Closing the Loop

ON PLASTIC WASTE IN THE

U.S. AND CHINA

China
Environment
Forum
8 December
2022
The Wilson Center, established by Congress in 1968 and headquartered in Wash-
ington, D.C., is a living n
­ ational memorial to President Wilson. The Center’s mission is to
commemorate the ideals and concerns of Woodrow Wilson by providing a link between
the worlds of ideas and policy, while fostering research, study, discussion, and collaboration
among a broad spectrum of individuals concerned with policy and scholarship in national
and international affairs. Supported by public and private funds, the Center establishes and
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expressed in Center publications and programs are those of the authors and speakers and
do not necessarily reflect the views of the Center staff, fellows, trustees, advisory groups,
or any individuals or organizations that provide financial support to the Center.

INSIGHTOUT is a China Environment Forum (CEF) publication series that began in

2014. Past issues have covered topics including closing the loop on wastewater in China,
the coal-water risk in China, wastewater as a source of clean energy in the United States
and China, and how energy efficiency can stem air pollution. In 2020, with support from
the Japan Foundation’s Center for Global Partnership, CEF partnered with the Institute
of Developing Economies (Chiba, Japan) to create the Turning the Tide on Plastic Waste
in Asia Project. Under that project in 2021 we published InsightOut issue 7 with 20+
authors answering the question "How can Indonesia close the loop on plastic waste?”
This lucky issue 8 of InsightOut also dives into plastic pollution, exploring opportunities
for the United States and China to close the loop on plastic waste.

Senior Editor: Jennifer L. Turner

Research Content Supervisors: Michikazu Kojima and Kenji Otsuka

Managing Editors: Clare Auld-Brokish, Yunyi Huang, Josie Liu, and Tongxin Zhu

Research and Copy Editors: Justin Bernstein, Hazel Ruyi Li, Angela Pan, McKenna
Potter, Karen Mancl, Eli Patton, and Mingwei Zhu

U.S.-China Plastic Infographic Researchers: Angela Pan and Solange Reppas

Graphic Designer: Kerrin Cuison

COVER IMAGE: Editorial Credit, jantsarik / Shutterstock.com

© 2022, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars

China Environment Forum’s Role as
Convener and Catalyst for Action
Since 1997, the Woodrow Wilson Center’s China Environment Forum (CEF) has carried out
research and exchange projects that bring together American, Chinese, and other Asian
experts to explore the most imperative environmental and sustainable development
issues both inside China and in the greater Asian region. The networks built and knowl-
edge gathered through meetings, publications, and research activities have established
CEF as one of the most reliable sources for information on China/Asian environment
trends and bolstered CEF’s capability to undertake long-term and specialized projects
on topics such as clean energy development in U.S. and China, water-energy confron-
tations, environmental justice, Japan-China-U.S. clean water networks, water conflict
resolution, food safety, and environmental activism and green journalism in China. Our
current initiatives:

• Turning the Tide: Japanese-U.S. Partnerships to Slow Ocean Plastic Pollution

in Asia is a comprehensive two-year research and convening project to examine
the sources and causes of plastic waste in China and Southeast Asia and iden-
tify possible innovative solutions through cooperation, technology, and policy.
The Institute of Developing Economies and China Dialogue are project partners.

• The Plastic Pipeline: A Serious Game for Plastic Reduction Education is an

educational video game project created in partnership with the Wilson Center’s
Serious Games Initiative that aims to bring the complex world of plastic policy
to the fingertips of people around the world and to spread knowledge about the
sources of and solutions to plastic waste leakage.

• U.S.-China Energy and Climate Action is an ongoing series of meetings and

blogs that keep a finger on the pulse of emerging trends in clean energy and
climate action in the world’s two largest energy users.

• Vulnerable Deltas is a research and convening project in partnership with the

East-West Center exploring the climate, pollution and development threats to
three deltas in Southeast Asian and two in China.
 N T S
TE
CON
INTRODUCTION — Clare Auld-Brokish,
Angela Pan, Yunyi Huang, Tongxin Zhu and Karen Mancl / 4

INFOGRAPHIC 1: The Plastic Superpowers: Plastic Production and Waste in the United
States and China — Angela Pan & Solange Reppas / 6

INSIDE THIS ISSUE— Jennifer L. Turner / 8

OUR AUTHORS / 11

1 GRASSROOTS ACTION TO REDUCE PLASTIC WASTE / 14

From Citizens to Regulators: A Fight Against Nurdles
—Diane Wilson and Angela Pan..................................................................................................... 15

Who Foots the Bill for China’s Online Retailers?

—Daming Tang............................................................................................................................... 18

Declaring War on River Trash through Grassroots Action

— Sun Cheng................................................................................................................................. 21

SECTION 1 Closed-Loop Innovators.................................................................................... 26

2 INDUSTRY INITIATIVES AND EPR TO REDUCE PLASTIC WASTE / 28

Why We Need Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for Packaging
—Sydney Harris & Scott Cassel..................................................................................................... 29

The Power of Pre-Competitive Collaboration in Addressing Plastic Waste & Scaling

the Circular Economy
— Bea Miñana................................................................................................................................ 33
 More Effective, More Sustainable and More Equitable Recycling Reform For Maine
—Chrissy Adamowicz.................................................................................................................... 37

Tracking the Fight Against Plastic: A Plastic Credit System

— Maggie Ka Ka Lee...................................................................................................................... 40

The Global Treaty on Plastic Pollution can Catalyze a Roadmap for Circularity in the
United States
— Anthony Tusino........................................................................................................................... 43

INFOGRAPHIC 2: Single-Use Plastic Snapshot in the U.S. and China

— Angela Pan & Solange / 46

SECTION 2 Closed-Loop Innovators.................................................................................... 48

3 PLASTIC POLICY ACTION / 50

China’s Policy Push to Close the Loop on Plastic
— Kathinka Furst and Mengqi Li..................................................................................................... 51

Moves to Close the Loop on Plastic waste in the United States

— David Biderman ......................................................................................................................... 54

Building a Circular Economy for Plastics in China

—Nanqing Jiang............................................................................................................................. 58

The Invisible Plastic Problem: Agricultural Plastic in China and the US

— Karen Mancl .............................................................................................................................. 62

Biodegradable Plastic: A Potential Solution for Agricultural Mulch

—Markus Flury, Douglas Hayes, and Karen Mancl........................................................................ 66

INFOGRAPHIC 3: Final (Often Polluting) Resting Place for U.S. and Chinese Plastics
— Angela Pan & Solange / 70

SECTION 3 Closed-Loop Innovators.................................................................................... 72

 INTRODUCTION

United States and China as

Plastic Superpowers
By Clare Auld-Brokish, Angela Pan, Yunyi Huang, Tonxin Zhu and Karen Mancl

Over half of the 8.3 billion metric tons of plastics produced from 1950 to
2015 have been manufactured since the year 2000, of which a majority was
used in packaging. The current model for plastic packaging is linear: from production and single-use
to irretrievable disposal. Promoting recycling is often touted as key for achieving circularity, simply turning
plastics into other plastics. However, in 2016, only 21 percent of the plastic produced was economically
recyclable, and only 15 percent was actually recycled. The rest ended up in landfills, incinerators, and the
natural environment.

As the world’s largest consumers and producers of plastics, the United States and China are pivotal for
helping to close the loop on global plastic waste. For years the main narrative has been that China, Indo-
nesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam are responsible for most of the ocean plastic leakage in the
world. However, recent studies, such as the National Academy of Sciences’ Reckoning with the U.S. Role
in Global Plastic Waste, indicate that the United States is the world’s largest generator of plastic waste and
has one of the lowest recycling rates (9 percent) of any industrialized country.

The Intertwined Plastic Waste Footprint

The United States has a well-functioning waste collection and sorting infrastructure system. However, for
decades it has shipped half of its recyclables (plastic, glass, etc.) overseas to China and other countries that too
often lacked the infrastructure to recycle them, significantly contributing to the global plastic pollution crisis.

In 2018, China’s National Sword Policy banned the import of plastic waste. For nearly 40 years, China had
used these imports as industrial feedstock, but the boom in E-commerce and food delivery companies in
the early 2010s caused packaging waste to rapidly pile up. As part of the government’s war on pollution,
Chinese policymakers launched domestic waste management reforms and introduced policies to reduce
single-use-plastic.

After 2018, Southeast Asian countries also started to turn away waste exports from the United States and
other western countries. Many U.S. cities were subsequently forced to store recyclables in warehouses until
they could be incinerated or landfilled. The lack of markets for recyclables led many U.S. cities to cancel or
reduce their recycling programs. In response, U.S. policymakers passed or debated more stringent state
and federal legislation to reduce plastic and other single-use packaging.

Background image courtesy of Shutterstock.com

4
 Imsge courtesy of MycoWorks 06Work, Photo by Laura Gutierrez

Opportunities for U.S.- China Plastic Leadership

If plastics were a country, it would be the 5th largest carbon emitter. Judith Enck, founder
of the advocacy group Beyond Plastics, and featured in one of this issue’s Closed Loop
Innovator boxes, has described plastics as “Plan B for the fossil fuel industry.” The Inter- if plastics were a
national Energy Administration reports that plastics, which are made from petrochemi- country, it would
cals, are set to be the largest driver of world oil demand, outpacing demand from trucks, be the 5th largest
aviation, and shipping. Plastic production is a big business and U.S. and Chinese compa- carbon emitter.
nies make up the top three producers.

While the two countries have not established bilateral cooperation around plastic waste,
their economies are intertwined in a way that any national waste policy regulating the indus-
try reverberates in both and across the world. The United States and China have signed on
to support the Global Plastics Treaty, which could encourage both countries to accelerate
their actions to close the loop on plastic waste.

Both the United States and China have announced major commitments to achieve carbon
neutrality, but most of their investments and policy actions focus on the energy sector.
Presidents Xi and Biden met in November 2022 and announced they would restart
bilateral dialogues on climate cooperation. Notably, researchers, activists, and compa-
nies in both countries are starting to highlight the growing greenhouse gas footprint of
plastics, opening up a potential new avenue for U.S.-China to engage in joint research,
dialogues and action.

The authors in this issue highlight similar trends in U.S. and Chinese action on plastic
waste. Policymakers in both countries are exploring national standards and practices that
incentivize companies to reduce the waste and pollution of plastic packaging. Many of
our authors advocate for enhanced producer responsibility laws as the most important
policy mechanism for changing the business of waste in both countries.

5
INFOGRAPHIC 1:

The Plastic Superpowers

(Million Metric Tons, MMT)

TOTAL PLASTIC PRODUCED (2020)

China is the #1 plastic producer
in the world, while the US,
(combined
with
70 MMT
together with Mexico and Mexico and
Canada, ranks #2 Canada!) 19% of global
production
117 MMT

32% of global
production

PLASTIC WASTE (ALL TYPES) GENERATION

(Total & Per Capita, 2016)

42
MMT

53 kg
21 per capita
MMT
18 kg
per capita

Data Compiled by Solange Reppas and Angela Pan

Data Sources: Plastic Production: “Plastics - the Facts 2021.” Plastics Europe, 2021. https://plasticseurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Plastics-the-Facts-2021-web-final.pdf.
Plastic Waste Total (Committee on the United States Contributions to Global Ocean Plastic Waste, Ocean Studies Board, Division on Earth and Life Studies, and National Academies of Sciences,
Engineering, and Medicine. Reckoning with the U.S. Role in Global Ocean Plastic Waste. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2022. https://doi.org/10.17226/26132.) & Per Capita (World
Economic Forum. “Zero-Waste Shopping Comes to Japan.” Accessed July 27, 2022. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/09/zero-waste-shopping-japan/.)

6
 !
The Headache of Finding
Plastic Stats —By Angela Pan

Single-use plastics are everywhere by generating three times more plas-

in our daily lives and it is difficult to tic waste per capita.
avoid using them. Yet when we were
The stats in this first infographic
looking for statistics on plastic produc-
captures production and waste of all
tion and waste in the United States
types of plastic in the two countries.
and China, it was a struggle to find
Not only the single-use plastic you
recent and comparable data.
see everyday like bags and bottles,
After much digging we cobbled but also the plastic used in buildings
together some stats for three info- and highways.
graphics (that our fabulous desktop
To close out my plastic stat rant,
publisher Kerrin Cuison transformed
embarrassingly, we could not find
into lovely images) to give a snap-
comparable data for total U.S. plastic
shot of where the United States and
production, rather only numbers that
China stand on plastics from cradle to
combined plastic production of the
grave. The two are really the world’s
United States, Mexico, and Canada.
plastic superpowers, ranking #1 and
Also, almost all the stats we found
#2 on many plastics stats.
were a few years old, but they do
The top two plastic producing compa- give you a sense of trends and surpris-
nies in the world are ExxonMobil and ing comparisons. With the recently
Dow from the United States. China’s passed Save Our Seas 2.0 Act, there
Sinopec ranks third in the world, is a new push for better research in
but in aggregate China is the largest the United State into plastic waste.
producer and investor in plastics. The Chinese government is also
mandating more transparency in trash,
When it comes to waste, the United
so hopefully soon there will be better
States generates TWICE as much
data. Data is critical since you can’t
plastic waste as China. Americans
manage what you can’t measure.
also beat their Chinese counterparts

7
Image source: By aslysun / Shutterstock.com

IN THIS ISSUE

As two of the world’s most influential countries and the largest producers and consum-
ers of plastic, the United States and China, either together or separately, could play key
roles in promoting circularity across the plastic pipeline. This lucky eighth issue of our
InsightOut publication gathered 17 authors from China, the United States, and Europe
to produce op-eds discussing how these two plastic superpowers can close the loop on
plastic waste. Most authors focused on only one country’s potential actions, as plastic is
not yet a robust area of bilateral cooperation. A common thread among these op-ed pieces
is that solving the plastic pollution problem will require continued and coordinated action
across three fronts — grassroots advocacy, industry innovation, and government policy.

Authors in section one examine the potential for bottom-up environmental groups and
citizens to pressure the business community into action on closing the loop on plastic.
Diane Wilson and Angela Pan share a swashbuckling story of the power grassroots activ-
ists can have in fighting industrial pollution from nurdles in Texas and beyond. Sun Cheng
from Green Hunan shares a similar story of citizens acting as watchdogs to reduce plastic
leakage into waterways in China. Daming Tang (Greenpeace China) explores the lack of
policy and market incentives in China to motivate online retailers to be accountable for
their plastic packing.

Pieces in the second section delve into promising industry and policy initiatives to create
the market incentives for companies to close the loop on plastic waste. Sydney Harris and
Scott Cassel from the Product Stewardship Institute argue that robust enhanced producer
responsibility (EPR) legislation should be the centerpiece of the circular economy in the
United States and other countries. Chrissy Adamowicz (NRC Maine) introduces Maine’s
recycling reforms that created the country’s first EPR legislation to mandate industries
reduce packaging waste. Bea Miñana (Closed Loop Partners) explains how corporations

8
can cooperate on packaging innovations to greatly reduce or even eliminate plastic waste.
To ensure that mandated and voluntary standards requiring companies to reduce their
plastic pollution are implemented well, Maggie Ka Ka Lee (formerly Verra) argues that a
third-party verified plastic credit system is needed. World Wildlife Fund’s Anthony Tusino
ends this section with an optimistic note on how the Global Plastics Treaty could offer a
roadmap for the United States and China to adopt and implement EPR laws.

The op-eds in the final section lay out plastic policy actions. Kathinka Furst and Mengqi
Li (Duke Kunshan University) provide an overview of China’s evolving plastic policies and
stress that if China does not reign in its plastic production, plastics could be an obstacle
that prevents the country from reaching its carbon neutrality goals. In a parallel op-ed,
David Biderman (SWANA) details how China’s green sword program accelerated U.S.
policy and corporate action to close the loop on plastic waste. Nanqing Jiang (CPRRA)
dives into the ups and downs of reforms in China’s recycling system, which are critical
for the country to reach its waste reduction goals. Karen Mancl (The Ohio State Univer-
sity) takes her op-ed discussion down to the farm, highlighting the agricultural plastic
waste in the United States and China, an issue where the two countries could collabo-
rate. Marcus Flury (Washington State University), Douglas Hayes (University of Tennes-
see), and Karen Mancl dig into challenges and opportunities for the United States and
China to develop biodegradable plastics to help farmers conserve water and fertilizer
and increase yields, while avoiding the toxic pollution from conventional plastic mulch.

