PDF of Translation Studies
PDF of Translation Studies
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SEMESTER - V (CBCS)
PAPER - VI
TRANSLATION STUDIES:
THEORY AND PRACTICE
Unit I
1. Terms & Concepts Part – I 1-9
Unit II
2. Terms & Concepts Part – II 10-18
Unit III
3. Indian Theories of Translation Part – I 19-28
Unit IV
4. Indian Theories of Translation Part – II 29-38
Unit V
5. Translated Non-Fictional Texts Part - I
Annihilation of Caste 39-46
Unit VI
6. Translated Non-Fictional Texts Part - II
1959 Literary Conference Speech by Anna Bhau Sathe 47-
*****
Syllabus
TYBA Semester V
Course: Translation Studies: Theory and Practice
1
TERMS & CONCEPTS PART - I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Terms and concepts
1.2.1 Translation
1.2.2 The concept of Transliteration.
1.2.3 Source Language Text and Target Language Text
1.3 Conclusion
1.4 Suggested Questions
1.5 Bibliography/References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims to introduce the readers to translation and ‗Translation
Studies‘. Very recently, ‗Translation Studies‘ has acquired the status of an
independent discipline. Previously it was considered to be a part of
Comparative Literature. Since ‗Translation Studies‘ has achieved greater
significance in academic and intellectual spheres at present, it is necessary
to understand its definitions, basic concepts and components of
translation. This unit, therefore, will acquaint the readers with the term
‗translation’ in general and translation studies in particular. The unit will
enable the readers to understand the term ‘transliteration’ and how it is
different than the concept of ‗translation‘. It will also help the learners
understand the significance of the translation industry on a global level
and how it is one of the important career options. The readers will also
realize how the meaning is transferred from Source Language to Target
Language.
(Please do not treat these study notes as the last word on the subject.
These are points to ponder.)
1.1. INTRODUCTION
It is not possible to master all languages and learn their kinds of literature
and philosophy. The translation is a way of circumventing this difficulty.
Translation has established a link between the present generation of
mankind with the tradition, culture and intellectual attainments of the
people of the past. The works of Homer and Horace have come to us only
through translation. Similarly, the Vedas, Kalidasa‘s Shakuntala and
Indian religious scriptures in Sanskrit would never have been popularized
in the Western countries. Without translation, possibly the people of India
1
Translation Studies: would have been completely in the dark about the Bible. Thus, it offers a
Theory and Practice wide scope in matters of getting acquainted with various works of
literature of the world. The translation is an interlingual act of
communication. The translation is neither a creative art nor an imitative
art.
Translation study is related to the study of the phenomena and theory of
translation. Dr. Johnson says ‗translation involves the process of change
into another language, relating to sense‘. By nature, it is multilingual and
interdisciplinary. It borrows from many languages, linguistics,
communication studies, philosophy and a wide range of cultural subjects.
Because of this diversity, it offers a difficulty and a challenge at the same.
Today the movement of people around the globe can be seen to mirror the
very process of translation itself, for translation is not just the transfer of
texts from one language into another, it is now rightly seen as a process of
negotiation between texts and between cultures, a process during which all
kind of transactions take place mediated by the figure of the translator.
Significantly, HomiBhaba uses the term ‗translation‘ not to describe a
transaction between texts and languages but in the etymological sense of
being carried across from one place to another. He uses translation
metaphorically to describe the condition of the contemporary world, in
which millions migrate and change their location every day.
Thus, translation as a process of linguistic activity has changed. The
emphasis on the linguistic approach of the sixties has been replaced by the
importance of the text in the seventies and at present, culture is considered
to be the prime factor. A translation is never complete or is so only
transnationally. It was A. K. Ramanujan who said that a translation is
never finished; only abandoned. Sujit Mukherji concludes ‗let me revert to
my earlier submission about there being more craft than art to translation.
The truly crafty translator will know why he translates, for whom he
translates, what he should translate, how much to translate and, semi-
finally, when to stop. Even after such knowledge, he may still require
forgiveness. The importance of translation lies in the fact that it brings the
readers, writers and critics of one nation into contact with those of others
not only in the field of literature alone but in all areas of development:
science and medicine, philosophy and religion, politics and law, and so on.
3
Translation Studies: 1. SL letters are replaced by SL phonological units from written to
Theory and Practice spoken medium.
2. Then SL phonological units are translated into TL phonological units.
3. The TL phonological units are converted into TL letters or other
graphological units (Catford, 1965).
Thus, transliteration to a large extent depends on graphological units.
Transliteration is useful for those bilinguals who can speak both languages
fluently but can read and write only one language i.e. SL. In such a case
transliteration enables to read the TL without difficulty. The use of words
like ―train,‖ ―computer‖ and ―switch‖ in Indian languages is an instance of
transliteration. Similarly, the words like ―saree,‖―lathi‖ and ―jalebi‖ in
English indicate instances of transliteration.
The oxford dictionary says - ‗The action or process of transliterating is the
rendering of the letters or characters of one alphabet in those of another.
Transliteration is different from translation. It can be used as a tool in the
process of translation. Transliteration also means ‗Representation of the
sounds, words or utterances of one language employing the symbols used
in the writing system of another language Transliteration as a tool the
process of translation is used when the text has untranslatability.
Transliteration is used to maintain the moral responsibility of the translator
to the TL reader. To maintain this, translator, while translating the creative
writing, has to remain faithful in her/his job. Codes, Symbols and certain
technical words cannot be translated but can only be transliterated.
Example:
Watt, Volt, Meter.
Transliteration of such terms will avoid confusion for the Target Audience
when they come across them in the translation of the different texts on
science. Some verbs lend themselves to, both translation and
transliteration and lead the choice to the translator. One can sight the
following example.
‗Circuit, Unit, Phase, Node, etc‘
To be more lucid one can use the following example.
44
Following is an interesting case study to understand the term Terms & Concepts Part - I
―transliteration‖.
A case study:
A great scholar and multifaceted personality K. Ayyapa Panikershare his
experience with us. It is a model lesson for all how he achieved his goal.
