Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Final Last
Final Last
A Project
On
Submitted To
PG Department of Physics
Government College (Autonomous), Angul
Submitted By
RAMAJI KUMAR SAHOO
B. Sc. Physics Hons, Exam Roll No: 19PHY-029
Government College (Autonomous), Angul, Odisha - 759143
Guided By
CHIRANJIBI SAHU
Lecturer of physics
Government College (Autonomous), Angul, Odisha - 759143
2|Page
Certificate
This is to certify that the project work entitled “EFFECTS OF
work done by
and that this work has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of
any degree.
(Signature)
Chiranjibi Sahu
Acknowledgement
I would like to convey my heartfelt gratitude to all the people who
have helped and inspired me during my project Work. This project
would not have been possible without the support from all.
First of all, I would like to thank my project guide Guide’s Name, for
his endless guidance and instruction during the project.
My deepest gratitude goes to my family for their love and support all
the way till now. I also thank my friends here for their constant
encouragement and the joyous time we spent together. All the
references I used during the project work including the definitions,
texts, formulae etc. are mentioned separately in the reference section. I
personally thank all the authors and the contributors.
Declaration
Contents
• INTRODUCTION
• THEORY
• REFERENCE
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
THEORY
Maxwell's equations
Maxwell realized that since a lot of physics is symmetrical and mathematically artistic in a
way, that there must also be a symmetry between electricity and magnetism. He realized
that light is a combination of electricity and magnetism and thus that the two must be tied
together. According to Maxwell's equations, a spatially varying electric field is always
associated with a magnetic field that changes over time.Likewise, a spatially varying
magnetic field is associated with specific changes over time in the electric field. In an
electromagnetic wave, the changes in the electric field are always accompanied by a wave in
the magnetic field in one direction, and vice versa. This relationship between the two occurs
without either type of field causing the other; rather, they occur together in the same way
that time and space changes occur together and are interlinked in special relativity. In fact,
magnetic fields can be viewed as electric fields in another frame of reference, and electric
fields can be viewed as magnetic fields in another frame of reference, but they have equal
significance as physics is the same in all frames of reference, so the close relationship
between space and time changes here is more than an analogy. Together, these fields form a
propagating electromagnetic wave, which moves out into space and need never again
interact with the source. The distant EM field formed in this way by the acceleration of a
charge carries energy with it that "radiates" away through space, hence the term.
Maxwell’s equation
Maxwell's equations are a set of coupled partial differential
equations that,together with the Lorentz force law, form the
foundation of classical electromagnetism.These four equations are
fundamental laws of electromagnetism.
Propagation of EMW
Electromagnetic Spectrum
EM radiation (the designation 'radiation' excludes static electric and magnetic and near
fields) is classified by wavelength into radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X- rays
and gamma rays. Arbitrary electromagnetic waves can be expressed by Fourier analysis in
terms of sinusoidal monochromatic waves, which in turn can each be classified into these
regions of the EMR spectrum.
Infrared
Like radio and microwave, infrared (IR) also is reflected by metals (and also most EMR, well
into the ultraviolet range). However, unlike lower-frequency radio and microwave radiation,
Infrared EMR commonly interacts with dipoles present in single molecules, which change as
atoms vibrate at the ends of a single chemical bond. It is consequently absorbed by a wide
range of substances, causing them to increase in temperature as the vibrations dissipate as
heat. The same process, run in reverse, causes bulk substances to radiate in the infrared
spontaneously (see thermal radiation section below).Infrared radiation is divided into
spectral subregions. While different subdivision schemes exist,[44][45] the spectrum is\
commonly divided as near-infrared (0.75–1.4 μm), short-wavelength infrared (1.4–3 μm),
medium.
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Visible light
Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a wavelength
between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is directly detected by the human eye and
perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700
nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.As
frequency increases into the visible range, photons have enough energy to change the bond
structure of some individual molecules. It is not a coincidence that this happens in the visible
range, as the mechanism of vision involves the change in bonding of a single molecule,
retinal, which absorbs a single photon. The change in retinal causes a change in the shape of
the rhodopsin protein it is contained in, which starts the biochemical process that causes the
retina of the human eye to sense the light.
