CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study

Lighting is a very important part of any theatrical performance, because without it other parts

of the performance are not seen. It provides illumination for the stage set and performers in the

theatre with a designed effect. The Wikipedia defines lighting as the craft of lighting as it

applies to the performance in the theatre. Lighting is an essential part of theatrical performance

that helps depict time, mood, period, the locale, amidst others.

The very word theatre, means different things to so many people, to some it is where surgeries

are been carried out, to some it is a place where lectures are received, to some it is where movies

are seen but for this study, the word ‘theatre’ means “seeing place” where plays are been

staged.

Although each one of us react uniquely to our environment, but light is generally taken for

granted. Like a veterinarian who is aware of things in an animal that even its owner does not

notice.

The lighting designer must be accurately aware of the presence of lighting, qualities, colour,

shadows, and directions, warmth or coolness, texture, and movement. The first thing a lighting

designer seeks is to develop such an awareness not for theatrical lighting, for that will come

later, but for the light that surrounds us each and every day.

The design of lighting begins with an idea. In the theatre, this idea results from the

interpretation of the script by the director and the production design team (lighting, scenic,

costume, and sound designer). In dance, the idea comes from the choreographer and the

movement and the music. In opera and concert lighting, it begins with the music. In adverting,

it is by the product. It does not matter if the lighting designer works in a theatre or a theme park

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or a film studio or an exhibition hall the design will be based on collection of impressions, an

idea.

One of the least recognised but essential part of the theatre is lighting design. For without it

other parts of the theatrical performance cannot be seen. Lighting design can either enhance or

seriously destroy the action, scenery, costumes, and make-up.

The work of the lighting designer is one that is not really paid necessary attention to whereas

he plays a major role in theatrical productions, perhaps his work is little known because lighting

is intangible, takes up no stage space, and is only visible when it strikes a reflecting surface.

We can say that lighting is ignored unless it is obviously inadequate or obtrusively spectacular.

This research project tries to evaluate the lighting techniques employed in the play Prized

Chickens Are Not Tasty, the play was written by Saint Gbilekaa and directed by Joe Ande and

was produced or staged at the Open- Air Theatre University of Abuja.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The primary concern of stage lighting is, and will always remain, visibility and focus (a rule

that the designer must never forget). Visibility ensure the audience see what it is supposed to

see while focus ensure that it see what it is supposed to see without undue distraction. Visibility

is then the passive accomplishment of light design, and focus is its active accomplishment. Yet,

visibility is much more than just simple intensity or brightness of light. Contrast has a great

influence on visibility: intensity contrast, colour contrast, and contrast in direction. Good

lighting ties together the visual aspects of the stage and supports the dramatic intent of the

production. The lighting designer is also concerned with the revelation of form, the mood of

the scene, and the composition of the stage picture.

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Some scripts may call for special effects such as a hearth fire, a bolt of lightning or projected

images, all of which falls under auspices of the lighting designer. Most often however, the

concern is with the lighting the actor: a moving target that can be illuminated in an endless

variety of moods and degrees of visibility. Herein lies the real challenge and excitement of

stage lighting design

The Nigerian theatres today has been undergoing various challenges in terms of lighting

equipment for the theatre. Despite the fact that on daily bases new technologies of stage lighting

equipment are being introduced in advanced countries.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study include the following:

 To investigate the role light play in modern performances.

 To examine the effects of lighting on modern performances.

 To suggest how lighting in the theatre can be improved upon.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The study will help to improve modern theatrical performances using Prized Chickens Are Not

Tasty techniques as the subject of study. The research will also open our eyes to how inadequate

lighting instruments can affect the modern day performances and also limit the options of the

lighting designer in achieving visibility.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This study focuses on lighting design generally and its effects on modern performances with

particular reference to Prized Chickens Are Not Tasty as performed at the open air Theatre,

University of Abuja on 16th & 17th February, 2016. Ensuring accurate or adequate information

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of the style/techniques including the effects or essence through the importance to modern

theatrical performance.

1.6 Methodology

For the purpose of this research work, the methodology employed in gathering data is the

primary source. The method is qualitative approach. The information gathered for this study is

from published materials such as books, text books, journals, research, reports, newspaper, and

many others, data was also sourced from various websites to enhance this research study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 History of Theatre Lighting Design (Greek to Modern Era)

From time immemorial light and lighting as being part of man and his existence as it serves as

illumination to him.

In looking at the general history of light, lighting has been in existence even before the creation

of man.

Beech asserts that:

“Let there be light!” So begins Genesis, the biblical

account of the formation of the universe. Indeed,
before there was anything, there was light. This
description hardly changes in the modern day, Big-
Bang theory of cosmic origins which posits that from
the very earliest of moments, through to the first
380,000 years, the universe was a broiling broth of
radiation. Light – electromagnetic radiation – bathed
all space with one blinding, elemental glow. Indeed,
a veritable pea-soup fog of lascivious light pervaded
the entire juvenile universe. The cooled remnant of
this natal glow is still visible to us today, nearly 13.5
billion years on from the beginning, as the cosmic
microwave background radiation.
The universe was born of light, and the galaxies, the
stars, the planets, and you and I are its progeny.
Incredibly, nearly 10 billion years on from the first
moments that signalled the beginning of the
beginning, the fecund universe saw the evolution of
eyes capable of, well, seeing the light. And then,
about 2,500 years ago, humans (the intelligent apes)
began to ask what it was that their eyes were seeing.
(29)

This is to say that light as being in existence even before man and light marks the beginning of

everything that ever existed. Light forms this medium in which all activities revolve round.

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Oni observes that:

The importance of lighting was first manifested in the

creation of the world as recorded by the bible, which
shows that lighting has always had a central important
role in people’s lives, which is reflected in religions
and worship rite. (19)

This means that lighting or light is created for man by God, since it has an important role to

play in the life of man or the world entirely. Because lighting in whatever term appears to have

a great impact in every society.

William argues that:

Without light, there would be no life. Life was

dependent on three Things being present; (a) The
basic long molecule building block carbon; (b) Water
and (c) Light.(1)

. Thus light is very important in man’s day to day living as it is his source of life without it

man can achieve nothing.

Rosenttal and Wertenrbaker (72) in Oni are of the notion that:

Primitive man started to worship the fire light, which

was his source of light at night in his cave, he told the
stories of his day time exploits, sitting near a burning
fire, with his source of light and worship casting
shadows on his enactment; and so began on his
history of illumination” that of lighting.(20).

In the ancient Greek, the natural source of light that is the sunlight was made use of to

illuminate their performances.

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The Wikipedia website opines that;

The earlier form of stage lighting was during the early

Grecian (and later Roman) theatres facing east to west
so that in the afternoon they could perform plays and
have the natural sunlight hit actors; but not those sited
in the orchestra (www.wikipedia.com 24-2-16).
Oni (p.21) observes that, the Greek society constructed outdoor open air amphitheatres which

were calculated to take full advantage of natural light. Performances were organized to follow

the sun as it moved from east to west, such theatres the theatre of Dionysus in Athens (built in

370 BC) am that of Athens (built in 340 BC) during this period of the early Greek, the audience

set backing the receding sun while the actors faced the sun.

Thus lighting began from natural sources of light which include the sun and moon before the

development of artificial lights such as; candles, torches and oil lamps, which shows that the

early Greek society made use of the sun and moon as their source of light during performances.

(Oni 21)

The need for artificial stage lighting came during the period of 1200 to 1400 A.D, when for the

first time in history performances were done after the sun had set.

Cressets, or crudely woven baskets of iron, mounted on poles, were filled with blazing pine,

knots and pitch, and by their fitful, flickering glare the audience viewed the tableaux and

religious spectacles being staged.

In the fifteenth century came the candle to light the stages of the first enclosed theatre.

The Edison electric illumination company of Boston asserts that;

Age worn parchments disclose the fact that in 1452

A.D candelabra illuminated the stage. In addition,
candle was placed in the streets and up on house tops
and towers of the stage settings, marking the first
endeavour at illumination from the wings which has

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 now been perfected in our modern stage side lighting
(15).

The origin of coloured stage lighting is traced back to one SEBASTIANO SERLIO, an Italian

theatre-worker of the sixteenth century.

In 1581, he perfected a plan of placing candles behind bottles filled with red or blue liquid, the

result being intensified by putting bright basins for reflectors behind the candles.

