction is used to regulate the
behaviour of the people. Sanction is the social force which approves or disapproves
a mode of behaviours. Even in modern complex state societies we can see peaceful
means of dispute settlement mechanisms like, avoidance, negotiation; mediations
etc. where the local leaders play an important role. In simple societies crime is
identified through oath and ordeal, where as in modern societies judgment is based
on trial and evidence.
• People are likely to resort to violence when regular, effective or alternative means
solving a conflict are not available. Violence can occur between individuals within
communities and between communities. Violence that occurs between political entities
are referred as warfare.
The learned demonstrate the ability to
w Distinguish political anthropology from political science, identify the meaning and
definition of political of political organisation and differentiate the concepts of power
and authority.
w Identify the types of political system and differentiate between state and stateless,
egalitarian and non-egalitarian, centralised and decentralised political system.
w Identify the development of political system from the level of band and state.
w Evaluate how far social controls mechanisms exist in simple societies facilitate social
order.
w Compare primitive law and modern law.
w Identify and appreciate the dispute settlement mechanisms in pre-literate societies.
Evaluation Items
1. By taking an example of local dispute settlement mechanism in your area identify;
(a) The problem
(b) Persons involved
(c) Decisions taken
2. Dispute settlement mechanisms are found in both state and stateless societies. List
four types of such mechanisms you know.
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4. Classify and explain the political systems given below into state system and stateless
system.
(Chiefdom, tribe, state, band)
5. Complete the following chart
Type of Mode of Community Social Major forms of
organization subsistence size differentiation distribution
6. What are customary laws? Do any such laws prevail in our society? Illustrate with
examples.
7. Do the introduction of Panchayati Raj system helped all people to participate in
decision making? Explain with the example of a grama sabha meeting in your area.
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UNIT
ECONOMIC
ORGANISATION 8
CONTENTS
Introduction
I. Economic Organisation
· Meaning and Definitions Every day, the media report news
· Economics and Economic about poverty and famine around the globe.
Anthropology Starvation death is reported from various
II. Pre-literate Early Economy parts of the world including India. At the
· Production other end, the news on increased food
· Consumption production and destruction of rotten food
· Distribution grains are also reported. Millions of people
(a) Reciprocity still live below poverty line, while a small
(b) Re distribution
(c) Market
minority lead a luxurious life.
w Why does this disparity exist?
III. Stages of Economic Development
· Hunting and Gathering w Why do millions die out of starvation
· Pastoralism even in affluence?
· Shifting Cultivation
· Agriculture It may be due to the inequitable
· Industrial Economy distribution of resources or lack of resources
or lack of control over resources. India
enhanced its food production through Green
Revolution and milk production through
White Revolution.
w Have these revolutions produced a
desirable impact?
India has opened the domestic market
to the global economy since the 1990s.
w In the changing circumstances, has the
condition of the poor improved in any
way?
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You know that the institution of marriage, family, political organisation, etc. are related
with economic organisation. For instance, marriage as an institution has an economic function
to perform by way of division of labour, economic co-operation between members and so
on. Similarly, all other institutions are related to economic activity. This shows that all
aspects of our cultural life are directly related to economic activity. So, it is the backbone
of our social life.
I. Economic Organisation
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agricultural society. But all societies in this world have economic organisations, irrespective
of whether it is a tribal, peasant or urban. But we know that our economic life has undergone
drastic changes over time. As students of anthropology, it is important for us to know more
about our economic life from its beginning to the contemporary times. Hence, in this unit,
we shall discuss economic organisation, including its scope, evolutionary stages, modes of
production and distribution in different societies.
We have to satisfy at least the basic needs for our survival. Food is one of the most
important basic requirements of human being. We either collect it from our surroundings or
produce it manually. But when we humans lead a social life, we need to satisfy the
requirements of all the individuals in the society. For this, the resources have to be used in
an equitable manner, the products be distributed among all the individuals, and the whole
process be organized for a social cause. Thus economic organisation is essential to ensure
production/collection, distribution and consumption in an equitable way. Otherwise it will
result in poverty and famine. To get a vivid picture of economic organisation, let us examine
some of the definitions given by different anthropologists.
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You might have studied about economic organisations in economics. Naturally you
will doubt its relevance in anthropology. Anthropology as we discussed earlier is a holistic
science that examines all aspect of human life. Economic activity is very important among
them. But anthropology analyses economic life in a different perspective. Let us examine
how economic anthropology and economics differ in their treatment.
Economics and Economic Anthropology
Some instances of economic activities in different parts of Kerala are given below:
1. 'Panappayattu' or Kurikalyanam, a system practised in North Malabar, to collect a
considerable amount of money when the members are in dire need of it.
2. Financial help or gift given by friends and relatives on the occasion of marriage,
house warming ceremony etc.
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Economic anthropology initially dealt with pre-literate and peasant societies, though
industrial society has also become its concern today. On the other hand, the scope of
economics revolves around the economic activities of more complex and technologically
advanced societies alone. Economic Anthropology not only deals with the inner dynamics
of pre-literate and peasant societies but also explores the involvement of these societies in
national or world economies. Economic Anthropology often attempts to explain the success
or failure of pre-literate societies in wider economy. No pre-literate society is now isolated
from the wider economic system. In the globalised world, multi-national products are
distributed even among the remote pre-industrial societies. Instances of utilisation of local
ethnic resources and knowledge by multinational companies are frequent now. Economic
systems in the present world have surpassed the space and time. So the scope of economic
anthropology has widened in many respects.
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The study of pre-literate and early economic systems is one of the important areas
of economic anthropology. Such studies will help us to understand the origin, development
and evolution of economic organisation including modern economic systems. Can you
answer these questions? How did the early human find their food? What type of technology
did they use? How did they distribute the resources among the group? To answer these
questions, we have to analyse the economic life of the pre-literate communities in detail.
II. Pre-literate Early Economy
Pre-literate Economy was based on the principle of acquisition and consumption.
There was no production, only collection and consumption existed. A low degree of
technical knowledge and lack of specialisation characterised this economy. People invented
simple techniques to utilise the resources. They were fully adapted with the seasonal food
supply and the limitations in transport and communication, and inadequacy of storage
facility. The earlier economic activities mainly depended on nature. Economic activities
were very simple. Division of labour was based on age and sex. The concept of personal
property was totally unknown or was at its initial stage.
The economic organisation of the earlier food producing economy was different
from the above mentioned food collecting simple economies. Simple economies deal only
with the collection and consumption of resources. They were originally affluent societies,
with the availability of adequate food supply. Hence, complex distribution system did not
prevail at that time. In order to understand the economic systems of the earlier simple
societies three different factors - production, consumption and distribution - are to be
analysed.
Production
The economic organisations of early food
producing societies were of subsistence type.
Production is the concrete set of
They followed the production-consumption activities concerning creation of goods
economy. Food was produced only for their and services. Technology (Physical
consumption. For them, production means the tools and Cultural knowledge) is an
process of obtaining goods from the surroundings important ingredient in production
such as land, water, plants, animals and minerals.
Food supply was related to the locally available resources and the capacity of the people
to utilise them. Consumer goods were produced only to serve the immediate needs. The
family and the kin groups were the owners of production. They were self-sufficient in their
economic needs. Therefore the system of commerce did not develop in these societies.
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In the early economy, family was the unit of production. All the members of the
family, whether husband and wife, parents or children, together formed the production
unit. The allocation of labour and the decision on food-quests were taken at the family
level. They usually produced what they actually needed. But later on, when extra-production
was started, new mechanisms were developed to distribute the excess production among
other members.
Even though the family was self-sufficient, they had the cooperation of the individuals
of other households as well. They used locally-made tools. Their children, particularly the
boys used to go out in the jungle with their cattle-herd for grazing, while the girls used to
accompany their mother and sisters to help in digging out the roots or the collection of fire-
wood. The elder persons and the youth formed the axis of domestic production. They
used to engage in preparing the fields, sowing, harvesting or in forest operations like
collection of minor forest produce, fishing and hunting. So, in simple societies, food
production also included collection of resources available in the surroundings. Thus, the
family in the early economy played a significant role and was functioning as an autonomous
unit.
Consumption
Consumption is the direct utilisation of goods and services by consumers.
Consumption in simple economy reveals the nature of democratic system at the family
level. The forest products like the roots and fruits and the hunted games were jointly
shared by the clan members or villagers together. However, the main hunters or the chief
used to get more shares. Generally, a democratic pattern of consumption could be
recognised in the early economy. Further, the production and consumption were more or
less balanced. They did not aspire for profit in production. They utilised locally made
simple tools and implements for the exploitation of nature.
Distribution
Exchange of goods and services within a local group or between different local
groups is known as distribution. The figure 8.4 shows how a tribal community shares the
meat they collected through hunting. After hunting a game, the members of the tribal group
pool the meat into different shares and distribute each share among the members. Among
hunters and gatherers, usually the big man or the leader would take initiative for such
distribution. The hunted meat is equally shared among the members of the society. Similar
distribution mechanisms were found among the village societies or rural societies also. In
simple economies, equitable distribution is the norm in the society.
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The high point of an expedition is the ceremonial giving of valued kula ornaments.
Each member of the expedition receives a shell ornament from his trading partner and then
remains on the island for two or three days as the guest of that person. During the visit, the
trading of the necessary items also takes place.