Throughout the issue, we feature six U.S. and Chinese women who are innovating in
business (Sophia Wang and Stacy Flynn) and grassroots nonprofits (Sherry Lu, Zheng
Xue, Chen Liwen, and Judith Enck) to close the loop on plastic. Although the United
States and China have not (yet) cooperated extensively on plastic, former China Envi-
ronment Forum research assistants Angela Pan and Solange Reppas
brought the two countries together in three infographics that are
accompanied by short “rant” commentaries.

The combined weight of U.S. and

Chinese single-use plastic waste
in 2021 equals 1,521 billion
plastic water bottles, which
if laid end-to-end could circle the
earth 10,808 times.

9
 Acknowledgements
By Jennifer L. Turner

First and foremost, I want to extend my deepest thanks to our hardworking contributing
authors, who have several combined lifetimes of experience in the plastic waste and
environmental protection realms. There is not yet extensive U.S.-China collaboration
around plastic waste. However, our authors reveal many areas of synergy and action
where governments, NGOs, and researchers in both countries could share insights and
join forces to address the global plastic crisis.

As we have not been able to hold any in-person meetings since March 2020, we decided
to bring more voices to our work by adding more authors to this and the previous
InsightOut issue (“Can Indonesia Close the Loop on Plastic Waste?”). So instead of a
sprint with four to six op-ed authors as in the past, these two plastic-themed InsightOut
issues have been marathons! Clare Auld-Brokish and Tongxin Zhu were the initial manag-
ing editors of this issue in 2020 and 2021 and a team of other research interns have
picked up the task since and helped to get it to the finish line. I am grateful to all of them.
A special shout out goes to Angela Pan and Solange Reppas who wrestled with spotty
data sources to create the three U.S.-China plastic infographics featured in this issue.
As always I am in awe of our creative graphic designer Kerrin Cuison, who once again
transformed our written words into a beautifully laid out publication.

Last, but never least, I want to thank the Japan Foundation’s Center for Global Partner-
ship for the two years of support for our Turning the Tide on Plastic Waste in Asia proj-
ect. Their support enabled us to produce two InsightOut publications, as well as many
blogs and webinars with our fabulous Japanese partners, Dr. Michikazu Kojima and Dr.
Kenji Otsuka, from the Institute of Developing Economies. The Turning the Tide project
opened up a new area of programming focused on creating dialogues between experts
in the United States and Asia on plastic waste solutions, which we are continuing with
great enthusiasm.

10
OUR AUTHORS

Ms. Chrissy Adamowicz works as the Sustainable Maine Outreach Coordinator

at the Natural Resources Council of Maine. She has been working with communities
to implement policies and programs related to sustainability for nearly 10 years with
specialties in school sustainability and zero waste.

Mr. David Biderman is the Executive Director at the Solid Waste Association of
North America (SWANA) and has been a solid waste and recycling association leader
for more than twenty years. David speaks frequently about recycling issues at events in
the United States and other countries, and has testified before local, state, and federal
legislatures and agencies.

Mr. Scott Cassel is the CEO of the Product Stewardship Institute.He oversees
research and facilitates stakeholder engagement to develop and advocate for enhanced
producer responsibility policies. PSI’s expert testimony and model legislation have helped
enact 125 laws in 33 states.

Dr. Markus Flury is Professor of Soil Physics and Vadose Zone Hydrology at Wash-
ington State University. His research focuses on sustainable use of soil resources
and water and contaminant flow through soil. He teaches courses on soil and soil
physical properties.

Dr. Kathinka Furst is an Assistant Adjunct Professor of Environmental Policy at Duke

Kunshan University and a Faculty Fellow at Duke's Nicholas Institute for Environmen-
tal Policy Solutions. She also works at the Sino-Norwegian Center for Interdisciplinary
Environmental Research and was a research fellow at the SSRC’s China Environment
and Health Initiative.

Ms. Sydney Harris is a policy and programs manager at the Product Stewardship
Institute (PSI). As PSI’s packaging lead, she supports program and policy development,
analysis, and outreach. She supports U.S. state and local governments in developing, intro-
ducing, and passing extended producer responsibility policies for consumer packaging.

11
 Dr. Douglas Hayes is a Charles E. Wharton Institute Professor of Biosystems Engi-
neering at the University of Tennessee (UT). He is also an Adjunct Professor of Chemical
and Biomolecular Engineering at UT, a UT-Oak Ridge National Laboratory Joint Faculty
member, and a Guest Professor at Jinan University, China. His research interests include
surfactant self-assembly systems, biodegradable plastics, environmental impacts of
nanoplastics, and enzymatic reactions in nonaqueous media.

Dr. Nanqing Jiang is the Secretary-General, Committee of Green Circular and Inclu-
sive Development of the All-China Environment Federation. She also previously headed
the China Plastics Reuse and Recycling Association and led the association to join the
Global Commitment on a New Plastics Economy in late 2018 as the first sectoral asso-
ciation from China.

Ms. Maggie Lee has been managing market transformative projects to enable sustain-
able sourcing and consumption in the Asia Pacific. Her most recent role was at Verra
where she worked on the plastic credit program. Previously, she was the overall coordi-
nator for the UNEP SEA circular project, a strategist for the WWF Plastic ACTion initiative,
the secretariat for Support Asia for Sustainable Palm Oil, and the co-lead for the WWF
Responsible Seafood Tool project .

Ms. Mengqi Li is an environmental public interest attorney focused on ocean and

climate change at Shanghai Renke Law Firm. She previously was a researcher for the
China Plastics Policy Analysis Project at Duke Kunshan University in partnership with the
Duke University’s Nicholas Institute.

Dr. Karen Mancl is a Professor of Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering at

The Ohio State University and is the Director of the OSU Soil, Environment Technology
Learning Lab. She holds a Ph.D. in Water Resources from Iowa State University, an MA
in East Asian Studies and an MA in Public Policy from Ohio State University.

Ms. Beatrice Miñana is a Communications Associate at Closed Loop Partners, where

she works on the branding and communication strategies of the firm, creating messages
that engage more people in the transition toward a circular economy.

12
Ms. Ruoyi (Angela) Pan was a research assistant for the China Environment Forum
in spring and summer 2022. Her research interests include U.S. and China plastic issues,
international green finance, and the environmental implications of the Belt and Road
Initiative. She is on track to complete her BA in Government and China & Asia Pacific
Studies at Cornell University and a JD at Cornell Law School.

Mr. Cheng Sun is formerly the Secretary General of Green Hunan and Vice Secre-
tary General of Beijing Watchers Environmental Fund. He received a U.S. National
Geographic Society’s Exploration Grant in 2014. In 2016, he was an exchange fellow
at the Wilson Center’s China Environment Forum under the auspices of the National
Committee on U.S.-China Relations.

Mr. Damin Tang is a Plastics Campaigner at Greenpeace East Asia. He is leading a

project to reduce packaging waste from e-commerce and food delivery, two of China’s
fastest-growing sectors.

Mr. Anthony Tusino is a senior program officer for plastic policy advocacy at WWF,
focusing on pathways to mitigate plastic pollution to increase recycling and better protect
communities and environments. He also serves on the steering committee of the U.S.
Plastics Pact and leads OneSource Coalition, a convening of corporate, nonprofit and
expert partners who advocate for circular economy policies.

Ms. Diane Wilson is a fourth-generation shrimper, boat captain, author, and an envi-
ronmental, peace, and social justice advocate. During the last 30 years, she has launched
legislative campaigns, demonstrations, organized hunger strikes, led citizen scientist
groups, and won a citizen lawsuit against Formosa Plastics in her fight to protect her
Gulf Coast bay.

13
 SECTION 1

Grassroots
Action to Reduce
Plastic Waste

14
 Image source: By @madicattt, Sustainable Coastlines / Flickr (CC BY-NC 2.0)

From Citizens to Regulators:

A Fight Against Nurdles
By Angela Pan and Diane Wilson

How do you fight a problem that regulators have ignored for decades? In the case of Nurdles are as
combatting plastic nurdle pollution, Diane Wilson and her army of volunteer waterkeep- harmful and
ers scored a historic win in a June 2019 lawsuit against Formosa Plastics Corporation in
even more
Point Comfort, Texas. This Taiwanese company was manufacturing plastic nurdles that
are the building blocks for all plastic products from bottles, bags and utensils to pipe-
ubiquitous
lines, car parts, and buildings. Diane has documented how Formosa Plastics has flooded than consumer
Port Comfort waterways with nurdles for 30 years. In 2019, she presented 2,400 water single-use
samples, 110 videos, and 44 photos in federal court that led Formosa Plastic to agree to plastics.
pay a $50-million settlement and a zero-discharge pledge.

What are nurdles?

Nurdles are grain-sized microplastic produced from natural gas and oil. Trillions of nurdles
are produced and shipped around the world every year. 10 trillion nurdles--weighing in at
200,000 metric tons, the equivalent of more than 1,300 blue whales--enter the ocean
every year.1 These little beads of plastic are an unregulated source of plastic even though
they now are the second biggest ocean polluter in the world.2 In this regulatory vacuum,
nurdles are discharged and disseminated during manufacturing and transit.

15
 Compared to consumer packaging plastics, plastic was a serial offender, leading to an
nurdles have largely escaped public scrutiny, unprecedented settlement of $50 million to
but they are just as harmful and even more provide environmental benefits to affected
Around the ubiquitous than consumer single-use plas- areas. Beyond the settlement, these citi-
world, nurdle spills tics. Nurdles are highly persistent pollutants zen actions have led to the first-ever “zero
and discharges that damage commercial fishery and human discharge” nurdle commitment and a
are happening health through bioaccumulation in the food consent decree that allows waterkeepers to
throughout the chain. Once nurdles enter into the natural monitor Formosa Plastic’s nurdle discharge.
entire plastic environment, they are widely dispersed and
After the lawsuit, a waterkeeper engi-
value chain. too small to be systematically collected and
neer has built and installed a wastewa-
cleaned up. According to the International
ter sampling mechanism which collects
Spill Control Organization, only 40 to 70
samples to test for violations, a creative
percent of nurdle spills can be recovered.
approach to monitor a large industrial
discharge for plastics. Since June of 2021,
Nurdle watch dogs they have detected 230 violations of

The first Marine Debris Act was passed by discharging plastic nurdles and powders by
Congress in 2006, but nurdles remained Formosa, leading to over $5 million in fines.
largely invisible to regulators and plas-
tic manufactures have categorized them From citizen actions to
merely as a “nuisance” to evade account- better regulations
ability. Tremendous efforts by grassroot
local activists are starting to hold nurdle The nurdle problem is not limited to Formosa
polluters accountable. In 2016, Point Plastic in Point Comfort. Nurdles are
Comfort, a concerned worker of Formosa produced around the world from big petro-
Plastics took the FBI and state agents on a chemical plants to small plastic producers.
boat by Formosa’s discharge area in the bay, Nurdle spills and discharges are happening
showing that plastic nurdles had covered throughout the entire plastic value chain
an entire small island. However, the illegal from producers, transporters, and distrib-
discharge continued. utors. The world has witnessed nurdle
spills for years. The most notorious was the
Confronting the mounting nurdle prob- massive 1,680-ton X-Press Pearl spill off the
lem, citizens are standing up and filling in coast of Sri Lanka in 2021 that hurt the coun-
where regulators have failed to act. With try’s coastal environment and economy.
help from volunteer citizen scientists, Diane Coastal communities in the United States
Wilson had over 2,000 samples to show and China are both facing serious spills, such
that nurdles spills from Formosa Plastic as the 165-ton spill on a Hong Kong beach
violated the company’s permit to release after Typhoon Vicente in 2012 and Missis-
“trace amounts” of floating solids. More- sippi River’s 2020 “Nurdle Apocalypse.”
over, the company also failed to report any
of these violations. With the overwhelm- And yet, most countries have no specific
ing evidence, the court ruled Formosa regulations on plastic nurdle discharge.

16
Nurdles are not classified as pollutants or legislative attempts to curb microplastic
hazardous material, although they contam- pollution. In 2021, U.S. Senator Durbin
inate ecosystems by absorbing and exud- from Illinois introduced the Plastic Pellet
ing chemical toxins. Current U.S. federal Free Waters Act that, if passed, would give
regulations allow producers to discharge authority to the Environmental Protec-
billions of nurdles. tion Agency to regulate nurdles, creating
accountability around nurdle spills during
The Point Comfort waterkeeper’s historic
transportation and storage.
victory offers a model on how we can use
citizen-collected evidence in litigation to
hold polluters accountable. The victory is a Fix for larger nurdle puzzle
warning sign for other plastic manufactur- Curbing nurdles is not only about regulat-
ers and distributors that they are facing a ing discharge, but also solving the overall
hefty cost for discharging plastic nurdles. plastic problem through source reduction

and pollution classification. For example,

Beyond environmental litigation, citizens
the pending U.S. Break Free From Plas-
To put the global
are taking up the fight against nurdles in
tic Pollution Act seeks to establish an
brakes on nurdle
other ways. For example, Nurdle Patrol, a
extended producer responsibility system pollution, big plastic
citizen scientist community, has surveyed
to mandate plastic producers to reduce producing countries
and established a database of records and
maps of more than 1,000 sites across production overall. like the United
the Gulf of Mexico. This comprehensive
States and China
Citizen lawsuits, patrols, and cleanups can
evidence from citizen scientists is being need to harmonize
raise awareness of the nurdle problem.
reported to regulatory agencies, spurring legislation to...
However, to put the global brakes on nurdle
regulators to further investigate and estab- regulate microplastic
pollution, big plastic producing countries
lish new legislation. like the United States and China need to
discharge.
Citizen actions and lawsuits are high- harmonize legislation that not only regulates
lighting the need for regulating nurdles. microplastic discharge, but also updates
Fortunately, in the United States, we are existing permits and standards for manu-
witnessing growing public pressure and facturers, distributors, and transporters.

Endnotes

1. “Breaking the Plastic Wave: A Comprehensive Assessment of Pathways towards

Stopping Ocean Plastic Pollution.” The Pew Charitable Trusts and SYSTEMIQ,
2020. https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2020/07/breakingtheplas-
ticwave_report.pdf.

17
 $?

Who Foots the

Plastic Bill for China’s
Online Retailers?
By Daming Tang

E-commerce is among a few industries in China (and beyond) that COVID-19 did not
decimate. Online shopping boomed during the pandemic, with to-door delivery offer-
E-commerce ing a lifeline to consumers and as money went out, purchases came in, and packaging
companies are waste piled up.
slow to address
the environmental China’s volume of kuaidi, or express delivery orders, grew 31 percent year-on-year in
2020, exceeding 80 billion for the year. As the pandemic subsided in 2021, kuaidi orders
externalities of their
still increased to more than 100 billion that year. Kuaidi trends are still on an upward
business model.
swing in 2022. At the center of this dynamic business network is e-commerce compa-
nies, which have forever transformed the lifestyles of Chinese consumers to rely deeply
on online shopping. However, those companies are slow to address the environmental
externalities of their business model. Among them, packaging waste is one problem that
resonates with many online shoppers. Companies can and must do more.

A mountain of packages
In November 2019, Greenpeace East Asia and two other environmental NGOs published
a study, estimating that the 50.7 billion packages delivered by Chinese kuaidi compa-
nies in 2018 generated 9.4 million metric tons of packaging, of which 850,000 metric
tons was plastics, equivalent to more than 150 million plastic grocery bags.1 The study
predicted that a business-as-usual scenario would see packaging waste more than
quadruple to over 41 million metric tons by 2025.