In the seventeenth century, at about 1620, NICOLA SABBATINI, an Italian producer designed

a parapet to be erected at the front of the stage with row of oil lamps placed behind it. Thus oil

lamps were introduced as theatre and its scenery developed in the eighteenth century, notable

advancement was made in stage lighting effects. The kerosene lamp was invented 1n 1783, in

France.

The Edison electric illumination asserts that;

Just before the close of the eighteenth century,

managers of many play houses throughout the
continent and United States installed this new method
(use of kerosene lamps) of lighting. It was an
improvement over candle light, but still left much to
be desired. To vary the lighting effects small screen
were pushed out or pulled away from the lamps by
stage hands using long poles.

In 1781, it was discovered that gas could be used in sufficient qualities for illumination. In

1803, Fredrick Albert Winsor, realizing that great advantage of open flame gas burners over

candles or lamps, successfully equipped the stage of the lyceum theatre in London with this

new type of illumination a few years later the chestaut street opera house in Philadelphia

adopted this better method of lighting manufacturing the gas with crude machinery in the

basement of the theatre.

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Oni argues that;

(pilbrow;173) gas lighting made stage lighting of the

period more complex, particularly in the ability for
centralized control and dimming.( 21)

The Edison electric illumination has it that:

It is interesting to trace the origin of the phrase “in

the lime light” which has come to mean the “the
centre of attraction” the “limelight” was nothing more
than a spotlight invented by Henry Drummond in
1516 , but not used to any great extent until about
1860. Drummond discovered that by heating a piece
of lime to incandescence, a brilliant white light
resulted, and this invention has been improved by
light engineers until we have the present electrical
“spot” without which no theatrical performance is
complete (25).

In 1809 sir, Humphrey Davy British chemist in his experiments of electrochemistry, discovered

that electricity could be used to provide artificial light. He used many batteries reportedly in

excess of 2000 to demonstrate the principle of the ‘arc lamp’ whereby light is produced by

electric arc passing between two rods of carbon, that were almost touching, when a high voltage

was applied to the rods. With the development of the means of converting chemical energy into

electrical energy, using batteries, the 1830s and 1840s saw major experiments in arc lighting.

(Smith 132)

Edison argues that;

Electricity, was used on stage for the first time in

1846 at the Paris opera. The rays of an electric arc
were thrown upon the scenery at the rear of the stage
to represent the rising sun. (27)

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As time pass new inventions and developments came in. just as light and religion had seem to

forge a bond, light and entertainment developed an equally captivating combination and 10th

October 1881 saw land mark in the history of stage lighting: Richard D’Oyly Carte transferred

the performing of Gilbert and Sullivan’s Operetta Patience to a new and well-appointed theatre

in London known as the Savoy whilst the audience including the then Prince of Wales, sat in

awe of the thespian performances on stage, the event was eclipsed when the relatively dim

gas lighting was turned off and Carte, at the flick of a switch, illuminated the theatre using

824 lamps for the stage and further 334 for the auditorium (Smith 133).

In the late 19th century, Adolphe Appia (1862-1928), A Swiss lighting design innovator, saw

the possibility of using light during scene changes and striking (special) effects. Appia was

the first to develop and practice multi-directional colour lighting that painted the stage and

moved in harmony with the production (Brockett 78). Adolphe Appia believed that light was

a medium capable of conveying both external and internal meanings. Appia observed

contemporary theatre and thought that most productions failed to use light and its potential to

serve a production. The newly introduced electrical lighting was practiced with a dull notion

of how light can work and appeared exceedingly bright, which destroyed any sense of

dimensionality.

Appia began to study light and mapped out a detailed course to follow in order for light to

become an aesthetic medium. With this concept in mind, he theorized that “light must break

away from its enslavement to painted scenery” (Beachman 25). Appia stated that “an object

lit from three or four directions throw no shadows” (Beachman 25). Appia then decided that

light did not support the expressiveness of music nor did it properly emphasize the plastic

[three dimensional] form of the actor and the setting (Beachman 24).

Appia discovered that in order to enhance the plastic setting and create a three dimensional

look, he first had to identify and then utilize two types of light. The first type is diffused light,
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which provides an undercoat illumination for the more suggestive effects. The second type of

light was active, which moulded what it lit; providing the means for enhancing both the

external setting and the inner life as well. Active light allows night (be it moonlight or torches)

and/or the supernatural to be expressed. Diffused and active lighting are used simultaneously,

however, only in terms of the intensity. Appia discovered that to avoid extreme shadows,

which weakens the effect of active light; diffused lighting can illuminate the setting and the

actor. When visibility on stage and shadows are suppressed, active light can be use (enabling

for a more dimensional atmosphere). Using these two types of light Appia began to define the

shapes and objects on stage (enhancing the plastic form) and transformed the idea of plasticity

with light on stage (Beachman 26). As part of an exploration of this idea, Appia applied his

theory to a stage that did not have true dimensions. He developed the use of lighting in four

forms: 1. the fixed border lights illuminated the painted flats. 2) Footlights were used to light

the set and actor from both front and below. 3) Moveable spotlights focused a precise beam

or various projections. 4) Light from behind to create a transparent illusion. Appia did find it

most difficult to harmonize all of the forms together. His findings of how to use multiple light

effects enabled him to manipulate the present instrumentation and as well as progress into the

future (Beachman 27).

Appia then began to realize that light could also give a sense of time, emotion and dimension

(Beachman 62). He began intertwining light and music and time. By this he established the

convention of light moving (while in sync with the music) and capturing the audience’s

attention (Brockett 142). As he continued to apply and adapt his own theory to theatrical

festivals he designed and/or collaborated with, Appia concludes: “Light, just like the actor,

must become active…Light has an almost miraculous flexibility…it can create shadows, make

them living, and spread the harmony of their vibrations in space just as music does. In light

we possess a most powerful means of expression.”

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Appia conceptualized ahead of his time; he theorized that by having more mobile and easily

handled instruments will produce active lighting, but will also require further research to

perfect their operation. The diffused light will require more fixed installations in order to

complement big screens of transparency (Beachman 28). Appia was highly influential in the

theatre arts and continued his theories with other theatrical theorists as well as working with

Edward Gordon Craig to further develop the idea of complete plasticity through light.

Edward Gordon Craig (1872-1966), English modern stage design innovator defined stage

lighting for the modern theatre. He believed that the theatre should be free from dependency

on realism and the actor; that light as a key element should be controlled by one person, the

master artist. Unlike Adolphe Appia, Craig thought that the theatre only needed one master

artist to create all of the production elements and focused on lighting as a general illumination

for the whole composition (Brockett 146). Craig’s focus on scenic design began to take a more

prominent role that light became only an encouraged general wash; for which all of his sets

and actors were visible to the audience. He achieved this by using border lights, wing strip

lights and footlights (Pilbrow 3). With Craig focusing more on the overall visual impact of

ordination and balance between light movement, objects and special relationships, he found

himself strongly in disagreement with Appia’s theory that the human body movement was

more significant to be considered above all other elements (Beachman 68). Appia took a deep

interest as to why Craig disagreed, so he corresponded with Craig, discussing ideas and

concerns.

Through this collaboration Craig and Appia combined their ideas into one theory: creating

complete plasticity with light. They were to present the Plasticity Theory at the Cologne

Exhibit of 1913. However, their first meeting (prior to the Exhibit) in person was rather heated

and Craig refused to present. Frustrated with Appia’s constant focus on the human body and

music, Craig voiced his opinion rather sternly: “I told him that for me, the human body in

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movement seemed to signify less and less and that his vision was clouded by the veils of music

and the human form” (Beachman 69). Appia refused to present without Craig and after much

discussion, they were able to set aside their differences and presented Appia and Craig Theory

of Plasticity at the Cologne Exhibit on May 19, 1913 (Beachman 70).

Both Edward Gordon Craig and Adolphe Appia were the prophets of modern stage lighting;

their ability to think beyond the technology available at the time, has paved the way to lighting

design. Craig and Appia have inspired other designers like Stanley McCandless.

Stanley McCandless (1897-1967) is considered to be the grandfather of lighting design. He

paved the way for future designers (Rosenthal 16). McCandless took the theory of Appia and

Craig to establish what would become the common practice of lighting design in the academic

realm. He began to apply the ideas of Appia and Craig, realizing that their idea of plastic

composition (plasticity) really relied on light to increase the mood of a play. McCandless

wrote and published the first lighting text book. While teaching at Yale University in 1931,

McCandless wrote A Syllabus of Stage Lighting which broke down the elements and functions

of light.