(iii) Negative Reciprocity: It is a form of exchange in which one tries to get something,
out of nothing, or for a lesser value than it commands. It is mostly practised among
strangers or enemies. The parties involved have opposing interests and are not closely
related. An extreme form of negative reciprocity is to acquire something by force.
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Activity
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(c) Market
This is also known as money exchange or commercial exchange. In food gathering
economy, there exists no market, because whatever is produced is distributed only to
meet their daily needs. In simple food producing economies also, there was no regular
market because they produced only to meet their subsistence needs. However, the system
of market originates when the food producing economies change from subsistence to surplus
production. Here, producers regularly produce goods and market them. It is a more
developed form of distributing mechanism. Market exchange is associated with money. It
is a medium of exchange for buying and selling of goods and services. Market in the
simple economy is not similar to that of modern economy. Modern market involves
monitory transactions, competition and monopoly. But in simple economy, importance is
given to social and cultural functions rather than monitory transactions.
w Did you notice any difference between regular market and festival or seasonal market?
w Apart from economic transactions what are the other social relevance of such festival
markets?
No doubt we may get different kinds of goods from the modern market. But the
festival or seasonal market was a place of social gathering. Through such gatherings,
people reinforce their relationships. Actually such markets are the places of cultural
interaction. These market systems in the pre-literate society can be of different types that
include temporary market, peripheral market, and permanent market.
(i) Temporary market: In some societies temporary shelters are arranged for
transaction of goods and services. Here they exchanged goods and bought necessary
things. It is also known as weekly market. After the
arrival of the permanent market, these types of markets
have almost disappeared except in some of tribal and
rural areas, where such markets still exist.
(ii) Peripheral markets: As there was no surplus
production in subsistence economy, usually the produce
may not enter into the market. But on rare occasions,
some produce may enter the market. Such a situation
is called peripheral market. It is the place where people
make gossip, renew friendship and see relatives.
Peripheral market is called peripheral because they
account for only a small part of society's produce. Fig. 8.7 Temporary market
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(iii) Permanent market is a place where the systems of exchange of goods and services
are carried out using money. In permanent market, money facilitates trade. It is
purely a commercial exchange. It is not directed for simple use but for profit gains.
The items are brought to the market and sold with an eye to maximise profit in
permanent market. We can exchange goods and services through permanent market
at any time, which is absent in the case of temporary or seasonal market. Here a
person has to wait for the market day to sell the goods and purchase the needed
items. The value of goods and services are determined by the laws of supply and
demand. Bargaining is a characteristic feature of a permanent market. In this, the
consumer directly influences the
production pattern. Today bank
cheques, credit card and debit card
are fully accepted for electronic money
transfer.
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Let us complete the list by adding some more features to get a clear picture about the
simple pre literate economy.
Social cultural anthropology, as we learned earlier, deals with the origin, evolution
and variation of different social cultural institutions. Economic organisation is one of them.
We have already discussed about the pre-literate economic systems. But the modern
economic system as we know is very much different from the earlier types. The changes
are the result of cultural evolution, passed through different stages in economic activities.
In the following section we examine the important stages of economy.
Let us examine the economic activities of some of the tribal communities of Kerala.
Some communities depend solely on food collection for their livelihood. For example, the
Cholanaickan of Nilambur are food gatherers who depends solely on the Minor Forest
Produce (MFP). Some other tribes like the Mullukurumbas and Kurichyans of Wayanad
are engaged in food production agriculture. The tribes like the Kurumbas of Attappady are
engaged in the primeval agricultural practice like shifting cultivation. There are some other
tribal communities of India, like the Todas of Nilgiris, and the Gujjars of Kashmir engaged
in cattle rearing. There are some other tribes who are considered as agricultural labourers,
tribal artisans and industrial labourers.
A closer analysis of these occupations of tribal India reveals that different tribal
groups are in different stages of their economic development. Anthropologists believe that
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the people have passed through different stages of economy and livelihood, through a
process of transition from food collection to food production. Let us examine these different
stages of economic development in detail.
Tribal economies are by and large subsistence economies. There are food collectors
and food producers. Food collection includes food gathering, hunting and fishing. Animal
husbandry (pastoralism), primeval agriculture (shifting cultivation) and settled agriculture
are food producing subsistence activities
Hunting and food gathering are the oldest mode of Fig. 8.8 Bushmen engaged in
hunting
subsistence. Many contemporary primitive groups still
subsist on them. Food gathering economy is based on the subsistence technology of gathering
edible fruits and vegetables, tubers and hunting of wild animals. They are known as hunters
and gatherers, hunters , collectors and foragers. The living examples of such people include
the Cholanaickans of Kereala, Andamanese, Onge, Jarawas, Semang and Eskimos.
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In most cases, the total population of the entire tribe does not exceed a few thousands.
w Small size and self-sufficient: The local group is a small size and self sufficient
economic unit. It is invariably a small nomadic band or some semi-nomadic settlement
in which 25 to 30 individuals are clustered.
w Division of labour: The division of labour in this
economy is based on sex. In many societies men
engaged in hunting and women often go in groups to
do most of the gathering, which means involves
digging for roots and tubers with digging sticks.
w Absence of surplus and trade: Food gathering
economy has no surplus. They rarely have any surplus
left with them after satisfying their needs, which they
could use for barter, exchange or trade.
Fishing
It is evident that food gathering economy solely depends on the resources available
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Pastoralists keep a good relationship with agricultural group as they live in adjacent
areas. They exchanged their products with that of neighbouring agriculturalists. Pastoralists
move their herds in search of new grazing land and water. The Toda of Nilgiris, Gujjar of
Kashmir, Nandiwala of Maharashtra were traditional pastoralists of India. The Nuer of
Africa and the Tschembago of New Guinea are some of the classical examples of pastoral
communities in the world.
The nature of pastoralism differs from group to group. Some of them show advanced
pastoralism. Others show primary dependence on this occupation. The herding animals
are different in different regions, depending on the nature of requirements and herding
habitation. The examples of the herding animals include cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys,
horses, yaks and buffaloes.
Features of Pastoral Economy
w Small population: the pastoral groups are small in size and move from one place to
another in search of food resources of the domesticated animals.
w Domestication of animals: the area where the rainfall is not suitable for agriculture,
domestication of animals is the only occupation for survival. The pastoralists necessarily
depend upon domestication of animals for their livelihood. The Todas rear buffaloes;
the Gujjar rear sheeps; the Tschembago rear pigs.
w Semi nomadism: pastoral people move from one place to another in search of food
for their domesticated animals. They are seasonally nomadic, moving with their herds
over large territory searching for better grazing land.
w Transhumance: it is one of the variants of pastoralism. In this, a part of the population
moves seasonally with the herds, while the other part remains in home.
Check your progress
1. Differentiate pastoral economy from hunting gathering economy?
2. Identify the features of pastoral economy?
When human population further increased, they forced to change their subsistence
pattern. The knowledge domain of humans also progressed which paved the way to produce
food rather than collecting it from the environment. Thus human developed the early type
of cultivation.
Shifting Cultivation
Shifting cultivation is an earliest form of agriculture, in which, the area of cultivation
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is shifted from one place to another due to the loss of fertility of the land. It is an important
adaptation strategy of human society to adjust with the environmental changes. It is a type
of horticulture. Horticulture and agriculture are two types of cultivation, and one is different
from the other. Horticulture does not make
intensive use of machinery and tools. They
use simple tools such as hoes and digging
sticks. In shifting cultivation also the fields
are cultivated extensively with simple tools,
without the use of plough, manure, and
techniques of irrigation. Shifting cultivation
is practised especially in tropical and sub-
tropical zones. A plot of land is cultivated
for three or four consecutive years and
Fig. 8.12 Shifting cultivation
thereafter cultivation shifts to some other
plots. The old one is left vacant for a fairly long period of up to 10 to 12 years, so that the
soil can regain its fertility. This period is known as fallow period.
In shifting cultivation, a group of people select a particular plot for agriculture. At
first, they cut the bushes, plants and clear the plot. Then dry them and burn them to ashes.
After rain, they till the soil with digging stick or hoe. Seeds of different crops are thrown at
the onset of monsoon, which become ready to be harvested with the advent of winter. In
tribal India, about 11% of the population practise this cultivation. They produce rice, millet,
coconut, sugar cane, plantains and vegetables.
Shifting cultivation is generally known as 'slash and burn' cultivation. It is also known
as swidden agriculture. In different regions of India, it has different names such as Jhum,
Dahia, Podu, and Bewar. Shifting cultivation known by different names in different places/
communities as follows.
w Gonds - Dahia
w Baiga - Bewar
w Khonds -Podu
w Nagas and Kukkis - Jhum
w In Kerala it is known as Punam
Some of the features of shifting cultivation are given below. You can complete it with
your understanding of shifting cultivation.
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b) The quadrilateral plough found in China, Malay, and other parts of Southeast Asia.
The operation of agriculture is not limited to the use of plough. A series of specialised
implements are involved in it. After tilling of the soil, a leveller is required for levelling the
field. It is usually a flat rectangular wooden plank, which is yoked to a pair of animals. At
the time of dragging, the ploughman stands on it for putting enough pressure in smashing
the clods. This is followed by sowing. The farmer sows the seeds by hand. Manuaring and
irrigation are done in time. Sickles are used for harvesting.