To feel like an insider was very necessary-almost a prerequisite for
attempting something so unusual as translating Sikh scripture into
Malayalam. He buried the ignorance, lived down the prejudice of all
kinds, grasped the religious and literary association, and crossed the
barrier of language, by depending on the large-hearted friendship of Sikhs.
They transmitted their conviction and confidence. And yet it was not
enough. He had to listen to the chanting in authentic and orthodox style,
not to carry over the original score at all, but to relive the intuition that for
medieval Bhakti poetry the aural-oral dimension was integral. Listening to
these chants resolved some of the difficulties he had encountered while
going through the printed texts. The chanting style sounded familiar: it
was not too far from the way medieval hymns or Kirtans were recorded in
the translator‘s language Malayalam. But he warned himself against
rendering these compositions merely equivalent to the Malayalam Bhajans
or Bhakti songs. Their difference had to be maintained. Linguistic
similarities were another trap. Many of the words repeatedly used in these
songs were of Sanskrit origin. While it was a help in a way, taking them
for granted was fallacious. The cognate forms could not be taken to mean
the same in the literary contexts of the two languages. The translation of
the monograph along with the illustrative poems was thus completed with
a reasonable satisfaction although there were still nagging problems. As an
extension of the project, Paniker undertook the translation of a whole book
‗Selections from Guru Nanak‘ for the World Classic Retold series. A
decision was also taken to publish the original versions in the Malayalam
script on the left-hand page so that Malayalam readers could not only see
the similarity or dissimilarity between the original and the translation but
also move on to the original after reading the Malayalam version. The
translation was not intended to replace the original; it was to be used as a
stepping stone only, a mediator. It was possible only between languages
that are similar in many ways, especially in terms of their sound systems
and vocabulary. This also helped preserve the musical structure, which
was difficult to transfer to another language without loss or distortion of
meaning. The text was made available in Devanagari and then
transliterated in Malayalam script. It helped to keep intact the mantra-like
mystical quality of the original, where the order of the syllables and the
length of the vowels could be retained without any substantial change. The
opening moola mantra was first given in Malayalam transliteration. This
was immediately followed by a paraphrase in Malayalam, with the
translation on the right-hand page facing it. The translation had to be
longer than the original because of the latter‘s highly tight and profound
nature. The paraphrase does not take more space than the original, but the
translation had to bring out the extended meaning of the original in full.
This was not felt necessary in the case of the other poems, although some
concessions had to be made to suit the requirements of a metrical structure 5
Translation Studies: natural to Malayalam. Preference for cognate forms of words, wherever
Theory and Practice feasible was maintained. An effort to retain the tight formal structure of
the original resulted in the repetition of keywords. This as we know is a
part of the stock diction of medieval Bhakti poetry common to most Indian
languages.
1.3 CONCLUSION
In this age of globalization, there has been a migration of people from one
part of the world to the other. Without translation it would not have been
impossible for such people to know the culture and tradition of the host
country nor could they acquaint the people with the sociological and
cultural conditions of their home country. The greatest role that translation
plays in the modern world is that it has become a means of creating
international understanding. India is a multi-lingual country, hence, there
is a rich scope for translation. Thus, translation is such an all-pervasive 7
Translation Studies: and all-permeating phenomenon that we have to look into it seriously
Theory and Practice enough as an object of academic inquiry. The works of Sujit Mukherji,
Harish Trivedi, Ganesh Devi, K. AyyapaPaniker, and Aijaj Ahmad are
noteworthy.
88
12) Nida, Eugene A. Towards a Science of Translating, London: E. J. Terms & Concepts Part - I
Brill, 1964.
13) Yu. M. Lotman, B. A. Uspensky and George Mihaychuk. On the
Semiotic Mechanism of Culture. https://www.jstor.org/stable/468571
Belloc. Hilaire. On translation London: O.U.P., 1984.
14) Booth A.D. and Forster Leonard (Ed.) Aspects of Translation.
London: Secker and Warburg, 1958
15) Catford, John C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation: an Essay on
Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
16) Fawcett, Peter. Translation and Language: Linguistic Theories
Explained, Manchester: St Jerome Publishing, 1997.
17) Frenz, Horst. ‗The Art of Translation‘ in Newton P. Stallknecht and
Horst Frenz, eds. Comparative Literature: Method and Perspective.
Amsterdam: Southern Illinois University Press, 1971.
18) Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories: Revised 2nd
Edition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 2001
19) Hatim, Basil and J. Munday. Translation an Advance Resource Book.
London and New York: Routledge, 2006.
20) House, Juliane. A Model for Translation Quality Assessment,
Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1997.
21) Hung, Eva. Translation and Cultural change. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins,2005.
22) Nida, Eugene A. and C.R.Taber. The Theory and Practice of
Translation. London: E. J. Brill, 1969
23) Nida, Eugene A. Language, Structure, and Translation: Essays by
Nida. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975.
24) Nida, Eugene. On Translation. Beijing: Translation Publishing
Corp.,1984.
*****
9
UNIT II
2
TERMS & CONCEPTS PART - II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2. Terms and concepts
2.2.1 Loss and Gain in Translation
2.2.2 Creative & Free Translation
2.2.3 Word-to-word & Structural Translation
2.3 Conclusion
2.4 Suggested Questions
2.5 Bibliography/References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
The main aim of this unit is to understand the concept of loss and gain in
the process of translation. The unit will also define the concept of creative
translation, its need and when and where free translation can be used. In
this unit, the reader will also get familiarized with the word to word and
structural translation as one of the types of translation. The students will
know the difference between all these concepts that are core to the process
of translation.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Few important terms form the core of the translation process and
translation theories. Translation can be classified according to its use and
according to the theoretical frameworks provided by various theorists.
These classifications are not final or arbitrary as various theorists have
given different models of classification. However, understanding the types
of translation as well as getting familiar with the basic concepts of it, will
also help the student in understanding different aspects and types of
translation. The translation industry is often categorized by several areas
of specialization. Each specialization has its own merits, challenges and
difficulties.
Creative Translation:
Creative translation is not only translation but it‟s a transcreation. A
common misunderstanding is that translation is a very straightforward
process with very little input from the translator. In effect, the translator is
merely a conduit through which one language is transformed into another.