The plastic packaging waste is particularly worrying. While perforated paper boxes have
value in the recycling market, recycling plants do not welcome the plastic bags, wrap-

18
ping and stuffing from packages. With little tive logistics schemes. One way to reduce
market, recyclers and trash pickers reject unnecessary shipping packaging and
them. Therefore, most plastic shipping carbon emissions is through order combi-
packaging goes into landfills or incinerators, nation services: customers assign a day for
with each option presenting its own set of their accumulated orders to be delivered
environmental and social risks. together. Single shipments thus eliminate
the need to pack each item individually and Regulatory
Some of the disposed plastic packag-
reduce the number of delivery trucks that advances to reign
ing also escapes the formal solid waste
burn fossil fuels. Amazon does this for its in packaging
management system, becoming litter that
Prime members in the United States. With practices of online
peppers the landscape and floats in rivers.
their highly sophisticated logistics systems, retailers...are
Scientists around the world have found
Chinese e-commerce leaders such as Alib- just nibbling at
microplastics—small pieces of plastics
that result from the wear and tear of plas-
aba and JD.com are equipped to offer this the edges of the
tic waste—in drinking water, table salt, and
service to their loyalty program members. massive problems
recently human blood.2 Countless studies Another option that has already gained
are investigating how the absorption of traction in Chinese e-commerce compa-
microplastics could be impacting the health nies is the reuse system coupled with
of fish, oysters, crops, and people. reverse logistics. Under the reuse scheme,
online retailers use durable, reusable pack-
aging boxes or bags to deliver the item.
Just nibbling at the edges
For example, the Finnish company RePack
China’s State Post Bureau, which regu- designed a closed-loop system, where
lates the kuaidi sector, has pushed crit- reusable packages can be easily mailed
ical regulatory advancements to reign in back. Such packages can be used for at
packaging practices of online retailers and least 20 cycles, reducing packaging waste
kuaidi companies. For example, today most by 96 percent. If more e-commerce compa-
kuaidi packages in China are wrapped in nies adopt a reuse system, it will save the
narrower tape, and QR codes have univer- earth unimaginable loads of plastic trash.
sally replaced an old-school system involv-
ing multiple layers of carbon paper for the
Give teeth to reuse schemes
packaging receipts.
Major kuaidi and e-commerce companies
But these measures are just nibbling at the
in China have been piloting technology and
edges of the massive problem. To bring
supply chains for reusable packaging equip-
packaging waste under control, we need
ment for years, but to this day retrieval
to think about the whole system. Nothing
of the packaging is still a major obstacle
short of an overhaul of the default system
preventing these systems from reaching a
of single-use packaging and disposal can
critical mass in adoption.
answer that call.
Chinese regulators have increasingly
It is time to literally think outside of the
recognized the importance of reusable
box and explore possibilities of alterna-

19
 packaging and set goals to expand the increased investment or close collabora-
reuse system. The State Post Bureau aims tion with solution providers, these targets
to scale up the system to include more will be out of reach. E-commerce giants
Companies can and than 10 million reusable packages by 20253 also need to utilize their technological
must do more. and has started piloting such systems in edge to make innovative shipping doable
some cities and popular destinations.4 and scalable. I have little doubt in their abil-
ity to achieve this, for these companies
Now, e-commerce companies must up have demonstrated many times in the past
their game to meet this target. Without their power to fundamentally reshape the
clear strategies, time-bound action plans, economy and society.

Endnotes

1. Greenpeace East Asia. Greenpeace: Green packaging in e-commerce and ex-

press delivery industries must be promoted urgently, November 11, 2019. https://
www.greenpeace.org.cn/chinas-express-delivery-sector-leaves-giant-waste-trail/
2. Damien Carrington. “Microplastics found in human blood for first time.” The
Guardian, March 24, 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/
mar/24/microplastics-found-in-human-blood-for-first-time
3. Chinese City Center. The General Office of the State Council forwarded the Opin-
ions on Accelerating the Green Transformation of Express Packaging. The Paper,
December 15, 2020. https://m.thepaper.cn/baijiahao_10405533
4. Development and Reform Commission: Organize pilot scale application of recy-
clable express packaging. Jiemian News, December 8, 2021. https://baijiahao.
baidu.com/s?id=1718544592213317072&wfr=spider&for=pc

20
 Image source: By Roman Mikhailiuk / Shutterstock.com

Declaring War on River

Trash through Grassroots Action
By Sun Cheng

I grew up in Hunan Province, which is located in the middle and lower reaches of the
Yangtze River. We are a water-rich province with more than 5,000 rivers and our longest
Grassroots groups
is the Xiang, one of the principal tributaries of the great Yangtze River. Over decades,
rapid industrial growth and expanding agriculture have been polluting all of Hunan’s rivers.
can play a key role
in breaking the cycle
In 2011, a group of water researchers and concerned citizens established the environmental of plastic waste by
group Green Hunan and launched the River Watcher Network to involve residents in protect- opening up more 6%
ing our rivers. We organized volunteers to help enforce environmental laws and tackle transparency and
local water pollution through patrolling, whistleblowing, awareness raising, and advocacy. advocacy to trigger
Within a few years, the River Watcher Network became a national river protection policy, community
network. Tens of thousands of volunteers joined and became river watchers. Thanks to and business
8% action.
the network’s action, local governments stepped up their actions against polluters, from
enforcing fines to shutting down a large number of polluting enterprises. However, while
polluted sewage and factory emissions have been significantly reduced, they have been
replaced by all kinds of trash, particularly plastic.

Every piece of plastic trash you discard could end up in a river, floating in our drinking water
and ultimately flowing into the ocean. Plastic waste breaks into tiny, eventually micro-
plastic, pieces that are ingested by fish and other marine species. Eventually, this plastic
returns to our cups and dinner tables, highlighting the old adage “what goes around comes
around.” Grassroots groups can play a key role in breaking this cycle by opening up more

21
 transparency and advocacy to trigger policy, emerging problem because of our obses-
community and business action. sive consumption of plastic packaging.
The massive amount
of trash found in In September 2016, Green Hunan launched
[Chinese] rivers is a Stepping up the fight the Clean River Bank 100-Square Meters
clear sign we have against river trash Initiative and developed guidelines and
lost control of single- With the increasing level of urbanization tools for citizen monitors. Through engag-
use plastic waste. and the tightening of government pollution ing with the public, we launched a series of
campaigns to clean up trash along riverbanks.
control, China has made great strides in
Besides cleaning up trash within 100-square
controlling pollution emissions from tradi-
meters from the river bank, participants also
tional industries. However, plastic pollution
audited the trash they collected.
leaking into rivers has been overlooked for
years and has grown into a serious envi- In the first half year, our 5,000 volunteers
ronmental problem. China is the largest completed 110 Clean River Bank events
producer and consumer of single-use plas- along 4 major rivers in Hunan. Nearly 10
tics. Each year, China produces more than miles of river banks were cleaned, and our
100 million tons of plastic raw materials participants removed more than 16,000
and consumes over 60 million tons of plas- pounds of trash. Through our monitoring
tic products.1 River trash has become an efforts, we finally came to understand what

FIGURE 1.
3%
4% Understanding Hunan’s River Trash
4%
25% Paper or plastic bags
5%
Cigarette butts

Plastic fragments

Cigarette cases or Betel Nut residue

Food packaging bags

Beverage bottles

Foamed plastics

Disposable dishware
9%
22% Beverage bottles

Tetra Pak/aluminum tin packaging

14%

22
 Editorial credit: By CAPTAINHOOK / Shutterstock.com

CHART 1.
Breakdown of Trash of Four Major Rivers in Hunan
Ranking Type of Trash Items Collected

1 paper bags or plastic bags 6,329

2 cigarette butts 5,685

3 plastic fragments 3,699

4 cigarette cases or betel nut residue 2,354

5 plastic food packaging 1,953

6 beverage bottles 1,517

7 Styrofoam 1,269

8 disposable dishware 1,050

9 plastic beverage bottles (non-transparent) 918

10 Tetra Pak/aluminum tin packaging 898

kind of trash is plaguing the rivers and shared To raise awareness about river trash, in
that information with local policymakers. 2018, we initiated our largest advocacy
(See Figure 1 and Chart 1). campaign. We developed a WeChat mini
program called “Xunhebao” (“River Patrol”),
Two major findings emerged from our
which made it easier for the public to join
monitoring activities. First, more than
patrols and record their waste collection
70 percent of the river trash was plastic.
audits and other insights. We also estab-
Secondly, rural litter was bigger than we
lished close collaborations with the govern-
expected due to the inadequacy of rural
ment and enterprises, sharing insights and
waste collection infrastructure. Rural villag-
information from the clean-up campaigns.
ers have no choice but to throw trash on the
river bank or burn it on the spot.

23
 CHART 2.
“Xunhebao” mini program 2022 map for river bank cleaning

Courtesy of Green Hunan Public Platform

The Wechat mini program has helped us we could do more to prevent plastic waste
track participation in our river bank clean-up and other trash leakages. We visited more
events well outside Hunan. From 2020 to than 200 rural communities in Hunan and
the present, 42,499 people formed 1,445 provided reusable cotton bags to encour-
teams in 29 provinces and removed 154 age villagers to reduce the usage of plastic
tons of trash from the rivers. In addition, bags. We also worked with photographers
hundreds of thousands of people followed to display photos of river trash at the
our online campaign to clean the rivers. biggest local shopping centers in Hunan.
As of now, this mini program has over Compared to our mass consumption of
220,000 users. plastics that has become increasingly
difficult to manage, these education
We are not fighting alone efforts are too tiny to turn the tide.

We are moved by the enthusiasm of our Fortunately, we are not the only ones who
volunteers, but there is just too much trash feel the urgent need to address plastic
that needs to be picked up. Thus, we at pollution. Besides other grassroots groups,
Green Hunan have been reflecting on how national and local policymakers have also

24
taken steps to reduce plastic consump- single-use plastics has
tion in China. In 2008, the capital city of taken effect in 2022.
Hunan, Changsha, adopted policies that
The massive amount of trash
banned hotels from providing single-use
found in rivers is a clear sign we
plastic items. In 2017, China’s Ministry of
have lost control of single-use plastic
Housing and Urban and Rural Develop-
waste. It is clear that we need to do more
ment launched a pilot program in 46 cities
to reduce the use of plastics. Combin-
— including Hunan’s capital Changsha —
ing the efforts of new government waste
to develop more effective waste collec-
policies and citizen actions, we can move
tion and sorting. In 2020, China amended
towards system-based solutions that can
its Solid Waste Law to help prevent waste
nip the plastic problem in the bud. We all
leakage and improve recycling. China’s
need to step forward to resolve the issue
National Development Reform Commission
of plastic waste and declare war on river
issued policies to incentivize e-commerce
trash to restore the connection between
companies to reduce the use of single-
humans and nature.
use plastics and a new law banning many

Endnotes

1 “China Is Cracking down on Plastic Waste Again” Xinhua Net, February 24, 2020.
http://www.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2020-02/24/c_1125616200.htm

25
 CLOSED–LOOP INNOVATORS

Zheng Xue and

Sherry Lu
Plastic Free China is
Hitting the Breaks on China’s
Food Delivery Plastic Waste
Photo courtesy of Sherry

In every Chinese city, an army of motorcycles and advanced the reduction of single-use plastics in
mopeds weaves through the traffic jams, and some- express delivery. They are also trying to inform people
times even venturing on sidewalks, to deliver millions about the harm of biodegradable plastic, which will
of food and e-commerce orders each day. During 2019 likely go to the incinerator or a landfill.
alone the 63.25 billion e-commerce packages deliv-
Plastic Free China also launched online public aware-
ered a plastic waste punch of 280,000 tons, equal to
ness campaigns to teach consumers on the severity
the weight of about 23 school buses.
of the single-use cutlery and the take-out food
With growing grassroots activism around plastic, packaging problems. Engaging the public on
Plastic Free China was established in 2018 to focus Weibo, WeChat, and other social media
solely on single-use plastic reduction through corpo- platforms, they promote discussion
rate campaigns to change business practices and and education about plastic waste
consumer behaviors. Led by CEO and co-founder issues. Through these efforts, the
Zheng Xue and project officer Sherry Lu, Plastic Free Plastic Free China team has played
China has proposed policy changes on express deliv- a vital role in sparking citizens
ery regulation, co-authored reports on e-commerce and other NGOs to join forces to
and food delivery waste with Greenpeace East Asia, reduce plastic pollution.
and worked with WWF China’s No Plastic in Nature
Action Network.

The program began with the publication of a report

evaluating and ranking the package reduction efforts
of express delivery companies to create motivation
for packaging reduction. Next they started educat-
ing consumers to identify whether the package they
receive is over-packaged and engage them to put
pressure on companies. Their recent success has

26
 Chen Liwen
Zero Waste Village—
a grassroots effort in
Rural China
Photo courtesy of Chen Liwen

Growing up in Xicai Village in rural Hebei Province, They learned that their “do it
Chen Liwen spent plenty of her childhood outdoors, all” training approach was not
where she established a deep connection with nature. sustainable. Instead they shifted
This connection eventually led her to pursue an envi- to training and mobilizing local
ronmental career. Early on, while she was surveying people to lead this waste work.
landfills outside Beijing, she discovered “moun- They found village committees
tains” of putrid waste that were leaking into water- the best leaders because they
ways and sickening nearby residents. That incident hold the administrative power in
sparked her to focus her work on reducing waste and rural areas. Today, Chen is shifting
waste pollution. After working on urban waste issues her group’s focus to townships as
Liwen became concerned that pollution reforms to the local governments can spread good
promote waste sorting and recycling in cities were waste practices to surrounding villages
not extended to rural areas, where 40 percent of in their area. Working more at the township
China’s population lives. level has helped overcome the limitations with some
village committees that often lack a strong systematic
In 2017, Chen Liwen founded Zero Waste
governance structure.
Village, a group that has already helped
more than 24 villages and five town- “We will continue educating others about
ships set up waste sorting programs. rural waste sorting. Each year we hope to
Laishui County, Hebei Province was build new partnerships”
their first village. The China Founda-
tion for Poverty Alleviation was build-
ing a new rural tourism project in the
county and better waste management
was important to keep the area attractive
for visitors. The first pilot was a complete
experiment without much financial support.
The Zero Waste Village team even bought trash
cans and hardware themselves and spent the first
two weeks going door-to-door to teach the villagers
how to incorporate waste sorting into their routine.

27
 SECTION 2

INDUSTRY
INITIATIVES AND
EPR TO REDUCE
PLASTIC WASTE

28
 Image source: By Iryna Inshyna / Shutterstock.com

Why We Need Extended Producer

Responsibility (EPR) for Packaging
By Sydney Harris & Scott Cassel

Recycling in the United States is failing. Only 50 percent of packaging is currently recy- It is beyond time
cled.1 For plastics (packaging and other items) the rate is lower, only nine percent.2 The U.S. for a better system
packaging recycling rate is far below many other countries and has been stagnant for over in which producers
a decade because our waste management infrastructure is fragmented, inefficient, and are required to take
underfunded. Local governments spend millions of taxpayer dollars each year to manage an responsibility for
expanding and increasingly complex array of packaging waste they had no input in design- their packaging to
ing or creating. U.S. recyclers are struggling with poorly designed packaging that cannot create a circular
be recycled and adds cost to the recycling system, and brand owners are unable to source economy. .
the recycled content they need to honor their public sustainability commitments. Under
the current system, consumer packaged goods companies have little incentive to change.