Features of agriculture
w Settled life
w Highest population density
w Permanent rural and urban settlement
w Complex economic resources
w Complex technology
w Division of labour on the basis of age and sex
w Land ownership
w Full time political leadership
Some of the tribal communities in India who practise agriculture include the Baiga,
the Bhil, the Bhuiya, the Lepcha, the Oraons, the Santhal, and the Kurichians. People of
the remote places of Western Europe, Korea, Japan, Central Asia, and South Arabia are
also known for plough cultivation.
Let us collect the tools and implements used earlier for agriculture and
related economic activities for school museum and conduct an exhibi-
tion of the same.
Recent Development in Agriculture
Intensive agriculture changed a lot after mechanisation and commercialisation. There
is a worldwide trend to produce more and more for market. Animal labour is replaced by
tractors, tillers and other machineries. Hybridised seeds are widely used. Agri-business
has been opened, and farms are operated by multinational companies. Globalisation offers
international trade and marketing. Ultimately, the modern industrialised societies are
becoming a 'market foraging' societies.
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Modern technology and man-made conditions have changed not only the system
and quality of production but also production relationship. Modern industrial system has
given birth to companies, corporations, share markets, multinational companies, banks
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The concept of property in modern economy includes land, house, household articles,
vehicles, machines, and jewellery. The capitalist economy has undergone vast changes.
The present day corporations have a large number of share holders, whose capital runs the
corporation. But most of them remain ignorant about the working of companies, their
system of production, and the system of management.
Division of labour in industrial system is based on merit, skill, training, education and
the individual aptitude. Industrialisation, training, and skill have gradually changed occupation
into profession. It includes doctors, engineer, nurse, and teacher and so on. The dynamic
and competitive nature of the modern professions has changed the structure of the family
to become nuclear.
There has been a considerable change in the system of exchange in the modern
economy. Development of technology and huge production transform the exchange into
commercial one. Currency acts as a medium of exchange here. It has a standard value.
International and inland trade is regulated by currency. The market occupies a very important
place in the modern industrial system. The existence of market depends on the existence of
more than one seller of commodities. Labour, goods for consumption and professional
services are available from the new market.
Thus, industrial economy has given birth to the economic system based on technology
and energy. This system is characterised by large production, big organisation, highly
developed technology, cities and currency.
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Let us Sum up
w Economic organisation is a design of human action by which goods are produced,
distributed and consumed. Every type of economic organisation makes use of
economic resources namely resources, human co-operation, technology, and capital.
Economic anthropology is a sub field of social-cultural anthropology which deals
with the study of human behaviour connected with the economic organisation. Early
economy based on subsistence type, they followed production consumption and
distribution economics.
w In early economy family was the unit of production. All the members of the family
were engaged in the production process. The implements and tools were usually
indigenously made. The consumption in early economy revealed the nature of
democratic system at the family level. The distribution mechanisms are reciprocity,
redistribution and market.
w Reciprocity is giving and taking without the use of money. They are three forms -
generalised reciprocity, balanced reciprocity and negative reciprocity. Generalised
reciprocity is gift giving without any immediate return. In balanced reciprocity or
barter, individuals exchange goods for goods immediately. Negative reciprocity is a
form of exchange in which the given tries to get something out of nothing.
w Redistribution is the accumulation of goods or labor in a central point for the purpose
of subsequent distribution. It may be classified into administrative based redistribution
and potlatch based redistribution.
w Market or commercial exchange is based on the principle of supply and demand. It
occurs when food collecting economy becomes so efficient that it supplies food
beyond the subsistence. Here producers produced food for market and exchanged
with use of money. Market societies are money dominated price and wages were
regulated and affected by the forces of supply and demand.
w The stages of economic development are broadly divided into Food collection and
food production economies. Food collection or foraging may be of different types
like, gathering, hunting and fishing. It is the oldest economic system; in which human
being depend on wild plants and animals for getting food. Recent foragers depended
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Evaluation Items
1. Define economic organisation.
2. Distinguish between economics and economic anthropology.
3. Identify the system of exchange that Malinowski studied among the Trobriand
islanders.
4. Arrange the following in a chart and differentiate between each of them with suitable
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UNIT
RELIGIOUS
ORGANISATION 9
CONTENTS
I. Meaning and Definition of Religion Introduction
II. Elements of Religion
Aztec, a tribal group in Central
III. Religious Specialists
Mexico, had believed in human sacrifice.
IV. Origin of Religion According to their belief their God is to
• Animism
• Animatism be worshiped by giving offering of
• Manaism human blood and heart. After the
• Bongaism sacrifice Aztec used to eat heart and drink
• Naturalism
• Totemism blood of the sacrificed human. Most of
• Ancestor Worship the victims are prisoners of war or slaves.
V. Concept of Sacred and Profane Other than slaves sometimes young men,
VI. Taboo women and even children were captured
as victims. They were held lying over a
VII. Functions of Religion
stone called altar. The priest slit open
VIII. Magic
• Meaning and Definition
the chest and pulled out the heart which
• Elements of Magic seemed to be still beating. This was then
• Forms of Magic burned offering to god. Body was rolled
IX. Magic, Religion and Science
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down to the other side of sacred place. The skull would be put on a display rack. It
was reported that display racks contain more than one lakh of skulls.(Source: Marvin
Harris – ‘Cannibals and Kings: The origins of culture’ 1997: P 106)
We have come across similar instances of human sacrifice in media. Human sacrifices
are still happening in one form or other. These practices are associated with certain beliefs.
Animal sacrifices are still widely practiced as part of religious beliefs.
Did you notice these kinds of sacrifices in your society? Share your ideas.
These types of beliefs and behaviour related with supernatural powers are found
universally. Cross-cultural studies revealed that beliefs in supernatural powers and forces
existed since the beginning of human culture. In some occasions, people tried to influence
the supernatural forces, through magical practices, but in some other occasions, they
worshiped these supernatural forces. These provided them some sort of psychological
gratification. Such beliefs of the pre-literate humans were codified in institutionalised form.
It became the earliest form of religion.
Religion can maintain social control, social solidarity and promote change. It also
helps people to adapt with the changing conditions. Religious beliefs and practices have
undergone changes and modifications through different periods. Contemporary religious
trends include both rising secularism and reappearance of religious fundamentalism. In this
chapter we are looking into the various aspects of religious organisation including its origin
and evolution.
I. Meaning and Definition of Religion
The word, religion has been derived from the root word religio, which means 'to
bind together' and religion actually does it. It has played the most profound influence over
human thought since the ancient past. Anthropology looks at religion from historical and
evolutionary perspective, going into its origin and development. It also looks at religion
from the functional perspective, exploring its contemporary practices and manifestations.
Archaeologists have discovered evidence of religious beliefs and practices associated
with archaic Homo sapiens, or Neanderthals, that date back to 60,000 years ago. Religion
is a cultural universal, although specific beliefs and practices vary significantly from one
society to another. For example, some religions are based on the worshiping of an all-
knowing, all-powerful supreme being, whereas others have many deities. There are some
other religions without deities at all. All religions have an underlying belief. That is, the
proper performance of religious practices or observances would result in specific benefits:
health, long life, children, material well being, success in hunting, rain, good crops, victory
in war etc.
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There is no single definition of religion that ‘There is room in the world for all
could have universal application. religions – those who believe in
w British anthropologist E B Tylor has given rocks, those who believe in trees,
the minimal definition of religion as “a belief those who believe in clouds’ -Sidney
Harris; 1984
in spiritual beings” (Tylor, Primitive Culture
1871: Vol 2).
This definition is criticised in two ways. First, it does not include the ritual
aspects of religion. Second, it does not say whose beliefs in spiritual beings are referred
to: an individual’s private beliefs, the beliefs of a particular small community or the beliefs
of the worldwide system.
w According to the French sociologist Emile Durkhiem, “a religion is a unified system
of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and
forbidden – beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called
a church, all those who adhere to them”.
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(b) Rituals: Durkhiem has described ritual as an important element of religion. Ritual
is a practice of religion or the action part of religion. Conceptually, ritual is different from
beliefs. Beliefs are ideas or thoughts and rituals are their implementation.
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Rituals convey information about the participants and their tradition. It is repeated
year after year and generation after generation. It translates messages, values and sentiments
into action. Life cycle rituals are one of the important areas in this regard.
Life Cycle Rituals: Life cycle rituals, or rites of passage, mark a change in status from
one life stage to another of an individual. They mark the passing of one phase of life and
entry into another. For e.g. birth, puberty, initiation, marriage, and death. They are known
in English by its French equivalent Rites-de-pas-
sage. Arnold Van Gannep first brought this con- Among the Australian
cept into attention. He distinguished the Rites- aborigines, an initiation rite
de-passage into three types: is chalked out for the boys,
(i) Rites of separation which is quite painstaking.
A boy has to bear immense physical
(ii) Rites of transition torture until he is frightened or
scratched. His front teeth may even be
(iii) Rites of incorporation knocked out. At the end, a ceremony is
Rites of separation are practiced while one organised, after which the boyhood
passes away. The boy is recognised
separates from the group or community. Such
as a man and he is then allowed to
rites are performed when one dies. These rites marry.
become part of the funeral ceremonies. Rites of Indrany Basu Roy (2005):
transition are conducted when one changes from ‘Anthropology - The study of Man’
one’s social role to another. It includes rites
related to pregnancy, betrothal or initiation.