However, nothing could be further from the truth. A skilled translator
injects a healthy dose of creativity into their task. The act of translating
and the creative process are virtually inseparable, a fact that is especially
true in literary translations.
Creativity is the key by which a skilled translator deals with some of the
most common problems in translating. Often, a translator will be torn
between representing form versus content. Creativity is the thing that can
find a harmonious balance between the two, and the whole process
becomes more art than science. In addition, translations should not be
literal. Rather, they need to convey the full meaning of the original text,
which includes cultural context. Some languages have idioms and sayings
that don‟t exist in other languages. Many of these are based on cultural
cues which may not even exist in the culture of the target language.
One of the most difficult translation tasks can be translating poetry. A
straight, literal translation will simply not suffice, as there are issues such
as rhyming, imagery, rhythm, and flow to consider. The Dao De Jing,
which is, by some accounts, the second most translated text in the world –
after the Holy Bible – is a perfect example of this. The original Chinese
text is written like poetry, with certain rhythms and rhymes. It also 13
Translation Studies: conveys a very esoteric and elusive message. Translating that into another
Theory and Practice language while maintaining every aspect of the original is a daunting task.
To see many of the creative, yet different, interpretations, you can look at
the Tao Te Ching Comparison Project, which has a side-by-side
comparison of 29 different translations.
There are many degrees of creativity, and too little or too much can lead to
undesirable outcomes. Too little creativity can result in a bland translation
that is possibly inaccurate in tone, whereas too much creativity risks losing
the original intent of the text and replacing it with the translator‟s intent.
An ideal translation would use the “Goldilocks Effect” – not too much
creativity and not too little, but just the right amount. Of course, pulling
this off successfully requires mastery of the target language and very good
knowledge of the source language. In addition, it requires an excellent
understanding of the culture associated with both languages. Therefore,
when you are translating, you should keep in mind that it isn‟t just about
the words. A masterful translator needs to both translate the word and also
interpret the cultural context, as well.
Translators are engaged in a process of negotiation between two cultures,
two languages and two different mindsets. A process that calls forth a
profound understanding of the language they are translating from and a
fluency in the language they are translating into.
The complex and creative process of adapting one text into a new reality,
mediating between your source and target language insinuates that a
translator‟s task is not only an intricate and a demanding one but highly
creative. The translation is often a task of solving “context” problems.
That is where creativity “chimes in”.
Translators are faced with a complex task: Use different words to achieve
the same meaning. This naturally suggests that excellent writing skills are
crucial and that what translators are engaged in, after all, is a process of
rewriting. In translation, the “writing” element is the basic raw material
translators use for their work. Considering that writing is a creative act,
there can be no doubt that, equally, translation is a creative act as well. A
creatively written text is a text creatively translated. This creativity of
translation is manifested in the transaction which gives rise to the “new
text” in TL. Examples of such transcreated works are many, but to cite the
example of Fitzgerald‟s translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and
Rajaji‟s translation of The Mahabharat into English will be enough to
prove the point.
Word-to-word Translation:
The Word-for-word translation can be the most unimaginative translation
possible. Here the emphasis is on mechanically transferring each word
from the Source Language onto the Target Language without giving any
importance to the whole structure of the text or without paying attention to
the loss of meaning in the Target Text. Word-for-word translation is a
verbatim rendering. It is the process of matching the individual words of
the source language as closely as possible to individual words of the target
language. It is often referred to as literal translation. One will rarely see a
true word-for-word translation, which is readable and with the exact
meaning as the original. Literal or Word-For-Word Translation is the
transferring of the meaning of each word in a text to another, an equivalent
word in the target language. It is called both Literal Translation and Word
for Word translation. While this is appropriate for dictionaries, it can
produce very little for complex passages of text.
In this type of translation, the primary unit of translation is the word. A
substitute of each word in this source language is made from the target
language and the order of words remains the same as in the source
language. It is based on the principle that while translating a text, no word
should be left untranslated and no word which does not occur in the
original text should be included in the translated text. Words are
substituted in the TL in the same order in which they occur in the SL.
Let us look at an example of this type of translation.
We can see that the word order is similar in German and English but यह
मेरा भाई है I different in Hindi as German and English are closelyrelated. Is
word-for-word translation 'bad' translation? Most people believe that word
for word is an example of third-rate translation and therefore must be
avoided. However, we would like to point out that this is only a different
form of translation and has its uses. Therefore, to dismiss it out of hand is
to lose sight of an important method of translating available to us.
What then is 'good' or 'bad' translation? We are aware that a single
sentence or a paragraph can have several translated versions, especially in
the case of literary texts. Let us then avoid using the terms 'good' or 'bad'.
All the translated versions may not be appropriate and some may be better
than the others. In which case the word 'acceptable' is perhaps more
appropriate.
Structural Translation:
Every language has a unique structure attached to it. In its structure, one
finds its range of simplicity and accuracy embedded in its translation. The
simpler the language, the easier it becomes when translating it.For
example, a non-complex sentence in English “They chew food”. This
short sentence in this order has a subject, verb and object; but this is not
applicable in other languages like Persian, Arabic and Farsi. For Persian, it
follows a different pattern compared to English. For Arabic, the language
follows the rule of joining the verb and the subject pronoun. A word in
Arabic like “Yaikoloonallahom”, and “They” represent “–oon” which is
found at the end of the word “Yaikol-oon”. For Farsi language, it is
similar to that of English in which a non-complex sentence like
“Anhagooshtmikhorand” comprises of a subject, object, and a verb.
In some cases, the meaning of a word is governed by its grammatical
structure. Here are the examples.
I II
1 He picked up a stone. 1 They will stone him.
2 She saw a cloud. 2 A quarrel will cloud the
issue.
3 She has a beautiful 3 He will face the audience.
face.
4 He fell into the water. 4 Please, water the garden.
From the examples above, it can be seen that in column I the words
„stone‟, „cloud‟, „face‟, and „water‟ are nouns that are usually translated
into „batu‟, „awan‟, „wajah‟, dan „air‟. While in column II, the underlined
16
16 words are not nouns, but verbs which in Indonesian language mean
„melempar (dengan batu)‟, „memperkeruh‟, „menghadapi‟, and Terms & Concepts Part - II
„menyiram‟. In this case, the grammatical structure of each word refers to
the intended meaning explicitly.