Stage lighting is loosely defined by McCandless as the use of light to create a sense of

visibility, naturalism, composition and mood. He then breaks down light to functions: A)

Visibility-covering the range from threshold sensitivity to the extreme sharpness of the vision;

allowing the audience to see the actor even if the moment is dark and troublesome or bright

and cheery. B) Naturalism- covers the approach which may extend from utter abstraction

through stylized effects to naturalistic light in terms of realism-making the light appear to the

audiences as they would see it or relate to it in reality (McCandless 2). C) Composition-the

style of the production as indicated by the playwright and chosen by the producer or director,

determines the designer’s approach- how does it look as a whole? D) Mood-the atmosphere

or feeling created by the visual effect- does it express the proper mood/emotion? He further
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defines light into four qualities: Intensity, Colour, Form and Movement (McCandless 3).

McCandless uses intensity to describe how bright and/or dim the light is. He defines the

following: colour as all the ranges of hues in warm and cool spectrum, form is the pattern,

size, shape, etc. of the light and finally movement is how the light moves (McCandless 4).

Upon writing and defining the elements and functions of light, Stanley McCandless theorized

that the stage could be broken down into six areas (McCandless-Method 33). He further

theorized that each area should be lit diagonally from the front by two instruments to give a

flexibility of brightness and colour to the stage, for which would give a proper degree of

plasticity on the actor’s face without causing extreme shadows. The instruments should be

installed and directed so that the throw angles lie consistently along the diagonal of the cube.

Each should maintain a soft-edged focus and blend together (McCandless 4). He thought that

warmer tones should come from the left and cooler colours from the right, which provided

light on the actor’s face, even if the actor moves left or right maintaining as much plasticity

as possible (McCandless-Method 34).

Stanley McCandless’ method has been and will continue to be used in a designer’s approach

to lighting.

2.2 The Functions of Light in the Theatre

"Stage lighting may be defined as the use of light to create a sense of Visibility, Naturalism,

Composition and Mood, (or Atmosphere)". So began a chapter in the 1933 text: 'A Syllabus of

Stage Lighting' by Stanley McCandless. Most comprehensive lighting texts since, also tend to

discuss the artistic objectives, (functions) of lighting, in these terms. McCandless recognized

that these are 'overlapping' qualities and one does not exist independently of the others.

Visibility: Visibility is often considered to be the most basic and fundamental function of stage

lighting. What we don't see, we seldom clearly understand. Visibility is dependent on far more
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than just the intensity of light. Other factors such as; contrast, size, colour and movement all

can influence visibility. Distance, age and the condition of the eye also play important roles in

visibility. "Good visibility is essentially selective. Its purpose is to reveal things selectively in

terms of degrees of acuity".

Naturalism: Naturalism provides a sense of time and place. Stage settings may be highly

realistic or completely abstract, absurd, or stylized. If time of day is important or the place is

realistic, then motivation is often provided by sunlight, moonlight, firelight, lamplight, or other

naturalistic stage sources.

Style concepts include: naturalistic, unnaturalistic, realistic, surrealistic, pointilistic, futuristic,

minimalistic, impressionistic, expressionistic, expansionistic, abstract, modern, religious,

romantic, Victorian, primitive, gothic, Elizabethan, Georgian and many, many more.

Composition: Composition refers to the overall pictorial aspect of the stage, as influenced by

the lighting. Composition also deals with the form of an object. A stage scene may be broadly

flooded with soft, even lighting, revealing every object equally, or it may be illuminated by

highly localized lighting on the actors only - or anything in between. So, composition in

lighting must reveal actors, objects and scenery in proportion to their importance, by building

a visual picture.

Composition concepts include: balanced, unbalanced, symmetrical, asymmetrical, simple,

complex, abstract, geometric, fragmented, symbolic, dynamic, linear, random, crude,

horizontal, vertical, diagonal, and many more.

Mood: Mood considers the basic psychological reactions of the audience. If other lighting

elements have been properly applied, the result is a specific mood, created by the lighting

design. Lighting can cause an audience to feel a wide range of different emotions. Feelings of

'happy, sad, content, horrified, excited, (and often 'bored'), all depend on a wide number of
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psychological and physiological factors. This is also true in respect to how the audience

interprets naturalistic or atmospheric moods, such as sunny, cloudy, rainy, lightning, etc. The

stage lighting designer rapidly learns that: "Things are not what they are, things are what they

appear to be." (Author).

2.3 Qualities of Light:

Any study of lighting design must include a thorough understanding of both the Physical and

the Psychological Properties of Light.

Knowledge of the behaviour and properties of light can help explain vision and human

perception. The lighting designer is especially interested in how the properties of light affect

the eye/brain process and cause feelings and emotions.

An understanding of the physical properties of light can also help explain optics, lenses, colour

theory, lighting and projection equipment and much more. The laws and applications of

reflection, refraction and absorption are encountered and used every day by the stage lighting

designer and these concepts must be thoroughly understood both in theory and in practice.

These basic qualities of light are; Intensity, Distribution, Colour, Direction and Movement.

These are the lighting designer's tools. Almost all visual images can be described, discussed

and analysed in these terms - both physically and psychologically. There is an excellent

classroom exercise that usually starts with an analysis of reproduction paintings from the 'Old

Masters'. Student learn to discuss the qualities of light, using such terms as intensity, brightness,

direction, colour, form, and distribution. These terms are used to discuss the painting in detail

from one small area to another. In addition the painting as a whole is discussed in respect to

overall lighting impact, style, mood, composition, emotional content and other qualities. (This

exercise is sometimes known as the 'postcard' exercise as often this is the source of the

reproduction paintings. The author has many in his collection).

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The experienced lighting designer also frequently relies on the qualities of light to help

communicate his lighting concept to others. Example: The stage was brightly bathed in a deep

blue wash. Slowly, the amber sun softly rose above the horizon gently illuminating the stage

in a golden glow. Cool, textured and uncertain light slowly starts to grow and creep throughout

every corner of the stage. Soon a low dominating warmth from stage right becomes evident,

balanced by a diminishing and cooling of other general light. As darkness falls, the entire stage

grows shadowy and covered with sharp defined leaf projections. The blue wash unnoticeably

reappears as a shaft of sharp silvery moonlight slips across the stage.

Distribution: Essentially, where the light hits the stage and from what angles. If we have a

blue light hitting the SL side of the stage, and a red light hitting SR, that's a matter of

distribution. If we flood the whole stage with an even wash of blue light, that's distribution. If

we have an actor isolated in a tight special, that's distribution. Most often we see light as it is

reflected off various surfaces. How it is distributed on these surfaces depends on the source’s

directions and quality. The lighting designer completely control the source of lighting and

therefore its direction and quality. Some of the factors that determine distribution includes;

where the light is focused, the type of light, the focus (spot or flood) of the light, and the use

of "masking" devices: shutters, barn doors, and top hats, the direction (angle) of the light. In a

nutshell, distribution includes not only the way the light is distributed around the stage but also

the direction from which the light reaches the stage.

Colour: All light is coloured. White light is simply a mixture of all visible wavelengths

(colours). The human eye is most sensitive to light in the yellow-green portion of the visual

spectrum (about 550 nanometres), than it is to red or blue at the ends of the spectrum.

Colour is usually discussed in terms of Hue, Value, and Chroma.

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Hue is the classification of a colour that the eye sees as red, green amber, etc. Value indicates

lightness or darkness of a colour. Chroma indicates the purity or saturation of the colour. The

primary colours of light are red, green and blue. These three colours can mix together to

produce any other colour, including white. (The primary colours of pigments are red, yellow

and blue.)

The secondary colours of light are formed when any 2 primary colours are combined. The 3

secondary colours are magenta (red & blue), yellow (red & green) and cyan (blue and green).

The complementary colours are any combination of a primary and a secondary colour that,

mixed together make white light. Examples of complementary colours are. Magenta & green,

yellow & blue, & red and cyan).

When white light is passed through a colour filter only the wavelengths corresponding to the

colour are transmitted. All other wavelength are absorbed. This is referred to as ‘subtractive’

filtering.

When 2 or more coloured beams of light combine to illuminate a surface, they mix together

through ‘additive’ mixing.