Puberty rites are also included in this category. It is performed at the first signs of
menstruation. Among the Kurichians of Kannur and Wayanad in Kerala, as in the case of
most other tribes, a seclusion hut is built where women live during their period of menstruation.
Rites of incorporation are observed when one is incorporated into a new group or
community. Marriage ceremonies come under this type.
Apart from the above listed rites, some societies practice another kind of ritual,
namely, rites of intensification.
Rites of Intensification: These rites mark the occasion of crisis in the life of the group.
The nature of crisis may be lack of rain that threatens agriculture, sudden attack of an
enemy group, onset of an epidemic, or some other elements that disturb everyone. Mass
ceremonies are performed to overcome the imminent threat that the group is facing. This
also unites the people for collective action.
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Rites of intensification need not always be limited to crisis situations alone. In certain
communities, when the seasons change, human activities also change accordingly. They
take the form of annual ceremonies. These are particularly seen among horticultural and
agricultural groups ,first during planting and then during harvesting.
(c) Symbols and Myths: Each religion has its own symbols and myths. For in-
stance, church, temple, mosque, flag, specific kind of dress are symbols of various
religiouscults. imilarly there are mythological stories related to each religion. Myths con-
sist of a people’s assumed knowledge about the universe and natural and supernatural
world. The tribes who believe in animism have their own totems which are symbolised by
animals, plants, trees etc. The origin of the clans is also illustratedby mythological stories.
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beliefs. We know that all human institutions are the product of their thought. Early humans
as savage philosophers tried to examine the forces behind many natural phenomena. They
assigned supernatural power to them and began to worship such power. Let us examine
how religious beliefs originated from supernatural beliefs and evolved to the modern type
of religion.
IV. Origin of Religion
You have learnt that human burials had been reported about 60000 years
ago. Along with human burials many other things like food materials, tools, dress materials,
pet animals. were also buried. What inferences of early religious beliefs of human beings
would you get from the following points?
w Why did they bury the dead? (earlier the dead bodies were discarded)
w Why did they keep food, dress, tools, pet animals etc. with burials?
Ancient humans might have thought that death was not the end of life. They might
have believed in rebirth. Any insult towards dead person, they feared, would be the cause
for revenge from that person. Naturally, they began to fear and worship the dead person.
It consequently gave birth to the earliest form of religious beliefs.
The religious life of any people is manifested in outward form, in beliefs and in
rituals. Mere beliefs do not constitute religion; it is the rites and rituals which make religion
a living force. The shape of supernatural power varies from society to society. Some
religions believe that the supernatural power is abstract and can only be experienced.
Some others argue that the supernatural power has a definite shape and a dimension,
which can be represented in the form of an idol. On the basis of such notions anthropologists
have formed the following explanations about religion.
Animism: E B Tylor asserted that the foundation of all religions is animism. In Latin anima
means soul, and thus animism is belief in soul. It is the belief that not only living creatures
but also inanimate objects have life. These supernatural forces are referred to as spirits,
ghosts, or Gods. They are believed to behave as people do. They are conscious, they
have will, and they feel the same emotions as human beings. Such spirits may reside in
plants, water, air, stones or in animals.
An important type of animism is ancestral worship which is found among most of the
tribes. The Santhals worship the ancestors as family and village deities. In western India,
the Bhils believe in the survival of the dead and the soul continues to exist as a spirit. Again
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they have numerous nature spirits – spirits of hills, streams, forests and punitive and malevolent
spirits. In Kerala, the Malayarayans consider the ancestral spirits as symbol of deities.
They believe that the dead ancestor, in the form of deity, will protect their family.
E B Tylor in his book ‘Primitive Culture’ (1871) shows the evolution of religion
from animism through polytheism to monotheism.
Though both the Melanesians and the Polynesians believe in Mana, they differ in the
understanding and operational elements of mana. The Melanesians believe that mana is
acquired while the Polynesians believe that mana is inherited. The Melanesians believe
that mana is the key to success, while Polynesians believe that though mana is the key to
success, it can also be dangerous. The belief of Polynesians in mana is comparable to that
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Naturalism: Max Muller emphasized that the earliest form of religion must have been
the naturalism or worship of nature. Thus, the primitive man was inspired by the natural
phenomena and without understanding it, he sought to explain it. An attitude of love and
reverence towards object of nature was born as a result, and they started worshipping
rivers, mountains, trees and other natural objects. According to this theory, the early man
was surprised with natural phenomena such as sun rising and setting, thunder sending rain,
trees bearing flowers and fruits, seasons changing and occurrence of day and night . The
Garo tribe of Assam worship sun and moon. The Munda people worships sun god.
Max Muller stresses the evolution of religion from naturalism through polytheism
and to the current stage of monotheism
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Ancestor worship: The philosopher Herbert Spencer traced the origin of religion in the
reverence to ancestors. Ancestor worship combined with beliefs in ghosts and fairies is
believed to be caused by dream experience. According to him, the ghosts of ancestors
were transformed into gods. It is believed that soul of ancestors protect the members of
family or tribe.
Anthropological studies of religion have yielded a few more concepts such as sacred
and profane taboo etc.
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The word ‘sacred’ has been derived from the French word ‘sacrres’ which means
pure with religious sanctity. Supernatural beings and forces are considered to be holy and
thus they are treated as sacred. Durkheim was of opinion that in religion, there is only
sacred belief; belief which refers to God and the deities who are actually symbolic of
society itself. He was also of the opinion that the sacred encompasses not only the good
but also of the evil and impure. The impurely sacred, for Durkheim, was necessary in order
to represent the inevitable negative facets of social reality. For him, both the pure and the
impure constituted two inextricably linked modalities of sacredness. This is to be kept
separate from the profane realm of everyday reality. He proposed that every society has
its sacred beliefs, symbols and rituals which are opposed to the ordinary or profane events.
The word ‘profane’ means mundane and hence related to worldly affairs. Durkhiem
suggested that the religions represent the sacred while the magic or the pseudo-science is
part of the profane. Everything that is not sacred is profane. Thus, the profane beliefs and
practices are not sacred and hence do not form part of religion.
VI. Taboo
Taboo or Tabu is a Polynesian term. It means prohibited. Thus, taboo is a prohibition
that prevents many activities. Disobedience to a taboo is not considered a crime but a sin.
Therefore, the society or the state may not punish the violator, but it pricks one’s conscience.
The power of taboo is more than that of law. The people do not so much fear law, but
taboo. Behind law, is the power of the state. But behind a taboo is the sanction of religion.
Therefore, taboos are more strictly observed. Its non-observance is supposed to annoy
God.
As part of religious beliefs, people observe
many rituals and ceremonies. Most often these According to Malinowski
religion is not what religions
rituals are very much painstaking. Why do people are, but what they do in
strictly adhere to these practices even when it society. Raymond Firth had
brings harm to them? No doubt, they believe, it written religious system “as means for
will bring great benefit in return. Religion actually handling the fundamental problems of
has to accomplish many functions on par with the social organisation….. for reducing
wishes of devotees. uncertainty and anxiety, for increasing
coherence in human relationships, for
VII. Functions of Religion assigning meaning to human
endeavour, for providing justification
Both from individual and social point of for moral obligations” (Firth,1967: p
view religion performs a lot of functions. It 250)
promotes the major social virtues like truth,
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honesty, non-violence, service, love, discipline etc. A follower of the religions internalises
these virtues and becomes disciplined citizen of the society. Some of the major functions
of religion are as follows:
Religion Explains: Religion has an explanatory function. Religion provides explanation
to individual and group life. People all over the world wonder how this universe originated,
why people die and suffer from diseases, and so on. All the societies give explanation to
these phenomena according to their own religious beliefs. It satisfies people from unusual
and unfortunate events.
Religion Validates: Religion has validating functions. Religious beliefs and practices are
important in all cultures. It validates peoples’ customs, beliefs and values. It validates why
people should or should not do a particular act or why a person should or should not
believe in a particular aspect.
Religion gives Psychological Comfort: It also provides psychological function by
reducing fears and anxieties in a crisis. Religion offers emotional comfort, particularly
when people face a crisis. Such crisis can be seen in life in the situations like, conception,
birth, puberty, marriage and death. It provides a sense of security in life by sharing the
beliefs, attitudes, values and sacred symbols of a group.
Religion Integrates: One of the major functions of religion is social integration. It binds
together the members of a society when they believe in the same thing and participate in
the same religious rituals. It is true that common belief, common sentiment, common worship
and participation in common rituals are the factors which strengthen unity and solidarity.
However competition between different religious groups is an exception to this situation.
Religion Maintains Social Control: Every religion stresses a moral code and conduct
to all of its members. Through the concepts of right, wrong, good and evil. religion controls
social life. Right actions of the individuals, result the approval of supernatural power and
thereby approval from the society. Likewise wrong actions cause revenge or punishment
through supernatural agencies. As an informal means, it regulates social life in a more
meaningful way. Organisations like temples, mosques, church and gurudwaras also control
the behavior of the individuals at different levels.
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VIII. Magic
Do you think all the beliefs related to supernatural power are associated with religion?
People sometime believe in the power of evil spirit. They think that such supernatural
elements can be propitiated to bring harm to their enemies. This kind of beliefs related to
supernatural power is not considered as religious beliefs. Anthropologists consider them
under the category of magic.