It is conventionally believed that familiarity with the source and target
languages, as well as the subject matter on the part of the translator, is
enough for a good translation. However, due to the findings in the field of
text analysis, the role of text structure in translation now seems crucial. As
a case in point, a text analysis of the rhetorical structure of newspaper
editorials in English and Persian and its contribution to the translation of
this specific genre should be discussed. It indicates that newspaper
editorials in these two languages follow a tripartite structure including
"Lead," "Follow," and "Valuate" making the translation of this specific
genre possible and more accurate between the two languages.
2.3 CONCLUSION
The translation is a process of conveying the meaning or meaning of a
given-linguistic discourse of a language into other languages, more than
just transferring words or grammatical structure of the SL. The meaning of
a word or set of words can be well understood because of its role in the
whole linguistic expression in which they occur. For this reason, the
meaning of a word is not only determined by the referred object or idea,
but it is also governed by the use of the words or phrases in a certain way,
context, and effects. When we try to find the equivalence, we are faced
with text as the unit of meaning, even in the form of sets of words or
sentences. It is important to note that language is used as a communication
means, so in translating a text we should remember the principle of "A
text is a whole entity, to be translated as a whole". One can see that the
classification of translations changes according to the domains and their
specific uses. The modern world looks at translation largely in the context
of its functional uses such as trade, communication and education. In the
world of literature, translation varies according to genre and literary forms.
2.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES
1. Bassnett-McGuire, Susan. Translation Studies. London: Methuen,
1980.
2. Biber, D. (1988). Variation across speech and writing. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
3. Bloor, T. & Bloor, M. (1995). The functional analysis of English: A
Hallidayan approach. London: Arnold. 17
Translation Studies: 4. Catford, John C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation: an Essay on
Theory and Practice Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
5. Connor, U. (1994). Text analysis. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 682-685.
6. Firth, J.R. (1935). The technique of semantics. Transactions of the
philological society, 36-72.
7. Hatim, B. & Mason, I. (1990). Discourse and the translator. London:
Longman.
8. Hatim, B. & Mason, I. (1997). The translator as communicator. New
York: Routledge.
9. Jakobson, Roman. „On Linguistic Aspects of Translation‟, in R. A.
Brower (ed.) On Translation, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1959, pp. 232-39.
10. Nida, Eugene A. Towards a Science of Translating, London: E. J.
Brill, 1964.
*****
18
18
UNIT III
3
INDIAN THEORIES OF TRANSLATION
PART - I
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 A. Bhartrihari‟s Sphota Theory and Translation
3.2 B. Theory of Auchitya and Translation
3.3 Conclusion
3.4 Suggested Questions
3.5 Bibliography/References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
To orient the learners towards the ancient Indian theory of Sphota
propounded by Bhartrihari
To orient the learners towards the ancient Indian theory of Auchitya
To orient the learners towards the theoretical association between the
theory of Sphota and Translation
To orient the learners towards the theoretical association between the
theory of Auchitya and Translation
To motivate the learners to apply the theory of Sphota to their reading
and practice of translation
To motivate the learners to apply the theory of Auchitya to their
reading and practice of translation
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Though translation studies officially has West as its birthplace as a
discipline, one needs to essentially take note of the ancient philosophical
and aesthetic theories propounded in India, a soil of diverse cultures and
languages, that underline important ideas relating to translation. As
Choudhari (2010) puts it, the Western theory of translation is „obsessed by
the anxiety of authenticity.‟ According to him, translation is „clarification,
interpretation obtained by repetitive utterances‟ which means that for
ancient Indian scholars, „differing versions were the norms, not
exceptions.Devy (1993) calls Indian consciousness as a „translating
consciousness‟.
19
Translation Studies: It is necessary to mention the comparative statement by Choudhari(2010)
Theory and Practice here as relates to the approach towards translation. The Western theorists
have considered translation as „a complicated linguistic and literary act‟
whereas Indians have looked at it as „an inevitable way of life‟ focusing
on the pragmatic aspects of translation. Choudhari is of the opinion that
Derrida who granted translator the status of a creative writer signifying
meaning, in the 20th century, was anticipated by Bhartrihari‟s exposition
of the „sphota‟ theory. Propounding the theory of relationship between
„nada‟ and „sphota‟, thus, he talked of an independent presence of
meaning. Theories of „dhwani‟, „sphota‟ and „auchitya‟ (appropriateness)
are applied as the yardsticks of translation by the modern scholars.
(Gopinathan: 2000)
The theory of „auchitya‟, according to Singh (1996 cited in Gopinathan),
as applied to translation, would expect appropriacy as an essential
criterion while selection a text as well as methodology and strategies of
translation which would finally help in „placing the translated text in
proper perspective.‟
It is thus inevitable to understand the basic tenets of Bhartrihari‟s theory of
„sphota‟ and that of the theory of „Auchitya‟ propounded by Kshemendra
and to analyse how both were and can be applied to the theory of
translation.
22
22
3.2. B THEORY OF AUCHITYA AND TRANSLATION Indian Theories of
Translation Part - I
Kshemendra’s Theory of Auchitya:
Also known as the Theory of Coordination, Kshemendra‟s theory of
Auchityatalks of propriety, being appropriate. According to Kshemendra,
propriety is the soul of poetry. He believed that in case of any imbalance
or over crossing the boundaries between any alankaror rasa, the beauty of
the poetry is marred and lost. (De, 554 cited in Sreekumar:2016)
Auchitya is harmony and the proportion in the whole and its parts.
According to Anandvardhana, another ancient Indian aestheticist, it is the
propriety that matters in the formation of essence (rasa) in any poetic
work. It is thus the greatest secret of rasa. It is the anauchityaof character
and action that hinders the essence.
Kshemendra has mentioned 27 places where the propriety is expected to
be present. These proprieties are further divided into 5 major proprieties:
Bhasha auchitya (propriety of diction), Saundaryaauchitya (propriety of
aesthetics), Vyakaranauchitya(propriety of grammar), sanskritiauchitya
(propriety of culture) and Pratibha auchitya(propriety of genius).