Ultraviolet
As frequency increases into the ultraviolet, photons now carry enough energy (about three
electron volts or more) to excite certain doubly bonded molecules into permanent chemical
rearrangement. In DNA, this causes lasting damage. DNA is also indirectly damaged by
reactive oxygen species produced by ultraviolet A (UVA), which has energy too low to
damage DNA directly. This is why ultraviolet at all wavelengths can damage DNA, and is
capable of causing cancer, and (for UVB) skin burns (sunburn) that are far worse than would
be produced by simple heating (temperature increase) effects. This property of causing
molecular damage that is out of proportion to heating effects, is characteristic of all EMR
with frequencies at the visible light range and above. These properties of high-frequency
EMR are due to quantum effects that permanently damage materials and tissues at the
molecular level.
The growing need of modernization in the late twentieth century posed a severe danger of
higher rate of EM waves being absorbed by the human body. The invention and increasing
use of latest electronic devices such as televisions, microwaves, power lines, hair dryers,
digital watches and most importantly cellular phones has created even worse conditions.
These devices emit high frequency electromagnetic radiations. These devices are designed in
such a way that alternating current is converted into direct current to minimize the power
but in doing so the frequency of the EM waves being emitted increases. These EM waves are
even more dangerous when at a distance of 20 meters. Not only this, these can cause.
Security systems .Anti-theft systems in shops use tags that are detected by electrical coils at
the exits. When a purchase is made the tags are removed or permanently deactivated. The
key ring or identity card. Library o 100 µT that is disturbed by the presence of a metal object.
Close to the frame of the detector, magnetic field strengths may approach and occasionally
exceed guideline levels. However, this does not constitute a health hazard, as will be discus
guidelines.
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Long-distance trains have one or more engine cars that are separate from the passenger
cars. Thus passenger exposure comes mainly from the electricity supply to the train.
Magnetic fields in the passenger cars of long-distance trains can be several hundred µT near
the floor, with lower values (tens of µT) elsewhere in the compartment. Electric field
strengths may reach 300 V/m. People living in the vicinity of railway lines may encounter
magnetic fields from the overhead supply which, depending on the country, may be
comparable to the fields produced by high-voltage power lines.
Motors and traction equipment of trains and trams are normally located underneath the
floors of passenger cars. At floor level, magnetic field intensities may amount to tens of µT in
regions of the floor just above the motor. The fields fall off quickly with distance from the
floor, and exposure of the upper bodies of passengers is much lower.
TV and radio
When choosing a radio station on your stereo at home, have you ever wondered what the
familiar abbreviations AM and FM stand for? Radio signals are described as amplitude-
modulated (AM) or frequencymodulated (FM) depending on the way in which they carry
information. AM radio signals can be used for broadcasting over very long distances whereas
FM waves cover more localized areas but can give a better sound quality.AM radio signals
are transmitted via large arrays of antennas, which can be tens of metres high, on sites which
are off-limits to the public. Exposures very close to antennas and feed cables can be high, but
these would affect maintenance workers rather than the general public.TV and FM radio
antennas are much smaller than AM radio antennas and are mounted in arrays at the top of
high towers. The towers themselves serve only as supporting structures. As exposures near
the foot of these towers are below guideline limits, public access to these areas may be
possible. Small local TV and radio antennas are sometimes mounted on the top of buildings;
if this is the case it may be necessary to control access to the roof.
Mobile phones and their base stations
Mobile phones allow people to be within reach at all times. These lowpower radiowave
devices transmit and receive signals from a network of fixed low power base stations. Each
base station provides coverage to a given area. Depending on the number of calls being
handled, base stations may be from only a few hundred metres apart in major cities to
several kilometres apart in rural areas. Mobile phone base stations are usually mounted on
the tops of buildings or on towers at heights of between 15 and 50 metres. The levels of
transmissions from any particular base station are variable and depend on the number of
calls and the callers' distance from the base station. Antennas emit a very narrow beam of
radiowaves which spreads out almost parallel tothe ground. Therefore, radiofrequency fields
at ground level and in regions normally accessible to the public are many times below hazard
levels. Guidelines would only be exceeded if a person were to approach to within a metre or
two directly in front of the antennas. Until mobile phones became widely used, members of
the public were mainly exposed to radiofrequency emissions from radio and TV stations.