Stage lighting fixtures produce coloured light using high temperature plastic filters. There are

more than 100 different colours available from several manufacturers. These filters 'pass' or

‘transmit’ their own colour and 'block' or absorb all others (www.wikipedia.com/stagelighting).

Sometimes glass filters are also used. Conventional glass filters generally come in a limited

range of colours however they are useful for high temperature applications or where prolonged

life of the filter is required. A new generation of 'dichroic' glass filters are also sometimes used

for entertainment lighting applications where 'vibrant' colours are needed that will not fade over

time. Dichroic filters are made with thin film technology, tuned to specific wavelengths. These

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filters transmit a specific colour and reflect all others. (Unlike conventional filters that absorb

not reflect unwanted wavelengths.)

Direction: The direction of light is one of the most important attributes in stage lighting design.

All light has direction. A bare candle radiates light in all directions. A spotlight radiates light

in a very specific direction. In nature most light comes from the sky, from above. In theatre

lighting this is also generally true as most lighting positions are above the stage or audience.

Low front lighting is often considered to be 'flat'. Very high lighting angles may cause shadows

on the actor's AQ faces. Lighting from more than one direction can add 'plasticity' and

dimension to an actor. Lighting from the 'balcony rail' can fill in shadows on the actor's face

however this position can also cause shadows on upstage backdrops or scenery. Very low

lighting angles have always been associated with rather unnatural lighting and are usually used

for effect lighting only. Footlights, once common in many theatres are seldom used today.

Clearly the lighting designer must chose the direction of light very carefully.

In theatre, like in nature the 'floor' reflects some light from below, usually filling in shadows.

The colour and reflective qualities of a stage floor are very important and for this reason should

always be selected with assistance from the lighting designer.

Interestingly enough, the property of direction was not really considered by McCandless as one

of the 'qualities of light' in his 'Syllabus of Stage Lighting, 1964' He did however discuss

(briefly) the importance of direction in respect to plasticity of objects and the actual 'position'

of the light source.

Movement: Movement in light is generally taken to mean any change in intensity, colour, form

or direction. Dynamic changes in all of these qualities take place in nature on a regular basis.

Movement may also include the physical movement of a source, such as; a search light, police

beacon, colour wheel, special optical effect, moving projections, mirror ball, etc.
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Movement may be rapid or very subtle, slow and imperceivable. Such may be the case of a

designer that provides a slow shift in sunlight from one side of the stage to the other throughout

the duration of a play. The audience may not notice the shift, however they often may 'feel' the

result of the change emotionally. A sunrise or sunset might also change so slowly that the

movement in light is imperceivable and the audience may only feel the result and not actually

see it. Up until recently movement was probably the least utilized quality of light, by the stage

lighting designer. This all changed in the 1980's when the automated lighting fixture was born.

The modern automated fixture can now move physically - directing its beam from one part of

the stage to another. In addition the automated fixture can 'move' from one colour or effect

wheel to another, at any speed. The changes and combinations of intensity, form, distribution,

colour and movement are endless.

2.4 The Role of the Lighting Designer in Play Production Process

The stage lighting designer is traditionally responsible for the design and supervision of all

aspects of lighting for a typical stage production. In the mid 1900's lighting designers in Britain

and America developed and refined the methods of modern lighting design for theatre, dance,

and opera. It was only after the development of the electric filament lamp that these early

pioneers were able to establish new foundations and standards in design. Whether working in

a small community theatre or in a large opera hall, the lighting designer is (or should be) an

important and respected member any modern production. This designer, collaborates with the

director and with other designers (set and costume) to ensure that the production is properly

and suitable illuminated in all respects, from inception to completion.

Producers and theatre managers have realized years ago, that they can spend 'millions' of

dollars, on scenery, costumes, and performers and have it all wasted because of 'bad' lighting.

Many commercial productions now make high demands of their lighting requirements and in

this respect, the lighting designer has become an important and integral member of the theatre
20
and entertainment industry. The lighting designer is often the last designer into the theatre, and

everyone fully expects him to perform magic, miracles and to make the sets, costumes and

actors...'look fabulous'. Lighting designers today often tend to specialize in specific types of

entertainment productions, each requiring slightly different working methods and techniques.

Specialization may include lighting for; Theatre, Dance, Opera, Television, Theme Parks, Ice

Shows, Outdoor Pageants, Trade Shows and Industrial or Corporate productions.

Some stage lighting designers may also specialize within a speciality. For example, it is not

uncommon today to find a 'dance' lighting designer that may work only in the field of modern

dance, or a variety lighting designer that just works in the field of 'Rock' music.

Regardless of the lighting discipline, all lighting designers must have a full understanding of

their tools and both the physical and psychological aspects of light. The basic principles of

light, vision and design, apply regardless of the lighting design discipline.

2.5 Lighting Instruments

Lighting instruments can be broadly separated into two categories: floodlights, which

illuminate a wide area, and spotlights (sometimes known as profiles), which produce a

narrower, more controllable light beam. The distinction has to do with the characteristics of the

light produced by the instrument. Spotlights produce a potentially tightly focused light, while

floodlights produce a much more diffuse light. Instruments that fall somewhere in the middle

of the spectrum can be classified as either a spot or a flood, depending on the type of instrument

and how it is used.

Floodlights

PAR lights: Parabolic Aluminized Reflector lights, or PAR lights, or PAR cans, are used when

a substantial amount of flat lighting is required for a scene. A PAR can is a sealed beam PAR

21
lamp housed in a simple can-like unit. Like an old-fashioned automotive headlight, the reflector

is integral to the lamp and the beam spread of the unit is not adjustable except by changing the

lamp. PAR lamps are widely used in architectural lighting and may often be found at hardware

stores. PAR lights have seen heavy use in rock and roll shows, especially those with smaller

budgets, due to their low cost, light weight, easy maintenance, high durability, and high output.

They are often used in combination with smoke or haze machines which make the path of the

beam visible. They are also often used as top, back, or side lights in the theatre and for special

effects.

All PAR lamps except those with narrow or very narrow lenses produce an intense oval pool

of light, some with fixed focus and soft edges. In order to adjust the orientation of the oval, the

lamp must be rotated. The number associated with a PAR light (e.g.: Par 64, Par 36, Par 16)

indicates the diameter of the lamp in eighths of an inch.

Four different beam angles can be obtained on the PAR-64. The beam angle is determined by

the lamp. Lamps come in "very narrow" (6° x 12°), "narrow" (7° x 14°), "medium" (12° x 28°),

and "wide" (24° x 48°). Each angle has two numerical values since the beams are elliptical

rather than circular. PAR 16s are often referred to as "birdies.

PAR-bars are aluminium pipes with par cans permanently attached and circuited through the

pipe. Par-bars with 4 instruments are often referred to as 4-bars, and par-bars with 6 instruments

are referred to as 6-bars.

In 1995 Electronic Theatre Controls (ETC) introduced the Source Four PAR as an alternative

to PAR cans. The Source Four PAR uses a lamp separate from the lens and reflector assemblies.

22
Cyclorama or strip lights.

Strip lights, also known as cyclorama or cyc lights (thus named because they are effective for

lighting the cyclorama, a curtain at the back of the stage), border lights, and codas (by the brand

name), are long housings typically containing multiple lamps arranged along the length of the

instrument and emitting light perpendicular to its length. Lamps are often covered with gels of

multiple colours (often red, green, and blue, which, in theory, allow almost any colour to be

mixed) with each colour controlled by a separate electrical dimmer circuit. Many striplights

use round pieces of glass (called roundels) rather than plastic gels for colour. Roundels can

sustain heavy use for a long time without fading and are often found in more permanent

installations.

Scoop lights

Scoop lights or scoops are circular fixtures that do not have any lenses. They have an ellipsoidal

reflector at the back of the fixture that directs the light out of the fixture. Since they do not have

any sort of lens system they are cheaper than other fixtures. However, the light cannot be

focused at all (even PARs allow more control than scoops). Scoops are most often used to flood

the stage with light from above, or to light backdrops. Scoops can have gels affixed.

Occasionally they are used as work lights.

House lights and work lights

House lights provide light on the theatre’s seats and aisles for the audience before and after

performances and during intermissions. They are generally incandescent lights, however

fluorescent lights or scoops may be used in some instances. House lights are often controlled

by dimmers, but are sometimes on simple switches. Work lights provide general lighting

backstage or in the house, and are often fluorescent fixtures. Work lights are almost always

non-dimmed.
23
House and work lights are usually off during performances but are occasionally included in the

lighting design to establish focus or emphasize plot elements. When the house lights are not on

a dimmer, the switch is usually under the control of the stage manager.