The theory thus expects a work of literature to embody the essence of
beauty through all these 5 aspects which need to be aesthetically presented
to the hearer/ reader in appropriacy, i.e., in proper combination and
proportion thus making a beautiful whole work of art.
23
Translation Studies: Singh, according to Parmar (2017) relates „Auchitya‟ to the social
Theory and Practice responsibility of the translator and has clearly stated that failure to perform
this responsibility can lead to „misinterpretation, distortion, over-under
interpretation and even to much social disservice‟. According to Singh,
this social appropriacy as a responsibility of the translator and of the
translated work has not been addressed by the Western poetics which is
rather „silent‟ on this aspect.
As the concept of propriety expects the literary artist (translator as applied
to the theory and practice of translation) to bring about an all-pervasive
auchitya, the language, grammar, beauty, culture and genius- all five
aspects of a literary work need to be considered while translating a text
from SL to TL, an essential creative talent is a requisite on the part of the
translator. As opined by almost all the Indian practitioners and theorists of
translation from Tagore and Sri Aurobindo in the pre-Independence era to
G. N. Devy and A.K. Singh in the present times, translation is looked upon
as a transcreation involving an equally creative process as the one
experienced by the creator of the original literary work and not merely a
word-to-word translation. Adaptations too would thus find a better place
in this regard.
According to Mahajan (2004), it is very difficult to translate certain
contextual expressions into another language from an alien land.
According to her, in Vilas Sarang‟s translation of some Marathi poems as
„Songs‟, certain expressions have not been suitably replaced by English
words. For example, a word like „fakkad‟ which connotes excellent as
well as the word „lavani‟ which is used as in original instead of replacing
it with an equivalent in English. She has classified some expressions in
Marathi as follows:
Cultural expressions: Sankrantyene(which connotatively means to face a
disaster). The word Sankrantrefers to a festival in Maharashtra which
though a festival to be celebrated, is associated with black colour and also
carries negative connotations. The expression is thus based on this
contextual experience and used to imply negative meaning which a reader/
hearer would find difficult to understand.
Social expressions: bangdyavadhavne(it implies the death of a married
woman‟s husband). The social conventions in Maharashtra expect a
married lady to wear green bangles in hand as it indicates her fortune of
being married and of being wife and as soon as the husband dies, she is
expected to break those glass bangles signifying as if her fortune has
broken. It is very important for the translator to know the implications of
such expressions in the SL and to employ his/her own creative talent to
transfer the essence of such contextual expressions using similar set of
expressions/ style in the TL.
Historical expressions: dorkapane (that connotes deprive someone of any
further opportunity to proceed).
Religious expressions: zaritilShukracharya (which means a person acting
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24 as a culprit to create a sudden barrier to a good task)
Ramkrishna (2002) refers to Premchand and Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi to Indian Theories of
illustrate the application of Auchityato translation. Vidyarthi who Translation Part - I
translated Victor Hugo‟s French book Quatre-Vingt-Treize
asBalidanwhich is not an exact translation but an adaptation. The original
text is set in the context of French Revolution which was translated with
an objective of infusing the spirit of nationalism among the Indians of his
times. In his preface to the translated work, the translator has clearly
mentioned that a translation and the original can never be the same and
also that the readers should not expect it to be so.
Translation by Premchand of Anatole France‟s Thais was similar such
attempt to ideologically inspire the contemporary readership. According to
Ramchandra, these translators, by attempting to suit the translations to the
target readerships, exercised the principle of Auchitya. With a specific
purpose in mind, they selected the texts that suited their purpose and also
their target readership and employed the translation strategy that was the
most suitable to serve the purpose.
P. L. Deshpande, a well-known Marathi author and a translator who has
bestowed upon Marathi readership some excellent translations/
adaptations, has authored an ironic adaptation (one can call it a parody
too) of Ionesco‟s The Chairs as Khurchya: BhadyaneAnlelya, Ek n-N-
Natya(Chairs: Rented Ones, a no-drama). It is very interesting to note that
a creative literary artist like him who was well aware of the importance of
cultural context in the creation of a literary work could present his theory
of contextualization of a literary work through such a beautiful creative
parody. The concept of Theatre of the Absurd being alien to Indian
readership could never have been so aesthetically presented. Translation as
a transcreation / recreation has also been beautifully exemplified by his
adaptation of George Bernard Shaw‟s Pygmalion as TiFulrani.
A very essential aspect of the aesthetics in terms of creation of a literary
work, Auchitya, thus, has been the basis of Indian translation theories
though one can find some attempts that, due to lack of creativity on the
part of translator or due to an obsession with the fidelity to the original
text, fail to trans create and remain mere translations.
3.3 CONCLUSION
Basing the theory and practice of translation in Indian context on the
ancient Indian philosophical and aesthetic theories of Sphota by the
ancient grammarian Bhartrihari and of Auchityaby Kshemendra, it can be
summed up that the reader playing an important role in the process of
interpretation of meaning, the translator has to consider the context of the
TL as an important aspect of his/ her process of translation. Placing the
ideas, language, grammar, cultural significance of the original work from
SL into TL is a multifaceted task that demands an equal extent of
creativity in a translator which the original literary artist possesses while
creating the work in the SL. According to Devy (1998),translation is „an
attempted revitalization of the original in another verbal order and
temporal space.‟ He believes that a translation, like literary texts which
25
Translation Studies: belong to the original periods and styles as well as „exist through
Theory and Practice successive chronological periods‟, „approximates the original and
transcends it.‟
Atranslator , thus shouldering a big responsibility, needs to be well-versed
in both the SL and the TL. Employing specific suitable strategies, thus, the
translator is expected to convey the essence to the work in TL. Pratibha
(the creative genius) of the translator thus can help him/her in this task.
