General Aptitude (PDFDrive)

First Edition
GATE
Instrumentation Engineering
General Aptitude
Vol 1 of 5
R K Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
NODIA & COMPANY

GATE Instrumentation Engineering Vol 1, 1e
General Aptitude
RK Kanodia & Ashish Murolia
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To Our Parents
Preface to the Series
For almost a decade, we have been receiving tremendous responses from GATE aspirants for our earlier books:
GATE Multiple Choice Questions, GATE Guide, and the GATE Cloud series. Our first book, GATE Multiple
Choice Questions (MCQ), was a compilation of objective questions and solutions for all subjects of GATE
Electronics & Communication Engineering in one book. The idea behind the book was that Gate aspirants who
had just completed or about to finish their last semester to achieve his or her B.E/B.Tech need only to practice
answering questions to crack GATE. The solutions in the book were presented in such a manner that a student
needs to know fundamental concepts to understand them. We assumed that students have learned enough of
the fundamentals by his or her graduation. The book was a great success, but still there were a large ratio of
aspirants who needed more preparatory materials beyond just problems and solutions. This large ratio mainly
included average students.
Later, we perceived that many aspirants couldn’t develop a good problem solving approach in their B.E/B.Tech.
Some of them lacked the fundamentals of a subject and had difficulty understanding simple solutions. Now,
we have an idea to enhance our content and present two separate books for each subject: one for theory, which
contains brief theory, problem solving methods, fundamental concepts, and points-to-remember. The second book
is about problems, including a vast collection of problems with descriptive and step-by-step solutions that can
be understood by an average student. This was the origin of GATE Guide (the theory book) and GATE Cloud
(the problem bank) series: two books for each subject. GATE Guide and GATE Cloud were published in three
subjects only.
Thereafter we received an immense number of emails from our readers looking for a complete study package
for all subjects and a book that combines both GATE Guide and GATE Cloud. This encouraged us to present
GATE Study Package (a set of 10 books: one for each subject) for GATE Electronic and Communication
Engineering. Each book in this package is adequate for the purpose of qualifying GATE for an average student.
Each book contains brief theory, fundamental concepts, problem solving methodology, summary of formulae,
and a solved question bank. The question bank has three exercises for each chapter: 1) Theoretical MCQs, 2)
Numerical MCQs, and 3) Numerical Type Questions (based on the new GATE pattern). Solutions are presented
in a descriptive and step-by-step manner, which are easy to understand for all aspirants.
We believe that each book of GATE Study Package helps a student learn fundamental concepts and develop
problem solving skills for a subject, which are key essentials to crack GATE. Although we have put a vigorous
effort in preparing this book, some errors may have crept in. We shall appreciate and greatly acknowledge all
constructive comments, criticisms, and suggestions from the users of this book. You may write to us at rajkumar.
[email protected] and [email protected].
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all the co-authors, editors, and reviewers for their efforts in
making this project successful. We would also like to thank Team NODIA for providing professional support for
this project through all phases of its development. At last, we express our gratitude to God and our Family for
providing moral support and motivation.
We wish you good luck !

R. K. Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
Contents
Unit 1 English Grammar
Chapter 1 Noun
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Common Noun 1

1.2.1 Collective Noun 1
1.2.2 Abstract Noun 1
1.2.3 Material Noun 1
1.3 Proper Noun 1
1.4 Gender 1
1.5 Number 2
1.6 Case 3
Examples 5
Chapter 2 proNoun
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Personal Pronoun 6
2.3 Reflexive Pronoun 7
2.4 Demonstrative pronoun 7
2.5 Indefinite pronouns 7
2.6 Distributive pronouns 8
2.7 Relative pronouns 8
2.8 Interrogative pronouns 9
Examples 10
Chapter 3 verb
3.1 Introduction 12
3.2 Transitive and intransitive verb 12

3.2.1 Transitive Verb 12
3.2.2 Intransitive Verb 12
3.3 Characteristics of verb 12
3.3.1 Voice 12
3.3.2 Mood 13
3.3.3 Tense 13
3.4 Subject-Verb Agreement 15
3.5 Modal and auxiliary verb 15
Examples 19
Chapter 4 Adverb
4.1 Introduction 21
4.2 Kinds of adverb 21
4.3 Uses of Adverb 21
Examples 23
Chapter 5 Adjective
5.1 Introduction 25
5.2 Uses of Adjective 25
5.3 Kinds of adjective 25

5.3.1 Adjective of Quality 25
5.3.2 Adjective of Quantity 25
5.3.3 Adjective of Number 26
5.3.4 Demonstrative Adjective 26
5.3.5 Interrogative Adjective 26
5.3.6 Emphasising Adjective 26
5.3.7 Exclamatory Adjective 26
5.4 Comparison of adjectives 26
Examples 28
Chapter 6 preposition
6.1 Introduction 30
6.2 Kinds of Preposition 30
6.3 Uses of Preposition 30
Examples 32
Chapter 7 Conjunction
7.1 Introduction 34
7.2 Coordinating Conjunctions 34
7.3 Subordinating Conjunctions 34

7.3.1 Subordinate Conjunctions Introducing Adverb Clauses 34
7.3.2 Subordinating Conjunctions for Relative Clauses 35
7.3.3 Subordinating Conjunctions for Noun Clauses 35
7.4 Correlative Conjunctions 35
7.5 Uses of Conjunction 35
Examples 37
Chapter 8 Article
8.1 Introduction 39
8.2 Use of A and An 39
8.3 Use of The 39
Chapter 9 Voice
9.1 Introduction 40
9.2 Active Voice 40

9.2.1 Construction of the Active Voice 40
9.3 Passive Voice 40
9.4 Active-Passive Conversion Process 40

9.4.1 Present Indefinite Tense 40
9.4.2 Present Continuous Tense 40
9.4.3 Present Perfect Tense 40
9.4.4 Past Indefinite Tense 41
9.4.5 Past Continuous Tense 41
9.4.6 Past Perfect Tense 41
9.4.7 Future Indefinite Tense 41
9.4.8 Future Perfect Tense 41
9.4.9 Other Types of Sentences 41
Chapter 10 Narration
10.1 Introduction 43
10.2 Direct and indirect speech 43
10.3 Conversion of direct speech into indirect speech 43
Unit 2 Verbal Ability
Chapter 1 Critical Reasoning and Verbal Deduction 1
Chapter 2 Syllogism 5
Chapter 3 Reading Comprehension 13
Chapter 4 Rearrangement of Jumbled Phrases 21
Chapter 5 Rearrangement of Jumbled Sentences 30
Chapter 6 Spotting the Errors 44
Chapter 7 Sentence Completion 62
Chapter 8 Sentence Improvement 92
Chapter 9 Spelling 102
Chapter 10 Synonyms 108
Chapter 11 Antonym 137
Chapter 12 Odd Word Out 158
Chapter 13 One Word for Many 163
Chapter 14 Verbal Analogies 168
Unit 3 Numerical Ability
Chapter 1 Number System 1
Chapter 2 Number Series 15
Chapter 3 LCM and HCF 28
Chapter 4 Percentage 36
Chapter 5 Average 52
Chapter 6 Power and Roots 68

Chapter 7 Indices and Surds 73
Chapter 8 Ratio & Proportion 85
Chapter 9 Mixture and Allegation 102
Chapter 10 Profit Loss and Discount 117
Chapter 11 Interest 132
Chapter 12
Age 147
Chapter 13 Clock & Calender 158
Chapter 14 Time and Work 169
Chapter 15 Time and Distance 186
Chapter 16 Train & Boat 200
Chapter 17 Pipe and Cisterns 217
Chapter 18 Height, Distance, & Direction 230
Chapter 19 Areas & Volumes 249
Chapter 20 Algebra 265
Chapter 21 Coordinate Geometry 280
Chapter 22 Permutation & Combination 293
Chapter 23 Probability 308
Chapter 24 Data Interpretation 323
***********
chapter 1
Adjective
1.1 Introduction 1.3.1 Adjective of Quality

An adjective is a word used with a noun (or a It shows the kind of quality of a person or a thing.
pronoun) to add something for its meaning. In the It is also known as descriptive adjective.
Example: He loves her soft skin.
following section, we will discuss various types of
adjectives and their usage. Verbal and Oral
Verbal means of or pertaining to words. Oral
1.2 Uses of Adjective
means the word delivered by mouth. Its opposite
The adjective may be used as follows is written.
1. Attributive usage: In attributive usage, the Incorrect: His written statement differs from his
adjective stands next to the noun. verbal one.
Example: There were dark clouds in Correct: His written statement differs from his
the sky. oral one.
2. Predicative usage: In predicative usage, the Common and Mutual
adjectives are used as complement after linking
Common means shared by all concerned. If a fact
verbs.
is common knowledge, it means the knowledge of
Example: The clouds in the sky were the fact is shared by all. Everyone knows about it.
dark. Mutual means in relation to each other. If you and
I are mutual admirers, it means I admire you and
Rules
you admire me.
1. The adjective is correctly used with a verb Incorrect: We started smoking on the advice of a
when some quality of the subject, rather than mutual friend.
of the action of the verb, is to be expressed. Correct: We started smoking on the advice of a
Incorrect: Flowers were plucked freshly. common friend.
Correct: Flowers were plucked fresh.
1.3.2 Adjective of Quantity
2. Due to and prior to should be used as predicative
adjectives. When prepositional functions are It is an adjective which shows how much of a thing
to be performed, use because of in place of due is meant.
to, and before in place of prior to. Some, Any
Incorrect: Wickets fell due to superb bowling. Both of them express quantity or degree. Some
Correct: Wickets fell because of superb bowling. is used in affirmative sentences. Any is used in
negative or interrogative sentences. However, if
1.3 Kinds of adjective the question is in fact a request or a command,
some is used.
In this section, we will discuss different kinds of Incorrect: I shall not buy some rice.
adjective and their uses. Correct: I shall not buy any rice.
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Page 12 Adjective Chapter 1
Sample Chapter of GATE Instrumentation Engineering Vol-1

Little, a little, the little 1.3.4 Demonstrative Adjective
Little has a negative meaning. It means not much Demonstrative adjective points out which person
or hardly any. or thing is meant.
Example: He has little knowledge of politics. Example: This table is made of wood.
i. n
The above sentence means that he hardly
knows politics. It is implied that there is no sense
1.3.5 Interrogative Adjective
o
in turning to him when it comes to politics. A little
c
has a positive meaning. It means some, though When an interrogative pronoun is used with a
.
not much. noun to ask a question, it is called an interrogative
i a
Example: He has a little knowledge of politics. adjective.
d
The above sentence means though he is Example: What options are available after
o
not thorough with politics, he does have some graduation?
knowledge of the subject. You could look up to
. n
him for simple issues. The little means not much, 1.3.6 Emphasising Adjective
w
but all there is.
Emphasising adjective is used to lay a particular
Example: The little knowledge of politics that he
w
emphasis on a noun.
has (possesses) has been gained through
Example: This is evident from your own words.
w
newspapers.
1.3.7 Exclamatory Adjective

1.3.3 Adjective of Number
Exclamatory adjective is used with a noun in
It is also known as numeral adjective, it shows
exclamatory sentences.
how many person or things are meant, or in what
Example: What a show!
order a person or thing stands.
Example: The face of a clock has sixty divisions.
1.4 Comparison of adjectives
Numeral adjective can be further classified as
in
1. Definite Numeral Adjective: It denotes an Adjectives change in form to show comparison.
.
exact number. It may be a cardinal denoting how There are three degrees of comparison.
o
many; as, one, two, three, etc. It may be an ordinal 1. Positive degree: The positive degree of an
c
denoting the order; as, first, second, third etc.
.
adjective is the adjective in its simple form. It
Example: It is a twenty-kilometer walk. merely tells us of a quality of a thing but does not
ia
2. Indefinite numeral adjective: It does not make any comparison.
d
denote an exact number. Example: This is a small town.
o
Example: There are many petitions lying on the 2. Comparative degree: The comparative degree
n
table. of an adjective denotes a higher degree of the
.
3. Distributive numeral adjective: It refers quality than the positive, and is used when two
w
to each one of a number. Distributive numeral things are compared.
w
adjectives are the same as distributive pronouns. Example: This town is smaller than Ludhiana.
Example: Each time he missed the bus. 3. Superlative Degree: The superlative degree
w
of an adjective denotes the highest degree of the
Rule
quality, and is used when more than two things
When a number together with a unit of are compared.
measurement is to be used as an adjective, it is Example: This is the smallest town in India.
a compound word and the unit of measurement
Rules
is taken in the singular.
Incorrect: It is a twenty-kilometers walk. 1. Most of the adjectives form the comparative
Correct: It is a twenty-kilometer walk. by adding -er and the superlative by adding
-est to the positive.
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SALIENT FEATURES
* Brief Theory * Methodology * Important Points *
*MCQ * Numerical Answer Type Questions * Memory Based Questions *
Detailed Solution for Each and Every Problem
Chapter 1 Adjective Page 13
Example: Fast (positive) Positive Comparative Superlative

Faster (comparative) in inner innermost, in-
i. n
Fastest (superlative) most
2. When the positive ends in -e, only -r and -st up upper uppermost, up-
o
are added. most
.c
Example: Fine (positive) out outer, utter uttermost, ut-
most
ia
Finer (comparative)
Finest (superlative)
d
******
o
3. When the positive ends in -y, preceded by
n
a consonant, the -y is changed into -i before
.
adding -er and -est.
w
Example: Dirty (positive)
w
Dirtier (comparative)
Dirtiest (superlative)
w
4. When the positive is a word of one syllable
and ends in a single consonant, preceded by a
short vowel, this consonant is doubled before
adding -er and -est.
Example: Big (positive)
Bigger (comparative)
Biggest (superlative)
i. n
5. Adjectives of more than two syllables, and
many of those with two, use the adverbs more
o
and most respectively.
.c
Example: Difficult
a
More difficult
Most difficult
di
o
6. Some of the adjectives do not go by the above
n
rules. The list of those adjectives are given
.
below.
w
Positive Comparative Superlative
w
good, well better best
w
bad, evil, ill worse worst
little less, lesser least
much more most
many more most
late later, latter latest, last
old older, elder oldest, eldest
far farther, further farthest, furthest
near nearer nearest, next
fore former foremost, first

Page 14 Adjective Chapter 1

EXAMPLES
i. n
EX 1 Mark Waugh scored less runs in this series than
. c o
her sisters. The latter form of comparison should
i a
in the previous one. also be individuals.
d
ANS 1 Mark Waugh scored fewer runs in this series
o
than in the previous one.
The living dog is better than the dead lion.
n
EX 4
.
Less is the comparative degree of little. We
Know that little is and adjective of quantity. An ANS 4 A living dog is better than a dead lion.
w
adjective of quantity is used with nouns which Which dog? The living dog. As soon as the
w
are names of measurable (not countable) things. noun becomes qualified (here by the participle
living), we except the definite article the to pop
w
Can runs be measured? No,they are counted.
So, and adjective of number should be used. Few in. But note that here we are not singling out a
in this category corresponds to little. And since particular living dog, it could be any living dog.
it is in the comparative degree, the appropriate
word is fewer.
EX 5 Cynics believe that a few persons are good in
this world.
EX 2 This building is taller than any building in this ANS 5 Cynics believe that few persons are good in this
city.
in
world.
.
ANS 2 This building is taller than any other building This one is also a vocabulary test. Who is a
o
in this city. cynic? One who thinks that people tend to act
c
In this given sentence, between which two only in their own interests. He always has a low
.
is the comparison? This building and any opinion of people’s reasons for doing things. For
ia
building. If we think carefully, we find that him, hardly anyone is good. Now, the correct
d
any building includes this building also. This substitute for hardly anyone is few. A few, on
o
means that this building is being compared to the other hand, would mean some and if you
believe some persons to be good, you have a
n
this building. Absurd! How to set things right?
.
We have to remove this building from the latter some what positive approach. Then you are not
w
term of comparison in the given sentence. The a cynic.
relationship is mathematical as follows
EX 3 w w
any building - this building = any other building
Sita is more intelligent than all of her sisters.

EX 6
ANS 6
Of all militant groups, Hamara Watan is the
most extreme.
The sentence is correct.
ANS 3 Sita is more intelligent than any of her sisters. It is true that in usual cases, extreme does not
Usually, an individual is compared to another admit of any comparison (like round, perfect,
individual - not to a group, but to a representative unique etc.) But that is because it means greatest
of the group or one member of the group at possible or furthest possible. Since it is already
a time. Sita is an individual. Her intelligence in the superlative, we are left with no room for
cannot be compared to the entire group - all of comparison.

SALIENT FEATURES
Chapter 1 Adjective Page 15
The given sentence is, however, different. When EX 10 Nehru made a famous speech on the historical
we talk of extremist groups, we see that their occasion of independence.
extremity varies in degrees-from moderately
i. n
ANS 10 Nehru made a famous speech on the historic
extreme to extremely extreme. Extreme in their occasion of independence.
case means going beyond the usual limits. But,
o
Historical means connected with history as
once having gone beyond the usual limits, the
.c
a study. For example, you conduct historical
extent to which they go varies in degrees. Hence, research. It also means based on or representing
a
comparison (the use of superlative) is justified in
i
events in the past. You might have read a
this case.
d
historical play or a historical novel. But anything
o
that is likely to have an influence on history is
n
The intelligence tests have questions based on historic, not historical. Now, Independence was
.
EX 7
figures as well as oral ones. one such occasion.
ANS 7
w w
The intelligence tests have questions based on
figures as well as verbal ones.
w
The intelligence tests have two types of questions-
******
one based on figures, the other on words. Those
questions based on words are known as verbal
(not oral, which means of mouth) ones. Those
based on figures are not based on words and are
therefore called non-verbal.
Footballer in him could not resist itself as soon
i. n
EX 8
as a ball came into sight.
o
ANS 8 The footballer in him could not resist itself as
c
soon as a ball came into sight.
.
Here, footballer stands for the qualities of the
ia
footballer. The rule says that the definite article
d
is used before a common noun to give it the
o
meaning of an abstract noun.
.n
w
EX 9 Lok Sabha passed the bill today.
w
ANS 9 The Lok Sabha passed the bill today.
Lok Sabha is the Indian version of the House
w
of Commons. Note the use of the in the last
sentence. Now, House of Commons could have
been a common noun. But a capital H and a
capital C ensure that it is the lower house of
the Parliament and no other house of commons.
So, the is used Similarly, the United States of
America (USA, now more popular as US).

VERBAL ABILITY
chapter 1
Spotting the Errors
Directions For Q 1 to 10: little. (D)

Each of these questions has four parts. Identify
the part which is not correct. 1.10 The book is well-printed (A)/ and attractively
VA-A-49 bound (B)/ making altogether (C)/ an attractive
1.1 Even after hearing the leader (A)/ for a long time volume. (D)
VA-A-1 (B)/ the followers could not make out (C)/ which
he was talking about. (D) Directions For Q 11 to 130:
Read each sentence to find out whether there is
1.2 The principal along with the teachers (A)/ were any error in it. The error, if any, will be in one
VA-A-2 seen boarding a bus (B)/ to go to a picnic (C)/ on part of the sentence. Mark the number of that
a national holiday (D). part with error as your answer. If there is no error,
mark (D). (Ignore errors of punctuation, if any.)
1.3 Lost in thought, (A)/ with a vacant look in his
VA-A-9 eyes, (B)/ he laid (C)/ on the couch. (D) 1.11 The car flew off the road (A)/ and fell into the
VA-A-3 valley (B)/ because Amit was driving faster. (C)/
No error (D)
1.4 He would (A)/ never have taken the job if he had
VA-A-33 been knowing (B)/ what great demands it would
make (C)/ on his time. (D) 1.12 Yuvanika is one (A)/ of the latest (B)/ addition
VA-A-4 to good drama which appeared in recent times.
(C)/ No error (D)
1.5 Smoking is not allowed at petrol pumps because
VA-A-34 there is (A)/ too many (B)/ easily ignited (C)/
material in the vicinity. (D) 1.13 I will always remember (A)/ you standing by me
VA-A-5 (B)/ and offering me encouragement. (C)/ No
error (D)
1.6 Hard work and self-discipline often result (A)/ in
VA-A-35 a rise (B)/ not only in one’s (C)/ salary but also
in your self-esteem. (D)
1.14 As soon as the sun rose (A)/ over the mountains
(B)/ the valley became unbearable hot. (C)/ No
1.7 Studying the science of (A)/ logic is one way to
VA-A-6
error (D)
VA-A-36 (B)/ cultivate one’s reason (C)/ skills. (D)
1.15 The clothes were neatly (A)/ hanged (B)/ on the

1.8 The water flows at (A)/ about 2.5 m per second
cloth line. (C)/ No error (D)
for about 12 hours when the tide is rising (B)/
VA-A-7
VA-A-37
through the channel, paused (C)/ at high tide and

then reverses direction. (D) 1.16 You will be rady (A)/ to start while (B)/ he
VA-A-8 comes. (C)/ No error (D)
1.9 Many animals and plants live in water (A)/ but
VA-A-46 not in the same kind of water (B)/ because not all 1.17 Hardly I stepped (A)/ out of my house when I saw
water is the same. (C)/ Sea water, for instance, VA-A-10 some policemen (B)/ coming towards my house.
contains a lot of salt, fresh water contains very (C)/ No error (D)
SALIENT FEATURES
Chapter 1 Spotting the Errors Page 19
1.18 Swati has such a fine memory that she can (A)/ 1.30 My daughter never (A)/ would write to me (B)/
VA-A-11 recollect anything what (B)/ happened many VA-A-23 so I never know what she is doing. (C)/ No error
years ago. (C)/ No error (D) (D)
1.19 The officer along with (A)/ his family members 1.31
i. n
The manager with (A)/ his wife and two sons
o
were (B)/ invited at the reception party organised were (B)/ killed by bandits mercilessly in a broad
.c
VA-A-12 VA-A-24
by his employer. (C)/ No error (D) day light. (C)/ No error (D).
1.20 A nationwide survey has (A)/ brought up an (B)/
i a1.32 As I reached the hospital (A)/ I had found a great
d
interesting finding regarding infant mortality rate rush of visitors (B)/ whose relatives had been
o
VA-A-13 VA-A-25
in India. (C)/ No error (D) admitted there for one or the other ailment. (C)/
n
No error (D)
1.21
VA-A-14
w.
When your father inquired (A)/ about your marks
you lied to him, (B)/ have you not? (C)/ No error 1.33 As he went through the forest Ram marked the
w
(D) VA-A-26 trees (A)/ to let the rest of the party knew (B)/
which way he had gone. (C)/ No error (D)
1.22
VA-A-15
w
Simplest solution (A)/ than this expensive method
which you are suggesting (B)/ should be found
out. (C)/ No error (D)
1.34
VA-A-27
He thinks that (A)/ once he paid money (B)/ he
is relieved of all his responsibilities. (C)/ No Error
(D)
1.23 When he went out he left the radio on (A)/ so
VA-A-16 that his parents shall think (B)/ that he was still 1.35 Now a days (A)/ the accidents of diabetes (B)/
in the house. (C)/ No error (D) VA-A-28 among urban children is one the rise. (C)/ No
error (D)
i. n
1.24 We admired the way he had completed all his work
(A)/ and appreciating the method (B)/ adopted
o
VA-A-17
by him. (C)/ No error (D) 1.36 The instructions clearly state that (A)/ each item
.c
VA-A-29 is having (B)/ two options. (C)/ No error (D)
a
1.25 Even after worked in the office (A)/ for as many
i
as fifteen years, he still does not understand (B)/ 1.37 Hritik along with his family (A)/ are visiting (B)/
d
VA-A-18
the basic objectives of the work. (C)/ No error the Prince of Wales museum day after tomorrow.
o
VA-A-30
(D) (C)/ No error (D)
1.26
.n
He is so realist and so practical that he thinks 1.38 You have to remove (A)/ the fish scales before
w
VA-A-19 (A)/ imaginary things should (B)/ not place even VA-A-31 (B)/ you fry them. (C)/ No error (D)
w
in poetry. (C)/ No Error (D)
w
1.39 He carried his clothes (A)/ in a black heavy (B)/
1.27 No method of making (A)/ other people agree to VA-A-32 steel trunk. (C)/ No error (D).
VA-A-20 your view-point is (B)/ as effective as this method.
(C)/ No error (D). 1.40 The man who is perpetually hesitating (A)/
VA-A-41 which of the two things (B)/ he will do first, will
1.28 If we had Mohan (A)/ in our team we (B)/ would ultimately do either. (C)/ No error (D)
VA-A-21 have won the match against your team. (C)/ No
error (D). 1.41 The demand of the Citizen’s Forum that the prices
VA-A-42 of essential (A)/ commodities to lower down will
1.29 Neither the size nor the colour (A)/ of clothes (B)/ soon be considered by the Government. (C)/
VA-A-22 which I purchased for him (B)/ yesterday were No error (D)
right. (C)/ No error (D)

Page 20 Spotting the Errors Chapter 1

1.42 He was having a bath when the phone rang (A)/ 1.54 There was only (A)/ a loaf of bread and two
VA-A-43 very unwillingly he got out of the bath (B)/ and VA-A-105 bottles of milk in the refrigerator when (B)/ we
went to answer it. (C)/ No error (D) came back after a weekend in Manali. (C)/ No
error (D)
i. n
1.43 The customer scarcely had (A)/ enough money to
VA-A-44 pay (B)/ to the cashier at the cash counter. (C)/ 1.55 Tonsillitis is (A)/ among those (B)/ disease that
o
No error (D) VA-A-106 is curable. (C)/ No error (D)
1.44 I am contacting you (A)/ some time in next week 1.56
a . c
We think him as (A)/ a (B)/ silly boy. (C)/ No
i
VA-A-45 (B)/ to explain to you my problem in detail. (C)/ VA-A-107 error (D)
d
No Error (D)
o
1.57 Health is (A)/ more (B)/ preferable to wealth.
n
1.45 Our teeming masses, nevertheless illiterate (C)/No error (D)
.
VA-A-108
VA-A-47 they may be, (A)/ have a very high sense of
w
consciousness (B)/ and they are fully capable of 1.58 The Chief Minister, Mr. Charan Singh, with
exercising their franchise. (C)/ No error (D) his (A)/ Cabinet colleagues, were (B)/ warmly
w
VA-A-109
received at the (C)/ No error (D)
w
1.46 People are worried more because of the frequency
VA-A-48 (A)/ of occurrence of the crime rather (B)/ than 1.59 Satyajit Ray was one of the (A)/ greatest film
the magnitude of each one. (C)/ No error (D) VA-A-110 directors (B)/ that has ever lived. (C)/ No error
(D)
1.47 A gang of armed thieves has (A)/ raided (B)/ the
VA-A-98 house of Mr Gupta late last night (C)/ No error 1.60 Neither the carpenters nor the (A)/ plumber have
(D) VA-A-111 (B)/ finished the work. (C)/ No error (D)
in
1.48 That is one of (A)/ the books (B)/ that is listed 1.61 Either the Head office nor (A)/ the branch offices
.
VA-A-99 in the catalogue (C)/ No error (D) close (B)/ at 5.00 p.m. (C)/ No error (D)
o
VA-A-112
c
1.49 Everyone is expected to attend (A)/ the staff
.
1.62 A few of the windows (A)/ in the main hall was
meeting today, but (B)/ the sales manager and I.
ia
VA-A-100
VA-A-113 broken (B)/ by the demonstrators. (C)/ No error
(C)/ No error (D) (D)
1.50 Many people in Bangladesh don’t scarcely (A)/
o d
1.63 Every book and every (A)/ magazine have (B)/
n
know about the hardships that the (B)/ Chakma been entered in the record register. (C)/ No error
.
VA-A-101
VA-A-114
refugees are experiencing. (C)/ No error (D) (D)
1.51
w w
Due to (A)/ the trucker’s strike, the vegetable
vendors were doing about half of (B)/ the business
1.64 Sanjay bought (A)/ the suit before (B)/ he met
Neetu. (C)/ No error (D)
w
VA-A-102
VA-A-115
that they were doing before. (C)/ No error (D)

1.65 I enjoyed (A)/ during my (B)/ stay in England.
Between you and I (A)/, I am convinced that this
VA_A_53_2
1.52
(C)/ No error (D)
VA-A-103 painting by Neetu shows greater (B)/ artistry
that than of Reshma. (C)/ No error (D)
1.66
VA_A_54_6
I believe that respect (A)/ is more preferable than
(B)/money. (C)/ No error (D)
1.53 The company is planning a training (A)/
programme for their (B)/ senior officers sometime
1.67 I never have visited (A)/ or intend to visit (B)/
VA-A-104
in December. (C)/ No error (D) VA_A_55_7
foreign countries. (C)/ No error (D)

SALIENT FEATURES
1.68
VA_A_56_1
John’s salary (A)/ is much larger than (B)/ Tom. 1.82
VA_A_70_8
In spite of the late hour (A)/ and the bad weather
(C)/ No error (D) (B)/ Naveen decided to brave it out and drink at
bar. (C)/ No error (D)
i. n
1.69
VA_A_57_2
Ramesh helped (A)/ not only me (B)/ but also
my brother when he was in need. (C)/ No error 1.83 Hari was unhappy (A)/ that he would (B)/ not
o
VA_A_71_9
(D) attend the marriage of his friend yesterday. (C)/
.c
No error (D)
a
1.70 The English defeated (A)/ French (B)/ in the
i
VA_A_58_7
battle of Waterloo. (C)/ No error (D) 1.84 While going to his office yesterday (A)/ Bhola
d
VA_A_72_5
remembered that (B)/ he had not taken one
o
1.71 The three last chapters (A)/ of this book (B)/ are important office file. (C)/ No error (D)
n
VA_A_59_8
.
very interesting (C)/ No error (D)
1.85 He was extremely annoyed (A)/ when I reported
w
VA_A_73_9
1.72 In summer days are (A)/ warm than (B)/ nights. the matter to him (B)/ and has fired me. (C)/ No
w
error (D)
VA_A_60_9
(C)/ No error (D)
1.73
VA_A_61_8
w
He is (A)/ the strongest and very tall (B)/ boy in
the whole college. (C)/ No error (D)
1.86
VA_A_74_10
The director, along with the staff members (A)/
were present for (B)/ the annual day celebrations.
(C)/ No error (D)
1.74 I was born (A)/ on the August 3, 1947 (B)/ in
It is our duty (A)/ to put off our shoes (B)/ before
VA_A_62_9
1.87
Bihar. (C)/ No error (D) VA_A_75_1
entering the sanctum sanctorum of any temple or

mosque. (C)/ No error (D)
1.75
VA_A_63_3
We should always (A)/ side with those who are
i. n
true and unselfish (B)/ and work for other. (C)/
No error (D) 1.88
VA_A_76_5
Raman was one of those great sons of India (A)/
who has earned everlasting
o
fame (B)/ for scientific researches. (C)/ No error
c
1.76 His manners indicate that he has no other intention
.
VA_A_64_5
(D)
(A)/ than (B)/ to steal his money. (C)/ No error
ia
(D)
1.89 The taxi was (A)/ hired by the ladies for (B)/ its
d
VA_A_77_2
picnic. (C)/ No error (D)
o
1.77
VA_A_65_6
Page after page (A)/ of Gita were read (B)/ and
it gave great consolation to his mind. (C)/ No
.n
error (D) 1.90
VA_A_78_3
His ability to talk to strangers (A)/ is one of his
(B)/ stronger points. (C)/ No error (D)
1.78
VA_A_66_9
ww
The short story should not exceed (A)/ more than
(B)/ two hundred words. (C)/ No error (D) 1.91
VA_A_79_8
I have hunted and (A)/ shot myself (B)/ so I know
w
what it is like. (C)/ No Error (D)
1.79 Our teacher often emphasises on (A)/ the need for
Priyamvada was unhappy to hear the news (A)/
VA_A_67_1
1.92
(B)/ a lot of oral practice. (C)/ No error (D) VA_A_80_6
of her son’s failing (B)/ in the final examination.

