Practical Research 2 Notes

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Developing a research instruments
Before the researchers collect any data from the respondents, the young researchers will need to
design or devised new research instruments or they may adopt it into the other researches (the tools
they will use to collect the data).
If the researcher/s is planning to carry out interviews or focus groups, the young researchers will
need to plan an interview schedule or topic guide. This is a list of questions or topic areas that all
the interviewers will use. Asking everyone the same questions means that the data you collect will be
much more focused and easier to analyze.
If the group wants to carry out a survey, the young researchers will need to design a questionnaire.
This could be on paper or online (using free software such as Survey Monkey). Both approaches have
advantages and disadvantages.
If the group is collecting data from more than one ‗type‘ of person (such as young people and
teachers, for example), it may well need to design more than one interview schedule or
questionnaire. This should not be too difficult as the young researchers can adapt additional
schedules or questionnaires from the original.
The Instrument
Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a measurement device (survey, test,
questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish between instrument and instrumentation, consider that
the instrument is the device and instrumentation is the course of action (the process of developing,
testing, and using the device).
Sampling Procedures
Sampling is a process or technique of choosing a sub-group from a population to participate

in the study; it is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals selected represent the large group from which they were selected (Ogula, 2005). There are
two major sampling procedures in research. These include probability and non-probability sampling.
Probability Sampling Procedures
In probability sampling, everyone has an equal chance of being selected. This scheme is one in which
every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample. There
are four basic types of sampling procedures associated with probability samples. These include
simple random, systematic sampling, stratified and cluster.
Simple Random Sampling Procedure
Simple random sampling provides the base from which the other more complex sampling
methodologies are derived. To conduct a simple random sample, the researcher must first prepare an
exhaustive list (sampling frame) of all members of the population of interest. From this list, the
sample is drawn so that each person or item has an equal chance of being drawn during each
selection round.
Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis
According to Baraceros (2016), she identified the different steps in Quantitative data analysis and she quoted
that no ―data organization means no sound data analysis‖.
Coding system – to analyzed data means to quantify of change the verbally expressed data into numerical
information. Converting the words, images, or pictures into numbers, they become fit for any analytical
procedures requiring knowledge of arithmetic and mathematical computations. But it is not possible for the
researcher to do the mathematical operations such as division, multiplication, or subtraction in the word level,
unless you code the verbal responses and observation categories.
For example:
As regards gender variable, give number 1 as the code or value for Male and number 2 for Female. As to
educational attainment as another variable, give the value of 2 for elementary; 4 for high school, 6 for college,
9 for M.A., and 12 for PhD level. By coding each item with a certain number in a data set, you are able to add
the points or values of the respondent answers to a particular interview questionnaire item.
Analyzing the Data

Data coding and tabulation are both essential in preparing the data analysis. Before you interpret every
component of the data, the researcher decides first what kind of quantitative analysis to use whether to use a
simple descriptive statistical technique or an advance analytical method. The first one that college students
often use tells some aspects of categories of data such as: frequency of distribution, measure of central
tendency (mean, median and mode), and standard deviation. However, this does not give information about
population from where the sample came. The second one, on the other hand, fits graduate-level studies
because this involves complex statistical analysis requiring a good foundation and thorough knowledge the
data- gathering instrument used. The results of the analysis reveal the following aspects of an item in a set of
data (Mogan 2014; Punch 2014; Walsh 2010) cited by Baraceros (2016):
Frequency distribution – gives you the frequency of distribution and percentage of the occurrence of an item
in asset of data. In other words, it gives you the number of responses given repeatedly for one question.
Question: By and large, do you find the Senators‘ attendance

in 2015 legislative session awful
Measurement Frequency Percent
Code
Scale Distribution Distribution
Strongly agree 1 14 58%
Agree 2 3 12%
Neutral 3 2 8%
Disagree 4 1 4%
Strongly disagree 5 4 17%
1.
Drawing Conclusions and Recommendation
For any research project and any scientific discipline, drawing conclusions is the final, and most
important, part of the process. Whichever reasoning processes and research methods were used, the
final conclusion is critical, determining success or failure. If an otherwise excellent experiment is
summarized by a weak conclusion, the results will not be taken seriously. Success or failure is not a
measure of whether a hypothesis is accepted or refuted, because both results still advance scientific
knowledge. ( Shuttleworth 2014)
The final stage is the researcher's recommendations based upon the results, depending upon the field
of study. This area of the research process can be based around the researcher's personal opinion,
and will integrate previous studies.
For example, a researcher into schizophrenia may recommend a more effective treatment. A
physicist might postulate that our picture of the structure of the atom should be changed. A
researcher could make suggestions for refinement of the experimental design, or highlight interesting
areas for further study. This final piece of the paper is the most critical, and pulls together all of the
findings.
The key to drawing a valid conclusion is to ensure that the deductive and inductive
processes are correctly used, and that all steps of the scientific method were followed.
If your research had a robust design, questioning and scrutiny will be devoted to the experiment
conclusion, rather than the methods.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Other recommendations may also be appropriate. When preparing this section, remember that in
making your recommendations, you must show how your results support them. A recommendation
for a preferred alternative should include:
1. Specifically stating what should be done, the steps required to implement the policy, and
the resources needed;
2. discussion of the benefits to the organization and what problems would be corrected or
avoided;
3. discussion of the feasibility of the proposed policy; and
4. general statement about the nature and timing of an evaluation plan that would be used to
determine the effectiveness of the proposed policy.
SAMPLE SURVEY FORM

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PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Developing a research instruments

Sampling is a process or technique of choosing a sub-group from a population to participate

Probability Sampling Procedures

Simple Random Sampling Procedure

Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis

Analyzing the Data

Question: By and large, do you find the Senators‘ attendance

Strongly agree 1 14 58%

Strongly disagree 5 4 17%

3. discussion of the feasibility of the proposed policy; and

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