• https://www.jstor.org/stable/23348221?read-
now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A19abc58b4d18aaf7d6537f551e8d738
7&seq=4
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Translation Studies: http://sreekumarenglishliterature.blogspot.com/2016/10/rasa-dhwani-
Theory and Practice and-auchityasome-additional.html
*****
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UNIT IV
4
INDIAN THEORIES OF TRANSLATION
PART - II
Unit Structure
4.0. Objectives of the Unit
4.1 Introduction
4.2. A. Rabindranath Tagore on Translation
4.2. B. Sri Aurobindo on Translation
4.3. Conclusion
4.4. Suggested Questions
4.5. Bibliography
4.0 OBJECTIVES
To orient the learners towards the theory of translation propounded by
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Translation is looked upon as a medium of unity and amalgamation of two
or more different cultures. The British imperial rule in India paved the
way for a meeting of two ways of life, that in the East and the West,
through various cultural aspects. English language and literature played a
major role in this process of amalgam.
Exposure of Indian intellectuals in India with unique creative talent to
English language and literature inspired them to express in English. Some
of these creative writers of the pre-Independence era in India, like
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) who produced classic literature like
Gitanjali in Bengali, had a flair for recreating similar creative work in
English. Tagore was widely accepted in the elite literary circles of London
due to his translated poetic work.
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Translation Studies: Though not in the form of a treatise, Tagore has expressed his views
Theory and Practice towards translation through his letters and speeches. The study in
translation, thus, cannot be complete without reviewing how Tagore
looked at his act of translating his own literary works into English from
Bengali. He has a pioneering role to play in the field of translation studies
though he was not aware of the discipline in the times long before its
introduction in the Western academia in 1980s. The scholars of
„Eurocentric Translation Studies‟ were not aware of the maiden attempt by
Tagore in terms of discussion of translation in India. According to
Dasgupta (2018), the time is ripe for the translation scholars „to recognize
Tagore‟s pioneering efforts toward translation study in order to form a
correct idea of the genealogy of translation studies.‟
Sir Aurobindo, another pre-Independence era intellectual in India, well
known to be a Yogi and a mystic, was a polyglot and wrote in English
Savitriandmany other short secular poems. Being well-versed in many
Indian languages as well as in English and French, he translated from
different Indian languages. His translations from Greek and Latin are also
available. Aurobindo has translated from Vedas and Upanishads too. He
has his own views towards translation as an activity which were expressed
in some of his letters.
This unit aims at introducing the learners to the ideas of both these great
Indian philosophers and literary writers of the pre-independence India
relating to translation.
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Translation Studies:
Theory and Practice
4.2 B. SRI AUROBINDO ON TRANSLATION (1872-1950)
Sri Aurobindo(1892-1950),a Yoga Guru, a mystic, a philosopher and a
nationalist was a poet who wrote and translated in many languages,
developed the psycho spiritual theories of translation in the context of
modern Indian languages. His theoretical framework relating to his own
translations is available in his articles such as On translating Kalidasa, On
translating the Bhagavad Gita, On translating the Upanishads, The
interpretation of scripture, Freedom in translation, Importance of turn of
language in Translation, translation of Prose into poetry, and Remarks on
Bengali translations. (Jain: 2014). It is also revealed through some of his
letters.
As Jain (2014) observes, Aurobindo was highly influenced by the
cognitive ancient Indian philosophy and thus proclaimed his own
philosophy that was based on the psycho-spiritual interpretations of the
ancient Indian thought in the Upanishads. He is also known for his
translations from the Indian scriptures. Jain states that his theories of
translation and philosophy have influenced many translators like
Sumitranandan Pant, Vyohar Rajendra Singh and VidyapatiKokil in Hindi
and Subramania Bharati in Tamil.
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Sri Aurobindo’s Psycho-Spiritual Theory of Translation: Indian Theories of Translation
Part - II
Sri Aurobindo spoke of the cognitive process involved in translation,
especially, the process of analysis and comprehension of the literal and
suggested meaning of the target text and that of finding an exact
equivalence in the TL. As a part of this cognitive theory, Sri Aurobindo
mentions three basic elements, i.e., nama (name), rupa (form of meaning)
and svarupa(the image of the essential figure of truth). (The interpretation
of Scripturecited in Jain: 2014). He has thus discussed the role of intuition
in the grasp of meaning at the higher levels. He has divided the levels of
consciousness on the basis of his psycho-spiritual philosophy into the
physical, mental and supramental levels. He believed that an ordinary
human mind is merely a fraction of the entire consciousness ranging from
„the mind levels to the super conscience above and the sub conscience
below‟ and that the human mind is „only a middle term in a long series of
ascending consciousness.‟ (cited in Jain; 2014).
Jain (2014) states that following Sri Aurobindo‟s theory, thus one can
analyse a text linguistically and intellectually at the two levels of word and
its form of meaning but at the highest level, the analysis is possible „only
intuitively and perhaps at this level, the actual translation takes place.‟ The
involvement of the „super mind‟ is very important in the process of
translation as the mind mechanically dealing with the process of
translation would obviously produce a mechanical translation but
intuition, if involved in the process, can fetch excellent output in
translation.
His principle of integration, as discussed by Jain (2014), is functional in
the decision-making process in translation. This is because, as he believes,
consciousness keeps moving upwards and downwards thus integrating the
lower to the higher. The lower stages are transformed and continue under
new conditions. The decision-making process in translation integrates all
the three, the superconscious level of the image or the 'essential figure of
truth', the mental level of the figure of meaning or rupa, and the physical
or material level of nama, or word. The translation, thus taking place at the
three levels, is not necessarily purely linguistic at the super conscious level
but acquires this status at the mental and the physical level as it becomes
conceptual. (Jain:2014). Using the Sanskrit word sabdbrahman(word as
God), Aurobindo seems to suggest that a translator, as s/he tries to
„analyse and comprehend the meaning‟, should surpass the superficial
linguistic level and reach the higher level where the text „exists in
language without form‟ which means he suggests the translator to reach
the deeper level of meaning. This he expects even in case of the process of
finding an equivalent as according to him, the initial act should be to reach
the idea and then to choose the „appropriate name and form‟ in the target
language. The process of translation is, thus, for him, linguistic,
intellectual and intuitive at the same time.