Market shifts in the wake of China’s National Sword policy and other export restrictions on
U.S. recyclables led many municipal recycling programs to stop accepting certain materials
or even stop collecting materials altogether as they struggled to deal with budget deficits.
The coronavirus pandemic has compounded financial struggles that cities were already
facing. These events have highlighted an already unsustainable and inequitable recycling
system. Not only are individual taxpayers shouldering the cost to collect and manage
packaging waste created by corporations, communities are bearing the brunt of the social
and environmental impacts of the waste crisis as plastics refineries, packaging production
facilities, incinerators, and landfills are sited overwhelmingly in low-income communities

29
 and communities of color. It is beyond time for the first time—as do your friends in
for a better system, in which producers are apartment buildings downtown. Your town
required to take responsibility for their pack- was able to start up a curbside composting
aging to create a circular economy. program this year, thanks to newly available
funds that were previously spent on recy-
cling. This is a packaging EPR system.
EPR: Centerpiece of the
Bans on single-use circular economy Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
items and container Imagine this: On your next trip to the for packaging will be a game changer for
deposit systems are grocery store, you are able to fill up reusable waste reduction and recycling in the United
key, but without EPR containers with bulk goods like cereals and States. When designed well, an EPR

these [policy] tools shampoo. Some items you still purchase program can optimize material collection,
weather market challenges, and restore the
will not be enough in packaging made from post-consumer
public’s trust in recycling. EPR reduces the
to build a circular recycled content. At home, when you’ve
unreasonable demands placed on munic-
economy emptied the packaging, you recycle with ipalities to manage and pay for recycling
confidence because you know that the
programs, leaving local governments with
entire state has a standard list of recyclable
more funding to focus on priorities such
items—you are no longer confused about
as public health. Throughout Europe and
what belongs in the recycling bin and what
Canada, where EPR has been established
does not. When an online order arrives at
for decades, these programs have increased
your doorstep, it has no excess material—no
packaging recovery and recycling rates,
gratuitous boxes inside of boxes; no inexpli-
reduced consumer confusion and material
cable bubble wrap or plastic pillows—the
contamination, bolstered recycling infra-
packaging has been optimized to use as little
structure, and cultivated strong domestic
material as possible while still protecting the
markets for recycled materials. Some coun-
products inside. Over time, more and more
tries with packaging EPR systems, such as
of your household needs are available pack-
Belgium and the Netherlands, have achieved
age-free or in reusable or recyclable formats.
packaging recycling rates over 80 percent.3
What’s more, your friends who live in rural
communities now have recycling programs

Image courtesy of Shutterstock.com

30
At a time when brands are facing mounting tools will not be enough to build a circu-
pressure from citizens who are fed up with lar economy. Instead of a waste policy
ocean plastics and increasingly aware of that reacts to problematic materials after
the global injustices of impacts from waste the fact, we need an agile system that
disposal, EPR can incentivize and reward can adapt to the ever-changing packag-
reuse, recycling, and the production of ing landscape. Unless producers are held
materials with lighter environmental foot- accountable for packaging waste, they
prints. Producer funding of EPR systems will continue to have no real incentive to
can support and expand collection and recy- make meaningful change. EPR internalizes
cling infrastructure, catalyze research and the economic externalities in our current
development of new recycling technolo- linear economy to create a more equitable
gies, harmonize recycling systems across system for all.
an entire state or country, and level the play-
ing field for producers and brand owners by Building momentum,
ensuring that all companies contribute to
driving change
the transition to a circular economy.
The world’s largest packaging producers
Paving the way operate on a global scale. To drive meaning-
ful change on plastic and packaging waste,
for complementary
economic accountability must be global in
waste policies scale as well. If large economies such as
Voluntary product stewardship efforts the United States and China join the EU,
and consumer education campaigns have Canada, India, and other global power-
produced small, incremental improve- houses to implement EPR for packaging,
ments to the current recycling system. the market pressure on producers will be
Industry has poured millions of dollars into unavoidable. Our organization—the Product
advanced recycling technologies, recycling Stewardship Institute (PSI)—offers a model
infrastructure grant programs, and other on how this can be done. We bring local
voluntary efforts to increase recycling. and state governments, manufacturers
Nevertheless, local governments continue and brands, waste collectors and recyclers,
to struggle with recycling programs that NGOs, and other stakeholders together
simply cannot keep pace with produc- to forge lasting agreements rooted in
tion, and plastics and packaging continue producer responsibility and sustainable
to flood into the environment. We need materials management.
a systemic policy approach that creates
In 2020, we facilitated a dialogue between
a comprehensive system and holds all
state and local governments and members
producers accountable. In short: We need
of the Flexible Packaging Association to
EPR for packaging.
reach a first-of-its-kind agreement4 on
Complementary policy tools such as bans key elements of EPR for packaging in the
on single-use items and container deposit United States. Leveraging the deep expe-
systems are key, but without EPR these rience of our global partners, we provide

31
 ongoing educational resources to those addition to EPR, this bill includes many
seeking real policy change, including complementary policy tools to reduce
an extensive packaging EPR toolkit that packaging and plastic waste.
highlights policy best practices, original
As we look ahead, PSI is hopeful that inno-
research such as our in-depth report on
vative EPR policies will provide avenues for
EPR for Packaging and Paper Products,5
reducing the production and consumption
and informational webinars. In the United
of single-use materials, increasing domes-
States today, more than a dozen states are
tic reuse and recycling opportunities, and
actively considering EPR for packaging and
safeguarding public health. We must dras-
many have already introduced legislation
tically change the status quo—now is the
using PSI’s model or are working directly
time to adopt EPR legislation for packaging
with PSI in facilitated dialogues with key
and paper products in the United States so
stakeholders. The federal Break Free From
that we can stabilize and improve our recy-
Plastic Pollution Act, first introduced in
cling programs and build resilience and flex-
early 2020 (reintroduced in 2021), features
ibility for the material changes and market
packaging EPR as its centerpiece and was
fluctuations that inevitably lie ahead.
also informed by PSI’s policy model. In

Endnotes

1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Advancing Sustainable Materials Manage-

ment: 2018 Fact Sheet (2020). See Table 4. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/
sites/default/files/2020-11/documents/2018_ff_fact_sheet.pdf.
2. U.S. EPA, “Sustainable Materials Management - Materials and Waste Manage-
ment in the United States: Key Facts and Figures” (2020). Retrieved from https://
edg.epa.gov/metadata/catalog/search/resource/details.page?uuid=C9310A59-
16D2-4002-B36B-2B0A1C637D4E.
3. Eurostat, “Recycling rates for packaging waste” (updated 3/25/2022). Re-
trieved from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ten00063/default/
table?lang=en.
4. “Shared Elements of EPR Legislation for Packaging and Paper Products (PPP).”
Product Stewardship Institute and Flexible Packaging Association, November
2020. https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.productstewardship.us/resource/resmgr/
packaging/fpa-psi-2020-dialogue-agreem.pdf.
5. “Extended Producer Responsibility for Packaging and Paper Products: Policies,
Practices, and Performance.” Product Stewardship Institute, March 17, 2020. https://
www.productstewardship.us/page/epr-for-ppp-policies-practices-performance.

32
 Image source: By GB Traveler / Shutterstock.com

The Power of Pre-Competitive

Collaborations in Addressing Plastic
Waste & Scaling the Circular Economy
By Bea Miñana

From the eyes of one person looking out upon the mountains of trash in landfills and the
plastic swirling in our oceans, the problem of global waste can seem insurmountable.
The global plastics crisis is much bigger than any one of us in isolation. It’s bigger than
any one institution, organization, or country. If we’re to tackle this challenge effectively, Business as usual
an unprecedented level of cross-sector collaboration is needed. no longer works in
At Closed Loop Partners’ Center for the Circular Economy, we specialize in convening lead- the face of systemic
ing corporations and other diverse stakeholders to solve shared material challenges––the challenges like
single-use plastic bag that too often ends up in our oceans, the ubiquitous plastic coated growing waste and
to-go paper cup that lands in the landfills, or the compostable piece of packaging that can climate risks.
contaminate recycling facilities but are often not recovered properly. We aim to accelerate
the transition to a circular economy in which waste is eliminated and materials are contin-
uously cycled, aligning planetary needs, consumer preferences and business imperatives.

The power in corporate supply chains

The collective power of corporations to enact change is extraordinary. Their supply
chains and retail footprints span the globe, and their revenues can be larger than those
of some governments––they represent a huge opportunity to scale impact. Compet-

33
 ing brands experience the same challenges Partner. Together, they all aim to advance
and risks downstream: typically losing sight the design, commercialization and recov-
of products and packaging after point-of- ery of sustainable foodservice packaging.
sale. When those materials end up where
they shouldn’t––landfills or the natural envi- Go-to solutions for the
ronment––this comes at a cost to people,
If we’re to tackle to-go cup
business, and the planet; all of whom are
the plastic waste increasingly clamoring for change. The Consortium’s first initiative, NextGen
challenge effectively, Cup, is advancing recoverable solutions for
an unprecedented Business as usual no longer works in the the fiber, hot and cold, to-go cup system.
level of cross-sector face of systemic challenges like growing Every year, more than 250 billion of these
collaboration is waste and climate risks. There is oppor- single-use cups are produced––and most
needed. tunity to create collective value and posi- of this valuable fiber ends up in a landfill
tive social and environmental impact that or is incinerated. The NextGen Consor-
outweigh the perceived risks of joining tium’s Cup Challenge, in partnership with
forces with competitors. the Consortium’s Innovation Partner IDEO,
launched an international search to iden-
In 2018, the Center for the Circular Economy
tify sustainable cup designs, yielded 12
launched the NextGen Consortium, a multi-
winning ideas, Eight companies offered
year collaboration that addresses single-
innovative cups and cup liners, one a
use foodservice packaging waste globally,
leading material innovation and three put
bringing together Starbucks and McDon-
forward reusable cup service models.
ald’s as Founding Partners. The Coca-
Cola Company elevated its commitment The solutions effectively reimagine the
in 2021, becoming a Sector Lead Partner, current difficult-to-recycle cup, bringing
while Yum! Brands, Wendy’s and Jacobs material value across the recovery system
Douwe Egberts are Supporting Partners, and harnessing the technology and design
with the World Wildlife Fund as Advisory necessary to keep materials in circulation

Image source: By MikeDotta / Shutterstock.com

34
longer. After identifying the innovations, the with select reusable bag winners across
Consortium has worked to continuously CVS Health, Target and Walmart stores.
test, iterate and hone these solutions to From these pilots, we identified five key
set them up for success in the real world. insights that can help inform how brands,
In 2020, the Consortium piloted reusable retailers and startups test and implement
cup companies across local cafes in the San potential reusable packaging systems.1
Francisco Bay Area, increasing our under-
standing of the unique material, technical Building infrastructure
and operational changes necessary for a
to break it down
seamless and convenient transition to reus-
able cups for customers and cafes. Most recently, the Center for the Circu-
lar Economy formed the Composting
Waste reduction in Consortium, in collaboration with Found-
ing Partners PepsiCo and the NextGen
the bag
Consortium, to advance composting infra-
In 2020, the Center for the Circular Econ- structure and recover compostable pack-
omy next launched the Consortium to Rein- aging and food scraps. The Consortium is
vent the Retail Bag to identify, test and joined by Supporting Partners Colgate-Pal-
implement innovative design solutions molive, The Kraft Heinz Company, Mars,
of today’s single-use plastic retail bag. It Incorporated, and Target Corporation,
aims to deliver convenience to consumers as well as Industry Partners the Biode-
while striving to lessen the impact on the gradable Products Institute and the U.S.
environment. The Center united Founding Plastics Pact. Together with many lead-
Partners CVS Health, Target and Walmart, ing voices in the composting ecosystem
alongside DICK’S Sporting Goods, Dollar in the United States, the Composting
General, Kroger, The TJX Companies, Inc., Consortium aims to pilot industry-wide
Ulta Beauty, Ahold Delhaize USA Brands, solutions and build a roadmap for invest-
Albertsons Companies, H-E-B, Hy-Vee, ment in technologies and infrastructure
Meijer, Wakefern Food Corporation, and to deal with the growth in production of
Walgreens, with Conservation International compostable food packaging.
and Ocean Conservancy participating as
Environmental Advisory Partners. Making waves to close
In August 2021, the Consortium launched the loop
the Beyond the Bag Challenge, inviting
Through all Consortia, we not only bring
entrepreneurs, designers, suppliers and
competitive companies together to solve
problem solvers to submit solutions that
shared challenges, but also engage stake-
could replace the current plastic retail bag.
holders from across the entire value chain
From 450 challenge submissions from 60
to bring sustainable solutions to fruition,
different countries, nine winners were
incorporating insights from customers to
selected. Later in the year, the Consortium
manufacturers to recycling facilities. Policy-
launched first-of-a-kind multi-retailer pilots

35
 makers, industry associations and NGOs, increase efficiency. And ultimately, these
among others, also play a critical role in the pre-competitive collaborations reframe the
Consortia, supporting best practices and issue beyond short-term fixes to long-last-
incentivizing optimal, waste-free systems. ing, systemic solutions––acknowledging
the need for collective action to pave a more
The impact of cross-sector, pre-competi-
circular path forward for plastics.
tive collaborations is powerful. Corporations
working together demonstrate the elevated For this momentum to continue, we need
level of commitment and ambition to truly more unprecedented partnerships among
move the needle on global challenges. The institutions and organizations that share
alliance of powerful institutions sends a circular goals. As we approach 2030, a mile-
unified signal to the market, representing stone year for many corporate sustainabil-
volumes that could incentivize manufac- ity goals, we encourage more companies
turers, recovery infrastructure and technol- to dare to do things differently and recog-
ogy to adopt more sustainable practices. nize the power of collaboration to achieve
Pooled resources accelerate innovation and a more sustainable future.

Endnotes

1. Sherwin, Georgia. “5 key learnings from Closed Loop Partners’ reusable pack-
aging pilots.” March 17, 2022. https://www.greenbiz.com/article/5-key-learn-
ings-closed-loop-partners-reusable-packaging-pilots

36
 Image source: By Mihai_Andritoiu / Shutterstock.com

More Effective, More Sustainable

and More Equitable Recycling Reform
For Maine
By Chrissy Adamowicz

Maine people live with a strong conservation ethic — easy to do in such a scenic and
wild state where our economy and natural environment are inextricably linked. Part of
that ethic includes a deep interest in waste reduction and recycling, especially plastic
Fundamental
pollution. When fundamental weaknesses in our recycling programs were revealed as the
weaknesses in our
global recycling market crashed in 2018, Maine people quickly realized that we needed recycling programs
to change the way we plan and pay for recycling. were revealed as
the global recycling
The Natural Resources Council of Maine (NRCM) is a nonprofit environmental advocacy market crashed
organization that is passionate about doing what’s right for Maine’s people and envi-
in 2018
ronment. One of our priorities is to help struggling municipalities and push for a proven
solution that would save taxpayers money, increase the effectiveness of recycling, and
decrease plastic pollution. Shifting more responsibility to large corporations who produce
the bulk of wasteful packaging through an Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for
Packaging law was the clear choice to save Maine’s recycling programs from unexpected
and rising costs, making them more effective and resilient.