(C)/ No error (D)
1.80
VA_A_68_8
There was (A)/ a number of conferences which
produced little (B)/ of practical value (C)/ No
error (D) 1.93
VA_A_81_3
Have you read (A)/ this book (B)/ farther than I
? (C)/ No error (D)
1.81 There was no play (A)/ on the fourth day of the
The production of different kinds of artificial
VA_A_69_9
1.94
test match (B)/ due to the heavy rain (C)/ No VA_A_82_4
error (D) materials (A)/ are essential to the conservation

of (B)/ our natural resources. (C)/ No error (D)


1.95
VA_A_83_10
The disclosure of the synopsis of (A)/ the Thakkar good-looking on. (C)/ No error (D)
Commission Report (B)/ on the assassination of
Mrs. Gandhi has raised several vital question. 1.109 The discreet enquiry revealed that his involvement
(C)/ No error (D)
VA_A_135_3
in (A)/ the fraud cases have been (B)/ more than
i. n
what was first guessed. (C)/ No error (D)
1.96
VA_A_84_3
Do you really believe (A)/ that she has blamed us
o
(B)/ for the accident, especially you and I ? (C)/ 1.110 I know nothing about chess because (A)/ my
c
No error (D)
VA_A_136_4
games teacher also (B)/ was not knowing nothing
.
about it. (C)/ No error (D)
i a
1.97
VA_A_85_9
Two men have been arrested (A)/ by the police
d
who are believed (B)/ to be involved in the 1.111 I asked the salesman if I could exchange (A)/ the
robbery. (C)/ No error (D)
o
VA_A_137_12
faulty camera (B)/ with another one. (C)/ No
n
error (D)
.
1.98
VA_A_86_10
The manager tested (A)/ the peon to see (B)/ if
w
he could read English. (C)/ No error (D) 1.112 It took me (A)/ almost a hour (B)/ to fill the
VA_A_138_16
application form. (C)/ No error (D)
w
1.99 But for his cousin’s help (A)/ he would have been
w
VA_A_87_3
(B)/ at the height of his career. (C)/ No error (D) 1.113 He is neither in favour of arms race (A)/ or in
VA_A_139_7
favour of (B)/ simple nuclear disarmament. (C)/

1.100
VA_A_88_5
Soon after their child was born (A)/ he went off No error (D)
(B)/ leaving her in the lurch. (C)/ No error (D)
1.114
VA_A_140_14
I was surprised to find that the computer was out
1.101
VA_A_89_7
Hardly had we settled down for the night’s rest of order (A)/ and enquired if any one of them
(A)/ when we were started by (B)/ loud noises (B)/ have used it recently. (C)/ No error (D)
outside the house. (C)/ No error (D)
in
1.115 If your mother (A)/ will come again, (B)/ I shall
.
VA_A_141_9
1.102 No sooner did (A)/ the train arrived at the station report against you. (C)/ No error (D)
o
VA_A_90_8
(B)/ than the passengers rushed towards it. (C)/
c
No error (D)
.
1.116
VA_A_142_2
The recent study has (A)/ indicated that there is
ia
a perceptible change in (B)/ the attitude of the
1.103 None of the rooms (A)/ are available (B)/ for people. (C)/ No error (D)
d
VA_A_91_2
occupation at present. (C)/ No error (D)
o
1.117 As it was Rajan’s (A)/ first interview, he dressed
n
VA_A_143_7
1.104 Sumitra appealed to the managing committee him (B)/ in his most formal suit. (C)/ No error
.
VA_A_92_5
(A)/ that she may be (B)/ allowed to join the (D)
w
volunteer force. (C)/ No error (D)
w
1.118
VA_A_144_1
I shall go to Australia (A)/ for higher studies (B)/
1.105 The company has ordered (A)/some (B)/new if you like it or not. (C)/ No error (D)
w
VA-A-131 equipments (C)/ No error (D)
1.119
VA_A_145_21
They never thought (A)/ that Raja was oldest
1.106 The Arabian Nights (A)/ arc indeed (B)/ an than other (B)/ professors in the faculty. (C)/ No
VA-A-132 interesting book. (C)/ No error (D) error (D)
1.107 He (A)/ loved her (B)/ dispite of himself. (C)/ No 1.120

VA_A_146_12
The reason why (A)/ he was rejected (B)/ was
VA-A-133 error (D) because he was too young. (C)/ No error (D)
1.108 Of all the models (A)/ Sessica is (B)/ the more 1.121
VA_A_147_20
Now that she is living in her own flat, (A)/ she
VA-A-134

SALIENT FEATURES
cleans the windows (B)/twice a week in the whaling ship set sail.
summer and once a week in the winter. (C)/ No
error (D)
i. n
1.132
VA-A-39
(A) Because they refuse to follow the conventional
dress code
1.122 As he had taken only a few sips (A)/ there was
o
VA_A_148_3
(B) neither Shivam
still little water (B)/ left in the glass. (C)/ No
.c
error (D) (C) nor her friends
(D) is invited to the local society function
1.123 If a man diligently seeks to come into the contact
i a
d
VA_A_149_15
(A)/ with the best that has been thought and 1.133 (A) A very miserly
o
VA-A-40
said in this world, (B)/ he will become simple and (B) farmer who lived
n
selfless. (C)/ No error (D)
.
(C) with his wife
(D) in the Jamaican islands
w
1.124 May I (A)/ know who you want (B)/ to see please.
w
VA_A_150_3
(C)/ No error (D)

1.134 (A) The moment they came to know
w
VA-A-50
(B) that their leader

1.125 Being a very (A)/ hot day, I (B)/ remained
(C) was issued a charge sheet
VA_A_151_7
indoors. (C)/ No error (D)

(D) the entire groups of workers went on a strike
1.126 No sooner did I open the door (A)/ when the
Directions For Q 135 to 140:
VA_A_152_2
rain, heavy and stormy, rushed in, (B)/ making us

shiver from head to foot. (C)/ No error (D) In each of the following questions four sentences
are given which are on the same theme. Decide
1.127 He (A)/ came across (B)/ with a beggar. (C)/ No which sentence is the most preferable with respect
i. n
VA_A_153_20
error (D) to grammar, meaning and usage, suitable for a

formal letter or report or any formal writing in
o
1.128 It was time that (A)/ you started (B)/ working. English and mark the number of that sentence on
c
the answer sheet.
.
VA_A_154_2
(C)/ No error (D)
1.129
ia
The wheat (A)/ this year is (B)/ finer than last
1.135 (A) If XAT aspirants had not taken so long
d
VA-A-52
VA_A_155_19
year. (C)/ No error (D) checking each question before attempting the
o
next question they might not have run out of
n
time.
.
1.130 I am pleased to sanction one special increment
VA_A_156_4
(B) If XAT aspirants had taken so long checking

(A)/ to all the employees (B)/ with this month.
w
each question before attempting the next
(C)/ No error (D)
w
question they might not have run out of time.
Directions For Q 131 to 134: (C) Had XAT aspirants not took so long checking
w
every question before attempting the next
In each of these questions, one sentence has been
split into four parts. There is an error in one part.
Identify the part having the error. (D) Had XAT aspirants not taken so long checking
all questions before attempting the next
1.131 (A) During the last centuries
(B) whaling voyages departed regularly from the
New England states 1.136 (A) If you would have told me that you were in
(C) and because each voyage normally extends for Bombay I would have certainly contacted you
years instead of getting bored there.
(D) the hold was packed with supplies before a (B) If you would have told me that you were in
Bombay I had certainly contacted you to


instead of getting bored there. Directions For Q 141 to 155:
(C) If you had told me that you were in Bombay I In these questions, the words or phrases underlined
would have certainly contacted you instead of may be incorrectly used. Identify the word or
getting bored there. phrase that has an error. The letter indicated
i. n
(D) If you had told me that you were in Bombay against it would be the answer.
I would have certainly contacted you despite
o
getting bored there. 1.141 His assistants have (A)/ and are still (B)/ doing
c
excellent (C)/ work for the (D)/ organization.
.
VA-A-116
a
1.137 (A) The receptionist must answer courteously the
i
questions of all them callers. 1.142 There is something more in the (A)/ fact that the
d
(B) The receptionist must answer courteously the VA-A-117 (B)/ guns have (C)/ or are about (D)/ to be sent
o
question what are asked by the callers. abroad.
. n
(C) There would have been no trouble if the
receptionist have always answered courteously. 1.143 The (A)/ deceased lord along with (B)/ his brother
w
(D) The receptionist should answer courteously
VA-A-118 started a (C)/ business in India. (D)
w
the questions of all callers.
1.144 He relieved (A)/ the monotony of book peddling
w
VA-A-119 (B)/ by becoming (C)/ an assistant to a conjuror
1.138 (A) The supervisors reprimanded the typist whom or to other (D)/ similar engagements.
he believed had made careless errors.
(B) The typists would have corrected the errors
had they of known that the supervisors would
1.145 The entire (A)/ party is for the (B)/ Bill ready to
see the report.
VA-A-120 (C)/ stake their (D)/ political existence.
(C) Many errors were found in the report which
they typed and could not disregarded them.
1.146 He has suffered (A)/ from a similar (B)/ attack
in
(D) The errors in the typed reports were but milder as (C)/ that (D)/ of last year.
.
VA-A-121
so numerous that they could hardly be
o
overlooked.
1.147 Such starling (A)/ never (B)/ have neither (C)/
. c
VA-A-122 can and never will be (D)/ offered again.
ia
1.139 (A) Since the report lacked needed information it
was of no use to them. 1.148 For (A)/ this delightful (B)/ excursion it was felt
d
(B) The report was useless to them because there by the members (C)/ that it was due to (D)/ the
o
VA-A-123
were no needed information in it. secretary.
. n
(C) Since the report did not contain the needed
information, it was not real useful to them. 1.149 Most of the critics, (A)/ all over the world, agree
w
(D) Being that the report lacked the needed VA-A-124 (B)/ that this is one (C)/ of the most interesting
w
information, they could not use it. novels that has (D)/ recently appeared.
1.140
VA_A_97_5
w
(A) The company had hardly declared the dividend
till the notices were prepared for mailing.
(B) No sooner had the dividend been declared
1.150
VA-A-125
He always (A)/ practices (B)/ the (C)/ justice
and cares (D)/ for moral principles.
NOTE
than the notices were prepared for mailing. An abstract noun, when it is qualified by an adjective or
(C) They had no sooner declared the dividend an adjectival phrase or clause may have the article; as the
when they sent the notices to the stockholders. wisdom of Solomon is famous.
(D) Scarcely had the dividend been declared than
the notice were sent out. 1.151 Some one had said that the English excelled (A)/
VA-A-126 all other nations, the Dutch being avaracious,

SALIENT FEATURES
(B)/ the French, a set of (C)/ sycophants, the

Germans drunk and gluttonous and the Spaniards
were proud and insolvent.(D)
1.152 I hope you will excuse me (A)/ leaving early, (B)/

i. n
o
as (C)/ I have to attend to (D)/ a patient.
.c
VA-A-127
a
1.153 Such goods (A)/ are made for export, (B)/ and
i
are seldom or ever (C)/ used in (D)/ the country.
d
VA-A-128
o
1.154 The wise people, who (A)/ are very few (B)/ in
. n
VA-A-129 our country, they think (C)/ before they act. (D)
w
You cannot skip it over; (A)/ it is only a (B)/ part
1.155
w
VA-A-130 and parcel (C)/ of the ceremony. (D)
Directions For Q
w
156 to 159:
Given below are sentences that may or may not
have errors. Mark (A) if there is only one error.
Mark (B) if there are two errors. Mark (C) if there
are three errors. Mark (D) if there are no errors.
1.156
VA_A_159_3
She still is in bed despite I’ve tried to awake her.
i. n
1.157
VA_A_160_4
I have no objection to hear your story again.
1.158
VA_A_161_10
.co
You should have told to me about it early so that
I should have talked to the relevant authorities
ia
and sort out the issue.
1.159
od
Which of the following sentences is not correct ?
(A) For years now, pitches have been prepared to
n
VA-A-51
.
suit the home team’s strengths and that is
fine so long as the pitch is not a lottery.
ww
(B) It is here that BCCI needs to show the same
will, as they have shown in making players
w
play domestic cricket.
(C) The only problem is that the wickets that
are on offer for domestic cricket are hardly
conducive for batsman.
(D) If one goes by the scores in some of the
matches, especially Delhi’s games, then it
is quite obvious that the pitches prepared
are substandard and not conducive to a fair
contest between bat and ball.
******


solutions
i. n
1.1 Correct option is (D).
Replace which with what.
c o
of time).
.
i
1.9
aCorrect option is (D).
d
1.2 Correct option is (B). Because the last sentence contains two individual
o
Replace were with was. When two nouns are joined sentences, use a conjunction (either and or while)
. n
by along with, verb agrees with the first noun. before fresh water to combine both sentences.
1.3 Correct option is (C).
w w
Lay (laid, laid) means to put something in a
The object of making is missing which gives a
w
definite position; to put oneself flat means lie (lay, misleading meaning; so it should be making it
lain); so lay. Lie (lied, lied) has another meaning altogether.
which is to speak false.
1.4 Correct option is (B). Replace faster with fast because there is no
In past conditional after if past perfect follows; so comparison.
had known.
in
.
1.5 Correct option is (B). Replace addition with additions. After one of the
o
Subject is material and it has been treated here noun is in plural form.
c
as uncountable and singular (there is). That’s
.
why, it should be too much. We cannot make
ia
1.13 Correct option is (B).
material plural putting s because then we will
Replace you with your. Before gerund.
d
have to change b as there are and then there will
o
be mistakes in both of them.
Correct option is (C).
n
1.14
.
Replace unbearable with unbearably because to
w
qualify an adjective (hot) adverb is needed.
Since your cannot be changed as it is not
w
underlined we will have to change one’s to make
w
the pronouns similar; so your.
Replace hanged with hung. Hang-Hanged-Hanged
(to award death punishment), Hand-Hung-Hung
(to keep suspending from something).
Before skills an adjective is required; reason is a
noun; so reasoning.
With present indefinite (here he comes) while
cannot be used (while in continuous); so either
For a natural action present indefinite is used; so
when or by the time.
pauses (is rising is o.k. because it denotes a point

SALIENT FEATURES
1.17 Correct option is (A). 1.27 Correct option is (A).

Rewrite the part as Hardly did I step. (Rule of Use other after no. In positive and comparative
inversion - auxiliary verb will come before the degree, if the subject is part of the group to which
i. n
subject. it is compared (here this method is compared with
other methods), after no, every, all etc. use of
o
other is must.
.c
Replace what with that. (After anything, everything
i a
etc. only that can be used as relative pronoun). 1.28 Correct option is (D).
d
Past conditional, so the first sentence should have
o
1.19 Correct option is (B). been If + s + had + v3 (had had). But in the
n
meaning of possession has / have /had is not used
.
Replace were with was. (The noun coming before
along with is the subject of the sentence.) in perfect structure.
w w 1.29 Correct option is (C).
w
Replace up with out. (Bring up = to look after, Replace were with was. The verb is used according
Bring out = to publish). to the noun coming after or/nor.

Replace have you not with didn’t you. (In question Replace would write with writes because the
tag auxiliary verb of the main sentence is used.) sentence indicates a general condition of present.
i. n
1.22 Correct option is (A).
than indicates that the sentence is in comparative. Replace were with was. When two nouns are
joined by with, the noun coming before with is the
o
Replace simplest with simpler
subject of the sentence and verb follows it.
a.c
i
Replace shall with should because the sentence is
d
in past. Replace had found with found. To denote an
o
incident in the past, past indefinite is used.
.n
Replace appreciating with appreciated. (The verb
w
coming after and or but takes the same form as its Replace knew with know. The verb coming after
w
counterpart before and or but (admired) let is always in v1 form.

w
Replace worked with working. (After preposition
the verb is in gerund i.e.V 4 form)
Replace paid with pays. Representing a normal
thinking present indefinite should be preferred.

Place should be in passive form- be placed or have Accident is irrelevant in terms of meaning here.
no place. Proper will be to use incidence i.e. the number of
times something bad occurs.


1.36 Correct option is (B). means even then whereas here a word meaning
Replace is having with has. In the meaning even if is required.
of containing or possession, has is not used in
continuous form. 1.46 Correct option is (C).
i. n
Comparison should be in equal things. If after
1.37 Correct option is (B). more because of has come, after than also because
o
Replace are with is. When two nouns are combined of should be there. Rewrite the part as than
. c
with along with the verb agrees with the first because of its magnitude.
a
noun. (Hritik here).
d i 1.47 Correct option is (B).
o
1.38 Correct option is (B). A gang of armed thieves raided the....
n
Them indicates that its antecedent is fish and The use of past tense (raided)-not present perfect
.
should be in plural. so rewrite it fishes scales. tense (has raided)- is necessary because the
w
sentence has a specific time reference (last night).
w
1.39 Correct option (B).
Rewrite the part as heavy black to ensure proper 1.48 Correct option is (C)
w
word agreement. ....the books that are listed....
That refers to books, plural noun, and, therefore,
1.40 Correct option is (C). the verb must be plural (are, and not is).
Replace either with neither. The sentence should
be negative in meaning. 1.49 Correct option is (C)
....But the sales manager and me.
1.41 Correct option is (B). The preposition but is understood before me. Since
in
Replace to lower down with be lowered down. (that me is the object of the preposition but, it has an
.
is conjunction here and so after this a complete objective from (me), not a nominative form.
o
sentence should come. So infinitive (to lower)
. c
should be given a principle verb form) 1.50 Correct option is (A)
ia
Many people in Bangladesh scarcely know....
The word scarcely is sufficiently negative to
d
express the meaning of the sentence. The word
o
Use and after rang because a different sentence is
to be combined. don’t should be omitted.
. n
w
1.51 Correct option is (A)
Because of the....doing before.
w
Replace enough with any because scarcely is
negative and in negative any is used. Do not begin a sentence with the words due to.
w
Due to is an adjective, which must have a noun
to modify.
Remove in. When before a time denoting word
an adjective comes (next + week), it takes no
1.52 Correct answer is (A)
preposition. Between you and me,.....
The object of the preposition between must be an
objective case from (me and not I).
Replace nevertheless with though. Nevertheless

SALIENT FEATURES
1.53 Correct option is (B) 1.60 Correct option is (B)

...training programme for its... .......have finished.... to be replaced by ......has
A singular pronoun-adjective (its, not their) must finished.... when one singular and one plural
i. n
be used to refer to a collective noun (company) subjects are joined by or and nor the subject
when the members of the collective noun are closer to the verb determines the number of the
o
considered a unit. verb.
1.54 Correct option is (A)
i a
1.61
.c
Correct option is (D)
d
There were only.... No error, The subject branch offices is plural and
o
The subject of the sentence is plural (a bread and the verb close is also plural here.
n
bottles)
.
Therefore, the verb must be plural (were, not 1.62 Correct option is (B)
w
was). Here the word there is not the subject. ......was broken.... should be changed to .....were
w
broken...... Some infinite pronouns like a few,
w
1.55 Correct option is (C) many, several etc. are always plural and take
are curable plural verb.
A relative pronoun (that, who, which) used as
a subject takes on a singular or plural verb to 1.63 Correct option is (B)
accord with its antecedent Here that is referring has been entered,: If the subject consists of two
to diseases that are curable. or more singular nouns connected by and and
presided by each or every, the verb is in singular.
1.56 Correct option is (C)
i. n
We think him a silly boy; Verbs like consider, 1.64 Correct option is (A)
think, call etc. are not followed by as had bought : Past perfect tense indicates that an
o
event had taken place before another event in
.c
1.57 Correct option is (B) the past. The suit was purchased before meeting
a
Health is preferable to wealth. The adjective of Neetu.
i
comparative degree like senior, junior, prefer,
d
superior are always followed by to instead of than
o
n
I enjoyed myself in place of I enjoyed. Some verbs
.
1.58 Correct option is (B) take reflexive pronouns after them. See Rule 12.
w
......were warmly... should be replaced by ...was
warmly... . when a singular subject is attached to
w
a phrase introduced by with or as well as the verb Preferable to in place of more preferable than.
w
is always singular. Preferable is a word indicating a comparative sense
and thus more is superfluous. Secondly, prefer is
1.59 Correct option is (C) followed by to.
....has ever lived should be replaced by have ever
lived. In this sentence, the subject of as ever 1.67 Correct option is (B).
lived is that. It is plural because its antecedents Nor in place of or. Nor is used after neither.
directors are plural. A relative pronoun agrees in
number with its antecedent
That of Tom in place Tom. See Rule 27.


1.69 Correct option is (D). 1.78 Correct option is (B).
No Error More than should be deleted. Double comparatives
are to be avoided. Exceed is sufficient.
i. n
The French in place of French. The French means 1.79 Correct option is (B).
the French people. Of in place of for. Here the correct preposition
o
will be of.
a . c
i
The last three in place of The three last. Explained 1.80 Correct option is (A).
d
earlier. See Rule 35. There were in place of there was.
n o 1.81 Correct option is (B).
.
Warmer; in place of warm. Here the sentence is Because of in place of due to. Due to always takes
w
in the comparative degree and thus warmer is an abstract noun after it.
w
appropriate.
w
1.73 Correct option is (B). Despite in place of in spite of. The meaning of in
The stronger and tallest in place of very tall. A spite of is not appropriate here.
word showing superlative degree should not be
joined by a word showing comparative or the 1.83 Correct option is (B).
assertive degree. Both qualifiers must be of the That he could in place of that he would. See the
same degree. Rules of tense.
in
.
On 3rd August in place of the 3rd August. When
o
While he was going to his office in place of while
the letter or the number form is used, the article
c
going to his office. In sentences beginning with
.
is not required. When it is in the word form, the while, when, this, it, or similar conjunctions, you
ia
article will be used. should be careful to see that the meaning is clear.
Thus we can say 3rd August and the third August.
d
There should be no confusion in the first part.
n o
.
Who work for others in place of work for others. And fired him in place of and has fired me. The
w
One form of the verb pattern should be used reporting verb is in the past tense and thus other
with one subject. If the verb pattern changes the
w
clauses must be in the past tense.
subject must be mentioned. Here the subject is
w
those who and the verb is are. It is an auxiliary
verb. But, in the next clause, the verb is main 1.86 Correct option is (B).
verb or action verb. Thus there must be a subject. Was present in place of were present. In the case
of along with, the verb is in accordance with the
first object.
But in the place of than.
Pull off in place of put off.
The Gita was in place of Gita were.

SALIENT FEATURES
1.88 Correct option is (B). 1.98 Correct option is (B).

who have in place of who has. Who has been used To see is redundant. It should be deleted. Tested
here for sons and as this is plural, the verb should and to see both mean the same thing.
i. n
also be in accordance with that.
o
.c
1.89 Correct option is (C). He would not have been in place of he would have
Their in place of its. The pronoun must be in been. In an expression beginning with but for, the
i a
accordance with ladies. next part should contain a negative to make the
d
meaning.
o
. n
Strong points in place of stronger points. No need 1.100 Correct option is (B).
of the comparative degree. See Rules of degree. Went out in place of went off. For a living man,
w
the correct expression is went out. Went off may
w
1.91 Correct option is (B). be used in cases like The light went off.
w
Myself is unwanted. It confuses the meaning.
1.92 Correct option is (B). No Error.
Son failing in place of son’s failing. The use of the
apostrophe is not required here. 1.102 Correct option is (B).
Arrive in place of arrived. After no sooner did the
1.93 Correct option is (C). verb will be in the present tense. Did is followed
by the present form of verb: Did he go? He did not
i. n
Further in place of Farther. Farther is used to
denote a sense of distance and further is used to come on time.
o
indicate more.
c
.
None of the rooms here indicates a singular sense
a
i
Is essential in place of are essential. The subject and thus the verb will be singular. Usually none is
d
is production, not materials. As the subject is used in singular.
o
singular, the verb will be singular. Be careful
n
about the subject-verb accord. 1.104 Correct option is (B).
.
Might in place of may. The reporting verb is
w
1.95 Correct option is (C). appealed. It is in the past tense and thus all other
w
Vital questions in place of vital question. clauses will be in the past tense.

w
You and me in place of you and I,
The word equipment is uncountable noun hence
equipment should be used in place of equipments.

Here the words who are create confusion. It is not
clear whether the words are for the police or for The Arabian Nights name of book and is singular
the men who have been arrested. Such tags cause hence is indeed should be used in place of are
confusion and should be avoided. indeed.


1.107 Correct option is (C). 1.115 Correct option is (B).
despite himself should be used because despite of This is a conditional sentence. The future tense
himself is improper word. verb should not be used here in (B); it should be
replaced by a verb in simple present tense. Will
i. n
1.108 Correct option is (C). come should be replaced by comes.
more than one degree can not be used for single
o
subjects. 1.116 Correct option is (A).
. c
The reference is to one of the recent studies, not
a
a particular one. So the definite article the should
i
not be used at the beginning. As there is no clear
d
As we are referring to his involvement, it should
reference to a specific study, it is preferable to
o
be has been and not have been. There has to be
use the indefinite article A instead of the definite
n
agreement between the noun, number and the
.
verb. Don’t make the mistake of matching the article The/
w
verb with fraud cases.
w
1.110 Correct option is (C). One dresses oneself. So, Rajan dressed himself.
w
Was not knowing nothing has a wrong tense usage Himself is a compound personal pronoun of the
and also involves two negatives. It should be did reflexive kind. It refers back to the subject or
not know anything (or knew nothing) in place of turns back the action of the verb upon the doer.
was not knowing nothing.
1.111 Correct option is (C). Whether should replace if. Whether you like it
For should replace with in this sentence. It would or not implies irrespective of - that is, the action
in
also be better to replace one with camera to avoid of going has already been decided upon. If,
.
the impression that one faulty camera is to be when used, makes the meaning of the sentence
o
exchanged for another faulty camera. ambiguous. Whether... or not is accepted usage; if
c
... or not is a construction that is not used.

Hour should be preceded by an as hour is
1.119
ia .
Correct option is (B).
d
pronounced with a vowel sound. When a comparison is being made, a comparative
o
and not superlative form of the word should be
n
used. It should be older and not oldest.
.
w
It should be nor, and not or, Neither... nor form
correlative or corresponsive conjunctions. The
w
first part of the conjunction pair complements the When the reason why is used, there is no need
w
other part. for a because in the sentence as the two convey
the same meaning. It should be that instead of
because.
Past perfect tense (had used) and not present
perfect is to be used here. This is because the
second action (that of someone using the computer) The should not be used before summer and winter
had finished when the first occurred (when I was in this sentence as no specific summer and winter
surprised to find the computer not working and are referred to. It is correct to say Now that...twice
enquired). a week in summer and once a week in winter.

SALIENT FEATURES
1.122 Correct option is (B). 1.129 Correct option is (C).

Some should be used before water in place of As we are comparing the wheat produce in the
little. The meaning of little is practically nil which two years, it should be last year’s (that is, last
i. n
wouldn’t go with still in the sentence. year’s wheat) at the end. Otherwise we would be
comparing dissimilar things- wheat and year.
Article the is wrongly placed before contact. No 1.130
.c o
i a
specific contact is being referred to here. A general The preposition with should not be used as the
d
fact or situation is being stated. Correct usage is special increment is for that month only (it
o
come into contact with; no a or the before contact cannot be for every month). There is no need for
n
when it is used after into. a preposition in (C).
w. 1.131 Correct option is (C).
w
Whom, which is in the objective case, should Replace extends with extended because the
w
replace who which is in the subjective case. Whom sentence concerns past.
is the object of the verb here (want to see whom?).
1.125 Correct option is (A). Replace is with are. When two nouns are joined
Being should be replaced by As it was. When by neither-nor, the verb agrees with the noun
we used a participial phrase, the noun which it coming after nor.
governs must be placed next to it. Being a hot day
seems to lack a noun to modify, as it cannot refer 1.133 Correct option is (B).
i. n
to I. It is a case of a dangling modifier. So the Relative pronoun who is not required because then
sentence construction is wrong. We can also write another verb after .... islands will be required.
o
(A) as It being a very hot day.
a.c 1.134 Correct option is (D).
i
Remove entire group of. Use of they, their indicates
No sooner should be followed by than and not
d
that the noun should be plural. Entire group
when. the pair no sooner...than is a subordinate
o
makes the noun singular.
conjunction of time. It indicates that the second
.n
event occurs immediately after the first one.
w
Between (A) and (D), the former is preferable
w
because all questions in (D) makes it unsuitable.
In across with, two prepositions are placed together Before attempting each next question, one cannot
w
and this is a wrong usage. Came across a beggar is check all questions.
the correct expression.

1.128 Correct option is (A). (A) There is error in if you would have. It should
It is time is the correct beginning. The correct be had you. (B) There are errors in both first and
usage is it is time you + past tense (use of that, as second clauses. (C) It is correct and the meaning is
in the given sentence, is incorrect). Use of it was also clear. (D) The structure is correct but the use
time would be correct in indirect speech only: He of despite disturbs the meaning of the sentence.
said it was time I started working. Thus the answer is (C).


1.137 Correct option is (D). Or is a Co-ordinating Conjunction that joins
(A) Them is wrong (error of pronoun). (B) What together two statements or clauses of equal rank
is wrong (error of conjunction). (C) Have is wrong or importance.
(error of verb form). (D) It has no error and thus
i. n
this is the answer. 1.145 Correct option is (D).
it’s
o
1.138 Correct option is (D). A collective none takes a singular verb when the
. c
(A) Whom is wrong (error of pronoun). (B) they of collection is thought of as one whole; a plural verb
a
known is wrong (error of preposition). (C) Could when the individuals of which it is composed are
i
not disregarded is wrong (error of verb form). (D) thought of , as, The Committee has issued its
d
No error. report. The Committee are divided on one minor
o
point.
. n
w
(A) No error. (B) Were is wrong (error of verb). 1.146 Correct option is (C).
(C) Real is wrong (error of adverb). (D) There is but milder than
w
error in the first clause. Than (her used as a preposition) shows the
w
relation between this year and last year’s attack.
1.140 Correct option is (B). It is more appropriate than as which generally
(A) The first clause is wrong. (B) No error. (C) shows the relation between two similar things.
When is wrong (than should be used). (D) Than
is wrong (when should be sued). 1.147 Correct option is (C).
The adverb of time, never and not the conjunction
1.141 Correct option is (A). neither is to be used. This is also done to never
in
have done have the construction in the same series.
.
The present perfect tense is used to denote an
o
action beginning at some time in the past and 1.148 Correct option is (C).
c
continuing upto the present moment as the words The members felt
ate still doing in the sentence reveal.
.
The subject usually comes before the verb in a
ia
sentence. In English, owing to the fewness of the
d
1.142 Correct option is (C). inflections, the order of the words in a sentence is
o
have been of the first importance.
. n
The present perfect tense is used to express past
actions whose time is not given and not definite. 1.149 Correct option is (D).
w
that have
w
1.143 Correct option is (C). When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun,
w
had started care should be taken to see that the verb agrees
The past perfect tense helps in telling us which in number and person with the antecedent of the
action happened earlier than the other when both relative. In this case the antecedent is novels.
the actions referred to happen in the past. The
simple past is used in one clause and the past 1.150 Correct option is (C).
perfect in the other. The article is to be omitted.
The article is omitted before abstract nouns used
1.144 Correct option is (D). in a general sense.
or by taking up other

SALIENT FEATURES
1.151 Correct option is (D). 1.157 Correct option is (A).

Proud and insolvent. I have no objection to hearing your story again.
When one noun follows another to describe it, the When a verb is placed immediately after a
i. n
noun which follows is said to be in apposition to preposition as it is done here, the gerund form
the noun which comes before it. Part (d) is changed (ing) must be used.
o
to have the series in the same construction.
.c
i a
1.152 Correct option is (A). You should have told me about it earlier so that I
d
will excuse my could have talked to the relevant authorities and
o
The pronoun or noun governing a Gerund should sorted out the issue. Verbs like advise, recommend,
n
be put in the Possessive case. The work leaving is warn are directly followed by the person addressed
.
a Gerund (i.e. Verbal Noun) Therefore it must be (without to). Keeping the meaning of the sentence
w
preceded by the possessive form. in view, earlier (at an earlier time) would be the
w
correct word qualifying told. Again, I could would
be the correct expression. The verb sort should be
w
seldom or never used in the past tense here.
Seldom or never and seldom if ever are both
correct but seldom or ever is incorrect. 1.159 Correct option is (B).
Replace they have with it has. For BCCI use of
1.154 Correct option is (C). needs (singular) and they have (plural) in the same
think sentence is incompatible.
The word they should be omitted as the relative
i. n
pronoun who already refers or relates (i.e. carries
******
us back) to the noun before it i.e. it’s antecedent
o
(wise people).
a.c
i
a/definitely a
d
Only in the sense of merely is not to used as part
o
and parcel (an idiomatic expression) means an
.n
essential part and the it referred to in the sentence
is apparently important enough not to be missed.
ww
w
She is still in bed though I’ve tried to awaken her.
Still is placed after the verb be but before other
verbs; see this sentence, She is still in bed and also
the sentence, She still waits at the bus-stop. Despite
(in spite of) is not the correct conjunction; though
(or although) is to be used. With I have, awaken
should be used, as the present perfect tense of the
verb is used here.

NUMERICAL ABILITY
chapter 1
Data Interpretation
Common Data For Q 1 to 5 those studying in standard VI of schools C and D

In the table, number of students studying in together?
different standards of different schools are given. (A) 43 : 47 (B) 87 : 81
(C) 53 : 52 (D) 25 : 27
Standards I II III IV V VI
Schools Common Data For Q 6 to 10
A 42 54 48 58 50 38 Marks obtained by six students in five different
B 50 60 58 45 45 46 subjects in annual examination is given below.
C 40 48 58 46 42 54 Students A B C D E F
D 45 55 46 40 52 50 Subjects
E 48 55 44 55 52 48 Maths out of 100 96 85 90 82 78 62
F 52 52 54 42 60 54 Pay out of 75 55 60 72 69 70 54
Chem out of 75 42 51 63 57 66 45
1.1 What is the approximate average number of Eng out of 150 105 90 75 78 120 76
students studying in standard I from all schools
Bio out of 50 40 36 44 35 48 34
together ?
(A) 50 (B) 46
(C) 38 (D) 40 1.6 Approximately what is the maximum difference
between the percentage of total marks obtained by
any two students ?
1.2 Number of students studying in standard IV from (A) 24% (B) 28%
school E is what per cent of those studying in
standard IV from school D ? (C) 22% (D) 26%
(A) 124% (B) 128%
(C) 137.5% (D) 132.5% 1.7 Marks obtained by C in Physics is approximately
what percent of the average of marks obtained in
English by all the students ?
1.3 Which School has the highest total number of (A) 78% (B) 84%
students from all the given standards together ?
(A) F (B) A (C) 75% (D) 80%
(C) E (D) B
1.8 How many students obtained more marks than
average marks obtained in Physics by all the
1.4 Which standard has the lowest total number of students ?
students from all the given schools together ? (A) 4 (B) 3
(A) VI (B) III
(C) 2 (D) 5
(C) V (D) I
1.9 Marks obtained by F in Physics and English

1.5 What is the respective ratio of students studying together are approximately what percent of the
in standard III of schools A and B together to total marks obtained by D in all subjects ?
SALIENT FEATURES
Chapter 1 Data Interpretation Page 39
(A) 40% (B) 44% Common Data For Q 13 to 17

(C) 34% (D) 36% Production of commodities X and Y (in lakh
i. n
tonnes) over the years are as shown below.
1.10 Who stood first in examination ?
o
(A) B (B) D
.c
(C) A (D) None of these
Common Data For Q 11 and 12
i a
d
Income tax rates for financial year 2009-10 are
o
given below.
. n
Individual and HUF Women below Tax
w
below of 65 yr age of 65 yr rates
Income up to Rs. 160000 Income up to Nil
w
Rs. 190000 1.13 For which of the following pair of years, the total
w
production of the two commodities together is
Rs. 160001 to 300001 Rs. 190001 to 10%
equal ?
300000 (A) 2007 and 2008
Rs 300001 to Rs. 500000 Rs. 300001 to 20% (B) 2003 and 2005
Rs. 500000 (C) 2002 and 2008
Above Rs. 500001 Above Rs. 30% (D) None of these
500001
Total income tax payable is obtained by adding two 1.14 What is the respective ratio between total
i. n
additional surcharges on calculated income tax. production of commodities X and Y respectively
Education Cess, An additional surcharge called for all the seven year together ?
o
educations cess is levied at the rate of 2% on the (A) 13 : 14 (B) 18 : 23
c
amount of income tax.
.
(C) 26 : 27 (D) None of these
Secondary and Higher Education Cess An additional
ia
surcharge called secondary and higher education
cess is levied at the rate of 1% on the amount of 1.15 During which year the percentage increase/decrease
d
income tax. in production of commodity X from the previous
o
year was the maximum ?
.n
1.11 Aishwarya is a young working lady. Towards the end (A) 2005 (B) 2007
of the financial year 2009-10, she found her total (C) 2003 (D) 2008
w
annual income to be Rs. 337425. What percentage
w
of her income is payable as income tax ? 1.16 Approximately, what was the average production
(A) 6.82% (B) 8.10%
w
(in lakh tonnes) of commodity Y ?
(C) 5.64% (D) 7.38% (A) 216 (B) 175
(C) 225 (D) 195
1.12 Mr. Vaibhav observed his tax deduction at source,
as Rs. 317910. What was his total income (in Rs), 1.17 What is the ratio between total production of
if he neither has to pay any additional tax, nor is
the two commodities together for year 2002,2003
eligible for any refund ?
and 2004 and the total production of the two
(A) 1445522
commodities together for year 2006, 2007 and 2008,
(B) 1570718 respectively ?
(C) 1348835 (A) 1 : 23 (B) 2 : 3
(D) 1447169 (C) 2 : 1 (D) 3 : 2