Generally among common people, there is confusion regarding magic. Most often
they consider magic as some kind of tricks like vanishing of a person locked inside a box.
It is performed by professional magicians to entertain the spectators. But in anthropology
the term ‘magic’ is perceived in an entirely different sense. It is performed by traditional
magical performers to control the invisible supernatural power for the accomplishment of
some purposes like, harming an enemy, getting good harvest, protecting oneself from disease
etc.
Meaning and Definition of Magic
w Sir James George Frazer, a leading British anthropologist is one of the first to define
magic. According to him magic is the technique designed to achieve specific goals
by manipulating the supernatural.
• Frazer emphasised that magic is a technique, which involves certain skills for
controlling the supernatural i.e., it includes certain actions that can compel the
supernatural to achieve specific goal. These goals may be to ensure good
crops, fertility of domestic animals, bring rain, cure illness in humans, or to
harm crops, create famine, or to create illness and death in human. Magic is
meant for either good or bad purposes.
w Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski, offered yet another definition of magic. According
to him, magic consists of the superstitious acts and belief through which individuals
try to control nature when their technology and rational techniques are insufficient.
• For him, magic comes into existence when people try to reduce their anxiety
in uncertainty.
• Both Frazer and Malinowski argued that magic is primitive science because it
comes into existence when the rational techniques are insufficient to control
natural phenomena
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Malinowski had witnessed magical practices among the ‘Trobriand islanders’ and
he describes it in his book ‘Argonauts of Western Pacific’ 1922 (see the box below).
The Trobriand Islanders have knowledge concerning their environment. They grow
a variety of crops. They skillfully adjust their agricultural activities to the varying
local situations. They build canoes and undertake long voyages for trade and fishing. Yanu
gardens made with the best of care may be blasted by one or another phenomenon such as a
storm and a heavy rain. Sudden storms may drive a canoe far off course or even capsize it. In
such situations the Trobriand Islanders know that their knowledge about nature is limited and
that there are factors beyond their control. Neither their considerable knowledge of the crops
can protect their crops from the dangers of unexpected storms and winds nor their commendable
navigation abilities, can save them from the dangers of unexpected winds and other natural
calamities. Therefore in all such helpless situations the Trobriand Islanders take recourse to
magical acts.
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effigies (Nokkukuthi) were erected to prevent evil eyes and evil tongue. More over, there
are other types of magical preventive practices and measures like tying of ‘magical thread’
(manthra charadu), ‘magical amulet’ (Urukku) etc. Apart from these, certain food,
sugar, chilli, lemon, turmeric, water etc. are also used with magical spells for curing diseases.
Elements of Magic
The following chart shows the three elements and the sub-elements of magic:
The Practitioner: Raymond Firth says that the practitioner of magic may be an individual
oneself or a specialist such as a shaman, a magician or a priest.
The Practical aim: The practical aim covers a wide range of objectives. They may be
protective in nature such as protecting from the attack of animals, to protect crops, to cure
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from illness etc. Amulets, ‘manthra charadu’ etc. are some of the protective magical
instruments. The objective of magic may be productive such as successful hunting, abundant
crops, ample rain and love making. ‘Sreechakram’, 'sudarsana chakram' and 'santhana
gopala yanthram'. are some of the instruments of productive magic. Still other objectives
may be destructive because they include the desire to harm one’s enemy, loss of others
crops and harm to others’ cattle. 'Koodothram’practiced in Kerala is an example of
destructive magic.
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The purpose of the magic can be of different. It is practiced in various ways. Hence
according to the objective of magic, it can be classified into different forms.
Forms of magic
Anthropologists have attempted to classify magic into different forms, based on its
different manifestations, practices and purpose. Significant among such classifications were
that of James Frazer and Raymond Firth.
Sir James Frazer classified different magical practices into two forms on the basis of
the laws or principles associated with those practices. He found that magical formulae are
based on two principles:
(i) Like produces like or an effect resembles its cause, this is based on the principle of
Law of Similarity
(ii) Once in contact always in contact, is based on the ‘Law of Contact’, the basic
principle of this type of magic.
In Frazer’s terms, the magic associated with the law of similarity is homeopathic
magic or imitative magic. The magic that is associated with law of contact is contagious
magic.
Homeopathic magic is the most familiar form of magic. For example, a magician
injures or destroys an enemy by injuring or destroying an image of the person concerned.
The belief is that, just as the image suffers, so does the person involved, and that when it
perishes, the person would also die.
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Magic
These are based on the aims, the ends or the functions they serve. Productive
magic do good to the individual, group or community. It includes magic of hunting, magic
of fertility, magic of rain making, magic of successful or abundant harvesting, magic of
successful fishing etc. Some other forms of magic protect the individuals, group or
community. They are called protective magic. Protective magic is used to guard property,
attain safety in travel, to counter sickness, to protect crops and cattle. All such protective
magic is socially approved. Destructive magic includes magic to destroy others’ property,
to produce sickness, to bring death, to create failure of crops and to inflict any other harm
or destruction done to plants, individuals, group or the whole community.
Other Classifications of Magic
Most anthropologists classify different magical practices into two distinct forms,
namely Black magic and White magic. This classification is made on the basis of the
ends to be achieved. The use of magic to deliberately harm or destroy another person,
group, community, cattle, crops, property or personal achievements is known as black
magic. It is malicious and anti-social. The use of magic to do good to another person,
group, community, cattle, crops, property or personal achievements is known as white
magic. It is beneficial to the individual and society. It has social approval. Black magic is
used for destructive purpose while white magic is used for productive and protective purpose.
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Some anthropologists have classified magic into sorcery and witchcraft. They treat
both sorcery and witchcraft as destructive magic.
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way has given birth to science. Even though all the three concepts involve human thought,
its effect in society is different. It would be interesting to know the similarities and differences
of these three concepts.
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The early and later anthropologists like Tylor, Frazer, Malinowski and others
delineated fundamental similarities between magic and science.
w Science is based on the principle that certain causes are result of certain effects.
Magic is also based on cause and effect relations or causations.
w Both science and magic are governed by a body of principles, specifying how one
has to proceed to get the desired results.
w Science and magic are oriented towards desired goals.
Religion and magic are the two basic techniques of dealing with supernatural. Religion
seeks spiritual rapport or is subordinate to animistic beings. Magic is a technique which
gains control over supernatural powers. Some of the differences between religion and
magic are given below:
Religion Magic
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Religion Science
• Religion is a closed system of belief. Science is an open system of thought.
• Its beliefs are sacred. The domain of science is profane
• They are not to be questioned; The scientific facts undergo
therefore they are not open to constant questioning and are subjected
empirical testing. to empirical testing.
Differences between Science and Magic
Both science and magic depend upon mechanistic procedures. However, while the
former deals with natural world, the latter deals with supernatural. Some of the differences
between Science and Magic are given below:
Science Magic
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Let us sum up
w Religion, a cultural universal, consists of belief and behaviours concerned with
supernatural beings, powers and forces. Archaeologists have discovered evidence
of religious beliefs and practices associated with archaic Homo sapiens, or
Neanderthals, that date back to 60,000 years.
w E.B.Tylor has defined religion as “belief in spiritual being” in 1871. There is no single
definition of religion that could have universal application.
w The religious specialists like shaman and priestess/priest play a vital role to serve as
intermediary between supernatural and individuals.
w Various elements of religion constitute beliefs, rituals, symbols and myths. These
beliefs may be animistic, animatistic, naturalistic, totemic or theistic beliefs. Rituals
are the action part of religion. Every religion has symbols and myths of their own to
represent beliefs and rituals.
w Anthropological studies have revealed many aspects of religion. Various views
regarding the origin of religion exist. Tylor considered animism – the belief in spirits
or souls – to be the earliest and most basic form. Later it developed through polytheism
to monotheism. According to R R Marett, belief in some impersonal power behind
every material objects i.e. animatism is the primary stage of religion. The term
Manaism is used especially by Melanesians and Polynesians. In central and north
India, the term bongaism is used among some tribal communities.
w Max Muller emphasises worship of nature as the primitive form of religion. He
stresses the evolution of religion from Naturalism through Polytheism and to the
current stage of Monotheism.
w Religion has many functions. It plays a vital role in social integration, social control,
providing psychological comfort to individual and group life, explaining the problems
of life, etc… That is why religion manifests in different forms in different societies.
w While religion is the belief in supernatural beings, Magic consists of superstitious
acts and beliefs through which individuals try to control supernatural. Different types
of magic include white magic or black magic. According to their purposes white
magic may be productive or protective while black magic may be destructive.
Magical activities may be in the form of sorcery or witchcraft.
w In comparison to magic and religion, science is the latest stage of development in the
sphere of human thought and action. Both science and magic are guided by logical
reason, the former related with natural world and the latter with supernatural world.
Tylor called magic as ‘pseudo science’ or ‘bastard sister of science’.
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7. Give a detailed account of the religious ceremony you have participated in your
locality, covering its beliefs, rituals, myths and symbols.
8. What are the ways in which religion establishes and maintain social control?
9. Are religion and science necessarily opposed? What is your own experience with
these two worlds?
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UNIT
FOLKLORISTIC
ANTHROPOLOGY 10
CONTENTS
I Meaning, Definition and Scope of Introduction
Folklore
· Folklore and Anthropology Naranathu Branthan, a mythical
· Concept of Folk and Lore lunatic, who was one among the twelve
· Folkloristics
progenies of a Parayi from a brahmin.