37
 Maine is already a national municipal waste stream is about 40 percent
leader in this policy area, packaging, and costs taxpayers $16-$17.5
having implemented eight million per year to manage. Meanwhile, we
existing product stewardship have never reached our goal of recycling
laws, covering products from paint 50 percent of our waste, and instead have
to batteries, that have successfully plateaued for years at a low 36 percent
shifted the burden off taxpayers (which is presumably falling). Mainers are
for managing the waste producers spending a lot of money to recycle and
make. EPR for Packaging laws are new aren’t getting results.
to the United States even though they have
Despite what the producers of packaging
been successfully used around the world
like to say, the problems with recycling
for decades.
aren’t the fault of the consumer or munici-
EPR for Packaging laws have been proven palities. The problem starts upstream, with
to increase recycling rates and incentivize them. Too many packages are not designed
eco-friendly designs. In more than 40 coun- with recycling, the environment, or the
tries these policies place the responsibil- taxpayer in mind. Countless products on
ity onto big, multinational corporations to the shelves falsely claim that they are recy-
pay for municipal recycling programs, rather clable, are made of materials that look recy-
than taxpayers. According to an analysis clable and mislead consumers into thinking
by NRCM, more than 500 brands that can they are recyclable (think plastics that
be found on the shelves of Maine grocery look and feel like paper or foil), are made
stores already pay for Canadian recycling of complex mixed materials, or are exces-
programs. Anyone who sees the list imme- sive in weight or volume—all of which end
diately asks the question “if they pay in up confusing and costing taxpayers. The
Canada, why can’t they pay here too?” truth is, a package may be technically recy-
clable, but it’s not practically recyclable if
Maine’s Department of Environmental
no collection system or market for that
Protection (DEP) estimated that Maine’s

Image courtesy of czjiri / Shutterstock.com

38
material is in place. It’s time for producers Maine became the first state in the nation
of packaging to help provide support for to have an EPR for Packaging law voted
recycling programs. out of committee. On July 13, 2021
the governor signed into Law
Good hearted Maine residents and volun-
1541, making Maine the
teers work hard to educate their neighbors,
first U.S. state to enact an
schools, and workplaces about Reducing,
EPR bill for paper and pack-
Reusing, and Recycling, but ultimately
aging waste.
those efforts are no substitute for what is
really needed: a coordinated approach that EPR for Packaging will provide
involves producers, municipalities, consum- the funding Maine’s towns need to make
ers, and waste management compa- the proper investments in education and
nies. That is what an EPR system does, it infrastructure that are necessary to reach
connects everyone involved in the design, a circular economy. While the setbacks due
sale, use, and ultimate disposal of a pack- to the pandemic continue to be difficult to
age in a way that our current, fragmented bear for Maine’s towns who desperately
approach simply can’t do. Producers need need help to secure the future of their recy-
to be held accountable for their contribution cling programs, the support for an EPR law
Mainers are
to our recycling crisis, and EPR helps them in Maine remains too strong to be ignored.
spending a lot of
do that in a fair, sustainable way.
NRCM, towns, recyclers, the environmen- money to recycle
For Maine, the EPR for Packaging law is tal community and local activists are ready and aren’t getting
first and foremost about providing support to continue fighting for better waste and results.
to our municipalities, who want to do the recycling policies. The road ahead may
right thing but are struggling to main- seem long, but a consensus is growing that
tain recycling programs due to cost. By producer responsibility laws are the only
the time of the public hearing, over 20 way forward if we want to systemically fix
towns representing over 200,000 Main- our waste and recycling problems.
ers had adopted a municipal resolution
in support of EPR for Packaging. In addi- Acknowledgements
tion to municipalities, EPR for Packag-
ing was supported by several of Maine’s NRCM would like to thank the activists and
businesses, nonprofits, religious institu- partners who are helping to bring an EPR
tions, recyclers, students, and community for Packaging policy to Maine.
groups. Support was overwhelming and

39
 FI G HT
G THE
AC KIN ST IC: EM
TR PL A Y ST
AIN ST ED ITS
AG TIC CR
AS
A PL

By Maggie Ka Ka Lee

Most people will agree that plastic waste collection and recycling infrastructure world-
wide needs to be improved. Recycling rates across the world, especially in the Global
Burt’s Bees, will South, where there are few mandatory recycling, collection, and deposit return schemes,
leverage Plastic are low. Only 9 percent of global plastic waste was ultimately recycled in 2019.1 China’s
Credits in their National Sword policy raised additional international attention to the problems that exist
pledge to be Net in recycling value chains.
Zero Plastic to
Nature by 2025. At the same time, companies and brands are being called on to address their plastic
pollution and support the shift to a circular economy. Initiatives like the Ellen MacArthur
Foundation Plastics Pacts and WWF’s Plastic ACTion Agreement encourage companies
to reduce their use of virgin plastic and increase the recyclability of their packaging. These
commitments require companies to increase the use of post-consumer recycled plas-
tic and redesign for recyclability within their value chains. Fulfilling these commitments
would certainly make a significant impact in addressing the plastic pollution crisis, but
only with necessary monitoring and verification mechanisms.

Verra, a global leader in developing and managing standards, is stepping up to provide a

credible, third-party verified plastic credit system as an accounting framework. It aims to
empower companies and organizations to invest in verifiable plastic reduction projects,
and facilitate the transition towards a circular economy.

40
Building the plastic footprint. The Guidelines for Corpo-
new plastic standard rate Plastic Stewardship were launched
in conjunction with the Plastic Standard
In February 2021, Verra launched a new as one of the outputs of the 3R Initiative
standard to support the collection and sort- (Reduce Recover Recycle), a market-based
ing infrastructure needed to close the loop approach to upscale collection and recy-
on plastic waste. This Plastic Waste Reduc- cling.2 These guidelines, which the World The US and China
tion Standard (Plastic Standard) is a cred- Business Council for Sustainable Develop- account for 51
iting mechanism that provides an efficient ment intends to standardize, set out best percent of global
and powerful means of financing activities practices for using Plastic Credits. plastic production
to verifiably reduce plastic waste in the envi-
ronment. The Plastic Standard is used for
Plastic credit
the consistent accounting and crediting of
a variety of plastic collection and recycling
system in action
activities, which enables independent audit- Let’s consider how a Chinese brand may
ing. It issues Plastic Credits to registered apply these guidelines and invest in Plastic
collection and/or recycling projects based Credits as part of their broader plastic stew-
on the tons of plastic waste they collect ardship strategy. The brand should assess
or recycle above baseline rates (i.e., what their plastic footprint and consider what
would have happened in the absence of actions they can take to reduce the plastic
the project). Plus, this crediting mechanism footprint and leakage associated with their
addresses the social and environmental product lines. Moreover, this brand should
impacts of waste management activities. also consider how to manage its packaging
By including metrics such as safeguard where its products are sold. Each Plastic
requirements around fair compensation, Credit issued by Verra has a serial number
working conditions and the greenhouse gas that includes information such as the activ-
emissions of projects, these projects have ity type (e.g., collection or recycling); plas-
an impact beyond just the collecting and tic material type managed; and location of
recycling of plastic waste. the project activity. Using this information,
the brand could purchase Plastic Credits to
Companies purchase Plastic Credits to
drive investment to plastic waste collec-
invest in the plastic waste collection and
tion and recycling activities that manage
recycling infrastructure outside of their
their packaging’s plastic material type
value chain. Through the crediting mech-
within China. In this way, they may
anism, companies can make a verified
help address the infrastructure piece
investment into the infrastructure that
of “the loop” that falls beyond their
will process the plastic they generate and
value chain.
complement the actions they take within
their own value chain. The U.S-based brand,
Burt’s Bees, will
In a robust plastic credit market, a company
leverage Plastic
can purchase credits to offset their own

41
 Credits in their pledge to be Net Zero Plas- Plastic Standard as a standardized account-
tic to Nature by 2025. In addition to reduc- ing framework to quantify the impact (in
ing their reliance on virgin plastic materials tons) of investments made by companies
and increasing the circular attributes of their in collection and recycling. Credible, third-
packaging, they are supporting global waste party verified Plastic Credits may be able to
management infrastructure through Plastic support the development or expansion of
Credits. Specifically, Burt’s Bees are fund- these policies, and provide a valuable tool
ing projects in India and Ghana developed that helps governments and the public to
by rePurpose Global. All of these Burt’s monitor the companies.
Bees and rePurpose Global joint projects
Plastic waste collection and recycling infra-
must be registered and verified under the
structure is complex and every country’s
Plastic Standard, which provides further
needs are different. Yet one thing is clear
credibility to this investment.
– we can’t close the loop on plastic waste
In the short term, the Plastic Standard can without addressing tracking plastic recov-
facilitate investment in the recognized gap ery and recycling. Verra’s Plastic Standard
in critical waste management infrastruc- and the credits issued under it help to drive
ture worldwide, including the United States investment into this essential infrastructure.
and China which accounts for 51 percent
of global plastic production.3 In the long
term, countries passing Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) policies could use the

Endnotes

1 “Overview and policy highlights”, in Global Plastics Outlook: Economic Drivers,

Environmental Impacts and Policy Options. OECD, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1787/
f9c3a6c4-en.

2 Guideline for Corporate Plastic Stewardship can be found here: https://

www.3rinitiative.org/_files/ugd/e94bf0_0480d0bd0efa4cf08b56355ca73ebc98.pdf.

3 “Plastics - the Facts 2021 An analysis of European plastics production, demand

and waste data.” Plastics Europe, 2022. https://plasticseurope.org/wp-content/
uploads/2021/12/Plastics-the-Facts-2021-web-final.pdf.

42
The Global Treaty on Plastic
Pollution Can Catalyze a Roadmap for
Circularity in the United States
By Anthony Tusino

In March 2022, 175 nations agreed to begin negotiations on a global treaty that would
stem the flow of plastic waste into nature. When implemented, the treaty will equip
countries with a roadmap for action and accountability for reducing the environmental
impact of plastic waste. By addressing the entire lifecycle of plastics, from production
and disposal to the need for better waste management systems, we can create a future
where plastic no longer enters nature.

 Now for the cold hard reality: the United States, which is the world’s biggest producer
of the plastic waste, is nowhere near ready to implement the kind of plan required of
countries under such a treaty. Our national recycling rates for plastic currently hover
around 9 percent, with the rest of it accumulating as waste in landfills, communities and
nature, to devastating effect. This dismal statistic is a result of factors including aging
infrastructure, spotty access to recycling, the public’s widespread confusion over exactly
what is recyclable, and the subsidized low cost of virgin materials. Producers of plastic
are incentivized to create more, waste more and remain disconnected from the very
system they put materials into. We can fix this.  

43
Image source: Chanchai phetdikhai / Shutterstock.com

EPR to change use less plastic, and use it more respon-

the business of waste sibly. Over time, recycled content would
become more available and more cost
The United States lacks any national stan- effective. Collectively, we would be on the
dards, practices or plans to reduce waste path to doing more with less.
and pollution. But at the heart of this struc-
tural problem lies massive and attainable In encouraging news, Americans want
opportunities to get the country on the right businesses to act on plastic waste. A
track before a treaty comes into effect in recent WWF survey found over 50 percent
2024. The solution starts with Extended of respondents believe businesses that
The US, the world’s Producer Responsibility (EPR) for packaging produce and sell plastic should be held
biggest producer of and paper products.1   responsible for collecting and recycling that
the plastic waste, is plastic waste.2 It should be noted that more
nowhere near ready EPR is a policy mechanism that would and more businesses want to be respon-
change the business of waste in the United sible for the collection and recycling of the
to implement the
States by making producers and brands materials they use. While this aligns with
kind of plan required
financially responsible for the collection what the public wants, it might give an envi-
under [the proposed and recycling of consumer packaging. By ronmentalist pause. Are companies will-
Plastic] treaty shifting the financial burden away from ing to put their reputation, brand and profit
taxpayers and local governments, the on the line? The answer is yes, and we’ve
companies that are producing plastic will already seen important progress in this
be incentivized to ensure plastic that goes space. For example, Europe and Canada
into the system stays in the system.  have implemented EPR policies.

Under an EPR framework, producers and As we navigate how we adopt EPR in the
brands would shoulder the cost of recy- United States, we can use these examples
cling materials. They would also be penal- to create a system that is sturdy, efficient
ized for selling hard-to-recycle packaging or and drives the right environmental results.
for not incorporating recycled content into Government and public oversight can ensure
their packaging portfolio. Collectively, these that those systems are operating in an envi-
changes would incentivize producers to ronmentally sound manner, and demand

44
changes to stewardship plans if targets lar systems needed to fulfill our national obli-
aren’t being met. At the beginning of June gations under the impending global treaty.  
2022, Colorado signed a bill into law putting
We are standing on the threshold of
the state well on its way to implementing
a seminal moment for private sector
their own EPR system, and several other
accountability­—a game-changing oppor-
states have considered similar legislation.3
tunity to provide both taxpayers and nature
with some much-needed relief. Now we
A game-changing must capitalize on this moment by imple-
opportunity menting EPR and transforming our waste
management system once and for all. If
It is true that the United States can’t just
we prevail, we’ll be one giant step closer
recycle its way out of the global plastic
to freeing the United States and the world
waste crisis. But with waste management
from plastic’s chokehold.
set up for success, we can enable the circu-

Endnotes

1 “What is Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)?” WWF, June 8, 2021. https://

www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/sustainability-works/posts/what-is-extended-
producer-responsibility-epr.

2 “Public Opinion Surrounding Plastic Consumption and Waste Management

of Consumer Packaging: 2022 Update.” WWF, June 6, 2022. https://www.
worldwildlife.org/publications/public-opinion-surrounding-plastic-consumption-and-
waste-management-of-consumer-packaging-2022-update

3 “WWF Statement on Colorado EPR Legislation.” WWF, June 3, 2022. https://

www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/wwf-statement-on-colorado-epr-legislation.

45
INFOGRAPHIC 2:

Single-Use Plastic Waste:

China Versus the US in 2021

CHINA UNITED STATES

25.4 MMT TOTAL 17.2 MMT TOTAL

53
KG
PER CAPITA
PER YEAR

18
KG
PER CAPITA
PER YEAR

(Million Metric Tons, MMT)

Data Compiled by Solange Reppas and Angela Pan

Data Sources: Charles, Dominic, Laurent Kimman, and Nakul Saran. (2021) “The Plastic Waste Makers Index: Revealing the Source of the Single-Use Plastic Crisis.” Minderoo Foundation.
https://www.minderoo.org/plastic-waste-makers-index/.

46
 !
A Rant on the Single-use
Plastic Boom —By Angela Pan

!
Single-use plastics present a growing is accelerating greenhouse gas emissions.
global environmental crisis. They are made It is encouraging that plastic as a climate
to be thrown away in just minutes, but threat is starting to get more attention from
impose high, often long-term, economic, researchers and activists in the United
environmental and health costs. Encour- States and China.
agingly, the United States and China--the
As both the United States and China are
world’s plastic waste superpowers--both
starting to prioritize the single-use plas-
supported the creation of a Global Plastic
tic waste problem, these statistics were
Treaty to stem the flood of plastic waste that
easier to find! The data reveals while China
threatens marine ecosystems.
generates overall more single-use plastic
Municipal waste systems in both the waste than the United States, per capita
United States and China are struggling to the U.S. uses almost three times more
manage the boom in single-use plastics. single-use plastics than China.
Many single-use plastics are very low-qual-
The recent COVID-19 pandemic has led to a
ity and thus hard or economically imprac-
new wave of single-use plastic. A new study
tical to recycle. Weak markets for plastic
by Chinese and U.S. researchers calculated
recycling also means mountains of single-
that 8+ million tons of pandemic-associated
use plastic ends up in landfills or inciner-
plastic waste, mostly medical waste gener-
ators, which can pollute the surrounding
ated by hospitals, led to a sharp rise in ocean
environment. Some of the 9-10 percent of
plastic pollution.1
plastic waste the United States ships over-
seas for recycling, ends up leaked into the
ocean. As discussed in this issue’s intro
duction, the growth in single-use plastics

1 Peng, Yiming, Peipei Wu, Amina T. Schartup, & Yanxu Zhang. “Plastic Waste Release Caused by COVID-19 and Its Fate in the
Global Ocean.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 47 (November 23, 2021 https://doi.org/10.1073/
pnas.2111530118.