Page 40 Data Interpretation Chapter 1

Common Data For Q 18 to 22 1.21 In which year, the percentage change (compared
Out of the two bar graphs provided below, one shows to the previous year) in the investment on raw
the amounts (in Rs. lakh) invested by a company materials was same as that in the value of Sales of
in purchasing raw materials over the years and the finished goods ?
i. n
other show the values (in Rs lakh) of finished goods (A) 2007 (B) 2009
sold by the company over the years. (C) 2006 (D) 2008
o
Amount invested in raw materials (in Rs. lakh)
c
In which year, there has been a maximum percentage
.
1.22
increase in the amount invested in raw materials as
i a
compared to the previous year ?
d
(A) 2007 (B) 2009
o
(C) 2006 (D) 2008
. n Common Data For Q 23 to 27
w
The following bar graph shows the Income and
w
Expenditures (in million US $) of five companies
Value of sales of finished goods (in Rs. lakh) in the year 2011. The percent profit or loss of a
w
company is given by
Percentage Profit/Loss
Income − Expenditure
= # 100%
Expenditure
Income and expenditure (in million US $) of five
companies in the year 2011
. in
1.18 The maximum difference between the amount
invested in raw materials and value of sales of
. c o
ia
finished goods was during the years ?
(A) 2006 (B) 2008
(C) 2005 (D) 2007
o d
1.19
. n
The value of sales of finished goods in 2009 was
w
approximately what per cent of the sum of amounts
invested in raw materials in the years 2007,2008 1.23 The companies M and N together had a percentage
w
and 2009 ? of profit/loss of
w
(A) 37% (B) 49% (A) 10% loss (B) 10% profit
(C) 33% (D) 45% (C) 12% loss (D) there was no loss
or profit
1.20 What was the difference between the average
amount invested in raw materials during the given 1.24 In 2011, what was the approximate percentage of
period and the average value of sales of finished profit/loss of all the five companies taken together ?
goods during this period ? (A) 6.5% profit (B) 7% loss
(A) Rs 68.5 lakh (B) Rs 77.5 lakh (C) 5% profit (D) 4% loss
(C) Rs 62.5 lakh (D) Rs 71.5 lakh

SALIENT FEATURES
1.25 Which company earned the maximum percentage 1.29 The difference in the average percentage increase in
profit in the year 2011 ? revenues, from 4th to 6th yr, of yahoo and facebook
(A) N (B) Q is
i. n
(C) M (D) P (A) 40% (B) 50%
(C) 35% (D) 45%
1.26 For company R, if the expenditure had increased by
20% in year 2011; from year 2010 and the company 1.30
.c o
What would have been facebook’s revenue (in $
i a
had earned profit of 10% in 2010, what was the million) in its sixth year of operation if the company
company’s income in 2010 (in million US $) ? had matched google’s percentage growth in revenues
d
(A) 37.25 from the fifth to the sixth year ? (Choose the option
o
(B) 41.25 that is nearest to the answer.)
. n
(C) 35.75 (A) 1700 (B) 2100
(C) 1600 (D) 1900
w
(D) 38.5
w
Common Data For Q 31 to 35
1.27 If the income of company Q in 2011 was 10% more
w
than its income in 2010 and the its expenditure in Consider the graph shown below.
2010 (in million US $) was
(A) 30.30 (B) 34.34
(C) 28.28 (D) 32.32

The following graph shows the revenue (in $
million) of three companies in their initial six ears
i. n
of operations, in an economy which is characterised
by a persistent inflation.
.co
ia 1.31 Number of students studying B.Com. in college
d
C forms approximately what per cent of the total
o
number of students studying B.Com. in all the
n
colleges together ?
w. (A) 18%
(C) 14%
(B) 22%
(D) None of these
1.28
ww
In 2010, which could be a valid statement about
the revenues (adjusted for inflation) of these three
1.32 What is the respectively ratio of total number of
students studying B.Sc., B.A. and B.Com. in all the
colleges together ?
companies ? (A) 67 : 71 : 75 (B) 71 : 65 : 74
(A) Revenues of all three companies could be
(C) 71 : 67 : 75 (D) None of these
equal
(B) Total of yahoo and facebook which was
definitely less than google. 1.33 What is the average number of students studying
(C) Revenue of yahoo was definitely less than B.Sc. in all the colleges together ?
facebook which was definitely less than google. (A) 435 (B) 545
(D) None of the above (C) 355 (D) None of these


1.34 Number of students studying B.A. in college B 1.39 If the total number of candidate appeared in 2006
forms what per cent of total number of students and 2007 together was 47400, then the total number
studying all the disciplines together in the college ? of candidates qualified in these two years together
(A) 27.27% (B) 29.84% was
i. n
(C) 26.86% (D) None of these (A) 32100 (B) 31500
(C) 34700 (D) data inadequate
o
1.35 What is the respective ratio of total number of
c
students studying B.Sc. in the colleges C and E The total number of candidates qualified in 2009
.
1.40
together to those studying B.A. in the college and 2010 together was 33500 and the number of
i a
together ? candidates appeared in 2009 was 26500. What was
d
(A) 25 : 27 (B) 29 : 26 the number of candidates appeared in 2010 ?
o
(C) 24 : 23 (D) None of these (A) 22000
n
(B) 19000
.
Common Data For Q 36 to 40 (C) 24500
w
The following line graph gives the percentage of the (D) 20500
w
number of candidates who qualified an examination
out of the total number of candidates who appeared Common Data For Q 41-44
w
for the examination over a period of seven years Consider the line graph given below which show
from 2004 to 2010. the currency ratio from 17th December to 24th
December 2010 and answer the questions that
follow.
. in
. c o
1.36 The difference between the percentage of candidates
d ia
o
qualified to appeared was maximum in which of the
following pairs of years ?
. n
(A) 2007 and 2008 (B) 2009 and 2010
w
(C) 2004 and 2009 (D) 2008 and 2009
w
1.41 On 19th December how much Yen would be
1.37 In which pair of years was the number of candidates approximately Rs. 4000 amount be ?
w
qualified, the same ? (A) 9985 (B) 8600
(A) 2005 and 2010 (B) 2008 and 2009 (C) 9300 (D) 10100
(C) 2005 and 2007 (D) data inadequate
1.42 If the Yen/Doller ratio follows the same trend from
1.38 If the number of candidates qualified in 2008 was 24th December to 27th December as from 21st to
21200, what was the number of candidates appeared 24th, then what will be the value of 50 Dollar on
in 2008 ? 27th December ?
(A) 28500 (B) 25000 (A) 5400 Yen (B) 3000
(C) 32000 (D) 26500 (C) Rs. 2000 (D) 6000 Yen

SALIENT FEATURES
1.43 A stereo set costs $400. A person has Rs. 18200, 1.47 Land allotted for green zone is greater than that for
225 Pounds and 35000 Yen with him. He would be commercial purpose by
able to buy the stereo set on 20th December using (A) 2 acre (B) 3 acre
i. n
(assume that he can use only type of currency for 3 4
the transaction). (C) 3 acre (D) 4 acre
o
(A) 225 Pound 2 3
.c
(B) 35000 Yen 1.48 The total land allotted for residential and
a
(C) Rs. 18200
i
commercial purpose is
(D) Can’t be determined (A) 4 1 acre (B) 2 1 acre
d
2 2
o
(C) 2 1 acre (D) 2 3 acre
n
1.44 On 15th December the Rupee/Dollar ratio was 4 4
.
46.5, on that day, Rs. 5000 would fetch______
w
Pounds. Common Data For Q 49 to 53
(A) 71.68 Number of appeared candidates and passed
w
(B) 74.15 candidates (in hundreds) in a test from seven
w
(C) 80.06 different institutions
(D) Can’t be determined

The following pie chart shows the land distribution
of a housing complex. If the total area of the
complex is 5 acre, examine the pie chart and answer
the following questions
i. n
.co 1.49 What is the difference between the number of
ia
candidates appeared from institutions B , C , D and
d
F together and candidates passed fro institutions
A, E and G together ?
o
(A) 900 (B) 540
.n
(C) 100 (D) 1000
ww 1.50 What is the average number of candidates passed

from all the institutions together ?
w
(A) 490 (B) 675
1.45 The ratio of area allotted for residential and road
(C) 700 (D) 350
purpose is
(A) 4 : 1 (B) 8 : 3
(C) 1 : 4 (D) 3 : 8 1.51 Number of candidates passed from institutions C
and E together is approximately, what per cent of
the total number of candidates from institutions A
1.46 The percentage of the total area allotted for water and G together ?
body and green zone together is (A) 62% (B) 54%
(A) 30% (B) 40%
(C) 72% (D) 67%
(C) 35% (D) 45%


1.52 From which institution, the difference between Common Data For Q 56 to 60
the appeared candidates and passed candidates is Number of employees working in various
maximum departments of an organization and the ratio of
(A) G (B) F men to women in the same
i. n
(C) B (D) D
o
1.53 What is the respective ratio between the number of
c
candidates who have failed from institution B and
the number of candidates who have appeared from
institution F ?
i a .
d
(A) 2 : 3 (B) 1 : 3
o
(C) 2 : 5 (D) 4 : 3

. n
w
The following pie chart shows the percentage
w
distribution of runs scored by a batsman in a test
innings. Total Number of Employees = 4600
w
Ratio of men to women is given below.
Departments Men Women
HR 1 1
Accounts 3 1
Production 3 2
IT 1 3
in
Marketing 1 1
.
Merchandising 5 1
1.56
. c o
What is the number of women in the accounts
ia
departments ?
1.54 If the batsman has scored a total of 306 runs, how (A) 102 (B) 92
d
many 4s and 6s did he hit ? (C) 86 (D) 80
o
(A) 32 and 2, respectively
. n
(B) 33 and 1, respectively 1.57 What is the total number of employees working in
(C) 33 and 2, respectively
w
the IT department and HR department together ?
(D) 31 and 3, respectively (A) 1742
w
(B) 1766
w
1.55 If 5 of the dot balls had been hit for 4s and if two of (C) 1628
the shots for which the batsman scored 3 runs each (D) None of these
had fetched him one run instead. What would have
been the central angle of the sector corresponding
to the percentage of runs scored in four ?
1.58 What is the ratio of the total number of men to
(A) 163c (B) 167c the total number of women working in all the
departments together ?
(C) 160c (D) 165c (A) 41 : 27 (B) 27 : 19
(C) 63 : 41 (D) 53 : 47

SALIENT FEATURES
1.59 The number of women in the merchandising 1.61 The number of students, who get jobs in finance
department forms what percent of the total number is less than the students getting marketing jobs, in
of employees in the organization ? the 5 yr by
i. n
(A) 6% (B) 12% (A) 650 (B) 548
(C) 3% (D) 1% (C) 826 (D) 750
1.60 What is the ratio of the number of men in the 1.62
.c o
What is the percentage increase in the average
i a
production department to the number of men in salary of finance from 1992-96 ?
the marketing department ? (A) 32% (B) 80%
d
(A) 9 : 11 (B) 11 : 9 (C) 60% (D) 96%
o
(C) 7 : 3 (D) 13 : 7
. n 1.63 The average annual rate at which the initial salary
w
Common Data For Q 61 to 65 offered in software increase is
The first table gives the percentage of students in (A) 33% (B) 65%
w
MBA class, who sought employment in the areas of (C) 21% (D) 15.9%
w
finance, marketing and software. The second table
gives the average starting salaries of the students
per month (in Rs. thousand) in these areas. The
1.64 What is the percentage increase in the average
third table gives the number of students who passed monthly salary offered to a marketing student over
out in each year. the given 5 yr ?
Percentage of students (A) 117% (B) 80%
(C) 98% (D) 56%
Years Finance Marketing Software Others
1992 22 36 19 23
i. n
1.65 In 1994, students seeking jobs in finance earned
1993 17 48 23 12 more than those opting for software (per annum)
by
o
1994 23 43 21 13
(A) Rs. 33.8 lakh (B) Rs. 38.8 lakh
c
1995 19 37 16 28
.
(C) Rs. 43 lakh (D) Rs. 28.4 lakh
a
1996 32 32 20 16
di
Average of starting salary (in Rs. thousand) Common Data For Q 66 to 69
o
Years Finance Marketing Software Consider the bar graph and the pie charts below
n
that shows the Government revenue and capital
.
1992 5450 5170 5290 expenditure
w
1993 6380 6390 6440
1994 7550 7630 7050
1995
1996
8920
9810
8960
10220
ww 8160
8640
Percentage breakup of government revenue


, E , F , G , H and I . It is assumed that after the
substations, the wire loses 10% of the original
electricity it is carrying for every kilometer, i.e. if
10 amp is sent through a wire, after 1 km it will
i. n
have 9 amp and after 2 km it will have 8 amp and
so on.
Further it is known that every ministation retains
o
50% of the electricity that it receives (after the
. c
losses) and passes on the remainder 50% of the
a
electricity that it receives to the stations down the
i
Government expenditure line.
d
= Borrowing + Government revenue Power distribution from a power plant
o
Revenue expenditure + Capital expenditure
. n
= Government expenditure
w
1.66 In 1993, individual income tax collection was Rs. 18
w
billion. The Government borrowings (in Rs. billion)
w
is
(A) 17 (B) 27
(C) 13 (D) 23
1.67 Between 1991 and 1993 borrowing declined by Rs.

10 billion. The average annual increase in revenues
(in Rs. billion) is
(A) 13 (B) 6.5
in
(C) 23 (D) 11.5 1.70 If ministation I is receiving 10 amp, then how much
.
is ministation A receiving ?
o
1.68 Government borrowings in 1992 and 1994 were (A) 8.2 amp (B) 10.5 amp
. c
equal. What is the increase in Government revenue (C) 7.5 amp (D) None of these
ia
during this period ?
(A) Rs. 8 billion (B) Rs. 11 billion
d
1.71 Approximately how much should P produce, so
(C) Rs. 6 billion (D) Rs. 10 billion
that C can get 10 amp of current ?
o
(A) 300 amp (B) 360 amp
. n
1.69 Borrowings and individual income tax collections (C) 230 amp (D) 330 amp
in 1993 are equal to those in 1990, respectively. If
w
the revenue in 1993 is 10% higher as compared to
If ministation H is receiving 34 amp, how much is
w
1.72
that in 1990, what percentage of the Government
revenue in 1990 comes from individual income tax G receiving ?
w
collections ? (A) 26.66 amp (B) 24 amp
(A) 23% (B) 25% (C) 80 amp (D) None of these
(C) 22% (D) 24%
1.73 If F is receiving 9 amp, how much is G receiving ?
Common Data For Q 70 to 74 (A) 45 amp (B) 25 amp
Power plant P produces certain amount of electricity, (C) 40 amp (D) 20 amp
which it distributes equally to substations Q and R
. They further distribute the obtained electricity 1.74 What percentage of the current produced by P ,
equally to the different ministations A, B , C , D reaches F ?

SALIENT FEATURES
(A) 3.5% (B) 7.5% (civil). 22% of the total students are in B.Tech.
(C) 3.375% (D) 15% (nano technology). 16% of the girls are in B.Tech.
(computer science). 18% of boys are in B.Tech.
i. n
(mechanical). Girls in B.Tech. (civil) are 30% of
the girls in B.Tech. (computer science). 15% of
o
The officer’s colony of Badaun has 2800 members out boys are in B.Tech. (electronics). Boys in B.Tech.
.c
of which 650 members read only English newspaper. (computer science) are 50% of the girls in the same.
500 members read only Hindi newspaper and 450 15% of girls are in B.Tech. (aerospace). The ratio of
i a
members read only Marathi newspaper. The number boys to girls in B.Tech. (civil) is 3 : 1 respectively.
of members reading all the three newspapers is
d
24% of the total numbers of students are in B.Tech.
200. 400 members read Hindi as well as Marathi
o
(electronics). The ratio of boys to girls in B.Tech.
newspaper only and 300 members read English as (aerospace) is 12 : 5, respectively.
. n
well as Marathi newspaper only and 300 members
read English and as well as Hindi newspaper only.
w
1.80 What is the total number of students enrolled in
B.Tech. (mechanical) ?
w
1.75 What is the difference between the number of (A) 1530 (B) 1728
w
members reading English as well as Marathi
(C) 1062 (D) 1584
newspaper only and the number of members reading
English as well as Hindi newspaper only ?
(A) 200 (B) 100 1.81 Number of girls enrolled in B.Tech. (electronics)
(C) 300 (D) None of these forms approximately, what per cent of total number
of students in the college ?
(A) 13% (B) 22%
1.76 How many members read atleast two newspaper ?
(C) 7% (D) 15%
(A) 800 (B) 500
i. n
(C) 600 (D) None of these
1.82 What is the total number of girls enrolled in B.Tech.
(nano technology) ?
o
1.77 The number of members reading Hindi newspaper (A) 306 (B) 365
c
is
.
(C) 144 (D) 522
(A) 980 (B) 1020
(C) 750 (D) 1400
ia
d
1.83 Number of boys enrolled in B.Tech. (aerospace)
o
forms, what per cent of the total number of girls
1.78 How many members read only one newspaper ? enrolled in B.Tech. (computer science) ?
.n
(A) 1600 (B) 1540 (A) 200% (B) 225%
(C) 1560 (D) 1650
w
(C) 187.5% (D) 212.5%
w
1.79 The number of members reading atleast three 1.84 What is the total number of boys enrolled in B.Tech.
w
newspaper is (civil) ?
(A) 460 (B) 750 (A) 432 (B) 756
(C) 200 (D) 550 (C) 240 (D) 630
Common Data For Q 80 to 84 ******

There are 7200 students in an engineering college.
The ratio of boys to girls is 7 : 5, respectively.
All the students are enrolled in six different
specialization viz. B. Tech. (electronics), B.Tech.
(computer science), B.Tech. (mechanical), B.Tech.
(aerospace), B.Tech. (nano technology), B.Tech


solutions
i. n
1.1 Correct answer is (B).
Required average number of students studying in

. c o = 58 + 45 + 46 + 40 + 55 + 42 = 286
Total number of students in standard V
i a
standard I = 50 + 45 + 42 + 52 + 52 + 60 = 301
d
= (42 + 50 + 40 + 45 + 48 + 52)/6 Total number of students in standard VI
o
= 277/6 = 38 + 46 + 54 + 50 + 48 + 54 = 290
n
Thus, standard I has the least number of students
.
= 46.16 b 46
w
1.5 Correct answer is (C).
w
Number of students studying in standard III of
Number of students studying in standard IV from
school A and B together = (48 + 58) = 106
w
school E = 55
Number of students studying is standard VI of
Number of students studying in standard IV from
school C and D together = (54 + 50) = 104
school D = 40
Required ratio = 106 : 104 = 53 : 52
Required percentage = 55/40 # 100% = 137.5%
1.6 Correct answer is (A).

Total maximum marks for all the subjects together
Total number of students of school A
= 42 + 54 + 48 + 58 + 50 + 38 = 290 = 100 + 75 + 75 + 150 + 50 = 450
in

.
Total number of students of school B Students Total marks Percentage
= 50 + 60 + 58 + 45 + 45 + 46 = 304 of total
Total number of students of school C
= 40 + 48 + 58 + 46 + 42 + 54 = 288 A
. c o
96 + 55 + 42 + 105 + 40
marks
338 100
ia
Total number of students of school D 450 #
= 338
= 45 + 55 + 46 + 40 + 52 + 50 = 288 = 75.11%
d

Total number of students of school E
o
B 85 + 60 + 51 + 90 + 36 322 100
= 48 + 55 + 44 + 55 + 52 + 48 = 302 450 #
n
= 322
.
Total number of students of school F = 71.55%
w
= 52 + 52 + 54 + 42 + 60 + 54 = 314 C 90 + 72 + 63 + 75 + 44 344 100
Thus, school F has the highest total number of 450 #
= 344
w
students. = 76.44%
w
D 82 + 69 + 57 + 78 + 35 321 100
450 #
1.4 Correct answer is (D). = 321
Total number of students in standard I = 71.33%
= 42 + 50 + 40 + 45 + 48 + 52 = 277 E 78 + 70 + 66 + 120 + 48 382 100
450 #
Total number of students in standard II = 382
= 54 + 60 + 48 + 55 + 55 + 52 = 324 = 84.88%
Total number of students in standard III F 62 + 54 + 45 + 76 + 34 271 100
= 48 + 58 + 58 + 46 + 44 + 54 = 308 450 #
= 271
Total number of students in standard IV = 60.22%

SALIENT FEATURES
Maximum percentage marks = 84.88% = 37425 at the rate of 20% = 7485

Minimum percentage marks = 60.22% Tax = 11000 + 7485 = 18485
i. n
So, required difference Education cess = 3% of 18485 = 554.55
= (84.88 − 60.22)% = 24.66% b total tax = 18485 + 554.55 = 1903.55
o
Alternative Method Hence, required percentage
.c
Here , for finding the answer, there is no need to = 19039.55 # 100 = 5.64%
337425
ia
calculate percentage marks of each student. Take
the maximum difference of marks of any two
d
students, then find the required percentage. 1.12 Correct answer is (C).
o
Maximum difference = 382 − 271 = 111 Checking from options, it can be seen that if his
n
income is Rs. 1348835, the paid is Rs. 317910.
.
So, required percentage difference
= 111 # 100% = 24.66% - 24%
w

450 1.13 Correct answer is (D).
w
Total production of two commodities
1.7 Correct answer is (D).
w
for the year 2002 = 20 + 30 = 50
Average of marks obtained in English by all the
for the year 2003 = 125 + 150 = 275
students
for the year 2004 = 175 + 175 = 350
= 105 + 90 + 75 + 78 + 120 + 76 for the year 2005 = 150 + 200 = 350
6
= 90.66 - 90 for the year 2006 = 225 + 250 = 475
So, required percentage = 72 # 100% = 80% for the year 2007 = 200 + 225 = 425
90
for the year 2008 = 250 + 200 = 450
Thus, required year are 2004 and 2005.
i. n
Average of marks obtained in Physics by all the
o
students 1.14 Correct answer is (D).
c
55 + 60 + 72 + 69 + 70 + 54 = 63.33 Total production of commodity X
.

6 = 20 + 125 + 175 + 150 + 225 + 200 + 250 = 1145
ia
Thus, three students i.e., C , D and E obtained the Total production of commodity Y
marks more than the average.
d
= 30 + 150 + 175 + 200 + 250 + 225 + 200 = 1230
o
Required ratio = 1145: 1230 = 229: 246
n
.
Marks obtained by F in Physics and English
w
together = 54 + 76 = 130 1.15 Correct answer is (C).
Percentage increase/decrease in production of
w
So, required percentage = 130 # 100 = 40.5 - 40% commodity X from the previous year
321
w
In the year 2003 = 125 − 20 # 100% = 525%
1.10 Correct answer is (D). 20
Since, E got the highest marks in the class, thus, E In the year 2004 = 175 − 125 # 100% = 40%
is first in the class. 125
In the year 2005 = 175 − 150 # 100% = 14.28%
175
In the year 2006 = 225 − 150 # 100% = 50%
Total text to be paid = (300000 − 190000) at the 150
rate of 10% In the year 2007 = 225 − 200 # 100% = 11.11%
225
= 110000 at the rate of 10% = 11000
(337425-300000) at the rate of 20% In the year 2008 = 250 − 200 # 100% = 25%
200


Thus, percentage increase is maximum for the year
Correct answer is (B).
1.20
2003 Required difference = Average amount invested in

raw materials - Average values of sales of finished
1.16 Correct answer is (B). goods
i. n
Total production of commodity Y .
= Rs. :1 # (200 + 300 + 500 + 400 + 600 + 460)
= 30 + 150 + 175 + 200 + 250 + 225 + 200 = 1230 6
Required average = 1230

7 6
. c o
− 1 # (120 + 225 + 375 + 330 + 525 + 420)D
a
- 175 lakh tonnes = Rs. ;2460 − 1995E lakh
i

6 6
d
= Rs. (410 − 332.5) lakh

o
= Rs. 77.5 lakh

n
Total production of the two commodities together
.
for the years 2002, 2003 and 2004
w
= (20 + 30) + (125 + 150) + (175 + 175) = 675 1.21 Correct answer is (A).
The percentage change in the amount invested in
w
Total production of the two commodities together
for the year 2006, 2007 and 2008 raw materials and in the value of sales of finished
w
goods for different years are as follow :
= (225 + 250) + (200 + 225) + (250 + 200) = 1350
Percentage change in amount invested in raw
Required ratio = 675 : 1350
materials.
= 1:2 (225 − 120)
for 2006 = # 100% = 87.5%
120
1.18 Correct answer is (D). (375 − 225)
for 2007 = # 100% = 66.67%
The differences between the amount invested in 225
raw material and the value sales of finished goods (330 − 375)
for 2008 = # 100% =− 12%
in
375
for 2005 = Rs. (200 − 120) lakh = Rs. 80 lakh
.
(525 − 330)
for 2006 = Rs. (300 − 225) lakh = Rs. 75 lakh for 2009 = # 100% = 59.09%
o
330
c
for 2007 = Rs. (500 − 375) lakh = Rs. 125 lakh (420 − 525)
.
for 2010 = # 100% =− 20%
for 2008 = Rs. (400 − 330) lakh = Rs. 70 lakh 525
ia
for 2009 = Rs.(600 − 525) lakh = Rs. 75 lakh Percentage change in value of sales of finished goods
d
for 2010 = Rs. ^460 − 420h lakh = Rs. 40 lakh for 2006 =
(330 − 200)
# 100% = 50%
o
200
Clearly, maximum difference was during the year
n
(500 − 300)
.
2007. for 2007 = # 100% = 66.67%
300
w
(400 − 500)
1.19 Correct answer is (B). for 2008 = # 100% =− 20%
500
w
Value of sales of finished goods in the year 2009 (600 − 400)
w
for 2009 = # 100% = 50%
= Rs. 600 lakh 400
Amount invested in raw materials in the years 2007, (460 − 600)
for 2010 = # 100% =− 23.33%
2008 and 2009 600
= 375 + 330 + 525 Thus, the percentage change was same during the
= Rs. 1230 year 2007.
Required percentage = 600 # 100%

1230 1.22 Correct answer is (C).
= 48.78% - 49% From the above solution, we can say that the
maximum percentage increase is in 2006.

SALIENT FEATURES
1.23 Correct answer is (D). 120X = 45

Total income of companies M and N together 100
X = 37.5
i. n
= $ (35 + 50) US million
= $ 85 US million i.e., expenditure of company R in 2010
= $ 37.5 US million
o
Total expenditure of companies M and N together.
= $ ^45 + 40h US million Let the income of company R in 2010 be I million
.c

US $
= $ 85 US million
i a
(I − 37.5)
Thus, there was neither loss nor profit for companies Then, 10 = 100
37.5 #
d
M and N together.
(a Profit percentage in 2010 = 10% )
n
I - 37.5 = 3.75
.
Total income of all five companies I = 41.25
w
i.e., income of company R in 2010 = $ 41.25 US
= $ (35 + 50 + 40 + 40 + 50) US millions
w
million
= $ 215 US million
w
Total expenditure of all five companies
Correct answer is (A).
1.27
= $ (45 + 40 + 45 + 30 + 45) US million
Let the income of company Q in 2010 = $ X US
= $ 205 US million
million then, income of company Q in 2010
(215 − 205)
Profit percentage = ; # 100E %
205 = $ b 110 # X l US million
100
= 4.88 - 5%
110X = 40
100
i. n
1.25 Correct answer is (B). X = b 400 l
The percentage profit/loss in the year 2011 for 11
i.e. income of company Q in 2010 = $ b 400 l US
o
various companies are as follow
11
c
for M and P , there is a loss
.
million
^50 − 40h
a
for N = # 100% = 25%
i
40 Let the expenditure of company Q in 2010 be E
d
i.e., Profit = 25% million US $
o
6(400/11) − E @
(40 − 30)
for Q = # 100% = 33.33%
n
30 Then, 20 = # 100
.
E
i.e., Profit . = 33 33%
(Profit percentage = 20% )
w

(50 − 45)
for R = # 100% = 11.11%
w
45
20 = ; 400 − 1E # 100
i.e., Profit . = 11 11% 11E
in 2011. w
Clearly, the company Q earned the maximum profit E = 400 # 100 = 30.30
11 120
Expenditure of company Q in 2010 = $ 30.30 US
million
Let the expenditure of company R in 2010 be X 1.28 Correct answer is (D).
millions US $ then, expenditure of company R in No data has been given the question as to which
2011 year amongst the given years in the graph is 2010.
= $ b 120 # X l US million So, its answer can’t be given and hence last option
100 is correct.


1.29 Correct answer is (D). 1.33 Correct answer is (C).
Revenue of yahoo in 6th year = 1200 Average number of students studying in B.Sc. in all
Revenue of yahoo in 4th year = 250 the colleges together
Total number of students in B.Sc.
So, percentage increase = 950 # 100 = 380%
i. n
250 in all the colleges together
=
5
Average percentage increase = 380 = 190%
o
2
= 1775 = 355
c
5
.
Revenue of facebook in 6th year = 2000
a
Revenue of facebook in 4th year = 350
i
So, percentage increase = 1650 # 100 = 471.43%
d
350 Number of students studying B.A. in college
o
Average percentage increase = 235.72% B = 300
. n
Required difference = 235.72% − 190% = 45.72% Number of students studying all the disciplines
together in college
w
- 45%
B = 300 + 325 + 475 = 1100
w w
Percentage increase in google’s growth between 5th
and 6th year
Required percentage = 300 # 100% = 27.27%

1100
= 3250 − 1500 # 100% = 116.67% Total number of students studying B.Sc. in the
1500 college C and E together
So, required value of facebook revenue after 6th
= 300 + 425 = 725
year
Total number of students studying B.A. in the
= 750 # ^100 + 116.67h % college C and E together
= 750 # 216.67%
in
= 325 + 325 = 650
.
= 1625.025 Required ratio = 725 : 650 = 29 : 26
o
- 1600
. c
ia
1.31 Correct answer is (A). From the given line graph, it is clear that the
Number of students studying B.Com. in college difference between the percentage of candidates
d
C = 325 qualified to appeared was maximum for the years
o
Total number of students studying B.Com. in all 2004 and 2009 as 2004 has the minimum percentage
. n
the colleges together while 2009 has the maximum percentage.
= ^425 + 475 + 325 + 400 + 225h
= 1850
w w
Required percentage = 325 # 100% - 18%
We can’t determine the actual number of qualified
w
1850 candidates as we don’t know the number of appeared
students.
Total number of students studying
in B.Sc. = 350 + 325 + 300 + 375 + 425 = 1775
Let number of candidates appeared in 2008 be x .
in B.A. = 225 + 300 + 325 + 450 + 325 = 1625
Then, 80% of x = 21200
in B.Com = 425 + 475 + 325 + 400 + 225 = 1850
Therefore, required ratio = 1775 : 1625 : 1850 x = 21200 # 100 = 26500
80
= 71 : 65 : 74

SALIENT FEATURES
1.39 Correct answer is (D). 1.44 Correct answer is (D).

Data is inadequate to answer this question as we It cannot be determined as we do not know the
don’t know the number of candidates appeared in ratio of dollar to pound on 15th December.
i. n
2006 and in 2007, separately.
o
.c
1.40 Correct answer is (D). Angleof area alloted for resident
Required ratio =
Number of candidates appeared in 2009 = 26500 Angle of area alloted for road
i a = 144c = 4 : 1
Therefore, number of candidates qualified in 2009
36c
d
= 80% of 26500 = 21200
o
Number of candidates qualified in 2010
n
= 33500 − 21200 = 12300
.
Angle of area alloted for water body and green zone
Now, let the number of candidates appeared in together
w
2010 be x .
= 18c + 108c = 126c
w
Then, 60% of x = 12300
Required percentage = 126 # 100% = 35%
w
x = 12300 # 100 = 20500 360
60
1.41 Correct answer is (C). 1.47 Correct answer is (B).

On 19th December, Land alloted to green zone = 108c # 5 acre
360c
Rupee
= 46 = 1.5 acre
Dollar
Dollar = 4000 = 2000 Land alloted to commercial area
46 23
= 54c # 5 = 0.75 acre
i. n

and Yen = 106.75 360c
Dollar Required value = ^1.5 − 0.75h acre
o
Yen = 106.75 # 2000 = 0.75 acre
c
23
.
= 9282 - 9300
= 3 acre
a
4
di 1.48 Correct answer is (D).
o
Land alloted for residential purpose
n
Following the same trend from 24th December to
.
27th December as from 21st December to 24th = 144 # 5 = 2 acre
360
w
December,
Land alloted for commercial purpose
Yen = 108
w

Dollar = 54 # 5 = 0.75 = 3 acre
360 4
w
= 50 # 108 = 5400
Yen
Total required land = 2 + 3 = 2 3 acre
4 4
On 20th December, 1.49 Correct answer is (D).
Rupee Number of candidates appeared from institutions
= 45.5 B , C , D and F together
Dollar
Dollar = 18200 = $400 = 1400 + 700 + 1200 + 600 = 3900
45.5 Candidates passed from institutions A, E and G
Thus, the person can purchase the stereo set using together
Rs. 18200. = 1200 + 1200 + 500 = 2900


Required difference = 3900 − 2900 = 1000 1.54 Correct answer is (C).
Total runs scored by the batsman = 306
Total runs scored by 4’s = 43.14% of 306
= 132
i. n
Average number of candidates passed from all the
institute together = 33 fours ^33 # 4 = 132h
Total runs scored by 6’s = 3.92% of 306 = 12
o
= 1200 + 1000 + 400 + 400 + 1200 + 200 + 50
7 ^2 # 6 = 12h
c
= 2 sixes
= 4900 = 700
7
i a
1.55
. Correct answer is (C).
d
Considering the changes mentioned in the question,
o
Total runs = 306 + 3 # 4 + 2 # 3
n
Number of candidates passed from institutions C
.
= 306 + 12 + 6 = 324
and E institutes together
Total runs second in 4’s = 132 + 12 = 144
w

= 400 + 1200 = 1600
Required angle = 144 # 360c = 160c
w
Number of candidates appeared from institutions
324
A and G together
w
= 1300 + 1100 = 2400 1.56 Correct answer is (B).
Therefore, required percentage Total number of employees in accounts department
% = 1600 # 100 - 67% = 8% of 4600 = 368
2400
Number of women = 368 # 1 = 92
^3 + 1h

Difference between appeared and passed candidates 1.57 Correct answer is (D).
from
in
Total number of employees in IT and HR
.
institution A = 1300 − 1200 = 100 departments
= ^26 + 11h % of 4600
o
institution B = 1400 − 1000 = 400
c
institution C = 700 − 400 = 300 = 37 # 4600 = 1702
.

100
institution D = 1200 − 400 = 800
ia
institution E = 1500 − 1200 = 300
d
institution F = 600 − 200 = 400
o
Total number of men in all the departments
institution G = 1100 − 500 = 600
n
= ;b 11 # 1l + b 8 # 3 l + b 15 # 3 l + b 26 # 1l
.
Thus, difference is maximum for institution D . 2 4 5 4
w
+b 22 # 1l + b 18 # 5 lE % of 4600
Correct answer is (A). 2 6
w
1.53
Number of candidates who have failed from = ^5.5 + 6 + 9 + 6.5 + 11 + 15h % of 4600
w
institution B = 47% of 4600
= Number of appeared candidates from institution B Hence, required ratio = 53 : 47
- Number of passed candidates from institution B
= 1400 − 1000 = 400 1.59 Correct answer is (C).
and number of candidates appeared from institution Number of women is merchandising department
F = 600
= 1 of 18% of 4600
Required ratio = 400 : 600 = 2 : 3 6
Total number of employees in the organization
= 4600

SALIENT FEATURES
Then, required percentage = 9810 − 5450 # 100

1
of 18% of 4600 5450
= 6 # 100 = 3%
4600 = 4360 # 100 = 80%
i. n
%
5450
o
.c
Number of men in the production department
Salary offered in software
= 3 of 15% of 4600
i
5 in 1992 = Rs. 5290 thousand
d
Number of men in marketing department in 1996 = Rs. 8640 thousand
o
= 1 of 22% of 4600 Percentage increase = 8640 − 5290 # 100%
2 5290
5
. n
Then, required ratio = 3 of 15% of 4600 : 1 of
2 = 3350 # 100 = 63.32%
5290
w
22% of 4600 Thus, required average annual increase rate
= 3 # 15 : 1 # 22

5
= 9 : 11

2
w w

- 15.9%
= 1 # 63.32 = 15.83%
4
1.61 Correct answer is (D). 1.64 Correct answer is (C).