LED stage lights

LED stage lighting instruments are stage lighting instruments that use light-emitting diodes

(LEDs) as a light source. LED instruments are an alternative to traditional stage lighting

instruments which use halogen lamp or high-intensity discharge lamps. Like other LED

instruments, they have high light output with lower power consumption. Most LED fixtures

utilize three or more colours (usually red, green, and blue) which can be mixed to

hypothetically create any colour.

Types

LED stage lights come in four main types. PAR cans, spotlights, striplights, and "moving head"

types. In LED PAR cans, a round printed circuit board with LEDs mounted on is used in place

of a PAR lamp. Moving head types can either be a bank of LEDs mounted on a yoke or more

conventional moving head lights with the bulb replaced with an LED bank.

Uses

LED instruments can and have been used to replace any conventional lighting fixture, and some

shows, such as Radiohead's recent tour, have used only LED lighting instruments. However,

most shows use LEDs only for lighting cycloramas, or as top, side, or back light due to their

low throw distance. They can also be used as audience blinders (lights pointed directly at the

audience from a low angle).

24
Spotlights

A spotlight is general term for any lighting instrument used in theatre to create a pool of light

on the stage. There are many different types of spotlights which break down into three general

areas:

Fresnel lanterns or Fresnels (US) are small fixtures giving a soft-edged spot or pool of light.

Their name comes from the distinctive ridged Fresnel lens used on the front.

Profile spots (UK) or ellipsoidal reflector spotlights (US) tend to be longer fixtures containing

convex lenses and having a gate at their focal point which enables the insertion of gobos or

irises to shape the beam of light. They give a hard-edged beam most often associated in the

public mind with "spotlights". Large versions are operated by a technician as a 'follow spot' to

follow performers on the stage. The term Profile Spot used in the UK refers to a focussing

spotlight which may, or may not use the ellipsoidal reflector design, this design was not

common in the UK until the 1970s and many UK and European manufactures have still to

adopt this design instead preferring a twin PC lens design.

Pebble Convex lanterns (or "PCs") are similar to Fresnels, but use a Plano-convex lens with a

pebbled effect on the planar (flat) side, resulting in less "spill" outside the main beam. They

are used much more widely in Europe than North America.

A Fresnel lantern (UK), or simply Fresnel (US), employs a Fresnel lens to wash light over an

area of the stage. The lens is named after French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel, and

consequently pronounced with a silent "s". The distinctive lens has a 'stepped' appearance

instead of the 'full' or 'smooth' appearance of those used in other lanterns. The resulting beam

of light is wide and soft-edged, creating soft shadows, and is commonly used for back light,

top light, and side light. Another method of controlling the spread of light is to use either a top

hat (also referred to as a snoot), which generally limits the light coming out, or a barn door,
25
whose flaps work as though they were shutters on an ERS (shown on the right). These methods

limit light output and keep excess light from spilling into the eyes of audience members or

where it is not desired.

Fresnels use a spherical reflector, with the lamp at the focus point. The lamp and reflector

remain a fixed unit inside the housing, and are moved forward and back to focus the light. This

is accomplished using a slider on the bottom or side of the lantern, or using a worm track. At

very tight focus, the lanterns are the least efficient, as the least light can escape the housing.

Therefore Fresnels are not good for tight focus on small areas. They are most often used at

medium distances from the stage for area lighting.

In 1999, ETC introduced a new lighting fixture, the Source Four PAREL, which combined the

design of the PAR fixture with that of the Fresnel. The fixture is more versatile, allowing for a

flood or a softer spot.

Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight

The ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS), also known as profile (after its ability to project the

silhouette or profile of anything put in the gate) (UK) and Découpe (French), is the most

abundant instrument type currently in theatrical use. The flexibility of the ERS allows it to

fulfil the bulk of lighting roles in the theatre. They are sometimes known as a profile spotlight

(in Europe) or by their brand names, especially the Source Four (a popular lantern from ETC)

and 2 the Leko (short for Lekolite, from Strand lighting).

The major components of an ERS light are the casing in which the internal parts are mounted,

an ellipsoidal reflector located in the back of the casing, a lamp mounted to position the

filament at the rear focal point of the ellipsoid, a dual Plano-convex lens (two Plano-convex

lenses facing each other in the barrel), and at the front, a gel frame to hold the colour gel. The

26
light from the lamp is efficiently gathered by the ellipsoidal reflector and sent forward through

the gate, shutters and lens system.

ERS or profile lanterns have many useful features. One of the most useful are the metal shutters

at the focal plane of the lens to shape the beam of light. The original shape of the beam is round,

but with the use of the shutters one can limit the beam to avoid obstacles or parts of the set that

should not be illuminated in a specific look. Another feature is a gate, also in the focal plane,

for sliding in gobos (also known as templates or deckles). These have patterns cut into them,

much like a stencil. These patterns are projected onto the stage. An iris can be also be inserted

in this position to make the beam smaller in diameter, reducing the light cast without the sharp

edges of the shutters. ERS instruments from ETC, Altman, Selecon, and a variety of others

have interchangeable lens tubes (or barrels) which can both create a very sharp or very soft

beam as well as alter the beam spread. The barrel sizes can range from a narrow, long distance

5- or 10-degree spot to a broad and short-distance 50- or even 90-degree. The first 90-degree

profile lantern was developed by Selecon Performance Lighting as part of their "Pacific" range

of products. Since its introduction many other manufacturers have introduced their own 90-

degree barrels. ERS instruments allow many different lens tubes to be used with the same body.

This makes them more versatile, since a venue can purchase varying degrees of barrels without

buying as many instruments. Many manufacturers also produce zoom lenses which offer the

ability to change the beam angle. However, some zoom ranges have a poorer optical quality

making them difficult to use in sharp focus.

Field angle

The field angle of an instrument is the angle of the beam of light where it reaches 10% of the

intensity of the centre of the beam. Most manufacturers now use field angle to indicate the

spread that the fixture has. However, older fixtures are described by the width of the lens x

focal length of the instrument. For example, a 6x9 ellipsoidal would have a 6" lens and a focal
27
length of 9" (creating an approximately 37° beam angle). This nomenclature was used because

traditionally a larger lens directly equated with more light output. This is no longer necessarily

true, so most manufacturers now identify their fixtures by beam angle and light output. As the

field angle narrows, the instrument can either be used further from the stage to create a

similarly-sized beam as a closer, larger instrument, or it can be used from the same distance to

create a smaller beam.

Beam projector

A beam projector is a lensless instrument with very little beam spread. It uses two reflectors.

The primary reflector is a parabolic reflector and the secondary reflector is a spherical reflector.

The parabolic reflector directs the light into nearly parallel beams, and the spherical reflector

is placed in front of the lamp to reflect light from the lamp back to the parabolic reflector,

which reduces spill. The result is an intense shaft of light that cannot be easily controlled or

modified. The beam projector no longer is used to the extent that it once was, as newer fixtures

and PAR lamps have created easier ways to produce the effect.

Follow spot

The follow spot (also called a spotlight, trackspot, lime (UK), or dome) is a lighting instrument

that is moved during a performance by an operator or by DMX control to provide emphasis or

extra illumination and usually to follow a specific performer when he or she is moving around

the stage. Follow spots are commonly used in musical theatre and opera to highlight the stars

of a performance, but may be used in dramas well. They are also used in sports venues, as well

as many other applications.

These lighting instruments come in a variety of sizes with light sources ranging from low power

incandescent light bulbs to very powerful xenon arc lamps. Carbon arc lamp spots were

common until the 1990s, using the arc between carbon rods as their light source. These follow
28
spots required special installations that include high volume ventilation due to the hazardous

fumes produced by the carbon arc. The current generation, xenon, has extremely high internal

pressure in the lamp and thus has its own safety concerns.

Followspots contain a variety of operator-controlled optical mechanisms. They may include

mechanical shutters, which allow the light to be doused without turning off the lamp, lenses to

control and focus beam width, and internal colour gels, often in a colour magazine.

Intelligent lights

Moving lights (or intelligent fixtures) began to gain widespread acceptance in the concert

industry in the early 1980s. As the digital age progressed, the cost of these fixtures reduced,

and they are currently used in many major theatrical productions.