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Translation Studies: Sri Aurobindo on the Problem of the Knower, Knowledge and the
Theory and Practice Known:
According to Sri Aurobindo, the interpretation of the Scripture involves 3
standards of truth, namely, the knower, knowledge and the known. The
original text is the „known‟. Referring to the translation of the Upanishad,
he calls the original drasta(seer) as the knower which in case of other
translations would be the author. Sri Aurobindo expects the translator to
be in „spiritual contact with the original seer‟(Jain: 2014). He believed in
knowledge as the eternal truth which is partly expressed by the author to
the readers. Knowledge, according to him, is beyond ideas and words and
that makes it essential for the translator to „transgress limits and penetrate
to the knowledge behind. S/he has to experience this knowledge before
knowing it. It can be called knowledge only when it is realized in the self.
Text should merely act as the „guiding factor‟ for the translator. Perception
is, for Sri Aurobindo, the main „instrument of cognition‟ necessary in the
process of understanding the true meaning of the text.
Sri Aurobindo on the Problem of Communicating New Concepts
Through Translation:
Sri Aurobindo has stated in his preface to the translation of the Upanishad,
“The mind of man demands, and that demand is legitimate that new ideas
shall be presented in words which convey to him some associations with
which he should not feel like a foreigner in a strange country where no one
knows his language, nor he theirs. The new must be presented to him in
terms of the old, new wine must be put to some extent in old bottles.”
In terms of translating cultural terms from one language to another,
according to Sri Aurobindo, there is no need for „total replacement by the
available target terms.‟ Based on the Nyaya philosophy of ancient India,
Upaman(analogy) which means to associate „a thing unknown with its
name by virtue of its similarity with some other known thing.‟ (Jain:2014)
Sri Aurobindo on the problem of word value and image
transformation
Sri Aurobindo, in his essayOn translating Kalidasa, opines that a
translator, while translating an aesthetically important text, should prefer
'closeness of word value‟ to „closeness of meaning‟. According to him, the
translator should ensure that something quite familiar in the original
language is not „entirely alien to the foreign audience/reader‟. There
should be an attempt to make the foreign intelligence associate to the
original. In order to help the translator in this regard, he suggests two
devices used by himself while translating: to discard the original image
and to replace it with a more intelligible image in the TL and to coin a new
word or image to convey „any prominent characteristic of idea associated
with the thing it expresses.‟ (Jain:2014)
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Sri Aurobindo‟s psycho spiritual theories, as Jain (2014) opines, have Indian Theories of Translation
deeply influenced many modern Indian writers and translators and these Part - II
theories are futuristic in nature.
4.3 CONCLUSION
A glimpse into the theoretical framework that guided these two important
literary figures in their exercises of translation long before the emergence
of Translation Studies as a literary discipline in the West, illuminates the
scholars in the discipline on the path of translation as a creative act.
Tagore and Sri Aurobindo, though expressing in ways different from each
other, specifically advocate that an act of translation cannot be minimally
reduced to a mechanical process of replacing word with another word but
a specific (even creative in some cases wherever necessary) craftsmanship
is an essential calibre expected in the translator. It is the responsibility of
the translator to make the reader enjoy the deeper reality in the mind of the
author of original text.
Tagore‟s concept of „rewriting‟ as well as Sri Aurobindo‟s
psychospiritual ideas lead one to the interpretation of the term „translation‟
as transcreation. One can thus conclude that ancient Indian culture
provides the base to the tradition of transcreation thus influencing the
writers even in the present times.
*****
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UNIT V
5
TRANSLATED NON-FICTIONAL TEXTS
PART - I
ANNIHILATION OF CASTE
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives of the Unit
5.1 Introduction.
5.2 Annihilation of Caste (Pages 1-5) (English to Marathi / Hindi)
5.2.1 About the Source Language Writer and Source Language Text
5.2.3 Critical Comment on the Translation of the Title
5.2.4 Critical Analysis of the Translation on a Linguistic Level
5.3 Conclusion
5.4 Suggested Questions
5.5 Bibliography/References
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear students, there are primarily two types of translation viz: literary and
non-literary. Translation in the domain of literature is called literary
translation. It includes the translation of literary works such as novels,
short stories, plays and poems. Whereas non-literary/ non-fictional texts
include subjects like science, Geography, History, Law, technology etc.
and forms of a write-ups like essay, speech, review article etc.
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5.3 CONCLUSION Translated Non-Fictional
Texts Part - I
Annihilation of Caste
It is an accepted fact that the translator faces problems when he or she
translates culture-specific terms, or terms related to dialects. It is not
incorrect to say that the translator is accomplishing a complicated task of
recreating a replica of the original work, where he or she is trying to use
words like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle to bring to life a picture as seen by the
author himself. There are no set parameters to judge a translation. The
cultural elements are the heart and soul of any original text; they blow a
breath of life into any piece of writing. So, the translator has to accomplish
the mammoth task of translating and also thrive with life like the original
text, by translating the cultural elements, which in real sense carry the true
essence of any work. Incorrect translation of these elements leads the
reader to perceive a different image of the original work.
Annihilation of Casteis one of the celebrated speeches of Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar. It is a significant comment on the caste system of India. He
touches upon very important issues which are relevant even today. We
should appreciate the Government of Maharashtra bringing out its official
translation. Prof. Prakash Shirast had a challenging job in which he was
more than successful. There are many translations in Marathi available,
yet, Prof. Shirsat‟s translation stands out. He has done the justice to the
source text and there is all gain with little loss in this process of
translation. My Hindi speaking students should go the Hindi translation of
it, pick up any edition of the Hindi translation, compare it with the SLT
and comment based on a linguistic and cultural level so also comment on
the rendering of the title, how far the entire endeavor has been succeeded,
etc. You have one more speech for study, that is Anna Bhau Sathe‟s
inaugural speech at 1958‟s Dalit Literary Meet. Using this chapter as a
guideline, one may try writing/commenting on the translation in English
by Dr. Anil Sonone.
5.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES
1. Catford, John C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation: an Essay on
Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
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Translation Studies: 2 Jakobson, Roman. 'On Linguistic Aspects of Translation', in R. A.
Theory and Practice Brower (ed.) On Translation, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1959, pp. 232-39.
3. Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of
Translation. London: E. J. Brill, 1969
4. Nida, Eugene A. Language, Structure, and Translation: Essays by
Nida. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975.
5. Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures. New Delhi: Bahri
Publication, 1987.
6. Ambedkar B. R. Annihilation of CasteWith A Reply to Mahatma Gandhi.
New Age Printing Press, Mumbai, 2009.
9. file:///D:/download/aNNHILATION%20OF%20CASTE%20ENGLISH.pdf
(English)
*****
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6
TRANSLATED NON-FICTIONAL TEXTS
PART - II
1959 LITERARY CONFERENCE SPEECH
BY ANNA BHAU SATHE
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives of the Unit
6.1 Introduction
6.2 A. Original Text in Marathi
6.2 B. Translated Version of the Text in English
6.2 C. Context: An Essential Aspect in Translation
6.2 D. Glossary
6.3 Conclusion
6.4 Suggested Questions
6.5 Bibliography
6.0 OBJECTIVES
To familiarize the students to the nuances of translating a text from an
Indian language into English
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Annabhau Sathe, a pioneering Dalit voice in Marathi literature inaugurated
the first Dalit Literary Conference taken place in Mumbai on March 2nd,
1958. The speech in Marathi was attacked the established literary stalwarts
in Marathi who, according to Annabhau were indifferent towards the
essence of Dalits‟ lives and wrote literature that was far removed from the
reality of the lives of exploited and oppressed classes of society.
The text being crafted in a simple, common man‟s language, is rich with
contextual references. Though not a regional dialect, the original language
of the speech is resplendent with simple yet socio-culturally complex
words thus making it necessary for the translator to ensure conveying the
exact shades of meaning of all such words and usages.
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Translation Studies: The literary and socio-cultural context of the text plays a very important
Theory and Practice role in the process of translating this speech. The present unit deals with
this process of translating the speech from Marathi to English, the problem
areas a translator may face during the process and the strategies adopted in
order to tackle these problems and to reach out to the reader of translated
version with the similar shades of meaning.
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48
Translated Non-Fictional
Texts Part - II
1959 Literary Conference
Speech by Anna Bhau Sathe
49
Translation Studies:
Theory and Practice
50
50
Translated Non-Fictional
Texts Part - II
1959 Literary Conference
Speech by Anna Bhau Sathe
51
Translation Studies:
Theory and Practice
6.2 D. GLOSSARY
Marathi Sahitya Sammelan: A literary conference is organized every
year in one of the cities of Maharashtra wherein all the literary writers in
Marathi congregate and the event is full of literature related seminars,
workshops, exhibitions, poetry reading sessions and speeches. The
reference in the speech to the activity points out to the lack of sensibility
in some of the writers of mainstream Marathi literature as, according to
the speaker, a true understanding of the agony of oppressed Dalits can
make a writer reflect it in his/ her literary work.
Dalit Sahitya Sammelan: This can be considered as a revolutionary step
by some pioneering Dalit writers who eagerly wanted the painful lives and
sentiments of Dalits to be penned down in Marathi literary world. The step
was followed, according to the speaker, because Dalit sensibility was not
being completely voiced in the mainstream Marathi literature. The
speakers also makes a special appeal to all those Dalit writers too, who,
according to him, carry an equal responsibility to express the sentiments of
Dalit community.
Swagatadhyaksha: The literary conference is organized in one of the
cities in Maharashtra. A local reception committee in the city initiates the
organizational planning and implementation. The chairperson of this local
committee plays a significant role in this process.
Sesha: It is a serpent, inHindu mythology, who is supposed to be the King
of all serpents and a devotee of Lord Vishnu, is considered to hold the
universe on his hoods.
Nandi: Originally from Sanskrit, the word means a new beginning. The
word also signifies a verse, an invocation to Lord, at the beginning of
Marathi musical plays.
The reference to the throbbing of hearts of upper-class Hindus draws
attention to the fact that the untouchables were deprived of availing
drinking water, the basic need for life, from the public wells, the only
source of water.
6.3 CONCLUSION
A translator, functioning as a mediator between the Source Text and the
Targeted Reader thus needs to act as a facilitator in the process of
understanding of the ST for the TR. An encounter with the problems of
untranslatability like semantic void (Owji: 2013) and the absence of direct
TL counterpart can be tackled using strategies like using a glossary at the
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end of the translated text as well as by using more general words for Translated Non-Fictional
specific contextual terms. Texts Part - II
1959 Literary Conference
Familiarity with and a good understanding of the Source Language, Speech by Anna Bhau Sathe
Source Text and its contextual background is very essential on the part of
the translator so as to transfer the correct meaning across the linguistic
boundaries.
6.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Attri, P. (2019). Remembering Annabhau Sathe, The Dalit Writer Who
Dealt A Blow To Class and Caste
Slavery.https://www.huffpost.com/archive/in/entry/annabhau-sathe-dalit-
writer-marathi_in_5d415c3ce4b0d24cde082f0d. Accessed on April, 4th,
2022.
Baker, M. (1992). In other words: A course book on translation. London:
Routledge.
Hatim, B., & Munday, J. (2004). Translation: An advanced source book.
London: Routledge.
Kashyap, O.P. (2019). Annabhau Sathe: Revolutionary poet, novelist,
playwright and social reformer.
https://www.forwardpress.in/2019/08/annabhau-sathe-revolutionary-poet-
novelist-playwright-and-social-reformer/Accessed on April, 4th, 2022.
Miremadi, S. A. (1991). Theories of translation and interpretation. Tehran:
SAMT.
Mulyanah, A. (2019). The Strategy of Terminology Translation.Advances
in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 430
Twelfth Conference on Applied Linguistics (CONAPLIN 2019). Atlantis
Press. file:///C:/Users/malha/Downloads/125938661%20(1).pdf Accessed
on April, 6th, 2022.
Nida, E. A. (1964). Towards a science of translation, with special
reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating.
Leiden: Brill.
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Translation Studies: Owji, Z. (2013).Translation Strategies: A Review and Comparison of
Theory and Practice Theories. Translation Journal. Volume 17, No.1. January,
2013.https://translationjournal.net/Featured-Article/translation-strategies-
a-review-and-comparison-of-theories.html Accessed on April, 6th, 2022.
*****
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