II Folk Literature He was the most popular among the 12
· Folk Songs
children of Parayi (Parayipetta
· Folk Tales
· Myths
Panthirukulam), and a man with unusual
· Legends talents. At the same time he was a social
· Proverbs revolutionary who fought against the
· Riddles social evils and blind beliefs that
· Anecdotes prevailed during the period. Those who
· Ballads
III Folk Beliefs and Practices
IV Folk Games - Day today and Occasional
V Folk Art – Performing and Non-
Performing
VI Folk Science and Technology
VII Applied Folklore
· Folklore Documentation and Archieves
· Mass Media and Folklore
· Folklore and Tourism.
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were unable to understand his revolutionary view points, called him mad. Many
fabulous stories are in circulation with Naranathu Branthan. One among it says his
hobby was to roll a boulder to the top of the hill and push it down from the top.
What message does this story convey?
Was it to teach the people that it was very difficult to gain, but very easy to lose?
Do the stories like these have any influence on the cultural life of people?
There are several similar stories, songs, proverbs, sayings and beliefs in every society.
These are our cultural remnants which definitely influenced the social and cultural life of
people. Similar myths, legends and stories are found in all cultures which enculturate a
population informally. In fact these traditions make each culture distinct from the other.
These were orally transmitted from generation to generation, but now they are documented
and recorded with an attempt to preserve it. The knowledge and beliefs once orally
transmitted are popular under the title 'folklore'.
Almost all of us had heard about the word folklore in different contexts. Folklore
brings to our minds the theyyam, thira, ballads and other forms of performing arts. But
folkloristic anthropology as a discipline is much more than this perception. Earlier, folklore
was considered as part of anthropological enquiries. Anthropologists, as part of their
ethnographic studies had collected details of folk beliefs and customs of indigenous cultures.
Thus folkloristic - the study of folklore - is an inseparable part of anthropological investigation.
Later the subject was independently developed utilising the resources and methods from
anthropology. Even though folklore as a discipline has emerged independently, it still remains
as inseparable part of anthropology. The limitation of folklore has been reflected in its
earlier notion that it deals with 'popular antiquities'. Earlier, scholars of folklore included
only oral tradition under folklore, but now the other aspects of tradition has also been
incorporated. In the present context, majority of the folk traditions have been recorded
and folk performances been documented. Hence, contemporary folkloristic anthropology
not only covers the literature orally transmitted but the other traditions as well.
However, what does the term folklore actually mean? An understanding of different
definitions of folklore will help us get a comprehensive perception of the concept.
The word folklore originated from two words 'folk' and 'lore', which were used
independently. The word folk is used to denote 'indigenous, traditional or related to
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agriculture', and the word 'lore' means knowledge. The word 'folklore' was first used by
William J Thoms in 1846. Earlier it was known as 'popular antiquities' and 'popular literature'.
But later it was replaced by 'folklore'. According to W.J.Thoms, the manners, observances,
superstitions, ballads, proverbs and so on of the olden times were included in folklore for
fear of being extinct. The concept of folk and folklore have undergone various changes
and modifications over these years.
Folklore consists of beliefs, customs, drama and dance, art, craft, painting and
sculpture belong to the past which are handed over from generation to generation. With
the development of modern society they are at the edge of extinction. Folklore of every
society consists of folk literature, folk beliefs and practices, folk games, folk art,
and folk science & technology.
Definition of Folklore-Old and New
Attempts have been made by anthropologists and folklorists to define folklore. First
of all let us examine the earlier definition of folklore.
"Folk as a great proportion of the members of people that determines the group
character and that tends to preserve its characteristics form of civilisation and customs,
arts and crafts, legends and traditions, and superstitions from generation to generation"-
Webster's dictionary
"Folklore includes the manners, customs, observances, superstitions, ballads,
proverbs and so on of the olden times which were transmitted orally from generation to
generation"- William Johns
Folklore is once regarded as the lore of the folk, where folk means the 'uneducated',
'pre-literate', 'uncivilized', 'primitive', or 'backward' people.
Folklore is also considered as the survivals of some old time culture, a thing of the
past.
William Bascom, an anthropologist of the University of California believed that "verbal
art" was a better phrase than folklore.
Folklore is a 'mirror of culture', but not a dynamic factor in it, a projection of basic
personality, but not personality in action. (Amos: 1982)
Most of the early definitions of folklore stress on the importance of oral tradition,
tradition of folk people, or 'uneducated' people. These definitions of folklore raise many
questions in our mind.
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w Does folk art and craft, which forms an important part of folk culture, come under
folklore?
w Have the oral tradition of educated people and city dwellers been included under
folklore?
w Do the oral traditions of past which are recorded and documented now come under
the category of folklore?
w Do the beliefs, values, character and stories created by the modern people come
under the category of folklore.?
Anthropologists try to consider folklore as a part of culture. As folklore is a cultural
universal it is found in all cultures of the world. In every society, whether it is urban or rural,
developed or undeveloped exists some traditions which are informally transmitted from
one generation to the other. So scholars tried to redefine folklore in the modern context.
Modern Definitions of Folklore
Alan Dundes, the famous anthropologists and folklorist defined folklore on the basis
of folk and lore. To him folk is any group of people who share at least more than one
common characteristic. The common factor may be a common occupation, language or
religion. All their common characteristics are considered as folklore. Hence a nation or a
family also becomes a folk and its knowledge becomes the folklore.
'Folklore is the reflection of culture, both past and present'- Franz Boas, American
Anthropologist
Folklore is the 'unwritten popular traditions of civilized countries'- William Wells
Newell.
The beliefs, knowledge, values, morals, and traditions which are transmitted orally
from generation to generation, are considered as folklore in early times. In non-literate
societies the cultural base requires oral traditions for transmission of culture, where written
tradition is absent. Along with that the oral tradition of literate people can also be included
under folklore. For instance, how to brush the teeth, how to sow the seed, how to plough
the field, how to manure it, how to pray, beliefs associated with supernatural, traditional
way of preserving food, indigenous knowledge associated with disease of literate societies
which are transmitted orally from generation to generation can also be included in folklore.
Controversy also exists on whether some elements of folklore which are written can
be included under folklore. For example, poem in palm leaf, proverbs, riddles, folktales
and folksongs, chilappathikaram, kathasarithsagara, panchthanthra and epics like Ramayana
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and Mahabharata have appeared in text books. In actual practice, we cannot say that they
are not folklore only because they are written. Most of them have originated and transmitted
orally. The folksongs presented through radio, television are composed and written by
modern artists, but characteristically differ little from those preserved by oral tradition.
Hence they are also included under folklore.
Likewise the word 'orally' also cannot be accepted fully. The folk dances, art, craft
and folk painting, sculptures are neither oral nor products of written cultural tradition
exclusively. One has to learn and acquire the know-how of these elements of folklore
through imitation observance and in some cases rigorous training. Thus we can say that
folklore is not merely 'literature transmitted orally' but also includes cultural elements like
arts, crafts, beliefs and customs.
There was also a belief that folklore was developed in 'primitive', 'savage', 'barbarian',
'illiterate' societies and that it disappeared when the society became 'civilised'. But according
to Dundes, there is urban folklore also. To him any group can be a folk with its own sets of
traditions (tales, songs proverbs, games, slang etc.) A campus community, a military group,
an office each is a folk and has a folklore. In modern times new folklores emerged in urban
areas and diffused into rural areas. For example, new heroes like spider man, batman,
superman, phantom, mandrake, etc have emerged in urban cultures. New heroes were
being created and they substituted the traditional heroes.
Fill in suitably
a). A group of people who share at least more than one common characteristic is
called…….
b). Folklore is found in all cultures of the world. Hence it is a cultural ……
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Folklore plays an important role in the cultural life of people. Anthropology which
studies the culture of people cannot ignore the importance of folklore in shaping the culture.
Anthropologists from the very beginning started to study folklore as a part of culture even
before folklore as a separate discipline was formed.
Folklore and Anthropology
Anthropologists consider Folklore as a part of culture. Study of culture will be
incomplete without the knowledge of folk traditions. The knowledge, beliefs and values of
a society play an important role in determining other aspects like marriage, family and
economic organisation. Folklore is the pulse of the culture. Anthropologists try to understand
these pulses by going deep in to the culture. Hence it is the duty of any anthropologist to
describe the folklore of a given society while documenting, preserving, and popularising
the culture.
Differences of opinion exist among anthropologists and folklorists regarding the scope
of both disciplines. Earlier anthropologists like James Frazer, E.B Tylor and Franz Boas
were the pioneers in folklore studies. William R Bascom a leading folklorist and
anthropologist stated that, folklore belongs to the branch of cultural anthropology. When
an anthropologist goes to the field and records the culture of a particular people, such
cultural studies will be incomplete if they do not record the folktales, legends, myths, riddles,
proverbs, and other forms of folklores of the people under study. However, the modern
folklorists hold the view that folklore has emerged as an independent discipline.
Folklore has now developed into an independent discipline. However no discipline
is an island, hence inter-disciplinary approach is necessary for the development of any
discipline. The structural analysis of myth and totems, devised by anthropologists are still
widely utilised by folklorists. It shows that, though there are differences existing among
anthropologists and folklorists, it only exists in terms of objectives and approaches, not in
terms of the study area and content.