Their principal feature is the ability to remotely control the movement and characteristics of

the output beam of light. This is achieved by either moving a mirror which reflects the beam,

or by moving the entire fixture, which can pan and tilt by means of a motorized yoke. Usually

they also contain other controls to shape, texture and colour the light, such as gobo or dichroic

wheels. This ability to precisely, and repeatedly set the position of the fixture allows one light

to perform many functions, lighting multiple different areas in different ways. They can also

move 'live' (with the lamp on), to achieve many of the effects used in modern productions.

The majority of intelligent fixtures employ arc lamps as a light source, and therefore use a

variety of mechanical methods to achieve the effect of dimming. Some fixtures employ

standard halogen lamps. Mechanically, stepper motors connected to various internal optical

devices (such as gobos and colour wheels) manipulate the light before it escapes the fixture's

front lens.

29
Today's market includes such moving (intelligent) lighting manufacturers like Vari Lite

(owned by Philips), Martin Professional, Clay Paky, CHAUVET Professional, Elation

Professional, Mega Lite, Ayrton, among others.

In today's market, discharge fixtures are seeing competitive advantages from the LED industry

take place, and many companies are now offering an LED-based intelligent lighting fixture

across all arenas of intelligent lighting genre, from wash fixtures to spot fixtures, beam-type

fixtures and hybrid units that incorporate two or all of these types.

Moving light programs are often much more complex than that of stationary instruments. While

it is possible to operate them with any console that uses the DMX512 Protocol, many lighting

board operators find a console dedicated to moving light operation to be much more efficient.

Oftentimes there will be encoder wheels which will control the Pan, Tilt, Focus, Zoom, Colour,

and Effects. Many people find visualization software (such as WYSWIG, Vector Works, and

others) to be helpful when programming while other people prefer a hard tactile control.

Intelligent lights are used heavily in shows in very large venues, like events in stadiums, where

it is very difficult to reach lighting trusses for manual focusing. Although the fixtures may not

be moved during the run of the show, they are focused remotely.

Dimmer: A dimmer is a device used to vary the average voltage applied to an instrument's

lamp. The brightness of a lamp is proportional to its electric current, which in turn is

proportional to the applied lamp voltage. When the applied voltage is decreased, a lamp's

electric current will also decrease, thus reducing the light output from the lamp (dimming it).

Conversely, a higher voltage will cause higher lamp current and increased (brighter) light

output. Dimmers are frequently found in large enclosures called racks or dimmer racks that

draw significant three-phase power. They are often removable modules that range from 20-

ampere, 2.4- kilowatt to 100-ampere units. In the case of incandescent lamps, some colour

30
changes occur as a lamp is dimmed, allowing for a limited amount of colour control through a

dimmer. Fades (brightness transitions) can be either up or down, meaning that the light output

is increasing or decreasing during the transition. Most modern dimmers are solid state, though

many mechanical dimmers are still in operation. In many cases, a dimmer can be replaced by

a constant power module (CPM), which is typically a 20- or 50-ampere breaker in a dimming

module casing. CPMs are used to supply line voltage to non-dimming electrical devices such

as smoke machines, chain winches, and scenic motors that require constant operating voltage.

When a device is powered by a CPM, it is fully energized whenever the CPM is turned on,

independent of lighting console levels.

CPMs must be used (in lieu of dimmers) to power non-dimming devices that require specific

line voltages (e.g., in the US, 110 V, 60 Hz power) in order to avoid damage to such devices.

Dimmers are seldom used to control non-dimming devices because even if a dimmer channel

is trusted to always operate at full power, it may not be controlled when communications are

disrupted by start-up and shutdown of the lighting control surface, noise interference, or DMX

disconnects or failure. Such a loss of control might cause a dimmer to dim a circuit and thus

potentially damage its non-dimming device.

Devices like moving heads also require independent power, as they cannot function on a

partially dimmed channel for power, on top of requiring several other channels in order to

convey all of the data they require for their several features. In order to simplify the control of

moving head lanterns, instead of assigning channels manually to the lantern, many desks also

offer a fixtures section, where one can assign the lantern as a fixture, allowing the desk to

organise the data being transferred to the lantern on a much simpler scale for the operator.

Fixtures may also incorporate smoke machines, snow machines, haze machines etc., allowing

many special effects to be run from a single desk. Increasingly, modern lighting instruments

are available which allow remote control of effects other than light intensity, including

31
direction, colour, beam shape, projected image, and beam angle. The ability to move an

instrument ever more quickly and quietly is an industry goal. Some automated lights have built-

in dimming and so are connected directly to the control cable or network and are independent

of external dimmers.

32
 CHAPTER THREE

LIGHTING TECHNIQUES USED IN PRIZED CHICKENS ARE NOT TASTY

3.1 Synopsis of Prized Chicken Are Not Tasty

Prized Chickens Are Not Tasty is written by Saint Gbilekaa. The play shows the danger of

greed and envy among a people, the play offers a good peep into the Tiv worldview. It is prized

contest that produces esteemed visitors. The play delves into a world of family, communal and

mystical conflicts to emerge with scarred visitors and morbid losers.

The play was centred on two key actors namely Jor-Gbaikyom and Shacia. Jor-Gbaikyom the

elder brother to Shacia who claimed that is mother womb gave him breath (Shacia) that is

mother daughter was given to his father as an exchange and that Shacia is debtor that he owe

him a female ward as an exchange of his sister for his mother which he claimed that it was the

practice in those days, and he (Shacia) hasn’t paid his debt.

Jor-Gbaikyom said that either Shacia give him the female ward or he (Shacia) goes himself but

this did not end there, Jor-Gbaikyom still took the case to his cult member which took the life

of Shacia.

Shacia being a man of means and prosperity, and easy going person who don’t want any

problem from anybody ignorantly got into the trap of Jor-Gbaikyom by taking threat for a mere

saying so he didn’t bother seeking for protection so it was so easy for Jor-Gbaikyom to cut him

off. The lesson on this play is based on greed and selfish desire, envy and jealousy. In this life

not everyone is happy with “GOOD THINGS” people are all out for the downfall of others.

More also, forgiveness should be the bedrock of everyone in this life because if Jor-Gbaikyom

had forgiven Shacia there wouldn’t have been the need for revenge.

33
 3.2 The Lighting Techniques Used In Priced Chickens Are Not Tasty

The Play Prized Chicken Are Not Tasty was staged at the Open-Air Theatre, University of

Abuja by the 100 level students of the department of Theatre Arts University of Abuja on 16th

and 17th February, 2016 and directed by Joe Ande and Awaritoma Agoma.

The lighting technique used in the performance considered the type of stage (proscenium stage)

the theatre structure (open-air theatre) and the equipment at hand was based on a simple and

basic general lighting technique which parker, wolf and Block referred to as “motivational

lighting” that is the theatrical use of light based on an actual source or sources which is based

on the desire to duplicate a specific source of light such as the sun, a candle or a street light.

Environmental conditions such as time of the day, weather, time of the year, and locale are all

put into consideration (354).

Below are the lighting synopsis and light chart for the production of the play Prized Chicken

Are Not Tasty.

Light Synopsis for Prizes Chickens Are Not Tasty

Situation/ Scene Name Scenic Description Lighting note

Scene

1 The burukutu joint A large compound surrounded Bright light(flood Light)

by huts

2 Shacia’s bride Same venue as situation 1 the The light is dimed to depict

atmosphere is that of merriment night

3 Female Ward Same venue as in situations The light is dimed to

1&2 the atmosphere is tensed depict night just as in

situation 2

34
4 The bird/ the elders Tension Red gel then Light is

meeting returned as in situations 2

& 3 to depict night

5 The killing of Shacia Cult Red gel to depict danger

6 The mourning/ Shacia’s compound the The stage is flooded with

inquest atmosphere is sorrowful light but not too bright so as

to depict the mood of the

scene

7 War A place in the forest Red gel to depict violence

and chaos

Cue Chart for Prizes Chickens Are Not Tasty

Scene Cue In Light Type Text Light Effect Cue Cue Out

Page Number Description

Situation Song: Parcans and 1 3, 4, 5 Bright light Light come Line: ‘live

1 ‘Jor- Fresnel indicating on stage as behind

Gbaiky late the forlorn

omVaV morning orchestra children:

eooo’ hours (flood sings: ‘Jor- Blackout

light) GbaikyomV

aVeooo’