47
 CLOSED–LOOP INNOVATORS

Sophia Wang:
Returning to our
Roots for Elegance and
Sustainability in Fashion
Photo courtesy of: Sophia Wang, photograph by Carla Tramullas, courtesy of MycoWorks

Fashion is the second most polluting industry lium’s abundance and its biodegradable and carbon
behind oil and is responsible for 10 percent of annual sequestration properties make it an obvious choice
global carbon emissions. The carbon-intensive produc- for the sustainable goods of the future. Companies
tion of animal hide and plastic for synthetic leather like Ecovative Design and Rhizoform LLC have spent
(e.g., pleather) and clothing further compound the decades developing mycelium as a packaging alterna-
impact of this industry. Sophie Wang is an artist who tive for fragile consumer goods and fish and have even
creatively combines the nature-based material (Fine secured support from Ikea and packaging giant Seale-
Mycelium technology) into sustainable fashion, weav- dAir, but in fashion nothing has yet been attempted
ing a plastic-free alternative fashion industry. Now her at quite this scale.
work has led to the first commercialized plastic-free
Sophia and Phil’s joint project, MycoWorks, is based
mushroom leather hat.
on their proprietary process for mycelium cultivation
When her artistic collaborator, Phil Ross, shared with called “Fine Mycelium™.” This process uses fungi’s
her the mycelium sculptures he had been finessing capacity to bind both to itself and carbon-based mate-
for decades, artist Sophia Wang was amazed by the rials to produce durable three-dimensional structures.
expanse of possibilities in its natural pigments and The first product they developed with Fine Myce-
textures. Mycelium comprises the root structure of lium is Reishi™, a sustainable option for leather that
mushrooms and like the edible portion of the fungi, looks, feels, and acts like the animal-derived version.
possesses textural qualities unlike any of those found Following their successful brand launch for Reishi in
in the animal or plant kingdoms. Sophia had never February 2020 at New York Fashion week, MycoWorks
seen anything quite like it and describes the mycelium in collaboration with Nick Fouquet has launched its
materials Phil created as “at once rigid and foamy; commercial product, a series of plastic-free mush-
compact and endlessly expressive.” room leather hats.

The cultivation of mushrooms for consumption is

an age-old industry boasting strong production and
distribution infrastructure all over the world. Myce-

48
 Stacy Flynn:
Closing the Loop on
Fashion Waste
Photo courtesy of: Stacy Flynn, Evrnu

Stacy Flynn is intimately familiar with the ins and and durable fabrics fuel this industry, but the environ-
outs of fashion’s supply chain. She knows how clothes mental cost is high and long-lasting. In 2015, the annual
travel the world as they move through the stages of greenhouse gas emission from polyester production for
design, textile production, and garment formation textiles reached the equivalent impact of 185 coal-fired
before landing in your local retail store. For years, she power plants. Polyester fabrics are particularly harmful
managed these supply chains for Dupont and Target, because when being worn or washed they can shed
making regular visits to suppliers in China. She was plastic microfibers at an alarming rate. Scientists are still
shown pristine manufacturing facilities where she working to see how these microfibers accumulate in
examined textile and clothing samples and discussed our seabeds, national parks, seafood, soil, and homes.
prices and delivery. But nothing could have prepared
Evrnu is a collaboration between Stacy Flynn and Chris-
her for seeing the staggering pollution these second
topher Stanev to counter the impact of the fashion
and third tier suppliers generated when she returned
industry on natural resources by licensing their supply-
in 2010 with a Seattle-based startup to tour smaller
side innovations to global producers. Evrnu’s innovative
textile and dyeing factories. Her guides told her
NuCycl technology strips old garments down to their
that during periods of increased textile production,
component fibers to produce a stronger end mate-
wastewater emissions turn the nearby river into deep
rial capable of reuse. They are modernizing the textiles
unnatural hues and factory exhaust smothered the air
industry by designing waste out of supply chains and
outdoors and even indoors for the workers.
leveraging discarded textiles as resources for the future.
Stacy soon began a mental tally of the millions of yards
“We’ve seen the negative environmental
of fabric she had handled throughout her career and
impacts and limits to our growth with the
their associated environmental cost. The pride she held
current way of doing business. What if
for her profession quickly soured. At a crossroads, she
we start designing our products
asked herself, “Is this how the story ends, is this our
with the intent to recycle them
state or is there another way for the fashion industry?”
in the future? What if waste
The current global fast fashion model encourages the byproducts of textile prod-
rapid design of inexpensive seasonal clothing. This ucts in the future are used
fast-paced supply chain produces over 92 million tons to create the supply
of waste each year and consumes 79 trillion liters of chain rather than mining
water. Cheap synthetic fibers that make lightweight raw materials?”

49
 SECTION 3

PLASTIC
POLICY ACTION

50
 Image source: By Piyaset / Shutterstock.com

Closing the Loop:

China’s Multiple Stakeholder Push on
Plastics and Carbon
By Kathinka Fürst and Mengqi Li

China reigns as the world’s largest plastic producer. From 1978 to 2017, its plastic produc-
tion volume increased nearly 100 times, whereas global production had risen only seven-
fold. In 2020 alone, China produced 76 million tons of plastic, the weight of 5,000 orcas. China incinerates
Yet only 25 percent of China’s plastic produced in that year was recycled. And overflow- approximately 30
ing landfills and weak waste infrastructure have fueled plastic pollution in China’s water- percent of its plastic
ways and coastal areas. waste, which leads
to increased CO2
In 2008, China took action to strengthen its regulatory frameworks and reduce the
emissions.
leakage of plastic into the environment. This commitment has ushered in more bans to
problematic single-use plastics, upgrades to municipal solid waste management infra-
structure, and incentives for industries to innovate on packaging alternatives. It is a strong
foundation for China’s shift towards a circular plastic economy.

Yet China must do more. Its plastic pollution policies should focus more on reining in
plastic production—which depends on fossil fuels. Every kilogram of plastic produced
releases between 1.7 and 3.5 kilograms of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. And China
incinerates approximately 30 percent of its plastic waste, which also leads to increased
CO2 emissions. Production is a major obstacle to closing the loop on plastic waste, and
a challenge for China in reaching its carbon neutrality goals.

51
 From bag ban to life cycle One major challenge to achieving circularity
is that China’s recycled materials market
The drumbeat of China’s first modest regulation of plastic is still not fully developed, and many cities
more regulations started in 2008. Bans and fees targeting have lagged behind in plastic collection and
has sparked China’s ultra-thin plastic bags helped reduce bag sorting. To address this issue, the Minis-
large e-commerce use and increase recycling. Yet enforce- try of Housing and Urban-Rural Develop-
and food delivery ment was weak. Only 17 percent of retail- ment required 46 cities to carry out pilot
companies to ers complied with the voluntary regulations programs on mandatory garbage collec-
innovate and reduce and charged a fee for plastic bags. Fully tion and sorting in 2017. A year later,
their plastic and 78 percent of retailers, especially smaller China’s Ministry of Ecological Environ-
waste footprint. shops, continued to provide them to ment launched the “Zero-waste cities’’
customers. Chinese policymakers inten- pilot program in 11 cities, to create models
sified their efforts in 2016 with a sharp for improved sorting and recycling and
increase in laws, policies, and action plans increased waste reduction. These pilot
to tackle the plastic problem. programs have reduced plastic pollution
as well as other types of waste. China’s
Today, China boasts a more robust regu-
policymakers also are creating incentives
latory framework to curb plastic pollution.
for voluntary programs in both industries
In 2018, its government took the momen-
and nonprofit groups.
tous step of banning imports of most plas-
tic wastes. Then, two years later, it issued
a Guideline for Further Strengthening the Business and social
Control of Plastic Pollution that included entrepreneurship
stringent single-use plastic bans. In 2021,
the 14th Five-Year Plan ushered in a series The drumbeat of more regulations also
of new high-level targets to reduce plastic has sparked China’s large e-commerce
production and use at source, promote recy- and food delivery companies to inno-
cling and disposal, and clean-up pollution vate and reduce their plastic and waste
in key areas. The new plan also set clear footprint. JD.com, one of China’s leading
reduction and recycling targets for plastic e-commerce platforms, launched its Green
products and wastes. Stream campaign in 2017 to integrate
waste reduction throughout its supply
China’s targets are not empty gestures. chain. The company replaced single-use
They are built on the 2009 Circular Economy boxes with green packing boxes made
Promotion Law that laid the groundwork of a of polypropylene that can be reused at
life-cycle regulatory regime for varied prod- least 50 times. The results are encourag-
ucts that covered all aspects of production, ing. These boxes have been reused over
consumption and treatment. The nation’s 16 million times in more than 30 Chinese
amended Solid Waste Pollution Law (2020) cities. And JD has also adopted biode-
also specifically cites the circular economy gradable packaging for fresh food delivery
concept, banning single-use plastics and services and created recyclable bags to
promotes recycling and alternatives. pack food for transport.

52
 A new generation of small manufactur- and other pollution, development threats,
ers is also developing new products from and urban planning, laws and regulations in
recycled plastic. One example is the P.E.T. these key regions.
Plastic Ecological Transformation Company
founded in July 2017 by fashion manufac- Hurdles and opportunities
turing veteran Jane Zhao. Perturbed by the
on China’s path forward
state of pollution in China that her children
will inherit, Zhao tackled the problem of Plastics—and other sorts of waste—are the
virgin plastic in fabrics by transforming newest front in the Chinese government’s
recycled PET plastic bottles into many war on pollution. This top-down focus on
types of fabrics. creating a circular economy around waste
has sparked policy, campaigns, and invest-
​ hinese NGOs that focus on plastic pollu-
C
ments to overhaul the country’s waste
tion prevention have multiplied in the last
management system. These efforts have
five years. The China Zero Waste Alliance
also opened up doors for bottom-up efforts
members are creating corporate campaigns
to mitigate plastic pollution.
to change business practices and consumer
behaviors around single-use plastics. In But more can be done. A bolder embrace
addition, Beijing-based NGO IPE and the of multiple stakeholder approaches in plas-
Vanke Foundation initiated the Waste Map tic governance can offer funding opportu-
Plastics—and other
Project to fill the data gap needed to close nities, new ideas, and leverage stronger
sorts of waste—are
the loop on plastic waste. This project’s app alliances between different actors with an the newest front
helps residents find the nearest collection interest in mitigating and preventing plastic in the Chinese
and recycling stations, and enables cities pollution in China. government’s war on
and companies to post information on their pollution.
Besides addressing the country’s plastic
waste generation. The data obtained not
pollution problem, reining in plastic waste
only guides waste management invest-
is also critical to help China reach its “dual
ments, but strengthens waste markets so
carbon” goals: a carbon peak by 2030 and
more plastics are recycled.
carbon neutrality by 2060. Because each
NGOs such as Zhoushan Qiandao and stage of plastics production produces
Shanghai Rendu Ocean NPO Develop- greenhouse gas emissions, China will
ment Center are active in beach, coast and need to significantly reduce production
underwater clean ups. The Cross-Border and address its relatively high incineration
Environment Concern Association (CECA) rate of plastic waste to achieve its carbon
is a nongovernmental think tank focusing neutrality pledge.
on marine and coastal ecological issues in
the Pearl River Delta and Bohai Bay. CECA’s
policy research and advocacy target plastic

53
Image courtesy of lensfox / Shutterstock.com

Moves to Close the Loop

on Plastic Waste in the United States
By David Biederman

China’s announcement of its National Sword program in mid-2017 and its implementation
beginning in 2018 caused a substantial market disruption to many U.S. municipal recy-
cling programs, particularly for plastic waste. China was by far the largest export market
for recyclables and scrap in the world, receiving more than one-third of post-consumer
China’s National plastic recyclables prior to 2017. China no longer accepts those materials and some
Sword shock has U.S. municipalities have been forced to suspend curbside recycling programs. On the
prompted new state positive side, the abrupt cutoff of China’s market sparked local and state governments,
and company actions private companies, associations such as the Solid Waste Association of North America
in the U.S. (SWANA), equipment manufacturers, and other recycling stakeholders to work together
to preserve and expand existing recycling programs and operations.

Numerous private sector and government actions have been taken to help close the loop
on plastic waste in the United States. New policies and business action are starting to
identify gaps and facilitate action in plastic recycling.

Increasing demand for recycled content

In a move to demonstrate sustainability commitments, a growing number of U.S. and
other global manufacturers and consumer-centric companies are pledging to use more
recycled content in their products. Some of these companies are also signing pledges

54
with the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, the reduces the efficiency of recycling facilities.
Alliance to End Plastic Waste, and other One of the catalysts for China’s National
multinational organizations. Sword program was the high levels of
contamination in bales of discarded paper
Many solid waste and recycling experts
and plastic shipped from the United States.
believe that without increased demand,
it will be difficult to recycle more plastic The increased focus on reducing contam-
waste. The recent pledges are helping to ination through better education and
create a “demand pull” for plastic waste, increased enforcement of local rules is
which has helped support higher prices for bearing fruit. According to Waste Manage-
recyclers selling High-density polyethylene ment, the largest U.S. recycling
(HDPE) plastics. SWANA issued a report company. the contamination rate
titled Energy Recovery Options for Non-Re- for materials received at its recy-
cycled Plastic Discards in September 2020 cling facilities has declined by about
that analyzes some of these facilities and 25 percent over the past few years.
technologies in greater detail.1 A number of local governments
and companies have also reported
China’s National Sword program has elim-
decreased contamination, often
inated a primary export market for plastic
with assistance from state or private
waste from the United States, and follow-
sector grant programs.
ing the flow, some other Asian countries are
also reducing the volume of such imported
waste materials. This shift has encouraged Changing laws and
several companies to plan and construct policies
new plastic processing facilities in the
The U.S. recycling rate (including
United States. In January 2020, the North-
composting) declined from 35 to 32
east Recycling Council published a report
percent between 2017 and 2018. In 2022
identifying more than one billion pounds of
the rate remains stalled at 32 percent. On
new processing capacity are expected to
November 18, 2020, at the America Recy-
come on line in the United States, Canada,
cles Summit, the EPA issued an ambitious
and Mexico.
national recycling goal of fifty percent by
2030. A year later the EPA released and
Reducing contamination started implementing a National Recycling
Strategy with five key objectives to: 1)
One of the key challenges facing U.S. recy-
improve markets for recycled commodities,
cling systems is the high rate of non-re-
2) increase collection and improve recycling
cyclable materials that Americans place in
infrastructure, 3) reduce contamination
their recycling bins. Known as “contami-
of recyclable materials through outreach
nation,” these materials are often difficult
and education, 4) enhance policies and
to remove from the valuable paper, plastic,
programs and 5) standardize measurement
metal, and glass accepted in most recy-
and data collection. EPA anticipates that
cling programs. Removing non-recyclables

55
 this 50 percent recycling goal and national The low recovery rate for plastic waste has
strategy will reverse the downward turn of encouraged some companies to develop
the U.S. recycling rate. additional technologies and processes for
diverting materials away from disposal.
Congress introduced four significant legisla-
Many of these processes turn the plastic
tive proposals in 2019 and 2020 to improve
waste into monomers or polymers that
recycling and address plastic waste prob-
can be used as feedstock for new plastic
lems. Over five years, the Save Our Seas
products. Often referred to as “chemical”
2.0 Act, S. 1982, provides $55 million in
or “advanced” recycling, many of these
infrastructure grants annually to states to
technologies are being implemented or
support local recycling programs. This bill
California’s unanimously passed the U.S. Senate in
are in the development stage now. They
Plastic Pollution January 2020 and President Trump signed
may be particularly useful for recycling
mixed post-consumer plastics as the cost
Prevention and the bipartisan Save Our Seas Act into law
of mechanically separating the various
Packaging Producer on December 20, 2020.
types of plastics into saleable commod-
Responsibility Act
Two other pending bills — the RECOVER ities exceeds their value. For example,
has catalyzed waves
Act and the RECYCLE Act — also provide Agilyx, Brightmark Energy, and others are
of investment and
funding for five years to support domes- siting and operating facilities in North Amer-
new technologies to tic recycling infrastructure, education, and ica that provide a new alternative disposal
revive the recycling outreach. The other pending bill, the Break option for some discarded plastics.
business. Free From Plastics Act introduced in early
A variety of actions are being taken by recy-
2020, prioritized upstream strategies to
cling stakeholders to help close the loop on
reduce waste and promote recycling. The
plastic waste in the United States. Although
act proposes bans on single use plastics, a
reducing the amount of plastic waste would
national container deposit regime, recycled
be preferable, it is unlikely that Americans
content requirements, and an extended
will stop purchasing products and contain-
producer responsibility scheme.
ers that contain plastic. However, the
actions being taken, combined with grow-
Accelerated business ing awareness associated with the envi-
investment for recycling ronmental impacts of improperly disposed
plastic, EPA’s recent actions, and the possi-
China’s National Sword shock has prompted
bility of federal legislation supporting educa-
new states and company actions. Today
tion and infrastructure, give some reasons
state recycling mandates and other policies
for cautious optimism about the future of
like California’s Plastic Pollution Prevention
plastic recycling in the United States.
and Packaging Producer Responsibility Act,
brand commitments have catalyzed waves
of investment and new technologies to
revive the recycling business.2