Average monthly salary to a marketing student
Years Number Number of Number of
in 1992 = Rs. 5170 thousand
of students students
students employed employed from in 1996 = Rs. 10220 thousand
i. n
employed from finance marketing Required percentage increase
1992 800 0.22 # 800 0.36 # 800 = 10220 − 5170 # 100
5170
o
= 176 = 288
= 5050 # 100 - 98%
c
1993 650 0.17 # 650 0.48 # 650 %
.
5170
= 110.5 = 312
ia
1994 1100 0.23 # 1100 0.43 # 1100 1.65 Correct answer is (A).
d
= 253 = 473
In 1994, students seeking jobs in finance earned
o
1995 1200 0 . 19 # 1200 0 . 37 # 1200
= 23% of 1100 # 7550
n
= 228 = 444
.
= Rs. 1910150
1996 1000 0.32 # 1000 0.32 # 1000
Students seeking jobs in software earned
w
= 320 = 320
= 21% of 1100 # 7050 = Rs. 1628550
w
Total 1087.50 1837
= Rs. 1628550
w
Required difference = 1837 − 1087.5 Difference in the amount earned
= 749.5 - 750 = 1910150 − 1628550
= Rs. 281600
1.62 Correct answer is (B). = Rs. 2.81 lakh per month
Average salary of Fiance in 1992 = Rs. 2.81 # 12 lakh per annum
= Rs. 5450 thousand = Rs. 33.8 lakh per annum
Average salary of Finance in 1996
= Rs. 9810 thousand 1.66 Correct answer is (D).
Required percentage increase Income tax collection = 20% of revenue = 18


= 18 = Rs. 90 billion
Revenue 1.70 Correct answer is (C).
0.2 It I receiving 10 amp, then H will also receive 10
= 55 + 58 = Rs. 113 billion
Expenditure amp. Hence, substation R will receive 25 amp as
Borrowing = Expenditure - Revenue R is giving 20 amp to I and H after 10% loss
i. n
= 113 − 90 = Rs. 23 billion two times for 2 km. Thus, substation Q will also
receive 25 amp. The 25 amp that Q receives will be
o
distributed equally into A, D and G , with a 10%
Correct answer is (B).
c
1.67
loss for 1 km. A would receive 1/3 of 90% of 25
.
Let revenue in 1991 and 1993 be r1 and r2 ,
= 7.5 amp.
i a
respectively and borrowing in these years be B and
^B - 10h, respectively.
d
r1 = 110 − B
o
In year 1991, For C to receive 10 amp, B should send 11.11 amp
r2 = 113 − ^B − 10h
n
In year 1993, to C as after a loss of 10%, C will receive 10 amp.
.
Increase in revenue, r2 − r1 = 13 If C receives 10 amp, B will have received 22.22
w
Average increase in revenue = 13 (for the period amp (since, B will retain half and send forward
2
w
half the electricity is receives.) That means A
from 1991-93)
should send 24.7 amp to B (approx.) Thus, A
w
= Rs. 6.5 billion
receives ^24.7 # 2h = 49.4 amp . Thus, substation
Q sends 55 amp to A. So, Q must have received
55 # 3 = 165 amp . Hence, P must have produced
165 # 2 = 330 amp .
Since, borrowing are equal, increase in Government
revenue would be equal to increase in Government
expenditure (Government expenditure = Borrowing 1.72 Correct answer is (B).
+ Government revenue) As H is receiving 34 amp, as R must be sending
in
Increase in government revenue 40 amp to H . Thus, R receives 80 amp and so will
.
Q , Q will send forward towards G , 1/3 of 90% of
= Expenditure in 1994 – Expenditure in 1992
o
80 = 24 amp as 10% of 80 amp will be lost on the

c
way.
= ^60 + 60h − ^58 + 54h = Rs. 8 billion
1.73
ia .
Correct answer is (C).
d
1.69 Correct answer is (C). As we have done above, F will receive 9 amp, if D
o
Let r be the revenue in 1990, then revenue in 1993 sends 10 amp to each of E and F . Thus, D must
n
= 1.1r be getting 40 amp. Since, D and G are identical, G
.
Expenditure = Borrowing + Revenue must be receiving 40 amp.
w
In year 1993, 58 + 55 = b + 1.1r
w
1.74
In year 1990, 55 + 50 = b + r
Suppose, P is producing 100% current, then 50%
w
0.1r = 113 − 105 = 8 billion
of it will reach Q . Then, D will receive (1/3 of 90%
r = Rs. 80 billion of 50)% = 15%
Revenue in 1993 = 1.1 # 80 = Rs. 88 billion
Thus, F will receive = 1 of 90% of b 15 l = 3.375%
Income tax in 1990 = Income tax in 1993 2 2
= 0.2 # 88 = Rs. 17.6 billion
Percentage income tax in revenues in 1990
Number of members reading English as well as
= 17.6 # 100% = 176 % = 22% Marathi newspaper only is 300. Number of members
80 8
reading English as well as Hindi newspaper only is
300. Therefore, required difference = 300 − 300 = 0

SALIENT FEATURES

From the above venn diagram,
Number of members reading atleast two newspapers
i. n
= 300 + 300 + 400 + 200 = 1200

From the above Venn diagram,
.c o
i a
Number of members reading Hindi newspaper
d
= 500 + 300 + 200 + 400 = 1400
n o
.
From the above venn diagram, the number of
w
members reading only one newspaper
w
= 650 + 500 + 450 = 1600
1.79
w
From the above venn diagram, the number of
members reading atleast three newspapers = 200 .

From the table, it is clear that total number of
students enrolled in B.Tech. (mechanical).
i. n
= 756 + 306 = 1062
o
c
Number of girls enrolled in B.Tech. (electronics)
.
= 1098
ia
Required percentage = 1098 # 100 = 15.25 - 15%
d
7200
o
.n
Number of girls enrolled in B.Tech. (nano
technology) = 522
ww
w
Number of boys enrolled in B.Tech (aerospace)
= 1080
Number of girls enrolled in B.Tech (computer
science) = 480
Required percentage = 1080 # 100% = 225%
480

Total number of boys enrolled in B.Tech. (civil)
= 432 .
******

First Edition
GATE
Engineering Mathematics
Vol 2 of 5
RK Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
NODIA & COMPANY

GATE Instrumentation Engineering Vol 2, 1e
Engineering Mathematics
RK Kanodia and Ashish Murolia
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providing moral support and motivation.

R. K. Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
Contents
Chapter 1 Matrix Algebra

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Multiplication of Matrices 1
1.3 Transpose of a Matrix 2
1.4 Determinant of a Matrix 2
1.5 Rank of Matrix 2
1.6 Adjoint of a Matrix 3
1.7 Inverse of a Matrix 3

1.7.1 Elementary Transformations 4
1.7.2 Inverse of Matrix by Elementary Transformations 4
1.8 ECHELON FORM 5
1.9 NORMAL FORM 5
Exercise 6
Solutions 20
Chapter 2 Systems of Linear Equations

2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Vector 39
2.2.1 Equality of Vectors 39
2.2.2 Null Vector or Zero Vector 39
2.2.3 A Vector as a Linear Combination of a Set of Vectors 40
2.2.4 Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors 40
2.3 System of Linear Equations 40
2.4 Solution of a system of linear equations 40
Exercise 42
Solutions 51
chapter 3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Eigenvalues and Eigen vector 65
3.3 Determination of eigenvalues and eigenvectors 66
3.4 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem 66

3.4.1 Computation of the Inverse Using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem 67
3.5 Reduction of a matrix to diagonal form 67
3.6 Similarity OF Matrices 68
Exercise 69
Solutions 80
chapter 4 Limit, Continuity and Differentiability

4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 Limit of a Function 99

4.2.1 Left Handed Limit 99
4.2.2 Right Handed Limit 99
4.2.3 Existence of Limit at Point 100
4.2.4 L’ hospital’s Rule 100
4.3 Continuity of a Function 100
4.3.1 Continuity in an interval 100
4.4 Differentiability 101
Exercise 102
Solutions 115
chapter 5 Maxima and Minima

5.2 Monotonocity 139
5.3 Maxima and Minima 139
Exercise 140
Solutions 147
chapter 6 Mean Value Theorem

6.2 Rolle’s Theorem 163
6.3 Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem 163
6.4 Cauchy’s Mean Values Theorem 163
Exercise 164
Solutions 168
chapter 7 Partial Derivatives

7.2 Partial Derivatives 175

7.2.1 Partial Derivatives of Higher Orders 175
7.3 Total Differentiation 176
7.4 Change of Variables 176

7.5 Differentiation of implicit Function 176
7.6 Euler’s Theorem 176
Exercise 177
Solutions 182
chapter 8 Definite Integral

8.2 Definite Integral 191
8.3 Important Formula for definite integral 192
8.4 Double Integral 192
Exercise 193
Solutions 202
chapter 9 Directional Derivatives

9.2 Differential Elements in Coordinate Systems 223
9.3 Differential Calculus 223
9.4 Gradient of a Scalar 224
9.5 Divergence of a Vector 224
9.6 Curl of a Vector 225
9.7 Characterization of a vector field 225
9.8 Laplacian Operator 225
9.9 Integral Theorems 226

9.9.1 Divergence theorem 226
9.9.2 Stoke’s Theorem 226
9.9.3 Green’s Theorem 226
9.9.4 Helmholtz’s Theorem 226
Exercise 227
Solutions 234
chapter 10 First Order Differential Equations

10.2 Differential Equation 247

10.2.1 Ordinary Differential Equation 247
10.2.2 Order of a Differential Equation 248
10.2.3 Degree of a Differential Equation 248
10.3 Differential equation of FIRST ORDER and first degree 248
10.4 Solution of a differential Equation 249
10.5 VARIABLES SEPARABLE form 249

10.5.1 Equations Reducible to Variable Separable Form 250
10.6 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS 250
10.6.1 Equations Reducible to Homogeneous Form 251
10.7 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 252
10.7.1 Equations Reducible to Linear Form 253
10.8 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION 253
10.9 EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 254

10.9.1 Necessary and Sufficient Condition for Exactness 254
10.9.2 Solution of an Exact Differential Equation 254
10.9.3 Equations Reducible to Exact Form: Integrating Factors 255
10.9.4 Integrating Factors Obtained by Inspection 255
Exercise 257
Solutions 266
Chapter 11 Higher Order Differential Equations

11.2 Linear differential equation 283

11.2.1 Operator 283
11.2.2 General Solution of Linear Differential Equation 283
11.3 Determination of complementary function 284
11.4 Particular integral 285

11.4.1 Determination of Particular Integral 285
11.5 Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation 287
11.6 Euler Equation 288
Exercise 289
Solutions 300
Chapter 12 Initial and boundary Value Problems

12.2 Initial Value Problems 317
12.3 Boundary-Value Problem 317
Exercise 319
Solutions 325
Chapter 13 Partial Differential Equation

13.2 Partial Differential Equation 337

13.2.1 Partial Derivatives of First Order 337
13.2.2 Partial Derivatives of Higher Order 338
13.3 Homogeneous functions 339
13.4 Euler’s theorem 339
13.5 Composite functions 340
13.6 Errors and approximations 341
Exercise 342
Solutions 347
Chapter 14 Analytic Functions

14.2 Basic Terminologies in complex function 357
14.3 Functions of complex variable 358
14.4 Limit of a complex function 358
14.5 Continuity of a complex function 359
14.6 Differentiability of a complex function 359

14.6.1 Cauchy-Riemann Equation: Necessary Condition for Differentiability of a Complex
Function 360
14.6.2 Sufficient Condition for Differentiability of a Complex Function 361
14.7 Analytic Function 362
14.7.1 Required Condition for a Function to be Analytic 362
14.8 Harmonic function 363
14.8.1 Methods for Determining Harmonic Conjugate 363
14.8.2 Milne-Thomson Method 364
14.8.3 Exact Differential Method 366
14.9 Singular Points 366
Exercise 367
Solutions 380
Chapter 15 Cauchy’s Integral Theorem

15.2 Line integral of a complex function 405

15.2.1 Evaluation of the Line Integrals 405
15.3 cauchy’s theorem 406
15.3.1 Cauchy’s Theorem for Multiple Connected Region 407
15.4 Cauchy’s Integral Formula 408
15.4.1 Cauchy’s Integral Formula for Derivatives 409
Exercise 410
Solutions 420
Chapter 16 Taylor’s and Laurent’ Series

16.2 Taylor’s series 439
16.3 Maclaurin’s Series 440
16.4 laurent’s series 441
16.5 Residues 443

16.5.1 The Residue Theorem 443
16.5.2 Evaluation of Definite Integral 443
Exercise 444
Solutions 453
Chapter 17 Probability
17.2 Sample space 469
17.3 Event 469

17.3.1 Algebra of Events 470
17.3.2 Types of Events 470
17.4 Definition of Probability 471
17.4.1 Classical Definition 471
17.4.2 Statistical Definition 472
17.4.3 Axiomatic Definition 472
17.5 Properties of Probability 472
17.5.1 Addition Theorem for Probability 472
17.5.2 Conditional Probability 473
17.5.3 Multiplication Theorem for Probability 473
17.5.4 Odds for an Event 473
17.6 Baye’s Theorem 474
Exercise 476
Solutions 491
Chapter 18 Random Variable

18.2 Random Variable 515

18.2.1 Discrete Random Variable 516
18.2.2 Continuous Random Variable 516
18.3 Expected VAlue 517
18.3.1 Expectation Theorems 517
18.4 Moments of Random Variables and Variance 518
18.4.1 Moments about the Origin 518
18.4.2 Central Moments 518
18.4.3 Variance 518
18.5 Binomial Distribution 519
18.5.1 Mean of the Binomial distribution 519
18.5.2 Variance of the Binomial distribution 519
18.5.3 Fitting of Binomial Distribution 520
18.6 Poisson Distribution 521
18.6.1 Mean of Poisson Distribution 521
18.6.2 Variance of Poisson Distribution 521
18.6.3 Fitting of Poisson Distribution 522
18.7 Normal Distribution 522
18.7.1 Mean and Variance of Normal Distribution 523
Exercise 526
Solutions 533
Chapter 19 Statistics
19.2 Mean 543
19.3 Median 544
19.4 Mode 545
19.5 Mean Deviation 545
19.6 Variance and Standard Deviation 546
Exercise 547
Solutions 550
Chapter 20 Correlation and Regression Analysis

20.2 Correlation 555
20.3 Measure of Correlation 555

20.3.1 Scatter or Dot Diagrams 555
20.3.2 Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation 556
20.3.3 Computation of Correlation Coefficient 557
20.4 Rank correlation 558
20.5 Regression 559

20.5.1 Lines of Regression 559
20.5.2 Angle between Two Lines of Regression 560
Exercise 562
Solutions 565
Chapter 21 Solutions of non-linear Algebraic Equations

21.2 Successive Bisection Method 569

21.3 False Position Method (Regula-falsi method) 569
21.4 Newton - Raphson Method (Tangent method) 570
Exercise 21 571
Solutions 21 579
Chapter 22 Integration by Trapezoidal and Simpson’s Rule

22.2 Numerical Differentiation 597

22.2.1 Numerical Differentiation Using Newton’s Forward Formula 597
22.2.2 Numerical Differentiation Using Newton’s Backward Formula 598
22.2.3 Numerical Differentiation Using Central Difference Formula 599
22.3 Maxima and Minima of a tabulated function 599
22.4 Numerical Integration 600

22.4.1 Newton-Cote’s Quadrature Formula 600
22.4.2 Trapezoidal Rule 601
22.4.3 Simpson’s One-third Rule 601
22.4.4 Simpson’s Three-Eighth Rule 602
Exercise 604
Solutions 608
Chapter 23 Single and Multi Step Methods for Differential Equations

23.2 Picard’s Method 617
23.3 Euler’s Method 618

23.3.1 Modified Euler’s Method 618
23.4 Runge-Kutta Methods 619
23.4.1 Runge-Kutta First Order Method 619
23.4.2 Runge-Kutta Second Order Method 619
23.4.3 Runge-Kutta Third Order Method 619
23.4.4 Runge-Kutta Fourth Order Method 620
23.5 Milne’s Predictor and Corrector Method 620
23.6 Taylor’s Series Method 621
Exercise 623
Solutions 628
***********
CHAPTER 1
Matrix Algebra
1.1 Introduction
This chapter, concerned with the matrix algebra, includes the following
topics:
•• Multiplication of matrix
•• Transpose of matrix
•• Determinant of matrix
•• Rank of matrix
•• Adjoint of matrix
•• Inverse of matrix: elementary transformation, determination of inverse
using elementary transformation
•• Echelon form and normal form of matrix; procedure for reduction of
normal form.
1.2 Multiplication of Matrices
If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will be defined

only when number of columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B .
If A = 6aij@m # n
and B = 6bjk @n # p
then their product,
AB = C = 6cik@m # p
will be matrix of order m # p , where
n
cik = / aij bjk
j=1
Properties of matrix multiplication
If A, B and C are three matrices such that their product is defined, then
1. Generally not commutative; AB ! BA
2. Associative law; (AB) C = A (BC)
3. Distributive law; A (B + C) = AB + AC
4. Cancellation law is not applicable, i.e. if AB = AC , it does not mean
that B = C .
5. If AB = 0 , it does not mean that A = 0 or B = 0 .
6. (AB)T = (BA)T
Set of 5 Books by NODIA Publication
Page 2 1.3 Transpose of a Matrix
Sample Chapter of GATE Instrumentation Engineering Vol- 2
Chap 1
Matrix Algebra The matrix obtained form a given matrix A by changing its rows into
columns or columns int rows is called Transpose of matrix A and is denoted
by AT . From the definition it is obvious that if order of A is m # n , then
order of AT is n # m .
Properties of Transpose of matrix
Consider the two matrices A and B

1. (AT )T = A
2. (A ! B)T = AT ! BT
3. (AB)T = BT AT
4. (kA)T = k (A)T
5. (A1 A2 A 3 ...An − 1 An)T = A Tn A Tn − 1 ...A T3 A T2 A T1
i. n
1.4 Determinant of a Matrix
The determinant of square matrix A is defined as
o
a11 a12 a13
.c
A = a21 a22 a23
a
a31 a32 a33
d i
Properties of determinant of matrix
o
Consider the two matrices A and B .
n
.
1. A exists + A is a square matrix
w
2. AB = A B
3. AT = A
w w
4. kA = kn A , if A is a square matrix of order n .
5. If A and B are square matrices of same order then AB = BA .
6. If A is a skew symmetric matrix of odd order then A = 0 .
7. If A = diag (a1, a2,...., an) then A = a1, a2 ...an .
8. A n = An , n ! N .
9. If A = 0 , then matrix is called singular.
Singular Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be singular if A = 0 and non-singular if
A ! 0.
1.5 Rank of Matrix
The number, r with the following two properties is called the rank of the
matrix
1. There is at least one non-zero minor of order r .
2. Every minor of order (r + 1) is zero.
This definition of the rank does uniquely fix the same for, as a consequence
of the condition (2), every minor of order (r + 2), being the sum of multiples
of minors of order (r + 1), will be zero. In fact, every minor of order greater

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than r will be zero as a consequence of the condition (2). Page 3

The given following two simple results follow immediately from the definition Chap 1
1. There exists a non-zero minor or order r & the rank is $ r . Matrix Algebra
2. All minors of order (r + 1) are zero & the rank is # r .

In each of the two cases above, we assume r to satisfy only one of two
properties (1) or (2) of the rank. The rank of matrix A represented by
symbol r (A).
Nullity of a Matrix
If A is a square matrix of a order n, then n - r (A) is called the nullity of
the matrix A and is denoted by N (A). Thus a non-singular square matrix of
order n has rank equal to n and the nullity of such a matrix is equal to zero.
1.6 Adjoint of a Matrix
If every element of a square matrix A be replaced by its cofactor in A ,
in
then the transpose of the matrix so obtained is called the Adjoint of matrix
A and it is denoted by adj A. Thus, if A = 6aij @ be a square matrix and Fij
.
be the cofactor of aij in A , then adj A + 6Fij @T .
o
.c
Properties of adjoint matrix
ia
If A, B are square matrices of order n ad In is corresponding unit matrix,
d
then
o
1. A (adj A) = A In = (adj A)A
n
2. adj A = A n − 1
.
3. adj (adj A) = A n − 2 A
w
2
4. adj (adj A) = A (n − 1)
w
5. adj (AT ) = (adj A)T
w
6. adj (AB) = (adj B)(adj A)
7. adj (Am) = (adj A) m, m ! N
8. adj (kA) = kn − 1 (adj A), k ! R
1.7 Inverse of a Matrix
If A and B are two matrices such that AB = I = BA, then B is called the
inverse of A and it is denoted by A-1 . Thus,
A-1 = B + AB = I = BA
To find inverse matrix of a given matrix A we use following formula
adj A
A-1 =
A
Thus A-1 exists if A ! 0 and matrix A is called invertible.

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Properties of inverse matrix
Chap 1
Matrix Algebra Let A and B are two invertible matrices of the same order, then
1. (AT ) −1 = (A−1)T
2. (AB) −1 = B−1 A−1
3. (Ak ) −1 = (A−1) k , k ! N
4. adj (A−1) = (adj A) −1
5. A−1 = 1 = A −1
A
6. If A = diag (a1, a2,..., an), then A−1 = diag (a 1-1, a 2-1, ..., a n-1)
7. AB = AC & B = C , if A ! 0
1.7.1 Elementary Transformations

Any one of the following operations on a matrix is called an elementary
transformation (or E -operation).
i. n
1. Interchange of two rows or two columns
(1) The interchange of i th and j th rows is denoted by Ri ) R j
o
(2) The interchange of i th and j th columns is denoted by Ci ) C j .
i a
th
.c
2. Multiplication of (each element ) a row or column by a k.
(1) The multiplication of i row by k is denoted by Ri " kRi
d
(2) The multiplication of i th column by k is denoted by Ci " kCi
n o
3. Addition of k times the elements of a row (or column) to the corresponding
.
elements of another row (or column), k ! 0
w
(1) The addition of k times the j th row to the i th row is denoted by
w
Ri " Ri + kR j .
w
(2) The addition of k times the j th column to the i th column is denoted by
Ci " Ci + kC j .
If a matrix B is obtained from a matrix A by one or more E -operations,
then B is said to be equivalent to A. They can be written as A + B .
1.7.2 Inverse of Matrix by Elementary Transformations

The elementary row transformations which reduces a square matrix A to
the unit matrix, when applied to the unit matrix, gives the inverse matrix
A-1 . Let A be a non-singular square matrix. Then,
A = IA
Apply suitable E -row operations to A on the left hand side so that A
is reduced to I . Simultaneously, apply the same E -row operations to the
pre-factor I on right hand side. Let I reduce to B, so that I = BA. Post-
multiplying by A-1 , we get
IA-1 = BAA−1
or A-1 = B (AA−1) = BI = B
or B = A−1

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1.8 ECHELON FORM Page 5

Chap 1
A matrix is said to be of Echelon form if, Matrix Algebra
1. Every row of matrix A which has all its entries 0 occurs below every row
which has a non-zero entry.
2. The first non-zero entry in each non-zero is equal to one.
3. The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is less
than the number of such zeros in the next row.
Rank of a matrix in the Echelon form

The rank of a matrix in the echelon form is equal to the number of non-zero
rows of the given matrix. For example,
R0 2 6 1V
S W
the rank of the matrix A = S0 0 1 2W is 2
SS0 0 0 0WW
T X 3#4
in
1.9 NORMAL FORM
o.
By a finite number of elementary transformations, every non-zero matrix
A of order m # n and rank r (> 0) can be reduced to one of the following
forms.
a.c
i
Ir O Ir
> O O H, > O H, 8Ir OB, 8IrB
od
Ir denotes identity matrix of order r . Each one of these four forms is called
Normal Form or Canonical Form or Orthogonal Form.
.n
Procedure for Reduction of Normal Form
w
Let A = 6aij@ be any matrix of order m # n . Then, we can reduce it to the
w
normal form of the matrix A by subjecting it to a number of elementary
transformation using following methodology.
w
Methodology: Reduction of normal form
1. We first interchange a pair of rows (or columns), if necessary, to obtain

a non-zero element in the first row and first column of the matrix A.
2. Divide the first row by this non-zero element, if it is not 1.
3. We subtract appropriate multiples of the elements of the first row
from other rows so as to obtain zeroes in the remainder of the first
column.
4. We subtract appropriate multiple of the elements of the first column
from other columns so as to obtain zeroes in the remainder of the first
row.
5. We repeat the above four steps starting with the element in the second
row and the second column.
6. Continue this process down the leading diagonal until the end of the
diagonal is reached or until all the remaining elements in the matrix
are zero.
**********

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EXERCISE 1
Chap 1
Matrix Algebra
QUE 1.1 Match the items in column I and II.
Column I Column II
P. Singular matrix 1. Determinant is not defined
Q. Non-square matrix 2. Determinant is always one
R. Real symmetric 3. Determinant is zero
S. Orthogonal matrix 4. Eigenvalues are always real
5. Eigenvalues are not defined
(A) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2

i. n
o
(B) P-2, Q-3, R-4, S-1
.c
(C) P-3, Q-2, R-5, S-4
a
(D) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1
d i
QUE 1.2
n o
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem states that a square matrix satisfies its own
.
characteristic equation. Consider a matrix
w
−3 2
A = >
− 2 0H
w
ARIHANT/286/26
w
If A be a non-zero square matrix of orders n , then
(A) the matrix A + Al is anti-symmetric, but the matrix A - Al is
symmetric
(B) the matrix A + Al is symmetric, but the matrix A - Al is anti-
symmetric
(C) Both A + Al and A - Al are symmetric
(D) Both A + Al and A - Al are anti-symmetric
QUE 1.3 If A and B are two odd order skew-symmetric matrices such that AB = BA
ARIHANT/285/3
, then what is the matrix AB ?
(A) An orthogonal matrix
(B) A skew-symmetric matrix
(C) A symmetric matrix
(D) An identity matrix
QUE 1.4 If A and B are matrices of order 4 # 4 such that A = 5B and A = α B

, then a is_______.

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QUE 1.5 If the rank of a ^5 # 6h matrix A is 4, then which one of the following Page 7

ARIHANT/292/117 statements is correct?
Chap 1
(A) A will have four linearly independent rows and four linearly independent Matrix Algebra
columns
(B) A will have four linearly independent rows and five linearly independent
columns
(C) AAT will be invertible
(D) AT A will be invertible
QUE 1.6 If An # n is a triangular matrix then det A is

n n
(A) % (- 1) aii (B) % aii
i=1 i=1
n n
(C) / (- 1) aii (D) / aii
i=1 i=1
.in
o
QUE 1.7 If A ! Rn # n, det A ! 0 , then A is
c
(A) non singular and the rows and columns of A are linearly independent.
a.
(B) non singular and the rows A are linearly dependent.
i
(C) non singular and the A has one zero rows.
d
(D) singular
no
QUE 1.8
ARIHANT/286/28
w.
Square matrix A of order n over R has rank n . Which one of the following
statement is not correct?
ww
(A) AT has rank n
(B) A has n linearly independent columns
(C) A is non-singular
(D) A is singular
R V
S5 3 2 W
QUE 1.9 Determinant of the matrix S1 2 6 W is_____
SS3 5 10 WW
T X
QUE 1.10 The value of the determinant

ARIHANT/305/7 a h g
h b f
g f c
(A) abc + 2fgh − af 2 − bg2 − ch2
(B) ab + a + c + d
(C) abc + ab − bc − cg
(D) a + b + c

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Page 8 67 19 21
Chap 1 QUE 1.11 The value of the determinant 39 13 14 is______

Matrix Algebra ARIHANT/306/9 81 24 26
R V
1 3 2 S2 7 8W
QUE 1.12 If 0 5 − 6 = 26 , then the determinant of the matrix S0 5 - 6 W is____
2 7 8 SS1 3 2 WW
T X
R 0 1 0 2 VW
S
S- 1 1 1 3W
QUE 1.13 The determinant of the matrix S is______
0 0 0 1W
S W
S 1 -2 0 1W
T X
i. n
QUE 1.14 Let A be an m # n matrix and B an n # m matrix. It is given that
determinant Îm + AB h = determinant În + BAh, where Ik is the k # k
o
identity matrix. Using the above property, the determinant of the matrix
.c
given below is______
R V
S2 1 1 1W
i a
S1 2 1 1W
S1 1 2 1W
d
S W
o
S1 1 1 2W
T X
. n
QUE 1.15
ARIHANT/306/14
w w
Let A = >
3 1 − 2i
1 − 2i 2
H, then
w (1) A = >
3 1 − 2i
1 + 2i
(3) A * = A (4)
2
H (2)
A *= >
2 1 + 2i
1 − 2i
A is hermitian matrix
2
H
Which of above statement is/are correct ?

(A) 1 and 3 (B) 1, 2 and 3
(C) 1 and 4 (D) All are correct
QUE 1.16 For which value of λ will the matrix given below become singular?
R V
ARIHANT/292/110
S 8 λ 0W
S 4 0 2W
SS12 6 0WW
T X
R V
S 0 1 - 2W
QUE 1.17 If S- 1 0 3 W is a singular, then l is______
SS 2 - 2 l WW
T X

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QUE 1.18 Multiplication of matrices E and F is G . matrices E and G are Page 9

R V R1 0 0V
Scos q − sin q 0W S W Chap 1
E = S sin q cos q 0W and G = S0 1 0W Matrix Algebra
SS 0 0 1WW SS0 0 1WW
T X T X
What is the matrix F ?
Rcos q - sin q 0V R cos q cos q 0VW
S W S
(A) S sin q cos q 0W (B) S- cos q sin q 0W
SS 0 0 1WW SS 0 0 1WW
RT cos q sin q 0XV TR
0VW
X
S W S sin q - cos q
(C) S- sin q cos q 0W (D) Scos q sin q 0W
SS 0 0 1W W S
S 0 0 1WW
T X T X
1 2 3 4
Rank of matrix =
- 2 0 5 7G
QUE 1.19 is
.in
o
R V
S1 1 1 W
.c
QUE 1.20 The rank of the matrix S1 - 1 0 W is______
a
SS1 1 1 WW
i
T X
od
n
Given,
.
QUE 1.21
ARIHANT/306/8 R V
S1 2 3W
w
A = S1 4 2W
w
SS2 6 5WW
T X
w
(1) A = 0 (2) A =Y 0
(3) rank Âh = 2 (4) rank Âh = 3
(A) 1, 3 and 4 (B) 1 and 3
(C) 1, 2 and 4 (D) 2 and 4
R V
S2 1 − 1W
QUE 1.22 Given, A = S0 3 − 2W is
ARIHANT/306/11 SS2 4 − 3WW
T
(1) A = 0 (3) X A =Y 0
(3) rank Âh = 2 (4) rank Âh = 5
(A) 1, 3 and 4 (B) 1 and 3
(C) 1, 2 and 4 (D) 2 and 4
R V
S4 2 1 3W
QUE 1.23 Given matrix 6A@ = S6 3 4 7W, the rank of the matrix is_____
ARIHANT/292/111 SS2 1 0 1WW
T X

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Page 10 R2 − 1 3V
S W
Chap 1 QUE 1.24 The rank of the matrix A = S4 7 λW is 2. The value of l must be
Matrix Algebra SS1 4 5WW
T X
R1 2 3 0 VW
S
S2 4 3 2W
QUE 1.25 The rank of matrix S is______
3 2 1 3W
S W
S6 8 7 5W
T X
QUE 1.26 Given,

ARIHANT/306/10
1 a b 0
0 c d 1
A =
1 a b 0
0 c d 1
i. n
(1) A = 0 (2) Two rows are identical
(3) rank Âh = 2 (4) rank Âh = 3
o
.c
(A) 1, 3 and 4 (B) 1 and 3
a
(C) 1, 2 and 3 (D) 2 and 4
d i
QUE 1.27
n o
Two matrices A and B are given below :
.
p q p2 + q2 pr + qs
A = > H ; B=> H
w

r s pr + qs r2 + s2
w
If the rank of matrix A is N , then the rank of matrix B is
w
(A) N/2 (B) N - 1
(C) N (D) 2N
QUE 1.28 If x, y, z are in AP with common difference d and the rank of the matrix
ARIHANT/286/27 R V
S4 5 x W
S5 6 y W is 2, then the value of d and k are
SS6 k z WW
T d =X x/2 ; k is an arbitrary number
(A)
(B) d an arbitrary number; k = 7
(C) d = k ; k = 5
(D) d = x/2 ; k = 6
QUE 1.29 The rank of a 3 # 3 matrix C = AB , found by multiplying a non-zero

column matrix A of size 3 # 1 and a non-zero row matrix B of size 1 # 3 , is
(A) 0 (B) 1
(C) 2 (D) 3

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Rx y 1V
S 1 1 W Page 11

QUE 1.30 If A = Sx2 y2 1W and the point (x1, y1),( y2, y2),( x3, y2) are collinear, then the Chap 1
SSx y 1WW Matrix Algebra
3 3
T X
rank of matrix A is
(A) less than 3 (B) 3
(C) 1 (D) 0
QUE 1.31 Let A = [aij ], 1 # i, j # n with n $ 3 and aij = i.j Then the rank of A is
(A) 0 (B) 1
(C) n - 1 (D) n
QUE 1.32 Let P be a matrix of order m # n , and Q be a matrix of order n # p, n ! p .
in
If ρ (P) = n and ρ (Q) = p , then rank ρ (PQ) is
.
(A) n (B) p
o
(C) np (D) n + p
a.c
i
QUE 1.33 x = 8x1 x2 g xnBT is an n-tuple nonzero vector. The n # n matrix
d
V = xxT
o
(A) has rank zero (B) has rank 1
.n
(C) is orthogonal (D) has rank n
QUE 1.34
ww
If x, y, z in A.P. with common difference d and the rank of the matrix
w
R V
S4 5 x W
S5 6 y W is 2, then the values of d and k are respectively
SS6 k z WW
T X
(A) x and 7 (B) 7, and x
4 4
(C) x and 5 (D) 5, and x

7 7
QUE 1.35 If the rank of a (5 # 6) matrix Q is 4, then which one of the following
statement is correct ?
(A) Q will have four linearly independent rows and four linearly independent
columns
(B) Q will have four linearly independent rows and five linearly independent
columns
T
(C) QQ will be invertible
(D) QT Q will be invertible

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1 -4
The adjoint matrix of =
0 2G
Page 12
is
QUE 1.36
Chap 1
Matrix Algebra 4 2 1 0
(A) = G (B) =
0 1 4 2G
2 4 2 4
(C) = G (D) =
1 0 0 1G
x y
QUE 1.37 If A = > H, then adj(adj A) is equal to
z b
b -z b z
(A) = G (B) =
-y x y xG
(C) 1 = b y G (D) None of these

xb - yz - y x
i. n
QUE 1.38 If A is a 3 # 3 matrix and A = 2 then A (adj A) is equal to
R V R V
o
S4 0 0W S2 0 0 W
.c
(A) S0 4 0 W (B) S0 2 0 W
SS0 0 4 WW SS0 0 2 WW
a
RT VX TR1 XV
i
S1 0 0W S2 0 0 W
d
(C) S0 1 0 W (D) S0 12 0 W
SS0 0 1 WW SS0 0 1 WW
o
2
T X T X
. n
QUE 1.39
w w
If A is a 2 # 2 non-singular square matrix, then adj(adj A) is
(A) A2 (B) A
w
(C) A-1 (D) None of the above

