IONIZATION

IONIZATION
 DEFINITION
Ionization or ionisation, is the process by which
an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or
positive charge by gaining or losing electrons,
often in conjunction with other chemical
changes.
ACID
ACID AND
AND BASE
BASE CONCEPT
CONCEPT
 Arrhenius Concept
Arrhenius theory. Arrhenius theory, theory,
introduced in 1887 by the Swedish scientist
Svante Arrhenius, that acids are substances
that dissociate in water to yield electrically
charged atoms or molecules, called ions, one
of which is a hydrogen ion (H+), and that bases
ionize in water to yield hydroxide ions (OH−).
 Bronsted-Lowry Concept
In 1923, chemists Johannes
Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas
Martin Lowry independently developed
definitions of acids and bases based on the
compounds' abilities to either donate or accept
protons (H+ ions). In this theory,
 acids are defined as proton donors;
whereas bases are defined as proton acceptors.
 Bronted lowrey Concept
acid + base ⇌ conjugate base + conjugate acid.
With an acid, HA, the equation can be written
symbolically as:
HA + B ⇌ A- + HB+
The equilibrium sign, ⇌, is used because the
reaction can occur in both forward and backward
directions. The acid, HA, can lose a proton to
become its conjugate base, A−. The base, B, can
accept a proton to become its conjugate acid, HB+.
Most acid-base reactions are fast so that the
components of the reaction are usually in dynamic
equilibrium with each other.[
 In Aqueous Solution
Consider the following acid–base reaction:
CH3 COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3 COO ‫־‬+ H3O+
Acetic acid, CH3COOH, is an acid because it
donates a proton to water (H2O) and becomes
its conjugate base, the acetate ion (CH3COO−).
H2O is a base because it accepts a proton from
CH3COOH and becomes its conjugate acid,
the hydronium ion, (H3O+).
 In Aqueous Solution
The reverse of an acid-base reaction is also an
acid-base reaction, between the conjugate acid
of the base in the first reaction and the
conjugate base of the acid. In the above
example, acetate is the base of the reverse
reaction and hydronium ion is the acid.
H3O+ + CH3 COO- ⇌ CH3 COOH + H2O
The power of the Brønsted–Lowry theory is that,
in contrast to Arrhenius theory, it does not
require an acid to dissociate.
 Lewis Electron Theory
Lewis' theory used electrons instead of proton
transfer and specifically stated that an acid is a
species that accepts an electron pair while a
base donates an electron pair.
Lewis Acid: a species that accepts an electron
pair (i.e., an electrophile) and will have vacant
orbitals
Lewis Base: a species that donates an electron
pair (i.e., a nucleophile) and will have lone-pair
electrons
 Acid-Base Equilibrium
Acid/Base Equilibrium. Acids and bases have a
chemical equilibrium in solution. At
chemical equilibrium, the products and
reactants have reached a state of balance. ...
Here is the general format for weak acid
dissociation:
HA_ + H2O ⇌ H3O_ + A_{aq}

⇌, which mean that as the acids is dissociating,

it is also re-combining. The reaction can
proceed either forward or in reverse, depending
on the environmental conditions.
 Rate of Forward Reaction
According to law of mass action ,the velocity of
rate of the forward reaction,Rf is proportional to
the concentration of reactants,
Rf=k1*acid*Base
According to law of mass action ,the velocity of
rate of the reverse reaction,Rr is proportional to
the concentration of reactants,
Rf=k1*cojugated acid*conjugated Base
Rf=Rr
Equilibrium of weak acid and base
The equilibrium constants of acids (K_aKa) and
bases (K_bKb) can be used to determine the
relative strengths of the compounds. These
constants, which are also called dissociation
constants or ionization constants, can be used
to calculate the percent ionization of an
aqueous solution or to determine pH.
Additionally, the equilibrium constant for an
acid-base reaction can be calculated from
theKa and Kb values for the reactants.
Ka
 Kb
A weak base is a base that ionizes only slightly
in an aqueous solution. Recall that a base can be
defined as a substance, which accepts a
hydrogen ion from another substance. When a
weak base such as ammonia is dissolved in
water, it accepts an H + ion from water, forming
the hydroxide ion and the conjugate acid of the
base, the ammonium ion.