Even today, the phone towers themselves add little to our total exposure, as signal
strengths in
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places of public access are normally similar to or lower than those from distant radio and TV
stations.
However, the user of a mobile phone is exposed to radiofrequency fields much higher than
those found in the general environment. Mobile phones are operated very close to the head.
Therefore, rather than looking at the heating effect across the whole body, the distribution
of absorbed energy in the head of the user must be determined. From sophisticated
computer modeling and measurements using models of heads, it appears that the energy
absorbed from a mobile phone is not in excess of current guidelines.Concerns about other
so-called non-thermal effects arising from exposure to mobile phone frequencies have also
been raised. These include suggestions of subtle effects on cells that could have an effect on
cancer development. Effects on electrically excitable tissues that may influence the function
of the brain and nervous tissue have also been hypothesized. However, the overall evidence
available to date does not suggest that the use of mobile phones has any detrimental effect
on human health.
Magnetic fields in everyday life: are they really that high?
The Federal Office for Radiation Safety in Germany recently measured the daily exposure to
magnetic fields of about 2000 individuals across a range of occupations and public
exposures. All of them were equipped with personal dosimeters for 24 hours. The measured
exposure varied widely but gave an average daily exposure of
0.10 µT. This value is a thousand times lower that the standard limit of 100 µT for the public
and five thousand times lower than the 500 µT exposure limit for workers. Furthermore, the
exposure of people living in the centres of cities showed that there are no drastic differences
in exposure between life in rural areas and life in the city. Even the exposure of people living
in the vicinity of high voltage power lines differs very little from the average exposure in the
population.
Key points
• Background electromagnetic field levels in the home are mainly caused by the
transmission and distribution facilities for electricity or by electrical appliances.
• Electrical appliances differ greatly in the strength of fields they generate. Both
electric and magnetic field levels decrease rapidly with distance .
• appliances. In any event, fields surrounding household appliances usually are far
below guideline limits.
• At operator positions the electric and magnetic fields of television sets and
computer screens are hundreds of thousands times below guideline levels.
• As long as close public access to radar facilities, broadcasting antennas and mobile
phone base stations is restricted, exposure guideline limits for radiofrequency
fields will not be exceeded.
• The user of a mobile phone encounters field levels that are much higher than any
levels in the normal living environment. However, even these increased levels do
not appear to generate harmful effects.
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Exposure to electromagnetic fields is not a new phenomenon. However, during the 20th
century, environmental exposure to artificial electromagnetic fields has been steadily
increasing as growing electricity demand, ever-advancing technologies and changes in social
behaviour have created more and more artificial sources. Everyone is exposed to a complex
mix of weak electric and magnetic fields, both at home and at work, from the generation
and transmission of electricity, domestic appliances and industrial equipment, to
telecommunications and broadcasting.
Tiny electrical currents exist in the human body due to the chemical reactions that occur as
part of the normal bodily functions, even in the absence of external electric fields. For
example, nerves relay signals by transmitting electric impulses. Most biochemical reactions
from digestion to brain activities go along with the rearrangement of charged particles. Even
the heart is electrically active - an activity that your doctor can trace with the help of an
electrocardiogram.
Low-frequency electric fields influence the human body just as they influence any other
material made up of charged particles. When electric fields act on conductive materials, they
influence the distribution of electric charges at their surface. They cause current to flow
through the body to the ground. Low-frequency magnetic fields induce circulating currents
within the human body. The strength of these currents depends on the intensity of the
outside magnetic field. If sufficiently large, these currents could cause stimulation of nerves
and muscles or affect other biological processes.
Both electric and magnetic fields induce voltages and currents in the body but even directly
beneath a high voltage transmission line, the induced currents are very small compared to
thresholds for producing shock and other electrical effects.