35
 Narrato Follow spot 1 Follow Follow spot Light picks

r joins spot up Narrator

in the as he joins

dance; the dance

Song: Parcans and 2 3,4,5 Gradual Light comes

ommsol Fresnel fade-in on stage as

umyuah (flood light) orchestra

een sings:

ommsolumy

uaheen

Situation Song: Parcans and 5 3,4,5,6 Soft but Light comes Light fades-

2 ‘Aliwee Fresnel bright light on stage as out as actors

, to depict actors and on stage

Aliwee- evening orchestra sing

we’ time and the sings: ‘Azivasiaig

celebration ‘Aliwee, o’

mood (flood Aliwee-we’

light)

Situation Song: Fresnel 12 3,4 Light is Light comes Light goes

3 ‘Azivas dimed to on stage as off as

iaigo’ depict night orchestra Shacia says

sings: ‘……… to

‘Azivasiaig stand ten

o’ spitting

36
 cobras, get

out.’ (Black

out)

Situation Song: Follow spot 14 Follow Follow spot Spotlight on Line:“……

4 Yokolo spot the narrator you just

kolo watch him

Line: Fresnel 15 1,2 Red gel Light comes Song:“Amb

“birds on stage as alaba kuku”

of the Jor- (Black out)

night” Gbakiyom

says: “birds

of the night”

Song: Follow spot 16 follow Follow spot Light Line: “ let

“Ambal spot catches the me lead you

ama Narrator as to where

kuku” he sits on they are”

the stage

staircase of

the

Line: “ Fresnel 17 5,6 Soft bright Light come Line: “No

let me light on USL as never”

lead the elders (Black out)

you to are sited after 10sec

where

37
 they

are”

Situation Songx4 Fresnel 23 1,2 Red gel Light meets Song:“Amb

5 ; Line: Jor- alama

“yes I Gbaikyom kuku” light

can see on stage as stays for

the he takes his 10sec then

shootin lines. black

g out(fade

star…” out)

Situation Song: Parcans and 29 3,4,5,6 Light is Light Line:

7 “Kamis Fresnel dimmed to gradually “Kamiseisi

eisi o depict the come on o ve”.

ve” sorrowful stage as the Gradual

mood of the orchestra fade out as

scene but sing: the actors

must allow “Kamiseisi take the

for visibility o ve” as song with

actors are the

already on orchestra

stage

38
 and leave

the stage

Situation Song: Parcan and 33 2,3,4 Red gel to Light come Light goes

8 War Fresnel depict chaos on stage as off as the

song war songs actors sing

are heard. war songs

and as they

ginger out

of the acting

area( black

out)

Chart by Atarase Olufemi Emmanuel

The play opens with a dance which ushered in the narrator who is the story teller in the play so

for the purpose of the dance the action area was flooded with light and then later switched to

follow spot as the narrator finds his way to the stage in order to stand him out from other

performers and so at every point he is on stage the follow spot is use

Plate 1

39
The above pictures show the opening glee for the performance Prized Chickens are not tasty

two Frensels and two par cans were used to flood the acting area.

Plate 2

The Narrator makes his entrance and the follow spot his used to follow him as he plays his role.

The follow spot was used to distinguish him from other actors.

Plate 3

The scene at the burrukutu joint here two par cans were used to light the stage. There was need

for the action area to be demarcated so ban doors were used to so.
40
Plate 4

The picture above shows the wedding scene here being a crowed scene, two par cans from the

middle and two Fresnels from the right was used to light the stage this was because the action

area is the centre stage.

Plate 5
41
The ocultic scenes. Anytime they are on stage the red gel was used to light light the acting

area. Colour is a very important aspect of design and so it is to light. Colour, is one of the four

primary tools of light, colour is a powerdful force in stage composition. It can be subtle or

dramatic, decorative or atmospheric, symbolic or realistic. Colour in light animates the scene.

The energy of light reveals, brightens, and add colour actor and scenery, there by increasing

their vitality. In the above pictures the red colour was not only used for decoration it was used

dipict danger.it was also used in the last scene to symbolicize cheos.

Plate 6

The scene above is the conquest scene, the light was dimmed to depict the sad or sorrowful

mood of the scene but was able to able to achieve visibility. Two par cans and two Fresnels

was used to achieve this.

42
Plate 7

Since the orchestra are also part of the production they also need to be lit and for this reason a

Fresnel was dedicated to the orchestra. The above picture show the orchestra been lit with white

light.

43
Plate 8

Pictures above showing the lighting designer rigging, setting and testing his lights.

Plate 9

Captions above shows some of the lighting equipments used for the performance. The of the

lights in the pictures are Par cans and Fresnel lights

3.3 Factors That Aided Light Design In the Performance

Just like every other theatrical forms like the actor, the set, costume and other lighting design

cannot stand on its own in a theatrical performance it has to go along with other theatrical

form/elements. Therefore for lighting to be a success in any theatrical performance the

following must have aided it;

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1. Set design

2. Costume Design

3. Sound Design

4. Make-up

5. The Actor

3.3.1 Set Design

A play usually takes place within a set. From the word “setting” which in a theatre stands for

play’s locale which means the background or the environment chosen by the playwright for the

play. The designer creatively represents that on stage. There is always a central settings for

every play, for example; Abuja, Lagos. Then within that setting subjects, i.e., sitting, room,

market, street etc. can be provided for, depending on the need of the play.

A set designer’s major concern is to provide for a conducive environment, which is

“convenient” for the play. The word convenient here mean that the agreed up on environment,

which the director approves, because it enhances his directorial approach. Convenient also

speaks of geographically or historically or ideologically about the play. The designer is charged

with the responsibility of making sure that character mood and intensity are well created in any

given play. Theatre design is bringing together all the elements that will help compliment a

play. Set design illustrates the relationship of action and its visual contributions. The play

Prized Chickens Are Not Tasty as produced at the open-air theatre university of Abuja,

historically, geographically, social economically had a simultaneous setting due to the fact the

play has 3 major locales which includes, Shacia’s compound, Wata’s compound where the

elders met to discuss the approaching danger, and the shrine of the birds of the night where the

birds hold their meetings. Different lighting effects were created for each of this locale which

helped create aesthetics as the story of the play unravels.

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3.3.2 Costume Design

Among all forms of designs, it is costume that is most visible to the audience, and the one that

gets easily assessed. The reason is tied to the actor. The actor is the most proximal element of

the production to the audience. It simply follows that the actor’s appearance during his

appearances, also attracts attention. While many audience may be well-positioned to say which

costume is appropriate and which is not, they may not be privy to sound or lighting

appropriateness. For this reasons, costume and its designer, cannot but be critically and

creatively handled.

The costume must be familiar with the play’s setting(s), the time of the season, e.g. winter,

summer autumn or spring, dry season or wet season, harmattan or heat etc. the time of the hour-

day or night, morning or evening , the scenic location- bedroom, bar, garden et. The status of

the character depicted- rich, poor, master, servant etc. the profession of the character- doctor,

captain, footballer, midwife etc. and belief of the character- priest, monk, imam, Marxist,

capitalist, liberalist etc. these are all parameters and indicators. If not ignites the decision as to

who wears what, where and when. If the production is a historical one in which the director

wants to go back to the time and produce the play with a view to accentuating the original

flavour of the script, the costumier has to go into the books to uncover the types of fabrics and

the styles worn then, and recreate same to justify the historical essence of the play. A historical

production is often projected and believed as such, mostly through the element of costume. The

acting style, language and mannerism nicely compliment the convincing costume.

The different costumes ranging from the colourful TIV costumes to the old school dresses worn

be actors on stage help add aesthetics to the production and also aided light.

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3.3.3 Sound Design

By sound, we talk about everything including music, songs, noise and effects. The sound

designer is one responsible for their production and provision, some plays may need for a live

orchestra on stage. The sound designer has to rehearse with the music director and the director

to arrive at the type of lyrics, associated with the orchestra, to make sure it supports and

facilitates the production.

Sound effects e.g. thunder, explosion, rain, storm, cockcrow, moving vehicles etc. which may

be needed in a production, have to be found, cued and played at exact positions, at the requisite

pitches necessary to capture or create their desired effects.

The sound i.e. the song accompanied by drums with their timings helps greatly to create the

desired effects with lighting.