The equilibrium greatly favors the reactants and

the extent of ionization of the ammonia molecule
is very small.
An equilibrium expression can be written for
the reactions of weak bases with water.
Because the concentration of water is
extremely large and virtually constant, the
water is not included in the expression. A base
ionization constant (Kb) is the equilibrium
constant for the ionization of a base. For
ammonia the expression is:
The numerical value of Kb is a reflection of the
strength of the base. Bases with relatively
higher Kb values are stronger than bases with
relatively lower Kb values.
 Ionization Of Water
The self-ionization of water (also autoionization
of water, and autodissociation of water) is
an ionization reaction in pure water or in
an aqueous solution, in which a water molecule,
H2O, deprotonates (loses the nucleus of one of
its hydrogen atoms) to become a hydroxide ion,
OH−. The hydrogen nucleus, H+,
immediately protonates another water molecule
to form hydronium, H3O+. It is an example
of autoprotolysis, and exemplifies
the amphoteric nature of water.
H2O + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + OH−
 pH
In chemistry, pH is a scale used to specify how
acidic or basic a water-based solution is. Acidic
solutions have a lower pH, while basic
solutions have a higher pH. At room
temperature (25°C or 77°F), pure water is
neither acidic nor basic and has a pH of 7.
 pH indicators

Indicators may be used to measure pH, by making

use of the fact that their color changes with pH.
Visual comparison of the color of a test solution
with a standard color chart provides a means to
measure pH accurate to the nearest whole number.
More precise measurements are possible if the
color is measured spectrophotometrically, using
a colorimeter or spectrophotometer. Universal
indicator consists of a mixture of indicators such
that there is a continuous color change from about
pH 2 to pH 10. Universal indicator paper is made
from absorbent paper that has been impregnated
with universal indicator. Another method of
measuring pH is using an electronic pH meter.
 PH VALUE
The symbol "p" means "the negative of the
logrithm of."  "p" is often used with very small or
very large values.
pH is a measure of the amount of activity of
hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution and thus its
alkalinity or acidity. Although a pH value is
unitless, it is not a random scale; the number
rises from a description grounded on the activity
of hydrogen ions in the solution. pH is described
as “the negative of the logarithm of the molar
hydronium-ion concentration.”
pH Formula is arithmetically articulated as
 
 pH Problems
Problem 1: Calculate the pH of human arterial
blood in which the hydronium ion concentration
is 4.0 ×× 10-8M.
Answer:
The concentration of hydronium ion is 4.0 ×
10-8M
Thus, we can make use of the formula,
pH = – log[4.0 × 10-8]
pH = 7.40
As the hydronium ion concentration is provided
till two decimal places we can note the pH with
two significant figures.
 Calculation
pH =log1 - log [H3O+].
log1=0
pH = 0- log [H3O+].
pH = - log [H3O+].
 pOH
pOH is a measure of hydroxide ion (OH-)
concentration. It is used to express the
alkalinity of a solution. Aqueous solutions at 25
degrees Celcius with pOH less than 7 are
alkaline, pOH greater than 7 are acidic
and pOH equal to 7 are neutral.
pOH =  - log [OH-]
 pk
The pKa value is one method used to indicate
the strength of an acid. 
pH + pOH = pk
pH + pOH = 14
Example:  A solution has a pOH of 11.76.  What
is the pH of this solution?
pH =  14  -  pOH = 14  -  11.76 =  2.24
 pKw
H2O ⇌ OH− + H+

pK=pH+pOH

pKw=pKa+Pkb
 Buffer
A buffer is a solution that can resist pH change
upon the addition of an acidic or basic
components. It is able to neutralize small
amounts of added acid or base, thus
maintaining the pH of the solution relatively
stable. This is important for processes and/or
reactions which require specific and stable pH
ranges.
When some strong acid is added to a buffer,
the equilibrium is shifted to the left, and the
hydrogen ion concentration increases by less
than expected for the amount of strong acid
added.
Buffer solutions are necessary in biology for
keeping the correct pH for proteins to work.
Buffers can be prepared in multiple ways by
creating a solution of an acid and its conjugate
base.
 Preparation Of Buffer
There are a couple of ways to prepare a buffer
solution of a specific pH. In the first method,
prepare a solution with an acid and its conjugate
base by dissolving the acid form of the buffer in
about 60% of the volume of water required to
obtain the final solution volume. Then, measure
the pH of the solution using a pH probe. The pH
can be adjusted up to the desired value using a
strong base like NaOH. If the buffer is made with
a base and its conjugate acid, the pH can be
adjusted using a strong acid like HCl. Once the
pH is correct, dilute the solution to the final
desired volume.
Alternatively, you can prepare solutions of both
the acid form and base form of the solution.
Both solutions must contain the same buffer
concentration as the concentration of the buffer
in the final solution. To get the final buffer, add
one solution to the other while monitoring the
pH.
In a third method, you can determine the exact
amount of acid and conjugate base needed to
make a buffer of a certain pH, using the
Henderson-Hasselbach equation:

pH=pKa+log([A−]/[HA])
Equation For Buffer
We can write above equation as
[H3O+]=Ka [Hac]/[Ac-]
Hac is the acid
Ac- can be considerd as have come form salt
so,
Ac- is the salt
So, equation can be write as
[H3O+]=Ka [acid]/[base]
By applying log in equation
-log[H3O+]=-logKa-log [acid]+log[salt]
pH=pKa +log [salt]/[acid]
Salt and acid ratio is inverted due to log
operation.
Some factors influencing pH of buffer
soln
There is the use of buffer solution is essential
in pharmaceutical process and analysis study.
The buffer solution has base and acid. It can be
a strong acid with a weak base, or a weak base
with a strong acid used to keep the right pH
balance.
Here are mentions some Factors influencing
the pH of Buffer Solutions are as follows. 
The temperature change varies the pH of a buffer
solution, every buffer can influence differently. For
example the pH of sodium borate- boric acid buffer
solution reduces with temperature, while the pH of
acetate buffer rises with temperature. 
emperature change affects Ka, Kb, and Kw. Therefore,
pH of buffers is influenced by temperature. Each buffer
is influenced differently. Some buffers decrease in pH
(e.g. boric acid- sodium borate) while others increase
in pH (e.g. acetic acid- sodium acetate) as temperature
increase.  Moreover, the magnitude of change is
relatively small for acidic buffers when compared to
basic buffers.
By adding neutral salts to the buffer solution, the pH of
the solution can be changed due to the change in ionic
strength. 
Dilution of the buffer solution also modifies the
pH value since as changed in ionic strength. 
The activity of hydronium ion, and the activity
of ionized species that changes the pH of the
buffer solution. 
In addition, the amount of the change
compared to the basic buffer is relatively small
for the acidic buffer.
 Drugs As Buffer
It is important to recognize that solutions of
drugs that are weak electrolytes also manifest
buffer action. Salicylic acid solution in a soft
glass bottle is influenced by the alkalinity of the
glass. It might be thought at first that the
reaction would result in an appreciable increase
in pH; however, the sodium ions of the soft glass
combine with the salicylate ions to form sodium
salicylate. Thus, there arises a solution of
salicylic acid and sodium salicylate—a buffer
solution that resists the change in pH. Similarly,
a solution of ephedrine base manifests a natural
buffer protection against reductions in pH.
 Drug As Buffer
Should hydrochloric acid be added to the solution,
ephedrine hydrochloride is formed, and the buffer
system of ephedrine plus ephedrine hydrochloride will
resist large changes in pH until the ephedrine is
depleted by reaction with the acid. Therefore, a drug in
solution may often act as its own buffer over a definite
pH range. Such buffer action, however, is often too
weak to counteract pH changes brought about by the
carbon dioxide of the air and the alkalinity of the bottle.
Additional buffers are therefore frequently added to
drug solutions to maintain the system within a certain
pH range. A quantitative measure of the efficiency or
capacity of a buffer to resist pH changes will be
discussed in a later section.
 Buffer Capacity
Thus far it has been stated that a buffer
counteracts the change in pH of a solution
upon the addition of a strong acid, a strong
base, or other agents that tend to alter the
hydrogen ion concentration. Furthermore, it has
been shown in a rather qualitative manner how
combinations of weak acids and weak bases
together with their salts manifest this buffer
action. The resistance to changes of pH now
remains to be discussed in a more quantitative
way.
 Buffer Capacity
The magnitude of the resistance of a buffer to
pH changes is referred to as the buffer capacity,
β. It is also known as buffer efficiency, buffer
index, and buffer value. Koppel and Spiro1 and
Van Slyke2 introduced the concept of buffer
capacity and defined it as the ratio of the
increment of strong base (or acid) to the small
change in pH brought about by this addition. For
the present discussion, the approximate formula
ß=ΔB/ΔpH
 Buffer Capacity
can be used, in which delta, Δ, has its usual
meaning, a finite change, and ΔB is the small
increment in gram equivalents (g Eq)/liter of
strong base added to the buffer solution to
produce a pH change of Δ pH. According to
equation , the buffer capacity of a solution has a
value of 1 when the addition of 1 g Eq of strong
base (or acid) to 1 liter of the buffer solution
results in a change of 1 pH unit. The significance
of this index will be appreciated better when it is
applied to the calculation of the capacity of a
buffer solution.