56
TABLE 1.
Recent U.S. Plastic and Recycling Policies
Name and Year Content

[S. 1982] Save Our Seas 2.0 Act, • Strengthen domestic marine debris response with Marine Debris Foundation, prize for
signed into law Dec 2020 innovation, and scientific research
• Enhance global engagement through formalizing U.S. international cooperation policy,
federal outreach, and new international agreement
• Improve domestic infra (through waste management and mitigation)

[S. 984] Break Free From Plastic • Require producers to design, manage, and finance waste and recycling programs.
Pollution Act of 2021, referred
• National beverage container refund program
to COF March 2021
• Banning non-recyclable single-use plastic products and adding bag fees to others
• Prohibit overseas shipping of plastic waste
• Place a temporary pause on new plastic facilities and create regulations on them

[H.R. 3764] Ocean-based • Put 5 percent per pound excise tax on virgin plastic used on single-use products
Climate Solutions Act,
• Ask the Biden Admin to reduce virgin plastic production to 10% of 2010 levels by 2050
Introduced June 2021

[H.R. 2821] Plastic Waste • $85 million funding for plastics recycling programs in 2022
Reduction and Recycling Act,
• Direct the Office of Science and Technology Policy to establish a plastic waste reduction
introduced April 2021
program, and research recycling techs and plastic waste reduction strategies

[SB 54] Plastic Pollution • All packaging in the state to be recyclable or compostable by 2032
Prevention and Packaging
• A 25% reduction of plastics in single-use products by 2032
Producer Responsibility Act,
California, passed in June 2022 • 30% Recycling, reuse, or composting rate of single-use by 2028
• Plastic manufacturers must pay $5 billion into a fund over the next 10 years that would
mitigate the effects of plastic pollution

In November 2019, the U.S. Identified some of the major challenges facing recycling systems and programs
EPA published a National
Framework for Advancing the
U.S. Recycling System

[AB 1276] Single-Use Food Retail food industry only provides single-use accessories to take-out consumers upon
Ware Accessories and request
Standard Condiments

Endnotes

1. Waste 360. (2020, Sept. 23). “New Report Analyzes Energy Recovery Options
for Non-Recycled Plastics.” https://www.waste360.com/waste-energy/new-re-
port-analyzes-energy-recovery-options-non-recycled-plastics.
2. Quinn Megan. (2022, Sept. 14). “National Sword kicked off a wave of MRF
investments. 5 years later, tech and funding continue to advance.” Waste Dive.
https://www.wastedive.com/news/national-sword-five-years-mrf-robotics-recy-
cling-investment/630731/.

57
Image courtesy of lensfox / Shutterstock.com

Building a Circular Economy for

Plastics in China
By Nanqing Jiang
Translated from Chinese by Angela Pan and Karen Mancl

The scale of single-use plastics from cups and plates to packaging and tape is astronom-
ical and growing. One eye-opening stat: in 2018 alone, China consumed enough plastic
China...is the largest
packing tape to circle the earth more than 1,000 times.
plastic producer in
the world, accounting Globally, the plastic economy is a linear, one-way system from production to use and
for one-third of the disposal. Despite decades of efforts to encourage recycling, 80 percent of plastic packag-
global output. ing ends up landfilled, incinerated or leaked. Thus, some 95 percent of plastic packaging
material value ($80-120 billion) is lost to the economy after a single use. We are wast-
ing a valuable resource and polluting the oceans, reducing the productivity of fisheries,
threatening soil and biodiversity health, and creating more greenhouse gas emissions.
These environmental costs amount to some $40 billion per year, far exceeding the plas-
tic packaging industry profits.

China plays a central role in the plastic economy. It is the largest plastic producer in the
world, accounting for one-third of the world’s output. Domestically, plastic packaging for
food, beverage, household products, bulk chemicals, and agricultural sheeting accounts
for nearly 50 percent of China’s total plastic production. And yet less than 20 percent of
plastic is ever recycled in China. The convenience that plastic brings to people’s lives has
a dark side — it is overwhelming China’s municipal waste systems and creating pollution.

58
For China to confront the plastic problem, private recyclers. The system relied on
the country will need to build a circular plas- recycling from foreign imports to make a
tic economy with strong market incentives, profit. China’s waste plastics processing
innovative technologies, and new norms and technology industries thrived because
for public behavior around waste. Encour- of their flexibility and efficiency. However,
agingly, policy changes to strengthen recy- today without foreign imports, the old
Plastic packaging
cling are laying the groundwork for China to system is now collapsing. Recycling enter- and recycling still
close the loop on plastics. prises now face the challenge of collect- lack a sufficiently
ing raw materials from domestic sources. robust legal and
An evolving plastic The immature waste collection system in regulatory basis
China leads to higher sorting and collecting in China.
recycling system
costs of plastic wastes, making the recy-
By 2020, China’s municipal solid waste cling industry less profitable. At present,
reached 210 million tons. Currently, China’s Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and Poly-
waste classification system is still under ethylene (PE) plastics are mainly recycled,
construction and the plastic recycling rate but other types are not.
is low, so plastic waste mostly goes into
landfills or incinerators. The foundation for Consumers bear the
China’s recycling system started in 2007
burden of recycling
with Administrative Measures for the
Recovery of Renewable Resources and China currently does not have an indepen-
a short-lived national ban on plastic bags. dent and robust plastic sorting and collec-
China’s plastic policies have become more tion system. To improve the recycling rate of
comprehensive and stringent (see Table 1.), plastic waste, consumers need to separate
but much more is needed to create a circu- plastics and put them into different contain-
lar economy. ers. The design of plastic packaging is also a
key issue limiting the recycling rate. Many
products are not designed with backend
From foreign imports to
recycling requirements in mind, leading to
domestic sources
complex sorting, cleaning, and treatment
In recent decades, the price industries paid processes and driving up recycling costs.
for recycled plastics rose above virgin plas-
In terms of policy, China is developing a
tic. The rise in price stemmed from growing
national standard for recycled plastic mate-
environmental protection requirements on
rial, but testing standards for recycled plas-
the recycling industry and continuous drops
tic are still needed. The recycling industry
in crude oil prices for virgin plastics.
lacks the ability to identify, classify, and
For nearly fifty years, China’s plastic recy- process the full array of plastic packaging.
cling value chain was managed by small The industry also needs an information
and medium-sized private businesses with platform for recycling markets. To achieve
an army of independent scavengers who plastic circularity, we need more recyclable
collected plastic waste and directed it to product designs and interconnected tech-

59
 nology to encourage individual consumers lenges. For example, food-contact-grade
to participate in the recycling system. To recycled materials are not permitted by
renew China’s recycling system, we need existing regulations on food safety.
innovative policies, business practices, and
To fire up China’s engagement with consumers.
Nevertheless, China’s recycling continues
new recycling to increase and the country has formed
system, the country the world’s largest post-consumer plastic
Challenges of realizing
needs innovative recycling market. Yet it still lacks statistics
policies, business a circular economy for and industry standards in an informal indus-

practices, and plastics try dominated by small and medium-sized

enterprises. Science, technology and finan-
engagement with Plastic packaging and recycling still lack a
cial policies are needed to encourage appli-
consumers. sufficiently robust legal and regulatory basis
cation of innovative technologies to develop
in China. China has yet to issue large-scale
the industry.
regulations on extended producer respon-
sibility (EPR) similar to the EU waste frame- A consumer-side recycling system is
work directive and packaging and packaging needed to allow more families to partici-
waste directive. The Chinese government pate in the plastic waste recycling chain.
has amended the Solid Waste Law and For example, the Ant Forest platform devel-
established a series of policies and plans for oped by Alibaba gives consumers “green
plastic packaging and renewable resource credits” when logging their recycling
recycling. An EPR system has been imple- streak. By guiding consumers’ consump-
mented on a small scale targeting agricul- tion and recycling behavior, it can effectively
tural plastic film and the electronic industry increase socially responsible consumption,
waste, but it lacks standards and data collec- and provide solutions for reducing and elim-
tion for the whole plastic economy. inating plastic pollution.

International brands are now committed to To fire up China’s new recycling system,
using PCR plastic products, but they encoun- the country needs innovative policies,
ter problems in China due to the lack of business practices, and engagement with
laws and regulations. At present, however, consumers. Specifically, for plastic circu-
it is difficult for China’s predominantly small larity, China needs a one-two punch of
and medium-sized recycling enterprises to policies to require more recyclable prod-
meet the demand for high-quality prod- uct designs from businesses and greater
ucts. In addition, recycled prod- interconnected technologies to encourage
ucts entering the individual consumers to participate in the
market bring new recycling system.
regulatory chal-

60
TABLE 1.
Evolution of Policies to Strengthen Recycling in China
Year Regulations/Policy Actions Significance for Recycling

2007 Administrative Measures for the Recovery of Foundation for China’s recycling system and China’s first
Renewable Resources / Notice on Restricting the attempt at banning single-use plastic packaging
Production and Sale of Plastic Shopping Bags

2011 Opinions on the Establishment of a Complete and Signal to enhance China’s recycling system
Advanced Recycling System for Waste Goods

2015 Medium- to Long-term Plan for Construction Established a funding system for the recycling and treatment
of Renewable Resources Recycling System (2015-2020) of electronic waste, but lacked requirements for other types
of waste

2016 Guiding Opinions on Accelerating the Transformation and Proposed creation of a packaging waste recycling system
Development of China’s Packaging Industry by 2020

2017 Initiative to Guide the Shift toward Circular Development Set targets that by 2020, the rate of plastic recycling to
increase by 15% compared with 2015, and recycling rate of
other wastes by 54.6%

2017 Municipal Waste Collection and Sorting Pilots 46 cities mandated to carry out household waste collection
and classification pilots to promote more recycling

2017 Implementation Plan for Prohibiting Entry of Foreign Required stricter regulation of foreign garbage imports,
Garbage and Advancing Reform of the Solid Waste paving the way for the 2018 National Sword Policy, a
Import Administration System game changer for global plastic recycling

2018 National Sword Policy In January 2018 China banned the import of most plastics
that previously had gone to the nation’s recycling processors

2019 Ratified the Basel Convention Amendment to include China ratified this amendment in 2001 and brought into force
waste plastics in regulation of cross-border waste trade in 2019

2019 Zero-Waste City Pilots (Led by Ministry of Ecology Standards for cities to adopt measures to drastically reduce
and Environment) waste production and promote reuse

2020 Opinions on Further Strengthening Control of By the end of 2020, 31 provinces and cities released
Plastic Pollution their 2020-2025 targets for plastic bans, restriction and
alternative targets

2020 Amendment of China’s Solid Waste Law Added household waste sorting system into the
regulation system

Sources used in text: Statistics Department of China Packaging Federation; Jin Yaning et al., 2008; UNEP; World Economic Forum; Ministry of Ecology
and Environment; World Wide Fund; De Marchi et al., 2020; Yu Yang Yao & Lin Lusuo, 2019; Citizens' Ecological Environment Behavior

61
 The Invisible Plastic Problem:
Agricultural Plastic in the China
and the United States
Image courtesy of mayk.75 / Shutterstock.com

By Karen Mancl

The plastic clam shells of yummy berries in the grocery store can cause us to pause, as
they are one of the plastic food containers that are not being recycled. The process to
make clam shells is different from the one for plastic bottles, resulting in a more chal-
Every year, U.S. lenging recycling process. Another greater, yet nearly invisible, amount of plastic waste
farmers generate is being generated to bring foods to market. This expanding plastic waste problem in
almost a half million agricultural production and food distribution has evaded public and policy attention in both
tons of plastic waste the United States and China. It is a common challenge that both could work on together.
[such as] plastic
Plastic offers many advantages for food production. Plastic mulch reduces pesticide
irrigation tubing,
use, conserves water, and warms the soil to extend the growing season, leading to an
feed bags, and average 30 percent yield increase. Plastic covered greenhouses provide fresh produce
greenhouse plastic. in the winter months and plastic drip irrigation tubing supports food production in dry
areas. Plastic is clean and lightweight and thus protects fragile and perishable food items
during storage and shipment to maintain quality and reduce food waste. Unfortunately,
without careful collection and recycling, agricultural plastic is washed into the ocean and
contaminates the soil.

U.S. farmers depend on plastic

Every year, U.S. farmers generate almost a half million tons of plastic waste. Plastic irri-
gation tubing, feed bags, and greenhouse plastic all contribute to the waste stream. U.S.
farmers use 57 thousand tons of plastic mulch and 191 thousand tons of plastic containers.1

About one-third of the total U.S. agricultural plastic is used in Florida to grow the fresh
fruits and vegetables we enjoy in the winter. Plastic is also used extensively in agri-

62
cultural fields in California. A recent study plastic in the soil in Chinese fields were a
conducted by the Monterey Bay National nuisance, clogging farm equipment, blow-
Marine Sanctuary found that each year ing in the wind, getting caught on fencing
over 9,000 tons of plastic are used to grow and washing into ditches. More than 30
everything from artichokes to strawberries years of plastic building up in the soil has
in Monterey County alone.2 started to interfere with roots and water
Plastic is covering
movement, canceling out the benefits of
the plastic mulch.
200,000 square
Chinese farmers are kilometers
the biggest plastic users The impact of all this plastic left in the soil on Chinese
China is the world’s largest user of plastic
is poorly understood and is not yet a policy agricultural fields,
film mulch, a practice that started in the
priority.5 Researchers have just started to like covering every
1980s. Every year in China, farmers need to
look at how plastic residues change the inch of Nebraska
dispose of an estimated 1.4 million tons of
structure of the soil, which is critical for the
with plastic mulch.
movement of water and air to support plant
plastic mulch and another 1 million tons of
growth. Questions also remain on how
greenhouse plastic. In addition, tons of plas-
plastic impacts soil chemistry, the cycling
tic irrigation tubing, plastic pots and pesti-
of nutrients and possible toxic effects.
cide containers, Styrofoam aquaculture
Moreover, given that plastic has negatively
floats and plastic covers for livestock feed
impacted marine organisms, plastic could
storage all require collection and disposal. In
also affect soil organisms. Scientists in both
2012, about 13 percent of China’s cropland
China and the United States are just start-
was mulched.3 Currently, plastic is cover-
ing to look at the impacts on soil organisms,
ing 200,000 square kilometers on Chinese
especially earthworms that are so import-
agricultural fields, like covering every inch of
ant for healthy soil.
Nebraska with plastic mulch.