Franz Boas, the American anthropologist utilised folkloric tradition to understand
the origin and development of primitive groups. He collected folk myths, legends, tales,
riddles, art, magic, song dance, traditions, customs and ceremonies of American tribes to
understand their culture. He founded The Institute of American Folklore Society in 1888.
He became the editor of 'Journal of American Folklore' in 1908.
S.C.Roy, the father of Indian ethnography, considered folklore as "pre-history of
human mind". He emphasised the importance of collecting and preserving folk traditions
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because they are the treasures of our past, handed down from generation to generation.
L.P.Vidyarthi considers folklore as a subfield of anthropology. According to him folklore
is the traditional heritage continuing generation after generation. He edited the book 'Folklore
researches in India' and he became the editor of the journal 'folklore'
Earlier folklore was defined as the 'lore' of the 'folk'. 'Folk' stands for indigenous,
traditional, related to agriculture, uneducated, pre-literate, uncivilised, primitive, or backward
people. The word 'lore' means knowledge. Thus folklore was then limited to the tradition
of uneducated or preliterate societies.
Modern concept of folk is different. In the words of Alan Dundes folk may be a
small unit like a family or large unit like a nation, different religions, and geographical areas,
cultural, regional or ethnic groups. Thus in India, we have Indian folklore, comprising
folklore of different states such as Kerala folklore, folklore of different castes, occupations,
ethnic groups and 'when a new group emerges a new folklore is created'. A person can be
a member of many folk groups, like caste groups, religious groups, Indian folk groups,
Kerala folk groups etc. Thus in modern concept, folklore includes the tradition of modern,
literate, civilised and urban societies as well as the tradition of pre-literate, uneducated and
rural societies.
Folkloristics
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as an informal way of enculturating generations especially among the rural folk. The folktales
popular in Kerala include 'parayipetta panthirukulam', tales of Kayamkulam Kochchunni,
Viruthan Sanku, stories related to the origin of theyyam, thira, and stalapuranas.
'Aitheehyamala' by Kottarathil Sankunny is a treasure house of folk tales in Kerala.
Myth: Standard dictionary of folklore defines myth as a 'story' presented as actually
happened earlier, explaining the nature and supernatural, tradition of people, their gods,
heroes and religious beliefs. They usually provide a justification for religious beliefs and
practices. These are conveyed in the form of stories from elders to new generation.
Myths represent fundamental beliefs and values of the culture. In pre-literate or simple
societies myths are real part of their social cultural environment. They reflect the interest of
the group and lead the new generation to imitate the examples represented in it. Several
myths exist in India regarding the origin of different castes.
Legends: Legends are stories narrated in such a way as if it actually happened. Commonly
legends consist of pseudo historical narrations about the heroism of leaders and establishment
of customs. They are the mixture of realism and supernaturalism. They may or may not be
truth but are used to entertain, inspire, or convey values to next generation.
Legends cannot be attributed to any author. They are usually explained as if they
were from real life. Heroism of their ancestors or gods is conveyed through this. Long
legends in rhythmic prose or poetry are known as epics.
Proverbs: Proverbs are traditionally existing morals or advices 'in brief statements'. They
originated from the live experience of early people. They are transmitted from generation
to generation orally. Proverbs will be meaningful only when they are used in suitable situations.
Proverbs critically analyse the society and reveal the truth behind it and applicable in a
particular context. For example 'mindapoocha kalamudakkum' (silent cat will break the
pot), 'kakka kulichal kokkakumo' (crow will never became a crane even after continuous
bath), rolling stone gathers no moss, pride goes before a fall…etc.
Riddles: Riddle is a statement, question or phrase having double meaning. Riddle is an
important entertainment activity that caters intellectual development among children. 'adi
paara, nadu vadi, meethe kuda' (Chena) is an example for riddle.
Anecdotes: Anecdote is a short and amusing or interesting account of a real incident. In
anecdotes, the place and person involved is identifiable. Story of Kayamkulam Kochunni
is one of its kinds.
Ballads: Ballads are narrative set to music songs in simple stanzas related to heroes of
past emphasising their qualities. Vadakkan pattukal (Northern ballads), Thekkan paattukal
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Folk Science: Folk science means the traditional knowledge or the interpretations
of the common people about the various things happening around them. Their knowledge
regarding natural phenomenon, diseases and treatment (folk medicine), preservation of
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fruits and vegetables, food recipe, concept of hot and cold food, agriculture, colouring of
cloth, vastuvidhya( science of architecture), knowledge of stars and heavenly bodies come
under folk science.
In Kerala knowledge regarding 'njattuvela', local knowledge of manuring plants,
knowledge of season for sowing and harvesting, knowledge regarding the medicinal value
of plants, treatment, method of fermentation are features of folk science.
Folk technology: Folk technology is the application of folk science. It includes folk
architecture, technology of making houses (Nalukettu, Agraharams etc), fences, net for
fishing, carts, palanquin, boat, (Bepoore uru, snake boat etc.) ornaments, smoking pipes,
pottery, bags, weaving and cooking .
Prepare a seminar paper on the topic Folk lore of Kerala. (a) folk
literature (b) folk art (c) folk games (d) folk beliefs and practices (e) folk
science and technology are to be included in the seminar paper).
Collect details of folk arts from your locality and utilising web resources
prepare a digital presentation.
Check your progress:
1. Find the odd item and justify your answer
(a) Bharathanatyam, Oppana, Odyssey, Kathakali
(b) Kalamezhuthu, Kolam, Theyyam, Mural painting
2. Say true or false
a) Theyyam is a performing art.
b) Long Legends in rhythmic prose, are known as epics.
We could see that folklore is a cultural universal. It exists in all societies whether it
is civilized or uncivilized, illiterate of educated, rural or urban. Even the literate societies
have their own traditional knowledge, beliefs and practices transmitted orally from generation
to generation. The concept of folklore is undergoing changes. When a pre-literate society
becomes literate, they cannot ignore their traditional knowledge and beliefs. Hence the
concept of folklore also undergoes changes.
The knowledge of folklore is widely used in many contexts, without considering the
importance of its rituals. For instance:
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w Theyyam a ritual performance in kavu in Malabar area of Kerala is also utilised for
advertisements, marketing and tourism purpose.
w ……………………….
w ……………………….
Collect similar instances from your surroundings and analyse the reason behind the
use of such folk traditions. Discuss your analysis in your class.
Applications of the folk traditions for different purposes without its ritualistic aspects
can be seen in different fields. Such applications are discussed in applied folklore.
In the era of globalisation and liberalisation the world market has provided wider
perspectives for such ethnic traits. Now-a-days folk knowledge and beliefs are often utilised
for popularisation and marketing of products.
The fanciful advertisements largely used in introducing and popularising the product,
show the commercial application of folklore. The pictures or images such as that of
'theyyam', 'Mahabali' etc are utilised for advertisements of different products. The forms
of 'theyyam'and thira are used in the context of advertisement of the programmes of different
trade unions and political parties. Folk medicines like Ayurveda, tribal medicine and art
forms like theyyam, thira and kalari are used for promoting tourism. Villadichanpattu, a
performing art, is widely used to propagate family planning. Folk literature printed in text
forms are used for formal education. Application of folklore also extends to the promotion
of harmony in the society.
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You can find out gender discrimination in folk sayings, folk performances and
proverbs. For example:
w puthanachi purappuram thookum (The new lady at the in-laws' house tries hard
to impress)
w pennorumbettal (Once a woman venture out)
w minda poocha kalamudakkum (Silent cat will break the pot)
Does the society having these proverbs give adequate consideration for women? -
Discuss it in your groups.
Women play an important role in the transmission of culture. They work along with
men in upholding the traditions in the society and occupy a separate space in the oral
tradition. Women studies in folklore are still a marginalised area in cultural studies.
Anthropologists tried to perceive the cultural practices from the point of view of women
also. Women being a marginalised section in the society have not been given top priority
either in cultural study or in folkloristics.
A closer analysis of folk beliefs, rituals, practices, legends, proverbs and riddles
would reveal how women were addressed and treated in the social walks of life. In many
occasions, though the theme of folklore is related to women it is performed by males. For
instance, in Malabar, many of the Bhagavathi theyyams like Muchilottu Bhagavathi,
Thamburati, etc. are performed by male performers. The 'Devakkoothu' in Thekkumbad
in Kannur district of Kerala is an exemption, in which a female performs the theyyam.
Likewise while imparting informal education parents and elders instruct girls not to raise
their voice, not to sleep after sunrise, have the food after giving to male members etc. No
such restrictions are imposed on the males.
Find out instances of gender discrimination from your locality and
present in your class.
Let us sum up
w Folklore is a cultural universal, i.e. it is found in all cultures of the world. Folkloristics
- the study of folklore - is an inseparable part of anthropological investigation. Earlier
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it was known as 'popular antiquities' and scholars of folklore included only oral
tradition under folklore, but now the other kinds of tradition have also been
incorporated.
w Anthropologists consider Folklore as a part of culture. Earlier folklore was defined
as the 'lore' of the 'folk'. Hence, folklore was then limited to the tradition of 'uneducated'
or pre-literate societies.
w Modern concept of folklore is different, which includes the tradition of modern,
literate, civilised and urban societies as well as the tradition of pre-literate, 'uneducated'
and rural societies.
w Folk literature consists of folk songs, folktales, myths, legends, proverbs, riddles,
ballads, blessings, curses, simile and metaphors, nicknames, history of place names,
oaths, greetings and fables.
w There are several peculiar folk beliefs, taboos, and superstitions are prevalent among
all classes of people and they have become a part of social behaviour. Folk practices
include day to day practices and occasional practices.
w Folk games play an important role in entertainment and recreation of people especially
in rural areas. Folk games include day to day games and occasional games.
w Folk art is the manifestation of the creativity of people in the form of drawing,
costumes and dances. Folk art includes performing and non performing arts.
w Folk science means the traditional knowledge or the interpretations of the common
people about the various things happening around them. Folk technology is the
application of folk science. Application of folklore in various situations to project
and propagate different messages is known as applied folklore.
w Documentation of folklore is important because folklore is undergoing fast changes.