If A is a 3 - rowed square matrix such that A = 3 .
QUE 1.40 The adj(adj A) is equal to

(A) 3A (B) 9A
(C) 27A (D) 81A
QUE 1.41 The value of adj (ajd A) is equal to

(A) 3 (B) 9
(C) 27 (D) 81
QUE 1.42 The value of adj (adj A2) is equal to

(A) 3 4 (B) 38
(C) 316 (D) 332

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QUE 1.43 The rank of an n row square matrix A is (n - 1), then Page 13

(A) adjA ! 0 (B) adjA = 0 Chap 1
(C) adjA = In (D) adjA = In − 1 Matrix Algebra
R− 1 − 2 − 2V
S W
QUE 1.44 The adjoint of matrix A = S 2 1 − 2W is equal to
SS 2 − 2 1WW
(A) A T X (B) 3A
(C) 3AT (D) A t
QUE 1.45 The matrix, that has an inverse is

3 1 5 2
(A) = G (B) =
6 2 2 1G
in
6 2 8 2
(C) = G (D) =
1G
.
9 3 4
.co
a
−1 2
The inverse of the matrix A = >
3 − 5H
i
QUE 1.46 is
d
5 2 5 -3
(A) = G (B) =
3 1G
o
3 1
n
-5 -2 5 3
(C) = G (D) = G
w.
-3 -1 2 1
QUE 1.47
ww 1 2
The inverse of the 2 # 2 matrix = G is
5 7
-7 2 7 2
(A) 1 = G (B) 1 = G
3 5 -1 3 5 1
7 -2 -7 -2
(C) 1 = G (D) 1 = G
3 -5 1 3 -5 -1
3 4
QUE 1.48 If B is an invertible matrix whose inverse in the matrix = G, then B is
5 6
(B) > 1 H
6 -4 1
3 4
(A) =
- 5 6G 5 6
-3 2
(C) = 5 - 3 G (D) > 1 H
1 1
3 4
1
2 2 5 6
A B
Matrix M = >
C 0H
QUE 1.49 is an orthogonal matrix. The value of B is
(A) 1 (B) 1
2 2
(C) 1 (D) 0

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Page 14 R1 2V
S W
Chap 1 QUE 1.50 If A = S2 1W then A-1 is

Matrix Algebra SS1 1WW
R TV X R V
S2 3 W S 1 - 2W
(A) S3 1 W (B) S- 2 1 W
SS2 7 WW SS 1 2 WW
RT VX T X
S1 4 W
(C) S3 2 W (D) Undefined
SS2 5 WW
T X
R1 0 0V
S W
QUE 1.51 The inverse of matrix A = S5 2 0W is equal to
SS3 1 2WW
R V T XR V
S 2 0 0W S 2 0 0W
1
(A) S- 5 2 0 W 1
(B) S- 5 1 0W
4S 2S
i. n
S- 1 - 1 2WW S- 1 - 1 2 WW
R T VX TR XV
S 1 0 0W S 4 0 0W
o
(C) S- 10 2 0 W 1
(D) S- 10 2 0W
.c
SS - 1 - 1 W 4S
2W S-1 -1 2 WW
a
T X T X
d
Ra b c V
i
o
S W
QUE 1.52 If det A = 7, where A = Sd e f W then det(2A) -1 is_____
. n
SSg b c WW
T X
w w R1 0 − 1V
S W
If R = S2 1 − 1W, the top of R-1 is
w
QUE 1.53
SS2 3 2WW
T X
(A) [5, 6, 4] (B) [5, - 3, 1]
(C) [2, 0, - 1] (D) [2, - 1, 12 ]
-1 2
Let B be an invertible matrix and inverse of 7B is =
4 - 7G
QUE 1.54 , the matrix B
is
(A) > 4 71 H (B) = G

1 2 7 2
7 7 4 1
(C) > 2 H (D) =2 1 G

4
1 7 7 4
1
7 7
R V
S0 1 0 0W
S0 2 0 1W
If A = S , then det (A-1) is equal to_____
0WW
QUE 1.55
S0 3 2
S1 4 1 0W
T X

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R V
S1 1 1 1W Page 15

S1 1 − 1 − 1W
W, 6AA @ is
T -1 Chap 1
QUE 1.56 Given an orthogonal matrix A = S
S1 − 1 0 0 W
Matrix Algebra
S0 0 1 − 1W
R1 V T R1 X V
S4 0 0 0 W S2 0 0 0 W
S0 1 0 0 W S0 1 0 0 W
(A) S 4 1 W (B) S 2 1 W
S0 0 2 0 W S0 0 2 0 W
S0 0 0 2 W
1 S0 0 0 12 W
RT1 0 0 0 V X TR 1 XV
S W S 4 0 0 0 W
S0 1 0 0 W S0 14 0 0 W
(C) S (D) S W
0 0 1 0W S0 0 14 0 W
S W
S0 0 0 1 W S0 0 0 14 W
T X T X
QUE 1.57 Given an orthogonal matrix
in
R V
S1 1 1 1 W
.
S1 1 − 1 − 1W
o
A = S
1 − 1 0 0W
c
S W
S0 0 1 1 W
6AAT @ is
.
T X
a
-1
i
R1 V R1 V
d
S4 0 0 0 W S2 0 0 0W
o
S0 14 0 0 W S0 1
2 0 0
W
(A) S W (B) S W
n
1 1
S0 0 2 0 W S0 0 2 0W
.
S0 0 0 12 W S0 0 0 12 W
w
RT1 0 0 0 V X TR 1 0 0 0XW
V
S W S4
w
S0 1 0 0 W S0 1
4 0 0
W
(C) S (D) S W
0 0 1 0W S0 0 14 0 W
w
S W
S0 0 0 1 W S0 0 0 14 W
T X T X
QUE 1.58 A is m # n full rank matrix with m > n and I is identity matrix. Let matrix
Al = (AT A) −1 AT , Then, which one of the following statement is FALSE ?
(A) AAlA = A (B) (AAl) 2
(C) AlA = I (D) AAlA = Al
For a matrix 6M @ = > H, the transpose of the matrix is equal to the

3 4
5 5
QUE 1.59 3
x 5
inverse of the matrix, 6M @ = 6M @ . The value of x is given by

T −1
(A) - 4 (B) - 3
5 5
(C) 3 (D) 4
5 5
2x 0 1 0
If A = > H and A-1 >
- 1 2H
QUE 1.60 then the value of x is_____
x x

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2 -1 2
The value of =
3 2 G=1 G
Page 16
is
QUE 1.61
Chap 1
Matrix Algebra
8 3
(A) = G (B) = G
3 8
(C) 8- 3, - 8B (D) [3, 8]
1 2 0
If A = >
3 − 1 4H
QUE 1.62 , then AAT is
1 3 1 0 1
(A) = G (B) =
-1 4 - 1 2 3G
5 1
(C) =
1 26G
(D) Undefined
−2 1 −1 7
QUE 1.63 If A > H=> H, then the matrix A is equal to
i. n
3 5 − 1 20
1 2 2 1
(A) = G (B) = G
o
3 5 5 3
.c
5 3 -5 3
(C) = G (D) =
2 1 2 1G
i a
QUE 1.64 Let, A = >
o
2 − 0.1
H
d
and A−1 = > 2 H. Then (a + b) =_____
1
a
n
0 3 0 b
w.
Let A = >
2 − 0.1
H and A−1 = > 2 H, Then (a + b) is
1
a
w
QUE 1.65
0 3 0 b
w (A) 7 (B) 3
20
(C) 19 (D) 11
20
20
20
2 6 3 x
QUE 1.66 If A = > H and B = > H, then in order that AB = 0 , the values of x and
3 9 y 2
y will be respectively
(A) - 6 and - 1 (B) 6 and 1
(C) 6 and - 3 (D) 5 and 14
R1V
1 1 0 S W
QUE 1.67 If A = > H and B = S0W, the product of A and B is
1 0 1 SS1WW
1 1 0
(A) = G (B) =0 1G
T X
0
1 1 0
(C) = G (D) = G
2 0 2

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R 1 2V
1 1 2 S W Page 17
If A = > H

QUE 1.68 and B = S 2 0W, then (AB)T is Chap 1
2 1 0 SS− 1 1WW Matrix Algebra
1 4 1 4
(A) =
4 4G =1 4G
(B) T X
1 4 1 1
(C) = G (D) =
4 1 4 4G
R 2 − 1V
S W 1 −2 −5
If A = S 1 0W and B = >
3 4 0H
QUE 1.69 then AB is
SS− 3 4WW
R T X V R V
S- 1 - 8 - 10 W S 0 0 - 10 W
(A) S- 1 - 2 5 W (B) S- 1 - 2 - 5 W
SS 9 22 15 WW SS 0 21 - 15 WW
RT VX TR VX
S- 1 - 8 - 10 W S0 - 8 - 10 W
in
(C) S 1 - 2 - 5 W (D) S1 - 2 - 5 W
.
SS 9 22 15 WW SS9 21 15 WW
o
T X T X
a.c V
i
S0 1 0 0W
d
S0 0 1 0W
QUE 1.70 If X = S W, then the rank of XT X , where XT denotes the transpose
o
ARIHANT/287/32 S0 0 0 1W
n
S0 0 0 0W
.
T
of X , is______ X
ww
Consider the matrices X(4 # 3), Y(4 # 3) and P(2 # 3) . The order of [P (XT Y)T PT ]T
w
QUE 1.71
will be
(A) (2 # 2) (B) (3 # 3)
(C) (4 # 3) (D) (3 # 4)
cos α sin α
If A α = >
− sin cos αH
QUE 1.72 , then consider the following statements :
1. A α .A β = A αβ 2. A α .A β = A(α + β)
cosn α sinn α cos nα sin nα
3. (A α) = > n H 4. (A α) = >
− sin nα cos nαH
n n
n
− sin α cos α
Which of the above statements are true ?
(A) 1 and 2 (B) 2 and 3
(C) 2 and 4 (D) 3 and 4
0 − tan a2 cos α - sin α2

If A = > H then (I - A) >
sin α cos α H
QUE 1.73 a is equal to
tan 2 0
(A) I - 2A (B) I - A
(C) I + 2A (D) I + A

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Page 18 cos q sin q
Let A = > H
Chap 1 QUE 1.74

− sin q cos q
Matrix Algebra ARIHANT/306/13
1 0
(1) AAT = > H (2)
AAT = 1
0 1
(3) A is orthogonal matrix (4) A is not a orthogonal matrix
(A) 1, 3 and 4
(B) 2 and 3
(C) 1, 2 and 3
(D) 2 and 4
QUE 1.75 If the product of matrices

cos2 q cos q sin q
A = = G and
cos q sin q sin2 q
i. n
cos2 f cos f sin f
B ==
G
cos f sin f sin2 f
o
is a null matrix, then q and f differ by
.c
(A) an even multiple π2
a
(B) an even multiple p
(C) an odd multiple of π2
d i
o
(D) an odd multiple of p
. n
w
1 1
QUE 1.76 For a given 2 # 2 matrix A, it is observed that A > H =−> H and
w
−1 −1
1 1
A > H =− 2 > H. The matrix A is
w
−2 −2
2 1 −1 0 1 1
(A) A = >
− 1 − 1H> 0 − 2H>− 1 − 2H
1 1 1 0 2 1
(B) A = >
− 1 − 2H>0 2H>− 1 − 1H
1 1 −1 0 2 1
(C) A = >
− 1 − 2H> 0 − 2H>− 1 − 1H
0 -2
(D) =
1 - 3G
3 −4
If A = >
1 − 1H
QUE 1.77 , then for every positive integer n, An is equal to
1 + 2n 4 n 1 − 2n − 4n
(A) =
1 + 2n G
(B) =
n n 1 + 2n G
1 − 2n 4 n 1 + 2n − 4n
(C) = G (D) =
n 1 + 2n n 1 − 2n G

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R V
S3 W Page 19

QUE 1.78 For which values of the constants b and c is the vector Sb W a linear Chap 1
R VR V R V SSc WW
S1 W S2 W S- 1W Matrix Algebra
Combination of S3 W, S6 W and S- 3 W T X
SS2 WW SS4 WW SS- 2 WW
(A) 9, 6 T XT X T X (B) 6, 9
(C) 6, 6 (D) 9, 9
R V
Sa b c W
QUE 1.79 The values of non zero numbers a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h such that the matrix Sd k e W
is invertible for all real numbers k . SSf g h WW
T X
(A) finite sol n (B) infinite sol n
(C) 0 (D) none
.in **********
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w

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Page 20
SOLUTIONS 1
Chap 1
Matrix Algebra
SOL 1.1 Correct option is (A).

(P) Singular Matrix " Determinant is zero A = 0
(Q) Non-square matrix " An m # n matrix for which m ! n , is called non-
square matrix. Its determinant is not defined
(R) Real Symmetric Matrix " Eigen values are always real.
(S) Orthogonal Matrix " A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if
AAT = I
Its determinant is always one.
i. n
o
SOL 1.2 Correct option is (B).
.c
Here, if A be a non-zero square matrix of order n , then the matrix A + Al
is symmetric, but A - Al will be anti-symmetric.
i a
SOL 1.3
o
d
n
If A and B are both order skew-symmetric matrices, then

w. A =− AT and B =− BT ...(1)
Also, given that AB = BA
w
= ^− BT h^− AT h [from Eq. (1)]
= B A = ÂB h
w
T T T

AB = ÂB hT i.e., AB is a symmetric matrix
SOL 1.4 Correct answer is 625.

If k is a constant and A is a square matrix of order n # n then kA = kn A .
A = 5B & A = 5B = 5 4 B = 625 B
or a = 625

If rank of ^5 # 6h matrix is 4, then surely it must have exactly 4 linearly
independent rows as well as 4 linearly independent columns.
Hence, Rank = Row rank = Column rank

From linear algebra for An # n triangular matrix det A is equal to the product
of the diagonal entries of A.

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SOL 1.7 Correct option is (B). Page 21

If det A ! 0, then An # n is non-singular, but if An # n is non-singular, then Chap 1
no row can be expressed as a linear combination of any other. Otherwise det Matrix Algebra
A=0
SOL 1.8 Correct option is (D).

Since, if A is a square matrix of rank n , then it cannot be a singular.
SOL 1.9 Correct answer is - 28 .

5 3 2
1 2 6 = 5(20 - 30) - 3(10 - 18) + 2(5 - 6)
3 5 10
=− 50 + 24 − 2 =− 28
.in
o
.c
a h g
a f h f h b
a
h b f = a −h +g
i
f c g c g f
g f c
d
= a ^bc − f 2h − h ^hc − fg h + g ^hf − gb h

no
= abc = af 2 − h2 c + hfg + ghf − g2 b
.
= abc + 2fgh − af 2 − bg2 − ch2

SOL 1.11
ww
Correct answer is - 43 .
w = 67
Determinant
13 14
24 26
− 19
= 134 + 2280 − 2457 =− 43

39 14
81 26
+ 21
39 13
81 24

By interchanging any row or column, the value of determinant will remain
same. For the given matrix, the first and third row are interchanged, thus
the value remains the same.
SOL 1.13 Correct answer is - 1.

R 0 1 0 2V
S W
S− 1 1 1 3 W
We have A = S
0 0 0 1W
S W
S 1 − 2 0 1W
Expanding cofactor of a34 T X
0 1 0
A = - 1 - 1 1 1
1 -2 0
=− [0 − 1 (0 − 1) + 0] =− 1

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Page 22 SOL 1.14 Correct answer is 5.
Chap 1 Consider the given matrix be

Matrix Algebra R V
S2 1 1 1W
S1 2 1 1W
Im + AB = S W
S1 1 2 1W
S1 1 1 2W
T X
where m = 4 so, we obtain
R V R V
S2 1 1 1W S1 0 0 0W
S1 2 1 1W S0 1 0 0W
AB = S W−S W
S1 1 2 1W S0 0 1 0W
S1 1 1 2W S0 0 0 1W
RT VX TR V X
S1 1 1 1W S1W
W = S W 61 1 1 1@
S1 1 1 1W S1W
=S
S1 1 1 1W S1W
S1 1 1 1W S1W
RT V X T X
S1W
i. n
S1W
Hence, we get A = S W, B = 61 1 1 1@
S1W
o
S1W
.c
T RX V
S1W
a
S1W
BA = 81 1 1 1BS W = 64@
i
Therefore,
S1W
d
S1W
o
From the given property, T X
Det Îm + AB h = Det În + BAh
.
R V
S2 1 1 1W
n
w
S1 2 1 1W
W = Det "61@ + 64@,
w
Det S
S1 1 2 1W
w
S1 1 1 2W
T X
= Det 65@ = 5
NOTE
Determinant of identity matrix is always 1.

A = conjugate of A
3 1 + 2i
=> H
1 + 2i 2
and A* = Â hT = transpose of A
3 1 + 2i
=> H
1 − 2i 2
Since, A * = A
Hence, A is hermitian matrix.

For singularity of matrix,

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8 λ 0 Page 23

4 0 2 = 0 Chap 1
12 6 0 Matrix Algebra
8 ^0 − 12h − λ ^0 − 2 # 12h = 0 & λ = 4
SOL 1.17 Correct answer is - 2 .

Matrix A is singular if A = 0
R V
S 0 1 - 2W
S- 1 0 3 W = 0
SS 2 - 2 l WW
1 −2 1 −T2 0 3X
or − (− 1) +2 +0 = 0
−2 l 0 3 −2 l
or (l − 4) + 2 (3) = 0
or l =− 2
.in
o
SOL 1.18 Correct option is (C).
.c
Given EF = G where G = I = Identity matrix
a
Rcos q - sin q 0V R1 0 0V
i
S W S W
S sin q cos q 0W # F = S0 1 0W
d
SS 0 0 1WW SS0 0 1WW
o
T X T X
We know that the multiplication of a matrix and its inverse be a identity
.n
matrix
w
AA-1 = I
So, we can say that F is the inverse matrix of E
ww F = E − 1 =
S
6adj.E @
E
Rcos q − (sin q) 0VT
W
R
S cos q sin q 0W
V
adj E = S sin q cos q 0W = S− sin q cos q 0W
SS 0 0 1WW SS 0 0 1WW
E = 6cos q # (cos q − 0)@ − 8^− sin qh # ^sin q − 0hB + 0
T X T X

= cos2 q + sin2 q = 1
R cos q sin q 0V
6 adj. E @ S W
Hence, F = = S− sin q cos q 0W
E SS 0 0 1WW
T X

1 2 3 4
A = =
− 2 0 5 7G
We have
It is a 2 # 4 matrix, thus ρ (A) # 2
The second order minor
1 2
= 4 ! 0
-2 0
Hence, ρ (A) = 2

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Page 24 SOL 1.20 Correct answer is 2.
Chap 1 We have
Matrix Algebra R V R V
S1 1 1 W S1 1 1 W
A = S1 − 1 0 W + S1 − 1 0 W R3 - R1
SS1 1 1 WW SS0 0 0 WW
T ρ (A) X< 3T
Since one full row is zero, X
1 1
Now =− 2 ! 0 , thus ρ (A) = 2
1 -1

R V
S1 2 3W
Here, A = S1 4 2W
SS2 6 5WW
R V
T X S1 2 3W
Performing operation R 31 ^- 1h, we get A + S1 4 2W
SS1 4 2WW
i. n
R VT X
S1 2 3W
By operation R 32 ^- 1h, we get A + S1 4 2W
o
SS0 0 0WW
.c
T X
A = 0
i a
1 2
and =
Y 0
d
1 4
Rank Âh = 2
n o
SOL 1.22
w.
w
Here, A = 2 ^− 9 + 8h + 2 ^− 2 + 3h = 0
w
2 1
But =
Y 0
0 3
Hence, Rank Âh = 2

Consider 3 # 3 minors, maximum possible rank is 3.
Now we can obtain
4 2 1 2 1 3 4 1 3 4 2 3
6 3 4 = 0 , 3 4 7 = 0 , 6 4 7 = 0 and 6 3 7 = 0
2 1 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 1 1
Since, all 3 # 3 minors are zero. Now, we consider 2 # 2 minors
4 2 2 1
= 0, = 8−3 = 5 = Y 0
6 3 3 4
Hence, rank = 2

Since ρ (A) = 2 < order of matrix

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2 −1 3 Page 25

Thus A = 4 7 l = 0 Chap 1
1 4 5 Matrix Algebra
or (235 − 4l) + 1 (20 − l) + 3 (16 − 7) = 0
or 70 − 8l + 20 − l + 27 = 0 = 0
or, l = 13

It is 4 # 4 matrix, So its rank ρ (A) # 4
1 2 3 0
2 4 3 2
We have A =
3 2 1 3
6 8 7 5
1 2 3 0
2 4 3 2
in
=
applying R4 − (R1 + R2 + R3) " R4
3 2 1 3
0 0 0 0
o.
c
1 2 3 0
.
0 0 −3 2 R2 - 2R1 " R2
a
=
applying
i
0 −4 −8 3 R3 - 3R1 " R3
d
0 0 0 0
o
The only fourth order minor is zero.
n
1 2 3
.
Since the third order minor 0 − 4 − 8 = (1)( − 4)( − 3) = 12 ! 0
w
0 0 −3
w
Therefore its rank is ρ (A) = 3
SOL 1.26 w
Here, A = 0
All minors of order 3 are zero, since two rows are identical.
1 0
The second minor =
Y 0
0 1
Hence, Rank Âh = 2

Given the two matrices,
p q
A = >
sH

r
p2 + q2 pr + qs
and B = > H
pr + qs r2 + s2
To determine the rank of matrix A, we obtain its equivalent matrix using
the operation, a2i ! a2i - a21 a1i as
a11

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Page 26 p q
A = >0 s − r q H
Chap 1
Matrix Algebra p
If s - r q = 0
p
or ps - rq = 0
then rank of matrix A is 1, otherwise the rank is 2.
Now, we have the matrix
p2 + q2 pr + qs
B = > H
pr + qs r2 + s1
To determine the rank of matrix B , we obtain its equivalent matrix using
the operation, a2i ! a2i - a21 a1i as
a11
R 2 2 V
Sp + q pr + qs W
S ^ h W
^r2 + s2h − 2
2
B = pr + qs
S 0 2 W
S p +q W
T X
^pr + qs h2
i. n
If ^r + s h − 2
2 2
= ^ps − rq h = 0
2
p + q2
o
or ps - rq = 0
.c
then rank of matrix B is 1, otherwise the rank is 2.
a
Thus, from the above results, we conclude that
i
If ps − rq = 0 , then rank of matrix A and B is 1.
d
If ps - rq ! 0 , then rank of A and B is 2.
o
i.e. the rank of two matrices is always same. If rank of A is N then rank of
. n
B also N .
SOL 1.28
w w
w
It is given that x, y, z are in A.P. with common difference d
x = x , y = x + d , z = x + 2d
4 5 x 4 5 x 4 5 x
Let A = 5 6 y = 5 6 x + d = 1 1 d
6 k z 6 k x + 2d 1 k−6 d
Applying R2 − R1 = R2 and R 3 − R2 = R 3
4 5 x
= 1 1 d R3 = R3 − R2
0 k−7 0
A = 0 & ^k − 7h^4d − x h = 0
d = x , k = 7 .
4

R V
Sa1W
Let A = Sb1W, B = 6a2 b2 c2@
SSc WW
1
T X
Let C = AB

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Ra V Ra a a b a c V
S 1W S1 2 1 2 1 2W Page 27

= Sb1W # 8a2 b2 c2B = Sb1 a2 b1 b2 b1 c2W Chap 1
SSc WW SSc a c b c c WW Matrix Algebra
1 1 2 1 2 1 2
The 3 # 3 minor of this matrix T Xis zero and all Tthe 2 # 2 minors X are also
zero. So the rank of this matrix is 1, i.e.
ρ 6C @ = 1

Since all point are collinear,
x1 y1 1
Thus x2 y2 1 = 0
x3 y3 1
Therefore ρ (A) < 3
SOL 1.31
.in
o
Let n = 3
c
R V
.
S1 2 3 W
a
Then A = S2 4 6 W
i
SS3 6 9 WW
d
T X
1 2 3 1 2 3
o
R3 - 3R1 " R3
and A = 2 4 6 = 0 0 0 applying
n
R2 - 2R1 " R2
.
3 6 9 0 0 0
w
Thus rank if n = 3 then ρ (A) = 1 so possible answer is (B).
SOL 1.32
ww
If P is a matrix of order m # n and ρ (P) = n then n # m
In the normal form of P only n rows are non-zero
Now Q is a matrix of order n # p and ρ (PQ) = p then p # n but p ! n but
p ! n so p < n .
In the normal form of Q only p rows are non-zero.
Thus is the normal form of PQ only p rows are non zero.
ρ (PQ) = p

x = 8x1 x2 g xnBT
V = xxT
R V R V
Sx1W Sx1W
Sx2W Sx2W
=S W S W
ShW ShW
SxnW SxnW
T X T X
So rank of V is n .

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Page 28 SOL 1.34 Correct option is (A).
Chap 1 Given that x, y, z are in A.P. with common differences d .

Matrix Algebra
Thus y = x + d ,
z = x + 2d
4 5 x 4 5 x 4 5 x
Now A = 1 1 d = 5 6 x + d = 1 1 d
1 k−6 d 6 k x + 2d 1 k−6 d
Apply R2 − R1 = R2 and R 3 − R2 = R 3
4 5 x
= 1 1 d applying R3 - R2 " R3
0 k−7 0
Thus A = (k − 7)( 4d − x)
Since ρ (A) = 2 < order of matrix, Thus A = 0 or we get
(k - 7)( 4d - x) = 0
or d = x , k = 7
4
i. n
.c o
Rank of a matrix is no. of linearly independent rows and columns of the
i a
matrix.
d
Here Rank ρ (Q) = 4
So Q will have 4 linearly independent rows and flour independent columns.
n o
SOL 1.36
w.
Correct option is (D).
w
1 −4
A = =
0 2G
We have

C11 = 2, C12 = 0, C21 =− (− 4) = 4 , and C22 = 1
C = =
2 0
4 1G
adj A = C T
2 4
==
0 1G


x y
A =
z b
b −y
adj A = =
−z x G
x y
adj(adj A) = =
z bG

Since, A(adjA) = A In

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R V R V
S1 0 0 W S2 0 0 W Page 29

We have A(adjA) = 2 S0 1 0 W = S0 2 0 W Chap 1
SS0 0 1 WW SS0 0 2 WW Matrix Algebra
T X T X

We know that
adj(adj(A) = A n − 2 A
Here n = 2 so we get
adj(adjA) = A 2 − 2 A
= A 0 A = IA = A

We know that
in
adj(adj A) = A n − 2 A
.
Putting n = 3 and A = 3 . so we get
o
adj(adj A) = A 3 − 2 A
.c
= A A = 3A
ia
SOL 1.41
od
n
2
We have adj (adjA) = A (n − 1)
.
Putting n = 3 and A = 3 we get
w
adj (adj A) = A 4 = 3 4 = 81
SOL 1.42
ww
Let B = adjA2 then B is also a 3 # 3 matrix.
adj (adjA2) = adj B = B 3 − 1 = B 2
= adjA2 2

= 8 A2 B = A2 4 = A 8 = 38
(3 − 1) 2


Since ρ (A) = n − 1, at least one (n - 1) rowed minor of A is non-zero, so at
least one minor and therefore the corresponding co-factor is non-zero.
So, adjA ! 0

If A = [aij ] n # n then detA = [Cij ]Tn # n where Cij is the cofactor of aij
Also Cij = (− 1) i + j Mij , where Mij is the minor of aij , obtained by leaving the
row and the column corresponding to aij and then taken the determinant of
the remaining matrix.
1 -2
Now, M11 = minor of a11 i.e. (- 1) =− 3
-2 1

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Page 30 Similarly
Chap 1 2 −2 2 1
Matrix Algebra M12 = = 6; M13 = =− 6
2 1 2 −2
−2 −2 -1 -2
M21 = =− 6 ; M22 = 3;
−2 1 2 1 =
−1 −2 −2 −2
M23 = = 6; M31 = =6 ;
2 −2 1 −2
−1 −2 −1 −2
M32 = = 6; M33 = =3
2 −2 2 1
C11 = (− 1) 1 + 1 M11 =− 3; C12 = (− 1) 1 + 2 M12 =− 6;

C13 = (− 1) 1 + 3 M13 =− 6; C21 = (− 1) 2 + 1 M21 = 6;
C22 = (− 1) 2 + 2 M22 = 3; C23 = (− 1) 2 + 3 M23 =− 6;
C31 = (− 1) 3 + 1 M31 = 6; C32 = (− 1) 3 + 2 M32 =− 6;
C33 = (− 1) 3 + 3 M33 = 3
R VT R− 1 − 2 − 2VT
i. n
S− 3 − 6 − 6 W S W
Thus adj A = S 6 3 − 6 W = 3 S 2 1 − 2W = 3AT
SS 6 − 6 3 WW SS 2 − 2 1WW
o
T X T X

i a .c
d
If A is zero, A-1 does not exist and the matrix A is said to be singular.
o
Except (B) all satisfy this condition.
. n
5 2
A = = (5)( 1) − (2)( 2) = 1
2 1
w w
SOL 1.46
w
Correct option is (A).
We know A-1 = 1 adjA
A
−1 2
A = =
3 − 5G
Here =− 1
−5 −2
adj A = =
− 3 − 1G
Also,
A-1 = 1 =− 5 − 2G = =5 2G
−1 −3 −1 3 1

We know A-1 = 1 adj A
A
1 2
Here A = =− 3
5 7
7 −2
adj A = =
− 5 1G
Also,

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A-1 = 1 = 7 − 2G = 1 =− 7 2 G Page 31

−3 −5 1 3 5 −1 Chap 1
Matrix Algebra

3 4
Let B-1 = = G = A and B = A−1
5 6
A
3 4
Here A = =− 2
5 6
6 −4
Also, adj A =
−5 3
6 −4
A-1 = 1 = G
−2 −5 3
−3 2
in
== 5 −3G
.
2 2
SOL 1.49
.co
a
For orthogonal matrix det M = 1 and M−1 = MT ,
di MT = =
A C
B 0G
no = M−1 = 1 >
0 −B
H
.

− BC − C A
w
This implies B = − C
− BC
or
ww B = 1 or B = ! 1
B

Inverse matrix is defined for square matrix only.

A
1 0 0
A = 5 2 0 = 4 ! 0 ,
3 1 2
4 10 − 10 T RS 4 0 0VW
adj A = 0 2 − 1 = S 10 2 0W
0 0 2 SS− 1 − 1 2WW
R 4 T X
S 0 0VW
A-1 = 1 S 10 2 0W
4S
S − 1 − 1 2WW
T X

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Page 32 SOL 1.52 Correct answer is 0.01786.
Chap 1 1 = 1
det (2A) -1 =
Matrix Algebra 2A 2n A
Since A is a 3 # 3 matrix, therefore n = 3 and we have A = 7 .
det (2A) -1 = 3 1 = 1 = 1
2 A 8 # 7 56

C11 = 2 − (− 3) = 5
C21 =− [0 − (− 3)] =− 3
C31 = [− (− 1)] = 1
R = (1) C11 + 2C21 + 2C31 = 5 − 6 + 2 = 1
i. n
−1 2
(7B) -1 = A = >
4 − 7H
Let and 7B = A−1
.c o
a
A
i
−1 2
d
Here A = =− 1
4 −7
o
−7 −2
Also, adj A = =
− 4 − 1G
. n
w
A-1 = 1 =− 7 − 2G
−1 −4 −1
w
or
w 7 2
7B = A−1 = > H
4 1
B = > 4 H
2
1 7
or 1
7 7
SOL 1.55 Correct answer is 0.5.

R V
S0 1
0W 0
S0 1W
2 0
We have A = S
S0 0WW
3 2
S1 0W
4 1
T X
0 0 1
A =− 0 2 0 =− 1 (0 − 2) = 2
1 1 0
Now det (A-1) = 1 = 1
det A 2

For orthogonal matrix we know that

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AAT = I Page 33

and [AAT ] -1 = I−1 = I Chap 1
Matrix Algebra

From orthogonal matrix
[AAT ] = I
Since the inverse of I is I , thus
[AAT ] -1 = I−1 = I

Al = (AT A) −1 AT
= A−1 (AT ) −1 AT = A−1 I
Put Al = A−1 I in all option.
.in
option (A) AAlA = A
o
AA-1 A = A
.c
A = A (true)
a
option (B) (AAl) 2 = I

di (AA-1 I) 2 = I
Î h2 = I
o
(true)
n
option (C) AlA = I
.
-1
A IA = I
w
I = I (true)
w
option (D) AAlA = Al
w
AA-1 IA = A =
Y Al (false)

3 4
M = > H
5 5
Given : 3
x 5
And [M]T = [M] −1
We know that when 6A@ = 6A@ then it is called orthogonal matrix.