Heating is the main biological effect of the electromagnetic fields of radiofrequency fields.
In microwave ovens this fact is employed to warm up food. The levels of
radiofrequency fields to which people are normally exposed are very much lower than those
needed to produce significant heating. The heating effect of radiowaves forms the
underlying basis for current guidelines. Scientists are also investigating the possibility that
effects below the threshold level for body heating occur as a result of long-term exposure.
To date, no adverse health effects from low level, long-term exposure to
radiofrequency or power frequency fields have been confirmed, but scientists are
actively continuing to research this area
Human studies
In humans, transitory minor effects (both positive and negative) have been observed on EEG
patterns, sleep structure, and cognitive processes (D’Costa et al. 2003, Cook et al. 2002,
Hossmann and Hermann 2003, Sienkiewicz et al. 2005). Also studies where no effects were
documented have been published, even after a repeated exposure (Besset et al. 2005).
Since
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the ear is very close to the exposure source, some studies have checked the auditory system
under or after exposure, and even after repeated cumulative exposure. No effect has been
observed (Ozturan et al. 2002, Arai et al. 2003, Bak et al. 2003, Parazzini et al. 2005, Uloziene
et al. 2005). Animal studies Slight changes in EEG activity and neurotransmitters have been
observed in animals at low SARs (reviewed by Sienkiewicz et al. 2005). Regarding cognitive
functions, a recent report showed that a disturbance of learning and memory in rats
exposed at 2.45 GHz CW could be inhibited by a magnetic field (incoherent noise) (Lai
2004a). Results from earlier studies on learning and memory at non-thermal RF levels have
not been corroborated (Dubreuil et al. 2003, Yamaguchi et al. 2003, Cobb et al. 2004,
Cassel et al. 2004). No morphological effects have been observed below thermal thresholds
(D’Andrea et al. 2003). Salford and co-workers published another work showing changes in
BBB permeability at low SAR (Salford et al. 2003), whereas others did not find any such
alteration (Finnie et al. 2001), even with repeated exposures up to 2 years (Finnie et al.
2002). No effects have been seen on auditory system function (Aran et al. 2004) or on
development of multiple sclerosis in rats (Anane et al. 2003b).
Miscellaneous human Initial observations of a blood pressure decrease after mobile phone
exposure have not been replicated (Braune et al. 1998, Braune et al. 2002). The only effects
on cardiovascular functions that have been replicated are increased blood-flow in the
external ear (Monfrecola et al. 2003, Roelandts 2003). Local temperature increases during
exposure have been reported (Paredi et al. 2001, Curcio et al. 2004), possibly related to
vasodilation caused by heating of mobile phone electronics and battery.
teratogenic at exposure levels that are sufficiently high to cause significant increase of
temperature and exceed reference levels from exposure guidelines. There is no consistent
evidence of effects at nonthermal exposure levels. However, only a few studies have
evaluated possible effects on postnatal development using sensitive endpoints, such as
behavioural effects.
Sensitivity of children Concerns about the potential vulnerability of children to RF fields have
system; in addition, their brain tissue is more conductive than that of adults since it has a
higher water content and ion concentration, RF penetration is greater relative to head size,
and they have a greater absorption of RF energy in the tissues of the head at mobile
telephone frequencies. Finally, they will have a longer lifetime exposure. Few relevant
epidemiological
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or laboratory studies have addressed the possible effects of RF field exposure on children.
Owing to widespread use of mobile phones among children and adolescents and relatively
high exposures to the brain, investigation of the potential effect of RF fields in the
development of childhood brain tumour is warranted. The characteristics of mobile phone use
among children, their potential biological vulnerability and longer lifetime exposure make
extrapolation from adult studies problematic. There is an ongoing debate on possible
differences in RF absorption between children and adults during mobile phone usage, e.g. due
to differences in anatomy.
An adverse health effect causes detectable impairment of the health of the exposed
individual or of his or her offspring; a biological effect, on the other hand, may or may not
result in an adverse health effect.
It is not disputed that electromagnetic fields above certain levels can trigger biological
effects. Experiments with healthy volunteers indicate that short-term exposure at the levels
present in the environment or in the home do not cause any apparent detrimental effects.