The plastic mulch used in China for more Recycling is difficult

than 30 years is as thin as plastic wrap,
only 4 to 8 microns,4 whereas a zip lock Very little agricultural plastic in the United
bag is 38 microns. The thin plastic easily States and China is recycled. Half of the
tears, so it is only used for one growing plastic’s weight can be dirt that damages
season and is almost impossible to pick recycling equipment. Thus, much of the
up. Flakes of plastic end up in soil, water- collected plastic is either burned in the
ways and even in animal feed that are field or taken to a landfill. Research shows
ingested by livestock. when farmers collect plastic mulch, about
10 percent stays in the soil because the
plastic breaks and tears during recovery.
Impact of plastic
in the soil is unclear According to Dr. Changrong Yan, Chinese
Academy of Agricultural Sciences, about
All the plastic left in the soil is starting to
80 percent of plastic mulch used in
affect crop yield by changing the soil envi-
Chinese fields is removed, sent to landfills
ronment. At first, the leftover pieces of

63
 or burned. To reduce the volume of plastic, local governments restrict on-farm plastic
the one film for 2 years (PM2) program was burning to control air pollution.8
tested in the dry areas of western China.6
China is leading the efforts to regulate agri-
This novel “in the field” program to reuse
cultural plastic. In December 2019, the
plastic mulch at least once showed no
Chinese Ministry of Ecology and Environ-
significant loss of crop yield while saving
ment and the National Development and
time, energy and money. Based on this
Reform Commission (NDRC) proposed new
program’s success, systems to use film
regulations to reduce the agricultural plastic
for multiple years may be feasible but will
problem, which requires the use of higher
require more research on the agricultural
Plastic waste... and ecological impacts.
quality, thicker mulch that can be reused,
in food production collected and recycled. This new plastic

has received little Research is underway to evaluate biode- order ban forbids the production and sale
attention from gradable agricultural products.7 The Ohio of the traditional thin mulch film of less than
10 microns. The ban goes on to promote the
policymakers, State University, for example, is developing
use of biodegradable mulch and enhance
business innovators, plant-based plastics that degrade in 45 days.
recycling. NDRC is also supporting pilot
or the public in any Chinese scientists are also developing and
demonstrations on the recycling and treat-
country. testing biodegradable plastics. Although it
ment of agricultural plastic waste.
seems promising, right now they are still
too expensive for widespread use. The next big task is cleaning up the agricul-
tural plastic residue already in the soil. We
Emerging plastic policy need research and development of equip-
ment and systems to gather the plastic left
Scientists have been researching the threat in the ground for the past decades. In addi-
of plastic waste, but this ‘White Pollution’ in tion, the climate footprint of the plastic in
food production has received little attention food production and distribution is yet to be
from policymakers, business innovators, or explored in research or policy agenda. This
the public in any country. The United States is a great opportunity for Chinese and U.S.
is not regulating agricultural plastic at the researchers to join forces and tackle the
national level, although some state and global problem of invisible plastic.

Image courtesy of Kaspri / Shutterstock.com

64
Endnotes

1. Jensen, H. (2018, September 1). Recovering Agricultural Plastics: Obstacles and

Opportunities. Waste Advantage Magazine. https://wasteadvantagemag.com/
recovering-agricultural-plastics-obstacles-and-opportunities/
2. Krone, P. (2020). Monterey County’s Agricultural Field Plastic: An assessment
and way forward. California Marine Sanctuary Foundation/ Monterey Bay Na-
tional Marine Sanctuary. https://awqa.org/wp-content/toolkits/Other/White%20
Paper%20V12.pdf
3. Sun, D., Li, H., Wang, E., He, W., Hao, W., Yan, C., Li, Y., Mei, X., Zhang, Y., Sun, Z.,
Jia, Z., Zhou, H., Fan, T., Zhang, X., Liu, Q., Wang, F., Zhang, C., Shen, J., Wang,
Q., & Zhang, F. (2020). An overview of the use of plastic-film mulching in China
to increase crop yield and water-use efficiency. National Science Review, 7(10),
1523–1526. https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaa146
4. Plastic-film mulch in Chinese agriculture: Importance and problems | World Ag-
riculture. (n.d.). Retrieved July 13, 2022, from http://www.world-agriculture.net/
article/plastic-film-mulch-in-chinese-agriculture-importance-and-problems
5. Qi, R., Jones, D. L., Li, Z., Liu, Q., & Yan, C. (2020). Behavior of microplastics and
plastic film residues in the soil environment: A critical review. Science of The Total
Environment, 703, 134722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134722
6. Chen, B., Yan, C., Garré, S., Mei, X., & Liu, E. (2018). Effects of a ‘one film for 2
years’ system on the grain yield, water use efficiency and cost-benefit balance
in dryland spring maize ( Zea mays L.) on the Loess Plateau, China. Archives of
Agronomy and Soil Science, 64(7), 939–952. https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340.20
17.1393530
7. Miles, C. (n.d.). Biodegradable Plastic Mulches are Effective and Sustainable. 31.
8. Hawkins, S. (n.d.). A Guide to Legal and Safe Open Burning of On‐Farm Wastes
in Tennessee. University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department
of Agriculture and county governments cooperating. https://extension.tennessee.
edu/publications/Documents/W249.pdf

65
Editorial credit: Ungnoi Lookjeab / Shutterstock.com

Biodegradable Plastics—A Potential

Solution for Agricultural Mulch?
By Markus Flury,
Douglas Hayes, and Karen Mancl
Plastic can transport
toxic chemicals A new kind of plastic emerges to solve a problem. Great news for the planet, right?
through soil to
But we have been here before. Think of how the innovative plastic microbeads used
groundwater, into
in cosmetics and health care products were touted as a big advance to improve these
waterways, and into
products’ effectiveness. Sadly, the environmental consequences were not thoroughly
the atmosphere, investigated until these beads found their way to the ocean and caused harm to the
exposing other plants environment. That discovery sparked the U.S. government to pass the Microbead-Free
and animals. Waters Act of 2015 and ban their usage. China passed a similar ban in 2020.

Plastic mulch is another material of concern, despite its clear utility. Agriculture—espe-
cially in China— has grown tremendously and benefited from this innovative material.
Plastic mulches enhance sustainable agriculture in a number of ways: warming the
soil and reducing weeds, conserving water, fertilizer, and other inputs, reducing soil
erosion, and preventing soil splashing on fruits or vegetables. These benefits translate
into reduced pesticide use, early planting in spring, water conservation, and increased
crop yield and quality. Plastic mulch films are widely used to grow vegetables and other
specialty crops and have an annual global market worth $4.1 billion.

Yet used plastic mulch is difficult, laborious, and expensive to retrieve and recycle,
primarily because it is heavily soiled and weakened through environmental weathering.
As a result, plastic mulch films, which are typically made of polyethylene, are often piled

66
up as waste on farms or illegally burned. spread acceptance by farmers. Of particu-
Sometimes the plastic is just left in the field lar concern are so-called “oxodegradables.”
resulting in contamination of the soil with While this sort of mulch is composed of
residual plastic fragments. conventional polyethylene and compo-
nents that promote partial degradation of
The lack of disposal options and the danger
polyethylene when exposed to sunlight,
of soil contamination that result from use
these “oxodegradables” actually disinte-
of polyethylene mulch sheeting has encour-
grate into tiny microplastics that do not
aged the development of biodegradable
fully degrade. To address the misleading
mulch film as a promising alternative. Yet
nature of these products, several corpo-
not all biodegradable plastics are created
rations and nongovernment organizations
equal. More science—and more work with
have signed a petition to ban “oxodegrad-
farmers and policymakers—is needed to
ables” from the marketplace.
determine the safest path forward on the
use of biodegradable mulches. Fortunately, new formulations for biode-
gradable plastics look more promising. The
current international standards for biode-
Promise and
gradable plastics (EN 17033, ISO 17088,
potential harm
and ASTM D6400) specify that at least 90
Biodegradable plastic mulch films have percent of the plastic’s carbon be converted
been designed to be tilled into the ground to CO2 by soil microorganisms in two years
after harvest or use, eliminating costly under controlled laboratory conditions.
removal and disposal. Biodegradable plas-
Yet biodegradable plastic mulches may still
tics will also decompose when composted.
pose some environmental harms. During
The latter process also can produce biogas
degradation, any non-biodegradable addi-
that can be captured and used to produce
tives, like pigments and plasticizers, may
fuel for cooking and lighting on farms.
be released into the soil. Smaller than the
To be a competitive alternative to polyeth- size of a pencil eraser, microplastics form
ylene mulch, biodegradable plastic mulch as bioplastics degrade. Before they are
must (a) maintain a conducive microclimate fully degraded, such microplastics can be
for plant growth, (b) be flexible and strong consumed by soil organisms or be blown
enough to allow mechanical installation, (c) or washed away. Also, biodegradation is
undergo complete biodegradation after soil often much slower in the aquatic environ-
incorporation or composting, and (d) have ment than in the soil. Microplastics can carry
no adverse short- or long-term impact on adsorbed pesticides or microbes, spreading
the environment. Most of all, farmers will contamination in water and soil ecosystems.
only adopt biodegradable mulch if it makes
Research findings so far are inconclusive,
economic sense.
but point to no harmful effects of biode-
When biodegradable plastic mulch was gradable mulches. Some studies indicate
introduced in the 1980s, its low actual no negative impacts of biodegradable
biodegradation in soils hindered its wide mulches on soil health after two or four

67
 years of continuous use. Other studies for biodegradable mulches should be
have reported impacts on the microbial expanded beyond Europe—particularly in
community structure, but whether these China, which is the world's largest user of
impacts are harmful remains to be shown. agricultural mulch.

Biodegradable Another key element in the integration of

plastic mulches are Fitting into the food biodegradable plastic mulches into food
a promising production landscape production is that they must be thoroughly
alternative to the Arriving at a solution to the global plastic investigated to ensure safe and sustainable
current polyethylene- problem requires a multifaceted strategy use in agricultural systems. If biodegrad-
based mulches, but including prevention, reuse, recycling, able plastic mulches are to be tilled into the
rigorous testing is recovery, and disposal. Within this strat- soil after use, their complete breakdown
needed to egy, biodegradable plastics are an import- within a reasonable period of time needs
ensure their use is ant and essential component. The most to be ensured and verified as effective in
environmentally safe. practical applications of biodegradable the wide variety of soils and environments
plastics are in food packaging, single-use where they may be applied.
plastics (like bags, plates, and utensils),
Biodegradable plastic mulches are a
and agricultural mulch films. These plastics
promising alternative to the currently used
are often contaminated with food residues
polyethylene-based mulches, but rigorous
or soil at the end of their service life, limit-
testing of these materials throughout all life
ing reuse and recycling.
stages is needed to ensure their use and
Proper labeling of biodegradable plastics disposal are environmentally safe. Long-
is needed to ensure they are diverted from term studies are needed to ensure that
landfills and properly composted, digested, repeated use of biodegradable plastic mulch
or incorporated into the soil. Ecolabels, does not cause harm to the agroecosystem.
such as ‘OK Biodegradable SOIL’ (TÜV In-field testing of biodegradation under
Austria Belgium), assure farmers and other different soil and climatic conditions for a
stakeholders of the long-term safety of variety of cropping systems, with particular
biodegradable mulch films in soil through attention to release of microplastics and
certification. The reach of ecolabels additives, will show their degradation in

68
soils and their effects on soil quality. Our Pesticides pose another challenge.
own research has already focused on field Agricultural systems are heavy users of
studies in Tennessee, Texas, Washington, pesticides that can absorb onto residual
and several locations in China. plastics from mulches. Plastic can transport
toxic chemicals through soil to groundwater,
Global use of plastic mulch is high
into waterways, and into the atmosphere,
and increasing—and the market for
exposing other plants and animals.
biodegradable plastic mulches is growing
as well. Yet the incomplete breakdown The aim of future studies of biodegradable
of biodegradable plastic could lead to an mulches should be to provide farmers
accumulation of plastic fragments and better methods, best practices, and
particulates in soils. As we learn more predictive capabilities on their storage,
about the effects of biodegradable plastics use and disposal. While we currently
in soil, it already has been shown that plastic have some unanswered concerns about
microparticles from conventional plastics the environmental fate and impact of
can be toxic to organisms in both aquatic and biodegradable plastics, they are a promising
terrestrial ecosystems. Microplastics from alternative to conventional plastics in
biodegradable plastics will degrade over agriculture. Doing the proper research can
time when properly handled and disposed. ensure success in long-term environmental
Thus microplastics from biodegradable health and agricultural productivity.
plastics should be less hazardous than
those from conventional plastics.

Editorial credit: chinahbzyg / Shutterstock.com

69
INFOGRAPHIC 3:

Final (Often Polluting) Resting Place

for U.S. and Chinese Plastics*

CHINA
China is accelerating recycling and planning to incinerate 50% of its waste.

32% 31% 30%

LANDFILLED INCINERATED RECYCLED

UNITED STATES
75% 15.3% 5%
LANDFILLED INCINERATED RECYCLED

The U.S. plastic recycling rate is sinking and in many

states incineration is rising.

* Landfill and incineration percentages 2018, recycling data 2021

Data Compiled by Solange Reppas and Angela Pan

Data Sources: The Guardian, U.S. EPA, Science Advances, Reuters, Beyond Plastics, Smithsonian Magazine.

70
The Recycling Rant
—By Angela Pan

Sadly, recycling is not looking

so good in recent years. Instead
of improving, we seem to be
backsliding. Since the United
States had to stop exporting its
plastic waste to China in 2017,
the U.S. recycling rate for plastic
has dropped from 8-9% in 2017
to less than 5% in 2021. Plas-
tic recovery rate is doing even
worse. From 2019 to 2020, the
United States saw a decrease
of 5.7% of how much plastic is
recovered for recycling.

As the world’s plastic superpow-

ers, it is not surprising that the
plastic recycling rate between
the United States and China is
interconnected. The U.S. recy-
cling rate has long been calcu-
lated as ​​the sum of its plastic
waste exports plus domesti-
cally recycled materials. Before
2018, China was the largest
importer of U.S. plastic waste,
but China’s (then) low recycling
rates and high waste misman-
agement meant an overblown
recycling rate calculation for U.S.
plastic waste. On the production
side, the United States remains
the largest market for Chinese
produced plastics. It just goes to
show that we are facing a plastic
crisis that is flowing between the
two giants.

Recycling in China also faces

challenges. Not surprisingly, all
Chinese cities and regions report
they are recycling 30 percent
of their waste, which exactly
matches the targets in China’s
14th Five-Year Plan. Data on plas-
tic waste collection and recycling
has many gaps in China. More-
over, Chinese statistics do not
always distinguish between differ-
ent types of plastic, so it is hard
for the government and compa-
nies to know the true recycling
rates of single-use plastics.

71
!
 CLOSED–LOOP INNOVATORS

Judith Enck
Championing
Ecological Health
and Environmental
Justice in Plastic Action
Photo courtesy of Judith Enck

Judith Enck discovered her interest in environmen- A self-described “solid waste gal,” Judith views waste
tal activism when she interned in college for the New issues from an equity perspective. From her first bottle
York Public Interest Research Group (NYPIRG) and bill and her campaign for banning medical waste inciner-
was asked to lobby for the Returnable Container Act ators, to her appointment as U.S. EPA Regional Admin-
(also known as the Bottle Bill), which had stalled for 10 istrator in the Obama Administration and Congressional
years. The difficulty she faced in lobbying for this rela- testimony in support of the Break Free From Plastic Act
tively simple bill motivated her to return for a second of 2020, waste activism is the thread that runs through
internship. After graduation, she abandoned plans for her career.
social work or law school to return to environmental
After her tenure with the Obama Administration ended in
advocacy, and quickly became the executive direc-
2009, Judith decided to use her decades of public policy
tor of Environmental Advocates NY. The bill eventu-
expertise to support grassroots advocacy and bring more
ally became a New York State law in 1982 and has
people into the plastics movement. She is currently a
since prevented the unnecessary export or landfilling
professor at Bennington College in Vermont and founder
of billions of plastic bottles. Judith learned important
and president of the organization, Beyond Plastics.
lessons from that victory and has been making her
mark on America’s waste policies ever since. Beyond Plastics has been producing reports on the
climate and plastic linkage and toolkits to help guide
With whirlwind development in packaging technol-
dry cleaners, restaurants and other industries onto a
ogy over the last few decades, the world has come
path to reduce plastic. Judith sees plastics as a systems-
to expect the convenience and versatility that plastic
scale crisis that demands holistic solutions that connect
can further bring. Yet, the production of plastic and its
the fields of climate change, public health, and environ-
disposal are both contributing to health and environ-
mental justice.
mental effects that disproportionately affect those least
equipped to handle them. Judith was galvanized to “I’m optimistic because there are some 450
work on these issues because she saw how the global local plastic waste laws in the books. But
community had turned a blind eye to the consequences there are 12,000 U.S. local governments, so
of our reliance on plastic and how “polluted landfills we still have a long, long way to go.”
and incinerators are almost always sited in low-income
communities and communities of color.”

72
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