Τ −1
6M @T = I
6M @

6M @T 6M @ = I
Substitute the values of M and M T , we get
> 45 3 H.>
3 3 4
1 0
H = >0 1H
x 5 5
3
5 5 x 5
R 3 4 + 3 x VW
S b # 3 l + x2 b5 5l 5 W
3
# 1 0
S 5 5
>0 1H
=
Sb 5 5l 5 b 5 # 5 l + b 5 # 5 lW
S 4 # 3 + 3x 4 4 3 3 W
T X

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Page 34 + x2 + 53 x 1 0
>12 + 3 x H
9 12
= >
0 1H
25 25
Chap 1
25 5 1
Matrix Algebra
Comparing both sides a12 element,
12 + 3 x = 0 " x =− 12 5 =− 4
25 5 25 # 3 5

2x 0 1 0 1 0
> x x H>- 1 2H = =0 1G
2x 0 1 0
or = 0 2x G = =0 1G
So, 2x = 1 & x = 1
2
i. n
2 -1 2 (2) (2) + (− 1) (1) 3
>3 2H>1H = > (3) (2) + (2) (1) H = =8 G

.c o
a
SOL 1.62
i
R1 3V
1 2 0 S W
AAT = > H
d
S2 − 1W
3 −1 4 S
o
S0 4WW
n
T X
(1) (1) + (2) (2) + (0) (0) (1) (3) + (2) (− 1) + (0) (4)
.
=>
(3) (1) + (− 1) (2) + 4 (0) (3) (3) + (− 1) (− 1) + (4)(4)H

=>

5 1
w
1 26H
w
SOL 1.63 w
− 1 7 − 2 1 −1
A = >
− 1 20H> 3 5H

−1 7 1 > 5 − 1H
=> H
− 1 20 − 13 l − 3 − 2
b

1 7 5 −1
= 1>
− 13 1 20 − 3 − 2H
H>

26 − 13
= 1>
− 13 65 − 39H

2 1
== G

5 3

2 − 0.1
>0 bH
1
2 a
We have A = = G and A−1
=
0 3
Now AA-1 = I

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2 - 0.1 12 a 1 0
>0 3 H> H = >0 1H
Page 35

or
0 b Chap 1
Matrix Algebra
1 2a - 0.1b 1 0
or >0 3b H = > H
0 1
or 2a - 0.1 = 0 and 3b = 1
Thus solving above we have b = 1 and a = 1
3 60
Therefore a + b = 1 + 1 = 7
3 60 20

We know that AA-1 = I
2 - 0.1 12 a 1 2a − 0.1b 1 0
or >0 H>
3 0 b H = >
0 3b H => H
0 1
3b = 1 or b = 1
in
We get
3
and
o.
2a - 0.1b = 0 or a = b
20
Thus
a.c
a + b = 1 + 1 1 = 7
3 3 20 20
di
o
.n
2 6 3 x
We have A = = G and B = > H, AB = 0
3 9 y 2
We get
ww 2 6 3 x 0
=3 9G=y 2 G = =0
0
0G
w
6 + 6y 2x + 12 0 0
or =9 + 9y 3x + 18G = =0 0G
We get 6 + 6y = 0 or y =− 1
and 2x + 12 = 0 or x =− 6

R V
1
1 1 0S W
AB = =
1 0 1GS W
S0 W
S1 W
T X(1)( 0) + (0)( 1)
(1)( 1) + 1
== G =2G
=
(1)( 1) + (0)( 0) + (1)( 1)

R V
1 2W
1 1 2S 1 4
AB = = GS 2 0W = =
4 4G
We have
2 1 0S W
S− 1 1 W
1 4 T X
(AB) = =
4 4G
T


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Page 36 SOL 1.69 Correct option is (C).
Chap 1 R V
S 2 − 1W 1 − 2 − 5
AB = S 1 0 W= G
Matrix Algebra

SS− 3 4 WW 3 4 0
RT X V
S(2)( 1) + (− 1)( 3) (2)( − 2) + (− 1)( 4) (2)( − 5) + (− 1)( 0)W
= S (1)( 1) + (0)( 3) (1)( − 2) + (0)( 4) (1)( − 5) + (0)( 0) W
SS(− 3)( 1) + (4)( 3) (− 3)( − 2) + (4)( 4) (− 3)( − 5) + (4)( 0)WW
RT V X
S− 1 − 8 − 10 W
= S 1 −2 −5 W
SS 9 22 15 WW
T X

R V
S0 1 0 0W
S0 0 1 0W
We have X = S W
S0 0 0 1W
i. n
S0 0 0 0W
TR XV
S 0 0 0 0 W
o
S1 0 0 0W
.c
and transpose of X , XT = S W
S0 1 0 0W
a
S0 0 1 0W
i
Here, we can see that rank ofT matrix Xx = 3 , hence, we can determine the
d
rank of XT X .
o
Let Y = X $ XT , the rank of Y # rank of X . Also, X−1 Y = XT and so we
. n
have
Rank X = Rank XT # Rank of Y
w w
Hence, from Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
Rank of X = Rank of Y
w
Hence, rank of X $ XT is 3

X 4 # 3 " X cT# 4
X T3 # 4 Y4 # 3 " (XT Y) 3 # 3
(XY Y) 3 # 3 " (XT Y) -13 # 3
P2 # 3 " P 3T# 2
(XT Y) -3 # 3 P 3 # 2 " "(X Y) PT ,3 2
1 T T -1

P2 # 3 {(XT ) Y-1 PT } 3 # 2 " 6P (X Y) P @2 # 2
#
T -1 T

[P (XT Y) -1 PT ]T2 # 2 " [P (XT Y) -1 PT ] 2 # 2

cos α sin α cos β sin β
A α .A β = >
− sin α cos αH>− sin β cos βH

cos (α + β) sin (α + β)
=>
− sin (α + β) cos (α + β)H
= Aα + β

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Also, it is easy to prove by induction that Page 37

cos na sin na
(A α) n = =
− sin na cos na G
Chap 1
Matrix Algebra

Let tan a = t
2
1 − tan2 a2 2
Then, cos a = 2 a
= 1 − t2
1 + tan 2 t+t
2 tan a2
and sin a = 2 a
= 2t 2
1 + tan 2 1+t
tan a2
= > H
cos a - sin a 1 cos a − sin a
(I - A) >
sin a cos a H a
− tan 2 1 # = sin a cos a G
R 2 V
S 1 − t2 − 2t W
in
1 t S 1 + t (1 + t2) W
==
− t 1G # S 2t
.

1 − t2 W
S W
o
S(1 + t ) 1 + t2 W
2
c
T X
.
1 −t 1 − tan a2
t 1 H >tan a2 1 H
=> = = (I + A)
ia
SOL 1.74
od

.n AAT = >
cos q sin q cos q − sin q
H> H
w
− sin q cos q sin q cos q
w
=> H
cos2 q + sin2 q − cos q sin q + sin q cos q

− sin q cos q + cos q sin q sin2 q + cos2 q

w
1 0
=> H
0 1
= 1, Hence A is orthogonal matrix.


cos θ cos φ cos (θ − φ) cos α sin φ cos (θ − φ)
AB = =
cos φ sin α cos (α − φ) sin θ sin φ cos (θ − φ) G

Is a null matrix when cos (θ − φ) = 0 , this happens when (θ - φ) is an odd

multiple of p .
2

a b
Let matrix A be =
c dG
1 1 a b 1 a−b 1
From A > H =−> H we get = G= G == G =−= G
−1 −1 c d −1 c−d −1
We have a - b =− 1 ...(1)
and c - d = 1 ...(2)

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Page 38 1 1
From A > H =− 2 > H we get
Chap 1 −2 −2
Matrix Algebra
a b 1 a − 2b 1
=c d G=- 2G = =c − 2d G =− 2 =− 2G
we have a - 2b =− 2 ...(2)
c - 2d = 4 ...(4)
Solving equation (1) and (3) a = 0 and b = 1
Solving equation (2) and (4) c =− 2 and d =− 3
0 1
A = =
− 2 − 3G
Thus
If we check all option then result of option C after multiplication gives result.

3 −4 3 −4 5 −8
A2 = =
1 − 1G=1 − 1G =2 − 3G
=
If we put n = 2 in option, then only D satisfy.

i. n
.c o
a
i
R V R V R V R V
S3 W S1 W S2 W S− 1W
d
Sb W = k1 S3 W + k2 S6 W + k3 S− 3 W
o
SSc WW SS2 WW SS4 WW SS− 2 WW
. n
R V R V RT VX R TV X T X T X
S1 W S1 W S1 W S3 W
w
k1 S3 W + 2k2 S3 W − k3 S3 W = Sb W
SS2 WW SS2 WW SS2 WW SSc WW
w
T X T X RT VX RT XV
S1 W S3 W
w
(k1 + 2k2 − k3) S3 W = Sb W
SS2 WW SSc WW
k1 + 2k2 −Tk3X = T3 X
3k1 + 6k2 − 3k3 = b
2k1 + 6k2 − 2k3 = c
& b = 9 ,
c = 6

det (A) = (ah − cf) k + bef + cdg − aeg − bdh
Thus matrix A is invertible for all k if (and only if) the coefficient (ah - cf)
of k is 0, while the sum bef + cdg − aeg − bdh is non zero.
& Thus infinitely many other sol n
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STUDY PACKAGE 1e
GATE
INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
Vol 3 of 5
►► BASICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

►► Transducers, Mechanical Measurement and Industrial
Instrumentation
►► ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
►► ANALYTICAL, OPTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
R. K. Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
NODIA & COMPANY

GATE Instrumentation Engineering Vol 3 of 5
Information contained in this book has been obtained by author, from sources believes
to be reliable. However, neither NODIA & COMPANY nor its author guarantee the
accuracy or completeness of any information herein, and NODIA & COMPANY nor
its author shall be responsible for any error, omissions, or damages arising out of
use of this information. This book is published with the understanding that NODIA
& COMPANY and its author are supplying information but are not attempting to
render engineering or other professional services.
MRP 570.00
NODIA & COMPANY

Ph : +91 - 141 - 2101150,
www.nodia.co.in

To Our Parents
Preface
The objective of this study package is to develop in the GATE aspirants the ability
to solve GATE level problems of Instrumentation Engineering Paper. The highly
increased competition in GATE exam from last few years necessitate an in-depth
knowledge of the concepts for the GATE aspirants. There are lots of study packages
available for GATE Instrumentation Engineering, which includes the theory and
problem sets. But through this package our notion is to develop the problem solving
approach rather than just introducing the theory and problem set. This study
package fulfills all the requirements of a GATE aspirant to prepare for the exam.
There is no special pre-requisite before starting this study package. Although it

is always recommended to refer other standard text books to clear doubts in a
typical problem. The study package is published in 5 different volumes that cover the
different subjects of GATE Instrumentation Engineering Paper. As the weightage of
General Aptitude and Engineering Mathematics in the Instrumentation Engineering
paper are 15 % each, and the subjects are very much wide in the syllabus; these
subjects are published in separate volumes to provide practice problem set on all
the important topics of the subjects. Rest three volumes cover the core subjects of
GATE Instrumentation Engineering.
In the very first volume of this study package, General Aptitude is introduced.
General aptitude is divided into two sections: verbal ability and numerical ability.
Some important rules of grammar is introduced at the starting of verbal ability
section, and then different types of verbal ability problems are given in separate
chapters. At the end of each chapter answers of the problems are described with
detailed theory and grammatical rule. The numerical ability part does not include
theory as it is expected from an engineering students that they are very well known
to the basic mathematical formulas of under 10th class. In numerical ability section,
the chapters are organized such as to cover all types of problems asked in previous
GATE papers. There is the detailed solutions available for each of the numerical
ability problems such that even an average student can clear his/her doubts easily.
In volume 2 of the study package, Engineering Mathematics is introduced. Each

chapter of Engineering Mathematics introduces a brief theory with problem solving
methodology and important formulas at the starting and then the problems are
given in a graded manner from basic to advance level. At last, the solutions are given
with a detailed description of formulas and concepts used to solve it.
Volumes 3, 4 and 5 include the core subjects of instrumentation. The subjects with
interrelated topics are taken in the same volume. Volume 3 includes the subjects:
Basics of Measurement Systems; Electrical & Electronic Measurement; Transducers,
Mechanical Measurement and Industrial Instrumentation; Analytical, Optical &
Biomedical Instrumentation. Volume 4 includes the subjects: Basics of Circuits,
Analog Electronics, Digital Electronics. Volume 5 includes the subjects: Signals &
Systems; Communication Systems; Control Systems and Process Control. For each of
the subjects, the chapters are organized in a manner to cover the complete syllabus
with a balanced number of problems on each topic. In starting of each chapter, a
brief theory is given that includes formula, problem solving methodology and some
important points to remember. There are enough number of problems to cover all
the varieties, and the problems are graded from basic to advance level such that a
GATE aspirant can easily understand concepts while solving problems. Each and
every problems are solved with a good description to avoid any confusion or doubt.
There are two types of problems being asked in GATE exam: MCQ (Multiple Choice
Questions) and NAT (Numerical Answer Type questions). Both type of problems
are given in this study package. Solutions are presented in a descriptive and step-by-
step manner. The diagrams in the book are clearly illustrated. Overall, a very simple
language is used throughout this study package to facilitate easy understanding of
the concepts.
We believe that each volume of GATE Study Package helps a student to learn
fundamental concepts and develop problem solving skills for a subject, which are key
essentials to crack GATE. Although we have put a vigorous effort in preparing this
book, some errors may have crept in. We shall appreciate and greatly acknowledge
all constructive comments, criticisms, and suggestions from the users of this book at
[email protected]
Authors
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all the co-authors, editors, and
reviewers for their efforts in making this project successful. We would also like to
thank Team NODIA for providing professional support for this project through all
phases of its development. At last, we express our gratitude to God and our Family
for providing moral support and motivation.
Authors
Syllabus
General Aptitude (GA):

Verbal Ability : English grammar, sentence completion, verbal analogies, word groups, instructions,
critical reasoning and verbal deduction.
Numerical Ability : Numerical computation, numerical estimation, numerical reasoning and data
interpretation.
Section 1 : Engineering Mathematics

Linear Algebra: Matrix algebra, systems of linear equations, Eigen values and Eigen vectors.
Calculus: Mean value theorems, theorems of integral calculus, partial derivatives, maxima and
minima, multiple integrals, Fourier series, vector identities, line, surface and volume integrals, Stokes,
Gauss and Green’s theorems.
Differential equations: First order equation (linear and nonlinear), higher order linear differential
equations with constant coefficients, method of variation of parameters, Cauchy’s and Euler’s
equations, initial and boundary value problems, solution of partial differential equations: variable
separable method.
Analysis of complex variables: Analytic functions, Cauchy’s integral theorem and integral formula,
Taylor’s and Laurent’s series, residue theorem, solution of integrals.
Probability and Statistics: Sampling theorems, conditional probability, mean, median, mode and
standard deviation, random variables, discrete and continuous distributions: normal, Poisson and
binomial distributions.
Numerical Methods: Matrix inversion, solutions of non-linear algebraic equations, iterative
methods forsolving differential equations, numerical integration, regression and correlation analysis.
Section 2: Electrical Circuits:

Voltage and current sources: independent, dependent, ideal and practical; v - i relationships of resistor,
inductor, mutual inductor and capacitor; transient analysis of RLC circuits with dc excitation.
Kirchoff’s laws, mesh and nodal analysis, superposition, Thevenin, Norton, maximum power transfer
and reciprocity theorems.
Peak-, average- and rms values of ac quantities; apparent- active- nd reactive powers; phasor analysis,
impedance and admittance; series and parallel resonance, locus diagrams, realization of basic filters
with R, L and C elements.
One-port and two-port networks, driving point impedance and admittance, open-, and short circuit
parameters.
Section 3: Signals and Systems

Periodic, aperiodic and impulse signals; Laplace, Fourier and z-transforms; transfer function,
frequency response of first and second order linear time invariant systems, impulse response of
systems; convolution, correlation. Discrete time system: impulse response, frequency response, pulse
transfer function; DFT and FFT; basics of IIR and FIR filters.
Section 4: Control Systems

Feedback principles, signal flowgraphs, transient response, steady-state-errors, Bode plot, phase and
gain margins, Routh and Nyquist criteria, root loci, design of lead, lag and lead-lag compensators,
state-space representation of systems; time-delay systems; mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic
system components, synchro pair, servo and stepper motors, servo valves; on-off, P, P-I, P-I-D,
cascade, feedforward, and ratio controllers.
Section 5: Analog Electronics

Characteristics and applications of diode, Zener diode, BJT and MOSFET; small signal analysis
of transistor circuits, feedback amplifiers. Characteristics of operational amplifiers; applications of
opamps: difference amplifier, adder, subtractor, integrator, differentiator, instrumentation amplifier,
precision rectifier, active filters and other circuits. Oscillators, signal generators, voltage controlled
oscillators and phase locked loop.
Section 6: Digital Electronics

Combinational logic circuits, minimization of Boolean functions. IC families: TTL and CMOS.
Arithmetic circuits, comparators, Schmitt trigger, multi-vibrators, sequential circuits, flip-flops, shift
registers, timers and counters; sample-and-hold circuit, multiplexer, analog-to-digital (successive
approximation, integrating, flash and sigma- delta) and digital-to-analog converters (weighted R,
R-2R ladder and current steering logic). Characteristics of ADC and DAC (resolution, quantization,
significant bits, conversion/settling time); basics of number systems, 8-bit microprocessor and
microcontroller: applications, memory and input-output interfacing; basics of data acquisition systems.
Section 7: Measurements
SI units, systematic and random errors in measurement, expression of uncertainty -accuracy
and precision index, propagation of errors. PMMC, MI and dynamometer type instruments; dc
potentiometer; bridges for measurement of R, L and C, Q-meter. Measurement of voltage, current
and power in single and three phase circuits; ac and dc current probes; true rms meters, voltage and
current scaling, instrument transformers, timer/counter, time, phase and frequency measurements,
digital voltmeter, digital multimeter; oscilloscope, shielding and grounding.
Section 8: Sensors and Industrial Instrumentation

Resistive-, capacitive-, inductive-, piezoelectric-, Hall effect sensors and associated signal conditioning
circuits; transducers for industrial instrumentation: displacement (linear and angular), velocity,
acceleration, force, torque, vibration, shock, pressure (including low pressure), flow (differential
pressure, variable area, electromagnetic, ultrasonic, turbine and open channel flow meters) temperature
(thermocouple, bolometer, RTD (3/4 wire), thermistor, pyrometer and semiconductor); liquid level,
pH, conductivity and viscosity measurement.
Section 9: Communication and Optical Instrumentation

Amplitude-and frequency modulation and demodulation; Shannon’s sampling theorem, pulse code
modulation; frequency and time division multiplexing, amplitude- , phase-, frequency-, pulse shift
keying for digital modulation; optical sources and detectors: LED, laser, photo-diode, light dependent
resistor and their characteristics; interferometer: applications in metrology; basics of fiber optic
sensing.
**********
Contents
BASICS OF MEASUREMENT 2 Error and Uncertainty Analysis

SYSTEMS
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Errors in Measurement 27
1 Characteristics of Measurement
2.2.1 Absolute Error 27
Systems
2.2.2 Relative Error 27
1.1 Introduction 3 2.2.3 Percentage Error 27
1.2 Measurement Methods 3 2.3 Limiting error 28
1.2.1 Direct Measurement Methods 4 2.3.1 Relative Limiting Error 28
1.2.2 Indirect Measurement Methods 4 2.3.2 Percentage Limiting Error 28
1.3 Measurement System 4 2.4 Types of Errors 29
1.4 Static characteristics of 2.4.1 Gross Errors 29
Measurement system 6 2.4.2 Systematic Errors 29
1.4.1 Accuracy 6 2.5 Random errors 30
1.4.2 Precision 6 2.5.1 Statistical Analysis of Measurements
1.4.3 Repeatability 7 Subject to Random Errors 30
1.4.4 Reproducibility 7 2.5.2 Gaussian Error Analysis 31
1.4.5 Tolerance 7
2.6 Combination of errors 33
1.4.6 Linearity 8
2.6.1 Sum of Two Quantities 33
1.4.7 Resolution 8
2.6.2 Difference of Two Quantities 33
1.4.8 Sensitivity 8
2.6.3 Product of two Components 33
1.4.9 Dead Zone 9
2.6.4 Quotient 34
1.4.10 Hysteresis Effect 9
2.6.5 Power of a Factor 34
1.4.11 Threshold 9
2.6.6 Composite Factors 34
1.4.12 Range 10
1.5 Dynamic characteristics of 3 Statistical Analysis of Data

measurement systems 10
3.1 Introduction 55
1.5.1 Zero order instrument 10
1.5.2 First order instrument 10 3.2 Probability 55
1.5.3 Second order instrument 10 3.2.1 Joint Probability 55
3.2.2 Conditional Probability 56
3.2.3 Statistical Independence 56 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC
MEASUREMENTS
3.3 Random Variable 56
3.3.1 Discrete Random Variable 56
3.3.2 Continuous Random Variable 57 1 Electromechanical Indicating
Instrument
3.4 Transformation of random
variables 57 1.1 Introduction 3
3.5 Multiple random variables 58 1.2 pmmc instrument 3

1.2.1 Construction and Working 3
3.6 Statistical average of random
variable 59 1.3 dc ammeters 5
3.6.1 Mean or Expected Value 59 1.3.1 Shunt Resistor 5
3.6.2 Moments 59 1.3.2 Ayrton Shunt 6
3.6.3 Variance 60
1.4 dc voltmeter 6
3.6.4 Standard Deviation 60
1.4.1 Multiplier Resistor 6
3.6.5 Characteristic Function 60
1.4.2 Multirange Voltmeter 7
3.6.6 Joint Moments 60
3.6.7 Covariance 61 1.5 Ohmmeter 7
3.6.8 Correlation Coefficient 61 1.5.1 Series-Type Ohmmeter 7
1.5.2 Shunt-Type Ohmmeter 8
3.7 Some Important probability
distributions 61 1.6 Multimeter 8
3.7.1 Binomial Distribution 61
3.7.2 Poisson Distribution 62 2 Measurement Of Resistance
3.7.3 Gaussian Distribution 62 2.1 Introduction 29
3.7.4 Rayleigh Distribution 64
2.2 Ammeter-voltmeter Method 29
4 Curve Fitting 2.3 Ohmmeter Method 30
4.1 Introduction 91 2.4 Wheatstone Bridge Method 31
4.2 Methods of curve fitting 91
3 Measurement Of Inductance,
4.3 Fitting of A straight LIne 92 Capacitance
4.4 Fitting of a parabola 92 3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Measurement of inductance 45
3.2.1 Inductance Comparison Bridge 45
3.2.2 Maxwell Bridge 46
3.2.3 Hay Inductance Bridge 47
3.3 Measurement of Capacitance 48

3.3.1 De-sauty’s Bridge 49
3.3.2 Schering Bridge 49 5.2.1 CRT Construction 105
5.2.2 Deflection System 106
3.4 Vector Impedance Meter 50
5.2.3 Focussing System 107
3.5 Q-Meter 51 5.2.4 Astigmatism 109
5.2.5 Time Base Generator 109
4 Electronic Instruments For 5.2.6 Synchronising Circuit 110
Measuring Basic Parameters 5.2.7 Blanking Circuit 111
4.1 Introduction 71 5.2.8 Delay Line 111
4.2 Electronic voltmeter 71 5.3 CRO Probes 112
4.3 Analog Electronic Voltmeter 72 5.4 Oscilloscope Techniques of

4.3.1 AC Electronic Voltmeter 72 Measurements 113
4.3.2 DC Electronic Voltmeter 75 5.4.1 Measurement of Voltage 114
5.4.2 Measurement of Current 114
4.4 Digital Electronic Voltmeter 77 5.4.3 Measurement of Frequency 114
4.4.1 Resolution and Sensitivity of DVM 5.4.4 Measurement of Phase Angle 118
77
4.4.2 Types of Digital Voltmeters 78
6 Waveform Analysers
4.5 Electronic Multimeter 80
4.5.1 Analog Electronic Multimeter 80
4.5.2 Digital Electronic Multimeter 81 6.2 Signal Analysis Techniques 141
4.6 Measurement of Frequency 81 6.3 Wave analyzer 142

4.6.1 Bridge Method 82 6.3.1 Frequency-Selective wave Analyzer
142
4.6.2 Frequency Meter 83
6.3.2 Heterodyne Wave Analyzer 143
4.7 RF Power measurement 84
4.7.1 RF Power Measurement Using
6.4 Harmonic Distortion analyzer 144
Dummy Load 84 6.4.1 Tuned Circuit Harmonic Analyzer
145
4.7.2 Bolometer Bridge Method for RF
Power Measurement 85 6.4.2 Heterodyne Harmonic Analyzer 145
4.7.3 Calorimetric Method for RF Power 6.4.3 Fundamental Suppression
Measurement 86 Harmonic Distortion Analyzer 146
4.8 Shielding and grounding 86 6.5 Spectrum analyzer 148

4.8.1 Grounding 86 6.5.1 Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer 148
4.8.2 Shielding 89 6.5.2 Swept Superheterodyne Spectrum
Analyzer 149
5 Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes 6.5.3 Spectra of Different Signals 150

5.2 Basic CRO circuit 105
TRANSDUCERS, 2.2 Signal conditioning system 53
MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT
2.3 Input circuits 54
& INDUSTRIAL
2.3.1 Power supplies 55
INSTRUMENTATION
2.3.2 Constant Voltage Potentiometer
Circuit 55
1 Electrical Transducers 2.3.3 Constant Current Potentiometer
Circuit 56
1.1 Introduction 3 2.3.4 Constant Voltage Wheatstone
1.2 Classification of Electrical Bridge Circuit 57
Transducers 3 2.3.5 Constant Current Wheatstone
Bridge Circuit 57
1.2.1 Passive Transducers 3
1.2.2 Active Transducers 5 2.4 Amplifiers 58
2.4.1 Operational Amplifier 58
1.3 Resistive Transducer 5
2.4.2 Instrumentation Amplifier 60
1.3.1 Resistance Thermometers 7
2.4.3 Chopper Amplifier 61
1.3.2 Resistive Displacement
Transducers 7 2.5 Filters 61
1.3.3 Strain Gauge 7 2.5.1 Low pass RC filter 61
1.4 Inductive Transducers 10 2.5.2 High-pass RC filter 62
1.4.1 Operating Principle of Inductive 2.5.3 Active Filter 62
Transducers 10
1.4.2 Differential Transducers 11 3 Measurement Of Translational And
Rotational Motion
1.5 Capacitive Transducer 11
1.5.1 Operating Principle of Capacitive 3.1 Introduction 81
Transducers 11
3.2 Measurement of Translational
1.5.2 Capacitive Thickness Transducer 13
displacement 81
1.5.3 Capacitive Displacement
3.2.1 Resistive Potentiometer 81
Transducers 14
3.2.2 Linear Variable Differential
1.6 Piezoelectric Transducer 14 Transformer (LVDT) 82
1.6.1 Measurement of Force Using 3.2.3 Capacitive Displacement
Piezoelectric Transducer 14 Transducers 85
1.6.2 Equivalent Circuit of a
Piezoelectric Transducer 15
Velocity 86
1.6.3 Loading Effect on Piezoelectric
Transducer 16 3.3.1 Differentiation of Displacement
Measurements 86
3.3.2 Integration of the Output of an
2 Signal Conditioning For Electrical
Accelerometer 86
Transducer
2.1 Introduction 53
Acceleration 86
3.5 Measurement of Rotational 4.4.3 Absorption dynamometer 119
Displacement 87
3.5.1 Rotary Variable Differential 5 Temperature Measurement
Transformer 87
3.6 Measurement of Rotational
velocity 89 5.2 Resistance devices 145
3.6.1 Digital Tachometers 89 5.2.1 Resistance Thermometers 145
3.6.2 Analogue Tachometers 90 5.2.2 Thermistors 147
3.6.3 Differentiation of Angular 5.3 Thermocouple 149
Displacement Measurements 91
5.3.1 Multiple Junction Thermocouple
3.6.4 Integration of the Output From an Circuit 149
Accelerometer 91
5.4 Non-electrical methods of
3.7 Measurement of rotational
temperature measurement 150
acceleration 91
5.4.1 Bimetallic Thermometers 150
3.8 Measurement of vibration 91 5.4.2 Liquid-in-glass Thermometer 151
3.8.1 Vibration Measurement 92 5.4.3 Pressure Thermometer 151
3.8.2 Seismic Device 92
5.5 Radiation methods of
3.8.3 Force Balance Type Seismic
temperature measurement 152
Device 93
5.5.1 Total Radiation Pyrometer 152
3.9 Shock 93 5.5.2 Selective radiation pyrometer 152
4 Force, Torque And Vibration 6 Pressure Measurement

Measurement
6.2 Important terms used in pressure
4.2 Mass measurement 113 measurement 173
4.2.1 Column Type Load Cell 113
6.3 Classification of pressure
4.2.2 Cantilever Beam Type Load Cell 114
measuring systems 173
4.2.3 Intelligent Load Cell 115
6.4 Manometers 174
4.3 Force measurement 115
6.4.1 U-tube Manometer 174
4.3.1
Balance
115
6.4.2 Cistern Manometer 175
4.3.2 Hydraulic Load Cells 115
6.4.3 Inclined Tube Manometer 175
4.3.3 Pneumatic Load Cell 116
6.4.4 Micromanometer 176
4.3.4 Measurement of Force Using
Accelerometers 116 6.5 Bourdon Tube pressure Gauge 176
6.5.1 C-type Bourdon Tube Pressure
4.4 Torque measurement 117
Gauge 177
4.4.1 Transmission Dynamometers 117
6.5.2 Twisted Bourdon Tube 177
4.4.2 Driving Type Dynamometer 118
6.6 Diaphragm pressure gauge 178 ANALYTICAL, OPTICAL
& BIOMEDICAL
6.7 Bellow pressure gauge 179
INSTRUMENTATION
6.8 Pirani Gauge 179
6.9 Thermocouple gauge 180 1 Analytical Instrumentation
6.10 Ionization gauge 180 1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Elements of analytical
7 Flow Measurement
instrument 3
1.3 Mass Spectrometer 4
7.2 Flow measurement 193 1.3.1 Operating Principle 4
7.2.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeter 193 1.3.2 Components of Mass Spectrometer
7.2.2 Variable Area Flowmeter 196 5
7.2.3 Turbine Flowmeter 197 1.3.3 Types of Mass Spectrometers 7
7.2.4 Ultrasonic Flowmeter 198
1.4 Ultraviolet and visible
7.2.5 Electromagnetic Flowmeter 201 spectrometry 9
7.2.6 Laser Doppler Flowmeter 202 1.4.1 Absorption Instruments 9
7.3 Level measurement 203 1.4.2 Operating Principle of UV-Vis
7.3.1 Dipsticks 203 Absorption Spectrometer 10
7.3.2 Float Gauge System 204 1.4.3 Construction of UV-Vis

Absorption Spectrometer 10
7.3.3 Displacer System 205
7.3.4 Capacitive Devices 205 1.5 Infrared Spectroscopy 11
7.3.5 Indirect Level Measurement 206 1.5.1 Basic Components of Infrared
Spectrophotometers 11
7.4 Measurement of ph values 206 1.5.2 Types of Infrared
7.4.1 pH Probe 207 Spectrophotometers 11
7.4.2 Practical Range of pH Measurement
207 1.6 X-Ray Spectrometry 12
7.4.3 Voltage Output of pH Probe 208 1.6.1 X-Ray Generating Equipment 13
1.6.2 Collimator 13
7.5 Measurement of viscosity 208 1.6.3 Monochromator 13
7.5.1 Viscosity Measurement by Placing
1.6.4 X-Ray Detector 14
Liquid between Parallel Plates 209
7.5.2 Rotating Concentric Cylinder 1.7 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Method 209 spectroscopy 14
7.5.3 Industrial Viscosimeter 210 1.7.1 Construction of NMR Spectrometer
14
7.6 Measurement of humidity 210
1.7.2 Types of NMR Spectrometers 14
7.6.1 Electrical Hygrometer 211
7.6.2 Psychrometer 211
2 Optical Sources And Detectors
7.6.3 Dew Point Meter 211
2.1 Introduction 29 3.3.1 Total Internal Reflection 56
2.2 Optical Phenomenon 29 3.3.2 Critical Angle 57
2.2.1 Refraction and Refractive Index 29 3.3.3 Acceptance Angle 57
2.2.2 Reflection, Absorption and 3.3.4 Numerical Aperture 57
Transmittance 29
3.4 Fiber optic sensors 58
2.3 Photometry 30 3.4.1 Pure Fibre Sensros 58
2.3.1 Point Sources and Extended 3.4.2 Remote Optic Sensors 58
Sources 30
3.5 Fiber optic detectors 58
2.3.2 Solid Angle 31
2.3.3 Luminous Flux 31
4 Biomedical Instrumentation
2.3.4 Luminous Intensity 31
2.3.5 Luminance 31 4.1 Introduction 67
2.4 Radiometry 31 4.2 Fundamentals of medical

instrumentation 67
2.5 Laws of Illumination 32
4.2.1 Physiological System of Body 67
2.6 Optical Sources 32 4.2.2 Sources of Biomedical Signals 70
2.6.1 Sunlight 33 4.2.3 Basic Medical Instrumentation
2.6.2 Incandescent Sources 33 System 72
2.6.3 Fluorescent Sources 33 4.3 Biomedical recorders 73
2.6.4 Light Emitting Diode 33 4.3.1 Electrocardiograph (ECG) 73
2.6.5 LASER 33 4.3.2 Electroencephalograph (EEG) 74
2.7 Optical Detectors 34 4.3.3 Electromyograph (EMG) 76
2.7.1 Photo-emissive Cells 34 4.4 Clinical Measurement 77
2.7.2 Semiconductor Photoelectric 4.4.1 Measurement of Heart Rate 77
Transducers 35
4.4.2 Measurement of Pulse Rate 78
2.8 Interferometers 37 4.4.3 Blood Pressure Measurement 79
2.8.1 Construction and Working of 4.4.4 Measurements of Temperature 81
Michelson’s Interferometer 37 4.4.5 Measurements of Respiration Rate
2.8.2 Formation of Interference Fringes 37 81
2.8.3 Measurement with Michelson’s
4.5 Ultrasonic imaging systems 81
Interferometer 38
4.5.1 Physics of Ultrasonic Waves 82
4.5.2 Medical Ultrasound 83
3 Fiber Optics
4.5.3 Characteristic of Real Time
3.1 Introduction 55 Ultrasonic Imaging Systems 83
4.5.4 Requirements of Real Time
3.2 Optical fibers 55
Ultrasonic Imaging Systems 83
3.3 Operating principle of optical 4.5.5 Biological Effects of Ultrasound 83
fibers 56
4.6 X-Ray Computed tomography 84
4.6.1 Gantry Geometry 84
4.6.2 Patient Dose in CT Scanners 84
**********
CHAPTER 1
Measurement of Translational and Rotational Motion
1.1 Introduction
Instrumental techniques are available for the measurement of linear

as well as rotational displacements. In this chapter, we will deal with
the electrical transducers that is used to measure the translational and
rotational motion. Following topics are covered in the chapter:
•• Measurement of translational displacement using resistive
potentiometer, LVDT, capacitive displacement transducer
•• Different methods of measurement of translational velocity and
acceleration
•• Measurement of rotational displacement using RVDT
•• Different methods of measurement of rotational velocity and
acceleration
•• Digital and analogue tachometers
•• Vibration and shock measurement
1.2 Measurement of Translational displacement
Translational displacement transducers are instruments that measure

the motion of a body in a straight line between two points. Many
different types of translational displacement transducer exist and these,
along with their relative merits and characteristics, are discussed in the
following sections.
1.2.1 Resistive Potentiometer

Figure 3.1 shows the different types of potentiometer circuits. Circuit
(a) provides dc output currents of range 4–20 mA or any other desired
range; Circuit (c) is the usual variable potential divider, also known
as single-ended potentiometer circuit, Circuit (d) is a push-pull
potentiometer circuit. Circuits (b) and (d) develop bipolar outputs for
bidirectional motion about the central point.
Page 18 Measurement of Translational and Rotational Motion Chap 1

. in
. c o
d ia
o
Figure 3.1: Different Circuits of Resistance Displacement Transducer
Loading Effect
. n
w w
If the voltmeter is electronic in nature, and has high input impedance,
the loading effect will be negligible, with the ratio of Vo /Ei of Figure
w
1.1(c) being the same as Rx /R p . For a linear transducer, Rx /R p is the
same as the fractional value x , which is the ratio of the displacement
given to the contactor, to its full-scale value. Hence under no-load
conditions,
x = Rx = Vo
Rp Ei
For the same position of contactor, the output voltage will be lower if
RL , the resistance of voltmeter forming the load, is finite and this new
value of Vol, if taken to represent the displacement, is given by
Vol = xl
Ei
With the true value being x , the error is given by
error = xl − x
Representing R p /RL by m , the percentage error can be obtained as
100 ^xl - x h
= 6− mx ^1 − x h@100
xl
1.2.2 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
LVDT is a passive inductive transformer. It works on the principle of
variable-inductance.
SALIENT FEATURES
Chap 1 Measurement of Translational and Rotational Motion Page 19

Construction of LVDT
Figure 3.2 shows the basic construction of an LVDT. The transformer

consists of a single primary winding P1 and two secondary windings S1
and S2 wound on a hollow cylindrical former. The secondary windings
have an equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side
of the primary windings. The primary winding is connected to an ac
source.
. in
. c o
d ia
n o
w.
w
Figure 3.2: Construction of LVDT
w A movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and
therefore affects the magnetic coupling between the primary and the
two secondaries. The displacement to be measured is applied to an
arm attached to the soft iron core. The whole assembly is placed in
a stainless steel housing and the end lids provide electrostatic and
electromagnetic shielding. The frequency of the ac applied to the
primary winding ranges from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.
Operation of LVDT
Since the primary winding is excited by an ac source, it produces an
alternating magnetic field which in turn induces ac voltages in the two
secondary windings. In order to convert the output from S1 to S2 into
a single voltage signal, the two secondaries S1 and S2 are connected in
series opposition, as shown in Figure 3.3. Let the output voltage of the
secondary winding S1 is VS1 and that of secondary winding S2 is VS2 .
Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages. i.e.
Vo = VS1 − VS2


. in
Figure 3.3: Measurement of Translational Motion using LVDT
o
When the core slides within the hollow former, the output voltage Vo
. c
will also change. The amount of voltage change will be proportional to
ia
the amount of linear motion.
d
Advantages of LVDT
n o
1. Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically
.
linear for displacement upto 5 mm.
w
2. High output: It gives a high output, and therefore intermediate
w
amplification devices are not required.
3. Infinite resolution: The change in output voltage is stepless. The
w effective resolution depends more on the test equipment than on

the transducer.
4. Ruggedness: These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree
of vibration and shock.
5. Less friction: There are no sliding contacts.
6. High sensitivity: The transducer possesses a sensitivity as high as
40 V/mm.
7. Low power consumption: Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W of
power.
8. Low hysteresis: This transducer has a low hysteresis, hence
repeatability is excellent under all conditions.