So the details of folklore must be documented to preserve it.
w Though women play an important role in the transmission of culture, gender
discrimination can also be seen in folklore.
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w Evaluate critically the possibility of folklore in practice (applied folklore) in the changing
globalised world.
Evaluation items
2 Folk beliefs and practices existing in Kerala indicate the lower status of women. Do
you agree with this statement? Justify your answer with suitable examples.
3. Do you agree with the performance of folk arts like theyyam in stages for the purpose
of documenting it?
4. Look at the sign board and how will you explain the
importance of it to a tourist.
5. Write a folk song and analyse its importance in the
social cultural life of people.
6. Give a description of the folk performance in your locality and explain how it is
concerned with the beliefs and practices of local culture.
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GLOSSARY
Abbevillian : Relating to an early Lower Paleolithic culture of Europe
characterized by bifacial stone hand axes.
Absolute dating : A method of dating fossils in which the actual age is measured.
Also known as chronometric dating.
Acculturation : The exchange of cultural features that results when groups
come into continuous first hand contact; the cultural patterns
of both groups may be changed, but the groups remain distinct.
Acheulian : A stone tool making tradition, most prevalent tools in the
Acheulian tool kit is the hand axe, which is a bifacially flaked
tool with a thinned sharp tip.
Adjudication : The process by which third party acting as judge and makes a
decision
Aerial Survey : The various techniques of taking photographs of natural or
cultural features from the air, using balloons, airplanes,
satellites, and other sources, in order to study the features in
their entirety from a top-down (bird’s eye) view.
Allele : One number of a pair of gene
Amphibians : Cold-blooded animals that usually split their time between
land and water
Analogy : Similarities between organisms
Animism : Belief in spirits or souls
Anthropoids : One of the two sub orders of primates includes monkeys,
apes and humans
Arboreal : Adapted to live in trees
Archaeological anthropology: The study of pre historic culture through remains left
by ancient humans.
Archaeozoic : The first two-thirds of Earth’s history are called the
Precambrian (meaning “before the Cambrian”. It is also
known as the Archaeozoic Era.
Artifact : An object that may or may not be modified through the working
of humans, but bears use mark.
Assemblage : A collection of pre-historic artifacts in one region.
Association : Association refers to a group of persons formed with a specific
objective or a set of objectives.
Aurignacian : A culture period of the upper Palaeolithic; probably beginning
of upper palaeolithic art.
Australopithecus : The extinct genus of Plio-Pleistocene hominid found in South
East Asia
B.P : Before Present; used in age determination instead of B.C. or
B.C.E. “Present” is academically defined as the year 1950
(the year when this term was invented).
Balanced reciprocity : Giving with the expectation of a straight forward immediate of
limited time trade.
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Folk songs : Folk songs are the songs sung on the occasions of life cycles,
religious festivals, agricultural operations, etc. They draws
their themes from religion and mythology, agricultural
operations like sowing and harvesting, incidents in social life
like wedding and beauties of landscape etc:
Folklore : Folklore includes the manners, customs, observances,
superstitions, ballads, proverbs and so on of the olden time
which are once transmitted orally from generation to
generation.
Folktales : Folktales are the stories depicting courage, bravery, moral
values, good manners, reverence to supernatural etc sung
on different occasions.
Food collection : All forms of subsistence technology in which food getting is
depended on naturally occurring resources – wild plants and
animals
Food production : The form of subsistence technology in which food getting is
depended on cultivation and domestication of plants and
animals
Foraging : Searching for and collecting food that is available in nature
Gene : Chemical unit of heredity
Generalised reciprocity: Gift giving without any immediate or planned return.
Genetic drift : The various random processes that affect gene frequencies
in small relatively isolated population
Genotype : The genetic makeup of a particular organism
Headman : A person who hold a powerless, but symbolically unifying
position in a society.
Heterodontism : Different types of teeth
Heterozygous : Possessing different genes
Hominid : Popular form of Hominidae
Homozygous : Possessing two identical genes
Hypergamy : Marriage with a man of higher caste
Hypogamy : Marriage with a man of lower caste
Incest taboo : Forbidden sexual relations with close relatives
Incisors : Front teeth used for cutting and nipping
Industry : Any set of artifacts fashioned or used by a single human group
of pre historic days.
Institution : A standardised norm of behaviour existing in a society is called
institution.
Interspecific : Variation between two separate species
Intraspecific : Variation within a species
Kula ring : A ceremonial exchange of valued shell ornaments in the
Trobriand island, in which white shell arm bands are traded
around the islands in a counter clockwise direction and red
shell necklaces are traded clockwise
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Legends : Legends are stories tolled as true and set in the post creation
world. Commonly legends consist of pseudo historical
narrations that explain the heroism of leaders, establishment
of customs etc.
Levallois technique : A tool-making technique in which a prepared core was used
to manufacture flakes of predetermined size and shape.
Characteristic of Middle Paleolithic and Mousterian
technologies.
Levirate : Custom by which a widow marries the brother of her diseased
husband
Lineage : A set of kin whose members trace descent from a common
ancestor through known link
Magic : The performance of certain rituals that are believed to compel
supernatural powers to act in a particular way
Mana : A supernatural, impersonal power that inhibits certain objects
or people
Material culture : Those aspects of culture which are visible are called material
culture
Microlith : Small, flaked stone tools, 1-4 cms in length.
Mousterian : the name given to a European stone-tool industry
characterized by flakes struck from prepared cores.
Monothiesm : Belief that there is only one supreme god and all other
supernatural beings are subordinate to, or manifestation of
this supreme being.
Mutation : An alternation in the gene material (DNA) the true creative
factor of evolution
Myth : Myth as a ‘story’ presented as actually happened earlier,
explaining the nature and supernatural, tradition of people,
their gods, heroes, religious believes… etc.
Neolithic : the latter portion of the Stone Age, a time period when many
areas were developing agriculture, especially the Middle East.
Nomadism : Movement of people from one geographical area to other for
searching food and shelter
Non material culture: Knowledge, beliefs and values of a culture which are not
visible.
Oldowan : Name for the earliest stone tool industry, characterized by
large tools with a sharp edge created by the removal, of a few.
Palaeolithic : the early stage of the Stone Age, during humans relied on
stone technology to sustain their scavenging, hunting and
gathering lifestyle.
Paleontology : Study of fossils
Pastoralism : Process of domestication of animals
Patriarchal : Father as the head of the family
Phenotype : Observable characteristics of an individual as determined by
the genotype
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SELECTED REFERENCES
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Bascom William R (Ed) 1977 Frontiers of folklore; West view Press, Colarado.
Beals, R L and Harry Hoijer 1971: Introduction to anthropology.
Brent Berlin and Paul Kay, 1969: Basic colour terms: Berkeley and Los Angeles V. of C
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Childe V G, 1946: What Happened in History, Pelican, New York.
Childe V G, 1953: What is History, Henry Schuman, New York.
Darwin, Charles, 1859: Origin of Species. New American Library Mentor, New
York.
Doshi, S.L., P. C. Jain 2002: Social Anthropology. Rawat Publishers. New Delhi.
Dundes A (Ed) 1965.The Story of Folklore, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
Ember Carol. Melwin Ember and Peter N Peregrine. 2003: Anthropology, Delhi.
Pearson Education, Inc.
Haviland, William A, Harald, E.L.Prins, Dana, Walrath, Bunny Mcbride, 2007:
Introduction to Anthropology: Indian re print, Cengage Learning,Patparganj, New Delhi.
Herskovits, M.J. 1974: Cultural Anthropology. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH.
Jha, Makhan, 1996: An introduction to Social Anthropology.
Kottak, Conrad Philip: Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, 9th ed., The
McGraw Hill com. New york.
Majumdar, D N and T N Madan 1980: Introduction to Social Anthropology., Delhi
Malinowski, B. K., 1922: Argonauts of Western Pacific. Duttan, New York.
Rajendran.P. 1989: The pre-historic Cultures and Environment: A case study of Kerala.
New Delhi: Classical.
Roy, Indrani Basu, 2003: Anthropology: The Study of Man: S Chand & Co. New Delhi.
Sankalia.H.D. 1982: Stone Age tools. Pune: Deccan College.
Sarana, Gopala, 1977: Introducing anthropology.
Scupin, Raymond and Christopher R. De Corse: Anthropology:A Global Perspective,
5th ed. Indian re print, Prentice Hall of India , New Delhi.
Sharma, R.N. 2004: Social and Cultural Anthropology, Surjeet Publications, New Delhi.
Srivastava, A.R.N. 2005: Essentials of Cultural Anthropology: Prentice Hall of India,
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