3.3.4 Make-up

Make-up, which is essentially the design of the actor’s face, occupied a curiously paradoxical

position in the theatre. In much modern production, certainly in the realistic theatre, make-up

seems sorely neglected. It tender to be the last design technology to be considered; indeed it is

often applied for the first time at the final dress rehearsal and sometimes not until just before

the opening performance. Indeed, make-up is the only major design element whose planning

and execution are often left entirely to the actor’s direction. And yet, ironically, make up is one

of the archetypal arts of the theatre, absolutely fundamental to the origins of drama. The reason

make-up’s paradoxical role resides in the changing emphasis of the theatre aims. Make-up, like

costuming, serves both ceremonial and illustrative functions. The ceremonial and illustrative

make-up that was worm by the actors on stage for the play Prized Chicken Are Not Tasty help

to enhance their faces in the light.

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3.3.5 The Actors

Johnson in Johnson asserts that:

The actor is a visioner of tripartite lineages. He is

somewhat a professional bastard with three
professional strings pulling him in different directions
while he finds it near-disloyal to identify with one.
This is what we mean from the portrayal of the
character in the text, an actor forms an impression of
his interpretation of the role….. At the same time, the
director has briefed his cast on the interpretation of
the role and what/how he wants each actor to aim at.
(98)

The actor interprets his role creatively In order to give specific carriage to his role. He works

directly with the director, the scene designer and also the light designer in his quest to creating

his character and also makes the production a success. This was seen in some of the cast of the

play Prized Chicken Are Not Tasty.

3.4. Challenges faced during the production of Prized Chicken Are Not Tasty

It is important to know that there is no perfect production or performance as there are always

or two challenges. Taking into concidration the kind of theatre we have in University of Abuja

and also noting the fast the it is an educational theatre obivously there bound to be challenges.

These challenges faced during the production of Prized Chickens Are Not Tasty include the

following:

1. Inadequate lighting equipment

2. Lack of Funds

3. Lack of Expertise

4. Power Supply

5. The Open-AirTheatre

6 Lack of New Technology of Lights

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3.4.1 Inadequate lighting equipment

majorly one of the problems in educational theatres and most especially the University of

Abuja theatre is that there are not enough lighting equipment needed for the production for

example; the smoke machine would have played a vital role in depicting the cult scene but it

was the department does not have on and so it was a problem achieving that more also, the

shadows on stage would have being minimal if lanterns were rigged from above with the use

of truss.

3.4.2 Lack of Funds

Another major challenge that was prominent while lighting the play Prized Chickens Are Not

Tasty is that of lack of money. There is a saying that “money answereth all things” this was the

case in the production of prized chickens are not tasty there was no money to “answer” most

of the things needed to light the production for example it would have being good if lights were

rigged on truss and mounted above the actors so as to avoid shadows but it was not available

and to rent one will cost a lot of money and the fund available cannot even buy one bulb for

halogen lamb. Thus money was an issue.

3.4.3 Lack of Expertise

lack of skilled personnel to handle and man these lights is a major problem faced during the

performance taking in to consideration that the performance was that if the 100level students

of the department of Theatre Arts University of Abuja and being their first time see and

operating some of this lighting instruments and having no knowledge of how to put them into

proper use it became so difficult to achieve some things with light.

3.4.4 Power Supply

It has become a thing of disgrace that a country as big as ours cannot provide its citizens with

basic amenities such as light. Lack of power supply or electricity is a major issue that as the

49
concern of many people in different professions. For us in the theatre we depend mainly on

electricity to do many things like lighting our performances, building our sets or scenery,

making our costume and even for the sound used during the performance. Thus electricity is

very important in the theatre. In the production of priced Chickens are not tasty power supply

was a major issue as there was power failure which interrupted the action on stage. Power also

delayed the setup of lighting equipment.

3.4.5 The Open-Air Theatre

The fact that our theatre in University of Abuja is an Open-Air theatre on its own is a major

challenge as the lighting designer will be hoping and praying that the weather condition

remains favourable throughout the performance. This was the situation during the performance

of the play Prized Chickens Are Not Tasty as at a point it was a little breeze which almost

endangered the lighting equipment. Also the openness of the theatre did not allow for

permanent rigging of lanterns thus lighting instruments are moved from one point to the other

which could endanger the life span of these equipment. More also due to the openness of the

theatre wires litter the floor during performance which can cause spark or even worse shock

and harm individuals.

3.4.6 Lack of New Technology of Lights

In our today’s world, new technologies are being invented every day, thus improving on the

previous ones that are available before. This is the same with lighting equipment as they are

being improved on time after time in other to enhance productions but it is quit unfortunate that

we don’t have these new technologies in our theatre to improve our productions take for

example the follow spot used during the production of Prized Chickens Are Not Tasty was an

old one and the ambiance is very low that it can’t pick an actor from afar.

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 Chapter 4

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Summary of Findings

In summary, the basic concern in the theatre lighting is with the dramatic intention of a

particular moment. The visibility, or the kind of light in which you can see the actors and the

scenery, the place must have logic is based on tying all of these in with the idea of being there,

in the scene, in the first place.

Lighting is a sensitive and delicate part of the theatrical performance. It has a great influence

on the audience since it depict the mood, interpret the theme, and also dictates the actions as

well as the acting area: thus light can make or mar any theatrical performances if not properly

handled. This is to say that there is more to lighting than just visibility. In fact it is the bedrock

of any production at also for visibility, to establish the mood, to reinforce the theme of the play,

and also to stage the story. For some theatre practitioners, being dependent on lighting rather

than scenery saves the cost of construction of set pieces. For others, it saves the time involved

in the construction process. What is however obvious is that with the new technology in

lighting instruments and control equipment, the role of lighting in the design process for the

performing arts will continue to be enhanced. Stage lighting can assist in the proper packaging

of theatrical presentations to make productions more artistically interesting while sustaining

dramatic import and essence. Therefore light plays a major role in the theatre and must be

handled with care in other to yield maximum result. Lighting enhances the scenery as it can

also be used as scenery when needed. Thus in a country like Nigeria where getting the right

equipment is a problem and electricity is not stable, the ability of the designer to meet up with

what is expected of him makes him stand out.

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4.2 Conclusions

Lighting is a very important part of any theatrical performance, because without it other parts

of the performances are not seen. It provides illumination for the stage set and performers. In

the theatre with a designed effect, lighting majorly is not only about visibility and focus it is

also the medium of entertainment, education that is passing the message of the play, and also

re-enforcing the mood of the play. Therefore if not properly handled can destroy a theatrical

performance which can anger the audience because their aim of coming to the theatre has been

destroyed. Take for instance in a country like ours (Nigeria) where light is not stable and an

action is going on stage then the light goes off in the middle of the action the audience are

always displeased with the lighting designer. Thus the lighting designer should strive and make

sure that all things needed for a particular performance is put in place and he must also rehearse

thoroughly to avoid any mistakes during the performance.

4.3 Recommendations

Stage lighting is an important aspect in a theatrical performance, it is not just entertaining the

audience it is also the medium through which the mood is established, the theme is re-enforced,

and the message is passed. Thus therefore to achieve the above mentioned; theatre houses in

Nigeria need to make sure they stock in all modern lighting equipment as the new technologies

are released in order to enable the budding lighting designers learn and also practice the use of

these equipment. This is a necessity because once they are out of school (i.e. University) it

becomes very difficult to learn due to the fact that most employers look for experienced

personnel to work with.

As a result of the above; the following recommendations are made;

 New equipment and new technology should be ventured into by the lighting designer

in order to improve and enhance proper lighting. Such equipment as thruss, LED lights, latest
52
DMX dimmer, console, intelligent light Console, and wires, should be acquired or purchased

to enhance stage lighting.

 Training should be organised from time to time for lighting designers. Also Students

should be encouraged to carry out research on how lighting design can be improved upon in

order to improve their knowledge of stage lighting and also to be on top of their game.

 Student should be encouraged to venture into lighting design in order to have more

hands in the field.

 Government should sponsor stage productions in order to enable the lighting designer

and other parts of the production have enough funds for their units.

 Due to the epileptic power supply in our country, theatre houses should make sure they

source for alternative power like installing stand-by generators, solar power, and inverters that

can power lighting equipment.

 Experts or professionals should be employed in theatre alongside the upcoming lighting

designers in other to enable the upcoming once to learn from the experts.

 Spacious lighting booth should be built so as to allow for the designer to keep is

equipment from rain, sunshine or hash weather and also for him/her to have a large working

space.

 Universities offering theatre arts as a course of study should create room for more of

practical especially in the area of designs as students learn more from what the can do practical

than theory.

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