SALIENT FEATURES

Disadvantages of LVDT
1. Large displacements are required for appreciable differential

output.
2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
3. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signals,
or a demodulator network must be used if a dc output is required.
4. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the
core and electrically by the applied voltage.
5. Temperature also affects the transducer.
in
1.2.3 Capacitive Displacement Transducers
o .
The capacitive displacement transducer is fundamentally a proximity
transducer, in the sense that the movable plate or electrode may be
. c
the conducting surface of any object in the vicinity of the fixed plate.
ia
If the transducer has a solid insulating material of dielectric constant
ε , as shown in Figure 3.4(a), the capacitance is given by

o d
C 0 = ε 0 At
x0 + ε
. n
w w
w
Figure 3.4: Capacitive displacement transducer
If the air gap is decreased by Tx , the capacitance increases by C which

is given by
C 0 + TC = ε0A
x 0 − Tx + tε
So, the fractional change in capacitance is
TC = Tx N
C0 x 0 + t 1 − ^xNTx
+ th
0
where N is the sensitivity factor given as

1+ t
N = x0
1+ t
x0 ε

1.3 Measurement of Translational Velocity

Translational velocity cannot be measured directly and therefore must
be calculated indirectly by other means as described below.
1.3.1 Differentiation of Displacement Measurements

Differentiation of position measurements obtained from any of the
translational displacement transducers described in previous section
can be used to produce a translational velocity signal. Unfortunately,
the process of differentiation always amplifies noise in a measurement
system. Therefore, if this method has to be used, a low-noise instrument
such as a d.c. excited carbon film potentiometer or laser interferometer
in
should be chosen. In the case of potentiometers, a.c. excitation must
.
be avoided because of the problem that harmonics in the power supply
o
would cause.
1.3.2 Integration of the Output of an Accelerometer

. c
ia
Where an accelerometer is already included within a system, integration
d
of its output can be performed to yield a velocity signal. The process
o
of integration attenuates rather than amplifies measurement noise and
. n
this is therefore an acceptable technique.
1.4
w w
Measurement of Translational Acceleration
w
The only class of device available for measuring acceleration is the
accelerometer. Most forms of accelerometer consist of a mass suspended
by a spring and damper inside a housing, as shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Structure of an Accelerometer
The accelerometer is rigidly fastened to the body undergoing

acceleration. Any acceleration of the body causes a force, Fa , on the

SALIENT FEATURES

mass, M , given by
Fa = Mxp
This force is opposed by the restraining effect, Fs , of a spring with
spring constant K , and the net result is that the mass is displaced by
a distance x from its starting position such that
Fs = Kx
In steady state, when the mass inside is accelerating at the same

rate as the case of the accelerometer, then we have
Fa = Fs
or Kx = Mxp
xp = Kx (3.1)
in
or
M
.
This is the equation of motion of a second order system, and in the
o
absence of damping, the output of the accelerometer would consist of
. c
non-decaying oscillations. A damper is therefore included within the
ia
instrument, which produces a damping force, Fd , proportional to the
velocity of the mass M given by
d
Fd = Bxo
o
This modifies the equation (3.1) to
. n
Kx + Bxo = Mxp
1.5
w w
Measurement of Rotational Displacement
w
Rotational displacement transducers measure the angular motion of
a body about some rotation axis. The various devices available for
measuring rotational displacements are described in following sections.
NOTE
Rotational transducers are important not only for measuring the rotation of bodies
such as shafts, but also as part of systems that measure translational displacement
by converting the translational motion to a rotary form.
1.5.1 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

A Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) is an
electromechanical transducer used for measuring angular displacement
and operates on the same principle as LVDT. It provides a variable ac
output voltage that is linearly proportional to the angular displacement
of its input shaft. When energized with a fixed ac source, the output
signal is linear within a specified range over the angular displacement.
Construction of RVDT
The RVDT is similar in construction to the LVDT, except that a cam-
shaped core replaces the core in the LVDT as shown in Figure 3.6.

Most RVDTs are composed of a wound, laminated stator and a salient

two-pole rotor (core). The stator, containing four slots, contains both
the primary winding and the two secondary windings. Some secondary
windings may also be connected together.
Figure 3.6: Construction of RVDT
. in
. c o
RVDTs utilize brushless, non-contacting technology to ensure long
life and reliable, repeatable position sensing with infinite resolution.
ia
Such reliable and repeatable performance assures accurate position
sensing under the most extreme operating conditions.
Operation of RVDT
o d
. n
Basic RVDT operation is provided by rotating an iron-core bearing
supported within a housed stator assembly. A fixed alternating current
w
excitation is applied to the primary stator coil that is electromagnetically
w
coupled to the secondary coils. This coupling is proportional to the
w
angle of the input shaft. The output pair is structured so that one
coil is in-phase with the excitation coil, and the second is 180c out-of-
phase with the excitation coil. Now, we consider the following cases to
understand the operation of RVDT:
CASE I
When the rotor is in a position that directs the available flux equally
in both the in-phase and out-of-phase coils, the output voltages cancel
and result in a zero values signal. This is referred to as the null position.
CASE II
If the core is turned anticlockwise, the flux linking with one winding
S1 , increases while the other S2 decreases. Hence the output can be
considered as a positive value.
CASE III
If the core is turned in clockwise direction, the flux linking with
winding S1 reduces, while that linked with winding S2 increases, hence
producing an out of phase output that is in the opposite direction that
is a negative value.

SALIENT FEATURES

1.6 Measurement of Rotational velocity
The main application of rotational velocity transducers is in speed

control systems. They also provide the usual means of measuring
translational velocities, which are transformed into rotational motions
for measurement purposes by suitable gearing. Many different
instruments and techniques are available for measuring rotational
velocity as presented below.
1.6.1 Digital Tachometers

Digital tachometers are usually non-contact instruments that sense
the passage of equally spaced marks on the surface of a rotating disc
in
or shaft. As each mark is sensed, a pulse is generated and input to an
.
electronic pulse counter. Instantaneous velocity can be calculated at
o
each instant of time that an output pulse occurs, using the scheme
c
shown in Figure 3.7. In this circuit, the pulses from the transducer gate
.
the train of pulses from a 1 MHz clock into a counter. Control logic
ia
resets the counter and updates the digital output value after receipt
d
of each pulse from the transducer. The measurement resolution of this
o
system is highest when the speed of rotation is low.
. n
w w
w
Figure 3.6: Scheme to Measure Instantaneous Angular Velocities
In digital tachometers, various types of sensor are used, such as optical,

inductive and magnetic ones.
Optical Tachometers
Digital tachometers with optical sensors are often known as optical
tachometers. Optical pulses can be generated by photoelectric
techniques Optical tachometers yield better accuracy than other forms
of digital tachometer but are not as reliable because dust and dirt can
block light paths.

Induction Tachometers

Induction tachometers are a form of digital tachometer that use
inductive sensing. They are widely used in the automotive industry
within anti-skid devices, anti-lock braking systems (ABS) and traction
control.
Magnetostricitive Tachometers
The rotating element in magnetostrictive tachometers has a very
simple design in the form of a toothed metal gearwheel. The sensor is
a solid-state, Hall-effect device that is placed between the gear wheel
and a permanent magnet. When an inter-tooth gap on the gear wheel
is adjacent to the sensor, the full magnetic field from the magnet passes
in
through it. Later, as a tooth approaches the sensor, the tooth diverts
.
some of the magnetic field, and so the field through the sensor is
o
reduced. This causes the sensor to produce an output voltage that is
. c
proportional to the rotational speed of the gear wheel.
ia
1.6.2 Analogue Tachometers
o d
Analogue tachometers are less accurate than digital tachometers but
are nevertheless still used successfully in many applications. The a.c.
. n
tachometer has an output approximately proportional to rotational
w
speed like, the d.c. tachogenerator. Mechanical structure of an analogue
tachometer takes the form of a two-phase induction motor, with two
w
stator windings and (usually) a drag-cup rotor, as shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Working of AC Tachometer
One of the stator windings is excited with an a.c. voltage and the
measurement signal is taken from the output voltage induced in the
second winding. The magnitude of this output voltage is zero when the
rotor is stationary, and otherwise proportional to the angular velocity
of the rotor. The direction of rotation is determined by the phase of
the output voltage, which switches by 180° as the direction reverses.
SALIENT FEATURES

Therefore, both the phase and magnitude of the output voltage have
to be measured.
1.6.3 Differentiation of Angular Displacement Measurements

Angular velocity measurements can be obtained by differentiating the
output signal from angular displacement transducers. Unfortunately,
the process of differentiation amplifies any noise in the measurement
signal.
1.6.4 Integration of the Output From an Accelerometer

In measurement systems that already contain an angular acceleration
in
transducer, it is possible to obtain a velocity measurement by
.
integrating the acceleration measurement signal. This produces a
o
signal of acceptable quality, as the process of integration attenuates
c
any measurement noise.
Measurement of rotational acceleration

ia .
d
1.7
o
Rotational accelerometers work on very similar principles to translational
n
motion accelerometers. They consist of a rotatable mass mounted
w.
inside a housing that is attached to the accelerating, rotating body.
Rotation of the mass is opposed by a torsional spring and damping.
w
Any acceleration of the housing causes a torque Jθp on the mass. This
w
torque is opposed by a backward torque due to the torsional spring and
in equilibrium
Jθp = Kθ
or θp = K θ
J
A damper is usually included in the systems to avoid undying oscillations
in the instrument. This adds an additional backward torque Bθo to the
system and the equation of motion becomes
Jθp = Bqo + Kq
1.8 Measurement of vibration
Vibrations are very commonly encountered in machinery operation,

and therefore measurement of the accelerations associated with
such vibrations is extremely important in industrial environments.
Vibrations normally consist of linear harmonic motion that can be
expressed mathematically as
X = X 0 sin (ωt)

where X is the displacement from the equilibrium position at any

general point in time, X 0 is the peak displacement from the equilibrium
position, and ω is the angular frequency of the oscillations. The velocity
v of the vibrating body can be obtained as
v = wX 0 cos (wt)
and expression for the acceleration can be given as
α =− w20 sin (wt)
It is apparent that the intensity of vibration can be measured in terms
of either displacement, velocity or acceleration. Acceleration is clearly
the best parameter to measure at high frequencies. However, because
displacements are large at low frequencies, it would seem that measuring
either displacement or velocity would be best at low frequencies. In
in
next section, we will learn the technique of vibration measurement.
1.8.1 Vibration Measurement
o .
. c
A vibration measurement system requires other elements, as shown
ia
in Figure 3.8, to translate the accelerometer output into a recorded
d
signal. The three other necessary elements are
1. Signal-conditioning element: It amplifies the relatively weak
o
output signal from the accelerometer and also transforms the
n
.
high output impedance of the accelerometer to a lower impedance
w
value.
2. Signal analyser: It converts the signal into the form required
w w
for output. The output parameter may be either displacement,
velocity or acceleration and this may be expresses as either the
peak value, r.m.s. value or average absolute values.
3. Signal recorder: It must be chosen very carefully to avoid
distortion of the vibration waveform.
Figure 3.8: Vibration Measurement System
1.8.2 Seismic Device

In these devices the base of the device or transducer is attached to
the object whose motion or vibration is to be measured, as shown in
Figure 3.9. Inside the transducer, is a mass m supported on a spring
of stiffness k and viscous damper, with damping coefficient c . The
motion of the mass relative to the frame or base, gives an indication of
the motion of the object and is the output of the instrument.

SALIENT FEATURES

. in
o
Figure 3.9: Seismic Device
. c
The acceleration response of seismic transducer is given by the equation,
ia
ω n2 z 0 = 1
A0 (1 − r ) + (2ξr) 2
2 2
where

o d
A 0 = ω2 x 0 , acceleration amplitude of the object
r = w/w n , frequency ratio
. n
ω n = k , undamped natural frequency
m
w w ξ = c , damping ratio
2 km
w
ω = circular frequency of motion of the moving object
1.8.3 Force Balance Type Seismic Device

These are similar to seismic devices except that there is no mechanical
spring used here and the restoring force is provided by a feedback
arrangement, as shown in Figure 3.10.
These types of motion measuring devices are used in inertial
navigation systems. It is possible to get higher accuracy and increased
stability as effects like hysteresis, non-linearity, temperature effects,
etc. associated with mechanical springs are absent here.
1.9 Shock
Shock describes a type of motion where a moving body is brought

suddenly to rest, often because of a collision. This is very common in
industrial situations and usually involves a body being dropped and
hitting the floor. An instrument having a very high-frequency response
is required for shock measurement, and for this reason, piezoelectric
crystal-based accelerometers are commonly used.

. in
. c o
d ia
Figure 3.10: Force Balance Type Seismic Device
n o
.
**********
w w
w

SALIENT FEATURES
EXERCIS
MCQ 1.1 An LVDT produces an output voltage of 2.6 V for displacement 0.4
mm. The sensitivity of LVDT is
(A) 0.15 mm/V
(B) 0.15 m/V
. in
(C) 6.5 V/mm
o
(D) 6.5 V/m
. c
ia
MCQ 1.2 The output of LVDT is 1.25 V at maximum displacement. At a load of
d
0.75 mΩ , the deviation of linearity is maximum and it is ! 0.0025 V.
o
The linearity at the given load is
n
(A) 0.5% (B) 0.025V
.
(C) 0.2%V (D) 1.25%
MCQ 1.3
w w
An LVDT has a secondary voltage of 5 V for a displacement of ! 12.5
w
mm. What is the output voltage for a displacement of 8 mm from its
central position ?
(A) 0.2 V
(B) 0.4 V
(C) 0.32 V
(D) 3.2 V
MCQ 1.4 In a linear voltage differential transformer (LVDT) the output voltage
is 1.8 V at maximum displacement. At a certain load the deviation
from linearity is maximum and it is ! 0.0045 V from a straight line
through the origin. The linearity at the given load is
(A) ! 25%
(B) ! 40%
(C) ! 0.25%
(D) ! 0.4%

NAT 1.5 The output of an LVDT is connected to a 4 V voltmeter through

an amplifier whose amplification factor is 500. An output of 1.8 mV
appears across the terminals of LVDT when the core moves through
a distance of 0.6 mm. If the millivoltmeter scale has 100 divisions
and the scale can be read to 14 of a division, then the resolution of
instrument will be
______ mm
MCQ 1.6 An LVDT is used for measuring the deflection of a bellows. The
sensitivity of LVDT is 40 V per mm. The bellows is deflected by 0.125
in
mm by a pressure of 0.8 # 106 N/m2 . The sensitivity of the LVDT in
.
V per N/m2 is
o
(A) 4 # 10-6
c
(B) 6.25 # 10-6
(C) 5 # 10-6
(D) 1.25 # 10-6
ia .
o d
. n
NAT 1.7 The output of an LVDT is connected to a 5V voltmeter through an
w
amplifier with a gain of 250. The voltmeter scale has 100 divisions
and the scale can be read upto 1/5th of a division. An output of 2
w
mV appears across the terminals of the LVDT, when core is displaced
w
through a distance of 0.5 mm. The resolution of instrument is
______ m
MCQ 1.8 The output of an LVDT is connected to a 5 V voltmeter through an

amplifier whose amplification factor is 250. An output of 2 mV appears
across the terminals of LVDT when the core moves through a distance
of 0.5 mm. The millivoltmeter scale has 100 divisions. The scale can
be read to 15 of a division. The resolution of the instrument in mm is
(A) 10-3 (B) 10-4
(C) 10-2 (D) None of these
NAT 1.9 An accelerometer has a seismic mass of 0.05 kg and a spring constant
of 3 # 103 N/m. Maximum mass displacement is ! 0.02 m (before the
mass hits the stop). The maximum measurable acceleration is
______

SALIENT FEATURES

NAT 1.10 A seismic instrument has a natural frequency of 4 Hz and a damping
ratio of 0.66. If the system is excited by a frequency 6 Hz, the error

due to the proximity of excited frequency with natural frequency of the
instrument will be
______ %
MCQ 1.11 A steel cantilever is 0.25 m long, 15 mm wide, and 3 mm thick. The
modulus of elasticity for steel is 200 GN/m2 . When a force of 22 N is
applied at the free end, the value of deflection at the end will be
(A) 16.975 (B) 9.21
in
(C) 0.0589 (D) 33.75
o .
. c
MCQ 1.12 A body is dropped from a height of 10 m and suffers a shock when it
ia
hits the ground. If the duration of the shock is 5 ms, the magnitude of
the shock will be (g is acceleration due to gravity)
d
(A) 7g
o
(B) 200g
. n
(C) 286g
w
(D) None of these
MCQ 1.13
w w
A variable reluctance type tachometer has 120 teeth on rotor. The
speed of the shaft on which the rotor is mounted is 1500 rpm. What
will be the frequency of the output pulses ?
(A) 25 pulse per second (B) 3000 pulses per second
(C) 2 pulses per second (D) None of these
MCQ 1.14 A toothed rotor tachometer is used with a digital counter for measuring
speed of rotation of the shaft on which the wheel is mounted. The
gating period is 103 µs and a reading of 0004 is obtained on the four
digit display. If the number of teeth on rotor is 150, then the speed of
shaft is
(A) 150
(B) 4000
(C) 1600
(D) 100

NAT 1.15 The frequency of the flashes of a stroboscope is adjusted such that a

disc with 20 points mounted on the shaft of the machine seems to be
at standstill. If the adjusted frequency of the flashes is 5000 per minute
and approximate speed of the machine is 765 rpm given by the other
method, then the correct speed of the machine is
______ rpm
MCQ 1.16 The speed of a 6-pole induction motor supplied at 50 Hz is measured

by a stroboscopic method. The neon lamp is supplied from the same
source to which the induction motor is connected. The stroboscopic
in
disc has six black and six white sectors. What will be the speed of the
.
induction motor when the sector appears to be moving at 50 rpm ?
o
(A) 1000 rpm
. c
(B) 50 rpm
ia
(C) 950 rpm
(D) 1050 rpm
o d
. n
NAT 1.17 An accelerometer has a seismic mass of 0.06 kg and a spring constant
of 4500 N/m. Maximum mass displacement is ! 0.025 m (before the
w
mass hits the top). The maximum measurable acceleration is
w
w
______ m/s2
MCQ 1.18 In an LVDT accelerometer the outputs are 0.4 mV/mm with a ! 25
mm core displacement. The spring constant is 300 N/m and the mass
of the core is 50g. What is sensitivity of the accelerometer ?
(A) 15 ms-2 /mV (B) 150 ms-2 /mV
(C) 0.66 ms-2 /mV (D) None of these
NAT 1.19 A variable reluctance type tachometer has 60 rotor teeth. The counter
records 3600 counts per second. The speed in rpm is
______
MCQ 1.20 An inductive pickoff operating from a 120 tooth wheel is used with a
digital frequency meter to measure the speed of rotation of the shaft
on which the wheel is mounted. The gating period is set to 10 4 µs ,
and a reading of 0030 is obtained on the four digit display. If the
SALIENT FEATURES

2 3 4 5 6 7
available gating periods are 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 µs respectively,
what would be the optimum setting of gating period for making this
measurement ?
(A) 10 4 µs (B) 105 µs
(C) 106 µs (D)
102 µs
MCQ 1.21 While measuring speed of a steam turbine with stroboscope single line
images were observed for stroboscope setting of 3000, 4000 and 5230
rpm. What is the speed of the turbine ?
(A) 6000 rpm
in
(B) 700 rpm
.
(C) 12000 rpm
o
(D) 14000 rpm
. c
ia
MCQ 1.22 A disc mounted on the shaft of a machine has 12 pattern points. The
d
number of flashes projected on the disc by a stroboscope is 6000 in a
o
minute. If the disc appears to move forward in the direction of rotation
n
at 10 rpm, the speed of the disc is
.
(A) 500 rpm
w
(B) 490 rpm
w
(C) 510 rpm
w
(D) 5000 rpm
MCQ 1.23 A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 3.0 inch is applied
to the circuit shown in figure below. The total resistance of the
potentiometer is 5 kΩ . The applied voltage Vt is 5.0 V. When the wiper
is 0.9 inch from B , what will be the value of the output voltage ?
(A) 0.66 V
(B) 1500 V
(C) 1.5 V
(D) 66.6 V
NAT 1.24 A linear resistance potentiometer is 50 mm long and is uniformly

wound with a wire of total resistance 5000 Ω . Under normal conditions
the slider is at the centre of the potentiometer. When the resistance of
the potentiometer is 1850 Ω , the linear displacement will be
______ mm
NAT 1.25 A linear resistance potentiometer is 50 mm long and is uniformly wound

with a wire of total resistance 5, 000 Ω . Under normal conditions, the
slider is at the centre of the potentiometer. When the resistance of the
potentiometer, as measured by the Wheatstone bridge, is 1850 Ω , the
linear displacement is
______ mm
MCQ 1.26 A linear resistance potentiometer is 50 mm long and is uniformly

wound with a wire having a resistance of 10000 Ω . Under normal
conditions, the slider is at the centre of the potentiometer. For the
in
linear displacements x and y the resistance of the potentiometer as
.
measured by a Wheatstone bridge are respectively 3850 Ω and 7560 Ω
o
. Which of the following is/are correct ?
c
(A) x = 5.75 m
(B) y = 12.8 m
ia .
(C) Displacements x and y are in opposite direction
(D) All of the above
o d
NAT 1.27
. n
A resistive potential divider R1 R2 with a resistance of 5000 Ω and a
w w
shaft stroke of 125 mm is used in the arrangement shown in figure
below. Potentiometer R 3 R 4 has a resistance of 5000 Ω and ei = 5.0 V .
w
The initial position to be used as reference point is such that R1 = R2
i.e. the wiper is at midstroke. At the start of the test potentiometer
R 3 R 4 is adjusted so that the bridge is balanced and e 0 = 0 . Assuming
that the displacement being measured will move a maximum distance
of 12.5 mm towards A, the value of e 0 will be
______ Volt

SALIENT FEATURES

MCQ 1.28 A resistive transducer with a resistance of 5 kΩ and a shaft stroke of
3.0 cm is used in the arrangement shown below. Potentiometer R 3 -R 4

is also 5 k and Vt is 5.0 V. The initial position to be used as a reference
point is such that R1 = R2 (i.e. the shaft is at the centre) At the
start of the test, potentiometer R 3 -R 4 is adjusted so that the bridge is
balanced ^Ve = 0h. If we assume that the object being monitored moves
a maximum resistance of 0.5 cm towards A, then what will be the new
value of Vc ? (shaft distance is 5 cm)
(A) 0.5 V
(B) 2.5 V
(C) 3 V
in
(D) 5.5 V
**********
o .
. c
d ia
n o
w.
w w

SOLUTION

Sensitivity is given by
RMS value of op voltage
S =
Displacement
in
= 2.6 = 6.5 V/mm
.

0. 4
. c o
ia
Maximum deviation of linearity is
d
D max = 0.0025 V
o
V0 = 1.25 V
n
So, Linearity = D max # 100
.
v0
1.25
w
= 0.2%
w
= 0.0025

SOL 1.3 w
s = 5 = 0.4 V/mm
12.5
So, the output voltage is
= 0.4 # 8 = 3.2 V

The output voltage of LVDT at maximum displacement is
= 1.8 V
The deviation from a straight line through the origin is
= ! 0.0045 V
Hence, percentage linearity is
= ! 0.0045 # 100
1.8
= ! 0.25%


SALIENT FEATURES

SOL 1.5 Correct answer is 0.0067
The sensitivity of LVDT is

Output voltage
=
Displacement
= 1.8 = 3 mV/mm

0.6
ensitivity of measurement = (Amplification factor) # (sensitivity of
S
LVDT)
= 500 # 3 = 1500 mV/mm
Also, we have
1 scale division = 4 V = 40 mV
100
in
So, minimum voltage that can be read on the voltmeter is
= 1 # 40 = 10 mV
4
o .
. c
Hence, resolution of the instrument is
= 10 # b 1 l
ia

1500
d
= 0.0067 mm

n o
.
SOL 1.6 Correct option is (B)
w
We have LVDT sensitivity,
w
s = 40 V/mm
Output voltage for a deflection of 0.125 mm,
w
v out = 40 # 0.125 = 5 V
Hence the sensitivity of LVDT is
= v out = 5
p 0.8 # 106
= 6.25 # 10−6 V per N/m2

SOL 1.7 Correct answer is 0.01

The output voltage of LVDT is
Vout = 2 mV
and Displacement = 0.5 mm
So, the sensitivity of LVDT is
= Vout = 2 mV
Displacement 0.5 mm
= 4 mV/mm
Sensitivity of the entire set up is
= (Amplification factor) # (sensitivity of LVDT)
= 250 # 4 mV/mm
= 1000 mV/mm or 1 V/mm
Again, full-scale of voltmeter is

=5V
and number of divisions on voltmeter scale is
= 100
1 scale division = 5 = 0.05 V or 50 mV
100
Minimum voltage that can be read on voltmeter is
= 50 mV = 10 mV
5
Hence, resolution of instrument is
= 10 mV = 0.01 mm
1000 mV/mm
. in
o
SOL 1.8 Correct option is (A)
c
−3
output voltage
= 2 # 10
.
Sensitivity of LVDT =
displacement 0.5
ia
= 4 # 10−3 V/mm = 4 mV/mm
d
Sensitivity of instrument
o
= (amplification factor) # (sensitivity of LVDT)
= ^250h # ^4 # 10−3h = 1 V/mm
n

w. = 1000 mV/mm
1 scale division = 5 V = 50 mV
100
w
Minimum voltage that can be read on the voltmeter is
w = b 1 l # 50 = 1 mV
5
Hence, resolution of instrument is
= 1 #b 1 l
1000
= 1 # 10−3 mm


Given natural frequency is
ω n = K
M
3
= 3 # 10 = 245 rad/s.

0.05
So, maximum acceleration is
am = ω2 xm
= ^245h2 # ^0.02h
= 1200 m/s2

SALIENT FEATURES

SOL 1.10 Correct answer is - 3.9 .
The ratio of output displacement to input displacement is given by

^x2 - x1hm u2
=
xm1 ^1 − u2h + ^2ζu h2
2
Now, normalized frequency is

u = 6 = 1.5
4
So, we get
^x2 - x1hm ^1.5h2
=
8^1 − 1.52h + ^2 # 0.66 # 1.5h2B2
xm1 2
1
= 0.961
in
Hence, percentage error is obtained as
= ^0.961 − 1h # 100% =− 3.9%
. c o
ia
Moment of inertia of the cantilever is
d
M = 1 bt3
12
= 1 # ^0.15h # ^.003h3

n o
.
12
w
= 33.75 # 10−12 m2
So, deflection is obtained as
w
3
θ = FL
w
3EM
22 # ^0.25h3
=

3 # 200 # 109 # 33.75 # 10−12
= 16.975


The equation of motion for a body falling under gravity gives the
following expression for the terminal velocity
v = 2gx
where x is the height through which the body falls. So the average
deceleration during the collision can be obtained as
α = v
t
where t is the time duration of the shock. Substituting the appropriate
numerical values into these expressions, we obtain
v = ^2 # 9.81 # 10h = 14.0 m/s
Hence, the magnitude of shock is
α = 14.0 = 2801 m/s = 286 g
0.005

Given
Speed of shaft,
N = 1500 rpm
Number of teeth on rotor,
T = 120
So, frequency of output pulses is
f = N # T
60
= 1500 # 120

60
= 3000 pulses per second

. in
o
. c
Given
ia
Digital counter reading = 0004
Gating period = 103 µs = 0.001 s
d
Number of teeth on rotor, T = 150
o
So, number of pulses per second is
n
Digital counter reading
.
f =
Gating period

w w = 0004 = 4000
0.001
Hence, rotational speed is
w
f
N = # 60
T
= 4000 # 60 = 1600

150
SOL 1.15 Correct answer is 750

Given
Number of points on the disk,
n = 20
Number of flashes per minute,
K = 5000
Prime speed of the machine,
N = K = 5000 = 250 rpm
n 20
But the apparent speed,
Na = 765 rpm
So, the multiplying factor is 3. Hence, the correct speed is
= N # 3 = 250 # 3 = 750 rpm

SALIENT FEATURES

Given
Supply frequency,
f = 50 Hz
Number of poles on induction motor,
P = 6
So, synchronous speed of motor is
120f
Ns =
p
= 120 # 50 = 1000 rpm

6
Therefore, slip of induction motor is
in
s = RPM at which the sector appears to be rotating
.
= 50 rpm
o
Hence, speed of induction motor is
. c
N = Ns − s = 1000 − 50 = 950 rpm
d ia
o
Given
. n
Seismic mass, M = 0.06 kg
Spring constant, K = 4500 N/m
w
So, the natural angular velocity is
w
ω 0 = K
M
w= 4500 = 273.86 rad/s

0.06
Since, maximum mass displacement is
= 0.025 m
Hence, maximum acceleration is
= ω 20 # (Maximum mass displacement)
= ^273.86h2 # 0.025
= 1875 m/s2

Given
Core mass, M = 50 g = 0.05 kg
Spring constant,
K = 300 N/m
So, natural angular frequency is
ω 0 = K = 300 = 77.46 rad/s
M 0.05

Also, maximum mass displacement is

A = 25 mm = 0.025 m
Therefore, maximum measurable acceleration is
= ω2 A
= ^77.46h2 # 0.025
= 150 m/s2
Hence, accelerometer sensitivity is obtained as
s = Maximum measurable acceleration
Maximum core displacement # output
= 150
25 # 0.4
= 15 ms−2 /mV

. in
o
c
pulses per second
.
Speed =
number of teeth
ia
= 3600 rps = 3600 rpm

d
60
SOL 1.20
n
o
w.
The setting of the gating period for this measurement is 10 4 µs and this
gives a reading of 0030 on a four digit display. It is seen that out of
w
four digit places only two are utilized. For optimum setting of gating
period, all the four digits places should be utilized. This requires that
w
the gating time be increased by a factor 102 , i.e.
Optimum gating time setting = 10 4 # 102 = 106 µs

For m different flashing rates f1 , f2 .......... fm , the speed of system is
given by
fm f1 ^m − 1h
^ fm − f1h
n =
Here, we have
fm = 5250 rpm
f1 = 3000 rpm
and m = 3
Hence, speed of steam turbine is
5250 # 3000 ^3 − 1h
^5250 − 3000h
=
= 14000 rpm


SALIENT FEATURES

Speed of machine when patterns appear stationary is

f
n = = 6000 = 500 rpm
m 12
When the patterns move in the direction of rotation at a speed of 10
rpm, the speed of machine in this case is
n = 500 + 10 = 510 rpm
SOL 1.23 Correct option is (C)

We draw the transducer circuit as
. in
. c o
d ia
n o
From the given circuit, we have

w.R2 = 0.9 in # 5 k = 9 # 5 k = 1500 Ω

3.0 in 30
w
So, we get
V0 = R2
w

Vt R1 + R 2
or V0 = R2 V
R1 + R 2 # t
Hence, V0 = 1500 # 5 V = 1500 = 1.5 V
5k 1k
SOL 1.24 Correct answer is 6.5 .

Total resistance = 5000 Ω
L = 50 mm
So, Rt = 5000 = 100 Ω
L 50
Resistance of normal position is
= 5000 = 2500 Ω
50
Change in resistance is
= 2500 − 1850 = 650 Ω
Hence, the displacement is
y = 650 = 6.5 mm
100


Total resistance of the potentiometer wire is
Rt = 5, 000 Ω
Total length of the potentiometer wire is
L = 50 mm
Resistance per mm length of potentiometer wire,
Rt = 5000 = 100 Ω
L 50
Resistance of potentiometer at normal position is
= 5000 = 2500 Ω
2
Change in resistance of potentiometer from its normal position is
in
= 2500 − 1850 = 650 Ω
.
Hence, linear displacement is
o
y = 650 = 6.5 mm
c
100
ia .
d
The resistance of the potentiometer at its normal position is
o
= 1000 = 5000 Ω
n
2
.
Resistance of potentiometer per unit length is
w
= 1000 = 200 Ω/mm
50
w
For first case, change of resistance from its normal position is
w
= 5000 − 3850 = 1150 Ω
So, displacement of wiper from its normal position is
x = 1150 = 5.75 mm
200
For second case, change of resistance from its normal position is
= 7569 − 5000 = 2560 Ω
So, displacement of wiper from its normal position is
y = 2560 = 12.80 mm
200
Since, one of the displacements represent a decrease and other represents
an increase in resistance of potentiometer from its value at the normal
position, the two displacements are in the opposite direction.