Exposures to higher levels that might be harmful are restricted by national and international
guidelines. The current debate is centred on whether longterm low level exposure can evoke
biological responses and influence people's well being.
Widespread concerns for health
A look at the news headlines of recent years allows some insight into the various areas of
public concern. Over the course of the past decade, numerous electromagnetic field sources
have become the focus of health concerns, including power lines, microwave ovens,
computer and TV screens, security devices, radars
and most recently mobile phones and their base stations. The
International EMF Project
In response to growing public health concerns over possible health effects from
exposure to an ever increasing number and diversity of electromagnetic field
sources, in 1996 the World Health Organization (WHO) launched a large,
multidisciplinary research effort. The International EMF Project brings together current
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knowledge and available resources of key international and national agencies and scientific
institutions.
Some members of the public have attributed a diffuse collection of symptoms to low levels
of exposure to electromagnetic fields at home. Reported symptoms include headaches,
anxiety, suicide and depression, nausea, fatigue and loss of libido. To date, scientific
evidence does not support a link between these symptoms and exposure to electromagnetic
fields. At least some of these health problems may be caused by noise or other factors in the
environment, or by anxiety related to the presence of new technologies.
Effects on pregnancy outcome
Many different sources and exposures to electromagnetic fields in the living and working
environment, including computer screens, water beds and electric blankets, radiofrequency
welding machines, diathermy equipment and radar, have been evaluated by the WHO and
other organizations. The overall weight of evidence shows that exposure to fields at typical
environmental levels does not increase the risk of any adverse outcome such as spontaneous
abortions, malformations, low birth weight, and congenital diseases. There have been
occasional reports of associations between health problems and presumed exposure to
electromagnetic fields, such as reports of prematurity and low birth weight in children of
workers in the electronics industry, but these have not been regarded by the scientific
community as being necessarily caused by the field exposures (as opposed to factors such as
exposure to solvents).
Cataracts
General eye irritation and cataracts have sometimes been reported in workers exposed to
high levels of radiofrequency and microwave radiation, but animal studies do not support
the idea that such forms of eye damage can be produced at levels that are not thermally
hazardous. There is no evidence that these effects occur at levels experienced by the general
public.
Despite many studies, the evidence for any effect remains highly controversial. However, it is
electromagnetic fields do have an effect on cancer, then any increase in risk will be
extremely small. The results to date contain many inconsistencies.
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Some individuals report "hypersensitivity" to electric or magnetic fields. They ask whether
aches and pains, headaches, depression, lethargy, sleeping disorders, and even convulsions
and epileptic seizures could be associated with electromagnetic field exposure.
Much effort is currently being directed towards the study of electromagnetic fields in
relation to cancer. Studies in search for possible carcinogenic (cancer-producing) effects of
power frequency fields is continuing, although at a reduced level compared to that of the
late 1990's.
The long-term health effects of mobile telephone use is another topic of much current
research. No obvious adverse effect of exposure to low level radiofrequency fields has been
discovered. However, given public concerns regarding the safety of cellular telephones,
further research aims to determine whether any less obvious effects.
Key points
• A wide range of environmental influences causes biological effects. 'Biological effect'
does not equal 'health hazard'. Special research is needed to identify and measure
health hazards.
• At low frequencies, external electric and magnetic fields induce small circulating
currents within the body. In virtually all ordinary environments, the levels of induced
currents inside the body are too small to produce effect.
• The main effect of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields is heating of body tissues.
• There is no doubt that short-term exposure to very high levels .
Electromagnetic fields can be harmful to health. Current public concern focuses at
levels below those required to trigger acute biological responses.
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• WHO's International EMF Project was launched to provide scientifically sound and
objective answers to public concerns about possible hazards of low level
electromagnetic fields.
• Despite extensive research, to date there is no evidence to conclude that exposure to
low level electromagnetic fields is harmful to human health.
• The focus of international research is the investigation of possible links between
cancer and electromagnetic fields, at power line and radiofrequencies.
Discussion
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