Given
Total length of AB = 125 mm
Midpoint of AB = 62.5 mm from either A or B
If the wiper moves 12.5 inward towards A from midstroke, its distance

SALIENT FEATURES

from B becomes
= 62.5 + 12.5 = 75 mm
So, R2 = b 75 l # 5000 = 3000 Ω
125
Hence, output voltage is
e 0 = c R2 − R 4 m ei
R1 + R 2 R 3 + R 4
=;
5000 5000 E #
3000 − 2500 5 = 0. 5 V
. in
. c o
d ia
n o
w.
If the wiper moves 0.5 cm towards A from the centre, it will have
w
moved 3 cm from B . So,
R2 = 3.0 # 5 k = 3 kΩ
w

5.0
Ve = VR2 − VR 4
= c R2 m # Vt − c R 4 m # Vt
R1 + R 2 R3 + R4
= b 3 k l # 5 V − b 2.5 k l # 5 V

5k 5k
= 3 V − 2.5 V = 0.5 V

**********

STUDY PACKAGE 1e
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Vol 4 of 5
►► BASICS OF circuits
►► analog electronics
►► digital electronics
R. K. Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
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To Our Parents
Preface


the concepts.
[email protected]
Authors
Acknowledgements
Authors
Syllabus

interpretation.

separable method.

parameters.





sensing.
**********
Contents
BASICS OF CIRCUITS 2.5.2 Parallel Resistances and Current

Division 27
2.6 Sources In Series or Parallel 27
1 Basic Concepts 2.6.1 Series Connection of Voltage
1.1 Introduction 3 Sources 27
2.6.2 Parallel Connection of Identical
1.2 Basic Electric Quantities or
Voltage Sources 28
Network Variables 3
2.6.3 Parallel Connection of Current
1.2.1 Charge 3 Sources 28
1.2.2 Current 3 2.6.4 Series Connection of Identical
1.2.3 Voltage 4 Current Sources 28
1.2.4 Power 4 2.6.5 Series - Parallel Connection of
1.2.5 Energy 5 Voltage and Current Sources 29
1.3 Circuit Elements 5 2.7 Delta- To- Wye Transformation 29
1.3.1 Active and Passive Elements 5
1.3.2 Bilateral and Unilateral Elements 5 3 Nodal And Loop Analysis
1.3.3 Linear and Non-linear Elements 6
3.1 Introduction 49
1.3.4 Lumped and Distributed Elements 6
3.2 Nodal Analysis 49
1.4 Sources 6
1.4.1 Independent Sources 6 3.3 Mesh Analysis 50
1.4.2 Dependent Sources 7 3.4 Comparison Between Nodal
Analysis and Mesh Analysis 51
2 Basic Laws
2.1 Introduction 23 4 Circuit Theorems
2.2 Ohm’s Law 23 4.1 Introduction 73
2.2.1 Sign Convention 24 4.2 Superposition 73
2.2.2 Concept of Short Circuit and Open
Circuit 24
4.3 Source transformation 73
2.3 Branches, Nodes and Loops 25 4.4 Thevenin’s Theorem 74

4.4.1 Thevenin’s Voltage 75
2.4 Kirchhoff’s Law 26 4.4.2 Thevenin’s Resistance 75
2.4.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 26
2.4.2 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law 26
4.5 Norton’s Theorem 76
4.5.1 Norton’s Current 76
2.5 Resistance connected in series 4.5.2 Norton’s Resistance 77
and parallel 26
4.6 Maximum Power Transfer
2.5.1 Series Resistances and Voltage
Division 26 Theorem 78
4.7 Reciprocity Theorem 78 7.5 Step Response of Parallel RLC
4.8 Substitution Theorem 78 Circuit 171
4.9 Millman’s Theorem 78 7.6 The Lossless LC circuit 171
4.10 Tellegen’s Theorem 79
8 Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis
5 Inductor And Capacitor 8.1 Introduction 193
5.1 Introduction 105 8.2 Characteristics of Sinusoid 193
5.2 Capacitor 105 8.3 Phasors 194
5.3 Series and Parallel Capacitors 107 8.4 Impedance 195
5.3.1 Capacitors in Series 107 8.4.1 Impedance of Element R, L and C
196
5.3.2 Capacitors in Parallel 108
8.4.2 Impedance Combinations 196
5.4 Inductor 108
8.5 Phasor Diagrams 197
5.5 Series and Parallel Inductors 109
5.5.1 Inductors in Series 109
9 AC Power Analysis
5.5.2 Inductors in Parallel 110
5.6 Duality 110
9.2 Instantaneous and average
6 First Order RL And RC Circuits Power 217
6.1 Introduction 129 9.3 Effective or RMS Value of a
Periodic Waveform 218
6.2 Source Free or Zero-Input
Response 129 9.4 Complex Power 219
6.2.1 Source-Free RC Circuit 129 9.4.1 Complex Power in Terms of Load
Impedance 220
6.2.2 Source-Free RL circuit 130
9.4.2 Power Factor 220
6.3 DC or Step Response of First 9.4.3 Power Triangle 220
Order Circuit 131
9.5 Maximum Average Power
6.3.1 Step Response of an RC Circuit 131
Transfer Theorem 221
6.3.2 Step Response of an RL Circuit 132
6.4 Stability of First Order Circuits 10 Magnetically Coupled Circuits
133
7 Second Order Circuits 10.2 Mutual Inductance 245
7.1 Introduction 167 10.3 Series Connection of Coupled
Coils 246
7.2 Source-Free Series RLC Circuit 167
10.3.1 Series Adding Connection 246
7.3 Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit 10.3.2 Series Opposing Connection 247
169
10.4 Parallel Connection of Coupled
7.4 Step Response of Series RLC Coils 247
Circuit 170
10.5 Energy Stored in a Coupled
Circuit 247 13.3 Symmetrical and Reciprocal
Network 329
10.6 Linear Transformer 248
10.6.1 T-equivalent of a Linear Transformer 13.4 Interconnection of Two-port
248 Networks 330
10.6.2 p -equivalent of a Linear Transformer 13.4.1 Series Connection 330
249 13.4.2 Parallel Connection 331
10.6.3 Ideal Transformer 250 13.4.3 Cascade Connection 331
11 Frequency Response
ANALOG ELECTRONICS
11.2 Transfer Functions 273
1 Diode Circuits
11.3 Resonant Circuit 274
11.3.1 Series Resonance 274 1.1 Introduction 3
11.3.2 Parallel Resonance 276 1.2 Diode 3
11.4 Passive Filters 277 1.2.1 Operating Modes of Diode 3
11.4.1 Low Pass Filter 277 1.2.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics of a
Diode 4
11.4.2 High Pass Filter 278
11.4.3 Band Pass Filter 279 1.3 Load line analysis 4
11.4.4 Band Stop Filter 279 1.4 Piecewise Linear Model 5
1.5 Small signal model 5
12 Circuit Analysis Using Laplace
1.5.1 AC and DC Equivalent Model 6
Transform
1.6 Clipper and clamper circuits 6
12.1 Introduction 299 1.6.1 Clippers 6
12.2 Circuit Elements in the s -domain 1.6.2 Clampers 6
299 1.7 Voltage multiplier circuit 7
12.2.1 Resistor in the s -domain 299
1.7.1 Voltage Doubler 7
12.2.2 Inductor in the s -domain 300
1.7.2 Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler 7
12.2.3 Capacitor in the s -domain 300
1.8 Rectifier circuit 7
12.3 Transfer Function 301 1.8.1 Half Wave Rectifiers 8
12.4 Steady State Response 301 1.8.2 Full wave Rectifiers 9
1.9 Zener diode 10
13 Two Port Network
13.1 Introduction 327 2 BJT Biasing
13.2 Different types of two port 2.1 Introduction 37
parameters 327 2.2 Basic bipolar junction
13.2.1 Impedance Parameters 327
transistor 37
13.2.2 Admittance Parameters 328
2.2.1 Operating Modes of BJT 38
13.2.3 Hybrid Parameters 328
2.2.2 Circuit Symbol and Conventions
13.2.4 Transmission Parameters 328 for a BJT 38
2.3 BJT configuration 39 4.3.4 p-channel Depletion Type
2.3.1 Common Base Configuration 39 MOSFET 113
2.3.2 Common Emitter configuration 41
4.4 Biasing configurations for jfet
2.3.3 Common-Collector Configuration
113
43
4.4.1 Fixed Bias Configuration 114
2.4 Current Relationships in BJT 43 4.4.2 Self Bias Configuration 114
2.4.1 Relation between Current Gain 43 4.4.3 Voltage Divider Biasing 114
2.4.2 Relation between Leakage
Currents 44
4.5 Biasing configurations for
Enhancement type MOSFET circuits
2.5 Load line analysis 44 115
2.6 Biasing 45 4.5.1 Feedback Biasing Configuration
2.6.1 Fixed Bias Circuit 45 115
2.6.2 Emitter Stabilized Bias Circuit 46 4.5.2 Voltage Divider Biasing Configuration
2.6.3 Voltage Divider Bias 46 116
4.5.3 Enhancement Mode NMOS device
3 BJT Amplifiers with the Gate Connected to the
Drain 116
3.1 Introduction 73
3.2 AC load line analysis 73 5 FET Amplifiers
3.3 Hybrid equivalent model 74 5.1 Introduction 139
3.4 Small signal parameter 75 5.2 Small signal Analysis of JFET
3.5 Hybrid- p Model 77 Circuit 139
5.2.1 Transconductance 139
3.6 Analysis of standard models 78
5.2.2 Output Resistance 140
3.6.1 Common Emitter Fixed Bias
Configuration 78 5.3 Some Standard Configurations
3.6.2 Voltage Divider Bias 80 140
3.6.3 Common-Emitter Bias Configuration 5.3.1 JFET Fixed Bias Configuration 140
81 5.3.2 JFET Self Bias Configuration with
bypassed Capacitor 141
4 FET Biasing 5.3.3 JFET Self Bias Configuration with
Unbypassed RS 142
5.3.4 JFET Voltage Divider Configuration
4.2 Junction Field Effect Transistor 144
107 5.3.5 JFET Source Follower (Common
Drain) Configuration 145
4.3 Metal-oxide semiconductor field
5.3.6 JFET Common Gate Configuration
effect transistor (Mosfet) 109
146
4.3.1 n-channel Enhancement Type
MOSFET 109 5.4 Small signal analysis of
4.3.2 p-channel Enhancement Type Depletion type MOSFET 147
MOSFET 110 5.5 Small signal analysis of
4.3.3 n-channel Depletion Type
Enhancement type mosfet 147
MOSFET 112
6 Output Stages And Power Input Offset Current 202
Amplifiers
6.1 Introduction 167 8 Op Amp Applications
6.2 Emitter Follower as Power 8.1 Introduction 223
Amplifier 167 8.2 Inverting amplifier 223
6.3 Push-Pull Stage 168 8.3 Non-inverting Amplifier 224
6.4 Classes of amplifiers 169 8.4 Multiple-Stage gains 224
6.4.1 Class-A Operation 171 8.5 Voltage Subtraction 225
6.4.2 Class-B Operation 172
6.4.3 Class-AB Output Stage 173
8.6 Current to voltage converter 225
6.5 Amplifier distortion 174 8.7 Voltage to current converter 226

8.8 Difference Amplifier 227
7 Op Amp Characteristics And Basic 8.9 Instrumentation Amplifier 228
Circuits 8.10 Integrator 229
7.1 Introduction 195 8.11 Differentiator 230
7.2 Operational Amplifier 195 8.12 Logarithmic amplifier 230
7.3 Ideal Op-amp circuit 196 8.13 Exponential Amplifier 231
7.4 Practical op-amp circuits 197 8.14 Square-Root Amplifier 231
7.4.1 Inverting Amplifier 197
7.4.2 Non-inverting Amplifier 197 8.15 Comparator 232
7.4.3 Unity Follower 198 8.16 Schmitt Trigger 233
7.4.4 Summing Amplifier 198 8.17 Non inverting Schmitt trigger
7.4.5 Amplifier with a T-network 198 circuit 234
7.5 Practical op-amp circuits with 8.18 Precision rectifier 235
finite gain 199
7.5.1 Unity Follower 199
8.19 Function generator 236
7.5.2 Inverting Amplifier 199
7.5.3 Non-inverting Amplifier 199 9 Active Filters
7.6 Slew rate 200 9.1 Introduction 263
7.7 Differential and common-mode 9.2 Active filter 263
operation 200 9.2.1 Low Pass Filter 263
7.7.1 Differential Inputs 200 9.2.2 High Pass Filter 265
7.7.2 Common Inputs 200 9.2.3 Band pass filter 266
7.7.3 Output voltage 201 9.3 The Filter Transfer function 266
7.7.4 Common Mode Rejection Ratio 201 9.4 Butterworth Filters 270
7.8 DC offset parameter 201 9.5 The Chebyshev filter 270
7.8.1 Output Offset Voltage due to
Input Offset Voltage 201
10 Feedback Amplifier And Oscillator
7.8.2 Output Offset Voltage due to
10.1 Introduction 293 1.3.6 Hexadecimal-to-Binary Conversion 8
10.2 Feedback 293 1.3.7 Binary-to-Hexadecimal Conversion 8
10.2.1 Negative Feedback 293 1.3.8 Hexadecimal-to-Octal and Octal-
10.2.2 Positive Feedback 294 to-Hexadecimal Conversion 9
10.3 The Four Basic feedback 1.4 Basic Binary Arithmetic 9

Topologies 294 1.5 Complements of Numbers 10
10.3.1 Voltage Amplifier 294
1.6 Number Representation in Binary 11
10.3.2 Current Amplifier 294
1.6.1 Sign-Magnitude Representation 11
10.3.3 Transconductance Amplifier 295
1.6.2 1’s Complement Representation 11
10.3.4 Transresistance Amplifier 296
1.6.3 2’s Complement Representation 11
10.4 Analysis of feedback amplifier 296 1.7 Complement Binary Arithmetic 12
10.5 Oscillators 298 1.7.1 Addition Using 1’s Complement 12
10.6 Op-amp RC oscillator circuits 299 1.7.2 Subtraction Using 1’s Complement
10.6.1 Wein Bridge Oscillator 299 13
10.6.2 Phase Shift Oscillator 299 1.7.3 Addition Using 2’s Complement 13
1.7.4 Subtraction using 2’s Complement
10.7 LC Oscillator Circuit 300 14
10.7.1 Colpitts Oscillator 300
1.8 Binary Codes 14
10.7.2 Hartley oscillator 301
1.8.1 Weighted and Non-Weighted
10.8 The 555 circuit 301 Codes 14
10.8.1 Monostable Multivibrator 301 1.8.2 Numeric and Alphanumeric Codes 15
10.8.2 Astable Multivibrator 302 1.8.3 Error Detecting and Correcting
Codes 15
1.8.4 Self-complementary Codes 15
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 1.8.5 Unit Distance Codes (Cyclic Codes)
15
1.8.6 Sequential Codes 15
1 Number System And Codes
1.8.7 Reflective Code s 16
1.1 Introduction 3
1.9 Binary Coded Decimal ( 8421 ) Code 16
1.2 Number Systems 3
1.10 The Excess-3 Code 16
1.2.1 Decimal Number System 4
1.2.2 Binary Number System 4 1.11 Gray Code 17
1.2.3 Octal Number System 4
1.2.4 Hexadecimal Number System 2 Boolean Algebra And LOgic
5 Simplification
1.3 Number System Conversion 5 2.1 Introduction 33
1.3.1 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion 6 2.2 Basic Boolean Operations 33
1.3.2 Decimal-to-Octal Conversion 6
1.3.3 Decimal-to-Hexadecimal 2.3 Theorems of Boolean Algebra 34
Conversion 7 2.4 Logic Gates 36
1.3.4 Octal-to-Binary conversion 7 2.4.1 Logic Levels 36
1.3.5 Binary-to-Octal Conversion 8 2.4.2 Types of Logic Gates 37
3 The K-Map 4.6 Decoder 91
3.1 Introduction 59 4.7 Encoders 92
4.7.1 Decimal-to-BCD Encoder 93
3.2 Representation For Boolean
4.7.2 Priority Encoders 94
Functions 59
3.2.1 Standard or Canonical Sum-of- 4.8 Parity Generator 95
Products (SOP) Form 59 4.8.1 Even Parity Generator 95
3.2.2 Standard or Canonical Product-of- 4.8.2 Odd Parity Generator 96
Sums (POS) Form 61
3.3 Karnaugh Map (K-map) 63 5 Sequential Circuits
3.4 Grouping of Cells for 5.1 Introduction 113
Simplification 64 5.2 Types of Sequential logic Circuits
3.4.1 Grouping of Two adjacent Cells 113
(Pair) 64
5.3 Latches and Flip-Flops 114
3.4.2 Grouping of Four Adjacent Cells
(Quad) 65 5.4 S-R Latch 115
3.4.3 Grouping of Eight Adjacent Cells 5.5 Flip-Flops 116
(Octet) 65 5.5.1 S-R Flip-Flop 116
3.4.4 Redundant Group 66 5.5.2 D-Flip Flop 117
3.5 Don’t Care Conditions 67 5.5.3 J-K Flip-Flop 118
3.5.1 K-map Simplification with Don’t 5.5.4 T Flip-Flop 119
Care Conditions 68 5.6 Triggering of Flip-Flops 119
3.5.2 Conversion of Standard SOP to 5.6.1 Level Triggering 120
Standard POS with Don’t Care
5.6.2 Edge Triggering 120
Conditions 68
5.7 Register 121
4 Combinational Circuits 5.7.1 Buffer Register 121
5.7.2 Shift Register 122
4.1 Introduction 83
5.8 Counter 123
4.2 Adders and subtractors 83 5.8.1 Asynchronous and Synchronous
4.2.1 Half-Adder 83 Counter 124
4.2.2 Full-Adder 84 5.8.2 Up-Counter and Down-Counter 124
4.2.3 Half-Subtractor 85
4.2.4 Full-Subtractor 85
5.9 Shift Register Counters 126
5.9.1 Ring Counter 126
4.3 Comparator 86 5.9.2 Johnson Counter 128
4.3.1 1-bit Magnitude Comparator 86
4.3.2 2-bit Magnitude Comparator 87
6 Logic Families
4.4 Multiplexer 88
4.4.1 2-to-1 Multiplexer 88
4.4.2 4-to-1 Multiplexer 89 6.2 Classification of Digital Logic
Family 145
4.5 Demultiplexer 90
4.5.1 1-to-2 Demultiplexer 90 6.3 Characteristic Parameters of
4.5.2 1-to-8 Demultiplexer 90 Digital Logic Family 146
6.4 Resistor-Transistor Logic 149 7.8 Schmitt trigger 183
6.5 Direct Coupled Transistor Logic
150 8 Microprocessor And
MicrocontrolLer
6.6 Diode Transistor Logic 150
6.7 Transistor-Transistor Logic 151
8.2 Microprocessor architecture 203
6.8 Emitter Coupled Logic 152
8.2.1 Microprocessor operation 204
6.9 Integrated Injection Logic 154
8.3 Pin Diagram of 8085
6.9.1 IIL Inverter 154
Microprocessor 205
6.9.2 IIL NAND Gate 154
8.3.1 Address and Data Bus 205
6.9.3 IIL NOR Gate 155
8.3.2 Control and Status Signals 206
6.10 Metal Oxide Semiconductor 8.3.3 Power Supply and Clock
Logic 156 Frequency 206
6.10.1 NMOS Inverter 156 8.3.4 Interrupts and Other Operations 206
6.10.2 NMOS NAND Gate 157 8.3.5 Serial I/O Ports 207
6.10.3 NMOS NOR Gate 157
8.4 Instruction set of 8085
6.11 Complementary Metal Oxide microprocessor 207
Semiconductor (CMOS) Logic 158 8.4.1 Data Transfer Instructions 207
6.11.1 CMOS Inverter 158 8.4.2 Arithmetic Instructions 209
6.11.2 CMOS NAND Gate 159 8.4.3 Branching Instructions 211
6.11.3 CMOS NOR Gate 159 8.4.4 Logic Instructions 214
8.4.5 Control Instructions 216
7 Interfacing To Analog 8.5 Microcontroller 218
7.1 Introduction 173 8.6 Architecture of 8051
7.2 Digital to analog converter 173 Microcontroller 218
7.3 DAC circuits 174 8.7 Instruction Set of 8051
7.3.1 R- 2R Ladder Type DAC 174 Microcontroller 220
7.3.2 Weighted Resistor Type DAC 174 8.7.1 Addressing mode 220
7.4 Analog-to-digital converter 175 8.7.2 Data Transfer Instructions 221
7.4.1 Sample-and-hold circuit 175 8.7.3 Arithmetic Instructions 222
7.4.2 Quantization and Encoding 175 8.7.4 Logical Instructions 223
7.4.3 Parameters of ADC 176
**********
7.5 AdC circuits 176
7.5.1 Flash Type A/D Converter 177
7.5.2 Counting A/D Converter 177
7.5.3 Dual Slope Type A/D Converter 179
7.5.4 Successive Approximation Type ADC
179
7.6 Astable multivibrator 180
7.7 Monostable multivibrator 181
CHAPTER 1
Boolean Algebra and Logic Simmplification
1.1 Introduction
This chapter, concerned with the basic study of Boolean algebra and
simplification theory, includes the following topics:
•• Basic Boolean operations: addition, multiplication, not operation
•• Various theorems of Boolean algebra
•• Meaning of positive and negative logic
•• Various types of logic gates: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR,
XOR, XNOR gates.
•• Universal logic gates
1.2 Basic Boolean Operations
Boolean algebra uses only three basic operations, namely

1. OR operation: The OR operation in Boolean algebra is similar
to addition in ordinary algebra i.e., OR means logical addition
operation. The logical OR operation on A and B is denoted by
Y = A + B , where ‘ + ’ is the OR operator
2. AND operation: The AND operation in Boolean algebra is similar

to multiplication in ordinary algebra i.e, AND performs logical
multiplication operation. The logical AND operation on A and B
is denoted by
Y = A : B , where : is the AND operator.
3. NOT operation: NOT is the simplest of the three basic operations

of Boolean algebra. It is also known as inversion and complement.
The NOT operation is indicated by a bar ‘-’ over the variable. If
A is a variable, then NOT of A is expressed as A .
Page 18 Boolean Algebra and Logic Simmplification Chap 1
Table 2.1: Truth Table for OR, AND, and NOT Operation

OR Operation AND Operation NOT Operation
Input Output Input Output Input Output
A B Y = A+B A B Y = AB A Y=A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
i. n
o
1.3 Theorems of Boolean Algebra
. c
The theorems of Boolean algebra can be used to simplify many complex
a
i
Boolean expression and also to transform the given expression into a
d
more useful and meaningful equivalent expression. These theorems are
discussed as below.
Complementation Laws
n o
w.
The term complement implies to invert, i.e. to change 1’s to 0’s and 0’s
to 1’s. The five laws of complementation are as follows:
w
1. The complement of 0 is 1, i.e. 0 = 1
w
2. The complement of 1 is 0, i.e. 1 = 0
3. If A = 0 , then A = 1
4. If A = 1, then A = 0
5. The double complementation does not change the function, i.e.
A=A
AND Laws
The four AND laws are as follows:
1. Null Law: A : 0 = 0
2. Identity Law: A : 1 = A
3. A:A = A
4. A:A = 0
OR Laws
The four OR laws are as follows:
1. Null Law: A + 0 = A
2. Identity Law: A + 1 = 1
3. A+A = A

SALIENT FEATURES
Chap 1 Boolean Algebra and Logic Simmplification Page 19

4. A+A = 1
Commutative Laws
Commutative law states that the order of the variable in OR and AND
operations is not important. The two commutative laws are
A + B = B + A
A : B = B : A
Associative Laws
Associative law states that the grouping of variables in AND or OR
expression does not affect the result. There are two associative laws.
A + _B + C i = _A + B i + C
i. n
A : _B : C i = _A : B i : C
Distributive Law
c o
The distributive laws allow factoring or multiplying out of expressions.
There are two distributive laws
.
a
A _B + C i = AB + AC
i

A + BC = _A + B i_A + C i
o
Redundant Literal Rule
. n
This law states that ORing of a variable with the AND of the
w
complement of that variable with another variable, is equal to ORing
of the two variables, i.e.
w
A + AB = A + B
w
Another theorem based on this law is
A _A + B i = AB
Idempotent Law
Idempotence means the same value. There are two idempotent laws
A : A : A : g : A = A
A + A + A + g + A = A
Absorption Law
There are two absorption laws
A + A : B = A
A : _A + B i = A
Consensus Theorem
There are two consensus theorems,
AB + AC + BC = AB + AC
_A + B i_A + C i_B + C i = _A + B i_A + C i

Transposition Theorem

There are two transposition theorems, the first is given as
AB + AC = _A + C i_A + B i
_A + B i : _A + C i = A : C + A : B
De Morgan’s Theorem
De Morgan’s theorem gives two of the most powerful laws in Boolean
algebra. These theorems are very useful in simplification of Boolean
expressions,
A + B = A B
AB = A + B
i. n
Shannon’s Expansion Theorem
According to this theorem, any switching expression can be decomposed
o
with respect to a variable A into two parts, one containing A and the
. c
other containing A . This concept is useful in decomposing complex
a
system into an interconnection of smaller components.
i
f _A, B, C, ....i = A : f _1, B, C...i + A : f _0, B, C, ...i
d
f _A, B, C, ...i = 8A + f _0, B, C, ...iB : 8A + f _1, B, C, ...iB
n o
.
1.4 Logic Gates
w w
Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital systems.
Logic gates are electronic circuits that perform the most elementary
w
Boolean operations. Before understanding the logic gates, we must
understand the meaning of positive and negative logic.
1.4.1 Logic Levels

There are two different ways to assign a signal value to logic level such
as positive logic and negative logic.
1. Positive Logic: If higher of the two voltage levels represents a
logic ‘1’ and the lower of the two levels represents a logic ‘0’, then
the logic system is referred to as a positive logic system. Figure
2.1 shows the positive logic system.
Figure 2.1: Positive Logic System
2. Negative Logic: If the higher of the two voltage levels represents a

logic ‘0’ and the lower of the two levels represents a logic ‘1’, then

SALIENT FEATURES

the logic system is referred to as a negative logic system. Figure
2.2 shows the representation of negative logic systems.
Figure 2.2: Negative Logic System
3. Mixed Logic: In mixed logic, the assignment of logical values to

voltage values is not fixed, and it can be decided by the logic
designers. Mixed logic provides a simplified mechanism for the
i. n
analysis and design of digital circuits. The proper use of mixed
logic notation provides logic expressions and logic diagrams that
o
are analogue to each other. Also, a mixed logic diagram provides
. c
clear information as to the operation of a circuit.
1.4.2 Types of Logic Gates

i a
o d
Logic gates are electronic circuits with a number of inputs and one
n
output. In the following sections, different types of logic gates are
.
described.
w
AND Gate
w
An AND gate is a logic circuit with two or more inputs and one output
w
that performs ANDing operation. The output of an AND gate is HIGH
only when all of its inputs are in the HIGH state. In all other cases, the
output is LOW. For a positive logic systems, it means that the output
of the AND gate is a logic ‘1’ only when all of its inputs are in logic ‘1’
state. In all other cases, the output is logic ‘0’. The logic symbol of a
two-input AND gate is shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Logic Symbol of Two-input AND gate
OR Gate
An OR gate is a logic circuit with two or more inputs and one output
that performs ORing operation. The output of an OR gate is LOW
only when all of its inputs are LOW. For all other possible input
combinations, the output is HIGH. For a positive logic system, the
output of an OR gate is a logic ‘0’ only when all of its inputs are at
logic ‘0’. For all other possible input combinations, the output is a logic

‘1’. The logic symbol of a two-input OR gate is shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Logic Symbol of Two-input OR gate
NOT Gate
A NOT gate, also called an inverter is a one-input, one-output logic
circuit whose output is always the complement of the input. That is, a
LOW input produces a HIGH output, and vice versa. It means that for
a positive logic system, a logic ‘0’ at the input produces a logic ‘1’ at
i. n
the output, while a logic ‘1’ at the input produces a logic ‘0’ output. It
is also known as a complementing circuit or an inverting circuit. The
o
logic symbol of an inverter is shown in Figure 2.5.
a . c
Figure 2.5: Symbol for a NOT gate
d i
n o
.
NAND Gate
w
The term NAND implies NOT-AND. A NAND gate is equivalent to
AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The standard logic symbol for a
w
2-input NAND gate is shown in Figure 2.6. This symbol is same as
w
AND gate symbol except for a small circle (bubble) on its output. This
circle represents the NOT function.
Figure 2.6: Logic symbol of NAND gate
The truth Table 2.2 of a NAND gate is obtained from the truth
Table of an AND gate by complementing the output entries.
Table 2.2: Truth Table of a 2-input NAND Gate
Input Output
A B Y = AB
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

SALIENT FEATURES

NOR Gate
The term NOR implies NOT-OR. A NOR gate is equivalent to OR

gate followed by a NOT gate. The standard logic symbol for a 2-input
NOR gate is shown in Figure 2.7. This symbol is same as OR gate
symbol except for a small circle (bubble) on its output. This circle
represents the NOT function.
Figure 2.7: Logic symbol of NOR gate
i. n
The truth Table 2.3 of a NOR gate is obtained from the truth
Table of an OR gate by complementing the output entries.
o
Table 2.3: Truth table of a 2-input NOR gate
Input Output
a . c
A B
d
Y = A+B
i
o
0 0 1
n
0 1 0
1
1
w. 0
1
0
0
w w
Exclusive-OR (XOR) Gate
The Exclusive-OR gate, commonly known as EX-OR gate, is a two-
input, one-output gate. The logic symbol for the Ex-OR gate is shown
in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: Symbol for 2-input Ex-OR Gate
The truth table for a two-input EX-OR operation is given in

Table 2.4. From the truth table it can be stated that, the output of an
EX-OR gate is a logic ‘1’ when the two inputs are at different logic and
a logic ‘0’ when the two inputs are at the same logic.

Table 2.4: Truth Table of a 2-input Ex-OR Gate

Input Output
A B Y = A5B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) Gate
i. n
The exclusive-NOR gate, commonly known as Ex-NOR, is an Ex-OR
gate, followed by an inverter. It has two inputs and one output. The
o
logic symbol for the Ex-NOR gate is shown in Figure 2.9.
a . c
d i
o
Figure 2.9: Symbol for 2-input Ex-NOR Gate
. n
The truth table for the two-input Ex-NOR operation is given in
Table 2.12. From the truth table it can be stated that, the output of a
w
two-input EX-NOR gate is a logic ‘1’ when the inputs are same and a
w
logic ‘0’ when they are different.
w
Table 2.12: Truth Table of a 2-input Ex-NOR Gate
Input Output
A B Y = A9B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Point To Remember
NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates because any of
these two gates is capable of implementing all other gate functions.
**********

SALIENT FEATURES
EXERCIS
MCQ 1.1 In the following circuit, the output X is
i. n
. c o
i a
(A) MNQ (B)
N (Q + M )
d
(C) M (Q + N ) (D)
Q (M + N )
n o
.
MCQ 1.2 In the following circuit, the output Z is
w w
w
(A) AB + (C + D) E (B)
AB (C + D) E
(C) AB + CD + E (D)
AB + CDE
NAT 1.3 The number of different sets of input conditions that produces a high
output from a five-input OR gate is
______
MCQ 1.4 Which of the following gate corresponds to the action of series switches
for the input ?
(A) AND
(B) NAND
(C) OR
(D) NOR
MCQ 1.5 In the following circuit, the output Z is

(A) A + B + C (B)
ABC
(C) AB + BC + AC (D) Above all
MCQ 1.6 In the following circuit the output Y is

i. n
. c o
i a
d
(A) AB + AB + C
(B) AB + AB + C
n o
.
(C) AB + AB + C
w
(D) AB + AB + C
NAT 1.7
w w
In the following circuit the output Z is
______
MCQ 1.8 If a three-input OR gate has eight input possibilities, how many of
those possibilities will result in a HIGH output?
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 7
(D) 8

SALIENT FEATURES

MCQ 1.9 In the following circuit the output Z is
(A) ABC (B)

AB (C + B)
(C) ABC (D)
AB (C + B)
MCQ 1.10 A + BC is equivalent to
i. n
(A) (A + B) (A + C ) (B)
A+B
(C) A + C (D)
(A + B ) (A + C )
MCQ 1.11
. c o
If a three-input NAND gate has eight input possibilities, how many of
i a
those possibilities will result in a HIGH output?
d
(A) 1 (B) 2
o
(C) 7 (D) 8
. n
w
MCQ 1.12 The Boolean expression for the truth table shown is
w
A
0
0
w B
0
0
C
0
1
f
0
0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
(A) B (A + C) (A + C ) (B)
B (A + C ) (A + C )
(C) B (A + C ) (A + C ) (D)
B (A + C ) (A + C )
MCQ 1.13 The reduced form of the Boolean expression of Y = (AB ) : (AB ) is
(A) A + B (B) A+B
(C) AB + AB (D)
A B + AB

MCQ 1.14 If XY + XY = Z then XZ + X Z is equal to

(A) Y (B) Y
(C) 0 (D) 1
MCQ 1.15 Symbol in figure given below is IEEE symbol for
(A) AND (B) OR
i. n
(C) NAND (D) NOR
MCQ 1.16
. c o
The output of logic circuit is HIGH whenever A and B are both HIGH
i a
as long as C and D are either both LOW or both HIGH. The logic
d
circuit is
n o
w.
w w
MCQ 1.17 The operation A : A =
(A) A 2 (B) 2A
(C) 1 (D) A
MCQ 1.18 In the network shown below F can be written as

SALIENT FEATURES

(A) X0 X1 X3 X5 + X2 X4 X5 ...Xn − 1 + ...Xn − 1 Xn
(B) X0 X1 X3 X5 + X2 X3 X4 ...Xn + ...Xn − 1 Xn

(C) X0 X1 X3 X5 ...Xn + X2 X3 X5 ...Xn + ... + Xn − 1 Xn
(D) X0 X1 X3 X5 ...Xn − 1 + X2 X3 X5 ...Xn + ... + Xn − 1 Xn − 2 + Xn
MCQ 1.19 The gate G1 and G2 in figure shown below have propagation delays of
10 ns and 20 ns respectively.
i. n
the output waveform Vo is
. c o
If the input Vi makes an abrupt change from logic 0 to 1 at t = t0 then
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
[t1 = t0 + 10 ns, t2 = t1 + 10 ns, t3 = t2 + 10 ns]
MCQ 1.20 Which of the following Boolean expressions correctly represents the
relation between P, Q, R and M1
(A) M1 = (P OR Q) XOR R
(B) M1 = (P AND Q) XOR R
(C) M1 = (P NOR Q) XOR R
(D) M1 = (P XOR Q) XOR R

MCQ 1.21 The gate shown in Fig. is an alternative symbol of

(A) AND gate (B) OR gate
(C) NAND gate (D) NOR gate
MCQ 1.22 The logic circuit shown in the given figure can be minimized to
i. n
. c o
i a
o d
. n
MCQ 1.23
w
Which one of the following logical operations is performed by the
w
digital circuit shown below ?
w
(A) NOR (B) NAND
(C) Ex-OR (D) OR
MCQ 1.24 The logic operations of two combinational circuits given in Figure - I
and Figure - II are

SALIENT FEATURES

(A) Entirely different (B) Identical
(C) Complementary (D) Dual
MCQ 1.25 In the following circuit, the motor will turn on when DRIVE = 1
i. n
. c o
i a
Which of the following give correct values of A0, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7, A8
d
, and A9 in order to move motor ?
o
(A) A0 = A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = A5 = A6 = A7 = A8 = A9 = 1
n
(B) A0 = A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = A5 = A6 = A9 = 1; A7 = A8 = 0;
w.
(C) A0 = A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = A5 = A6 = A7 = 1 ; A8 = A9 = 0
(D) A0 = A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = A5 = A6 = A7 = A8 = 1 ; A9 = 0
MCQ 1.26
w w
The output ( X ) waveform for the combination circuit shown below for
the inputs at A and B (waveform shown in the figure) will be


i. n
. c o
i a

o d
**********
. n
w w
w

SALIENT FEATURES
SOLUTION

From the Boolean properties, we know that
i. n
o
So, its equivalent logic will be
a . c
d i
o
i.e. AND-Invert = Invert-OR
. n
Applying the property, we have the modified logic circuit as
w w
w
So, the output X is
X = MNQ + MNQ + M NQ
= MQ _N + N i + M NQ
= MQ + M NQ
= Q _M + M N i
= Q _M + N i

We convert the AND-Invert logic to equivalent Invert-OR logic as


or
i. n
So, the output Z is given as
Z = AB + E _C + D i
. c o
a

d i
o
n
We know that, if any one input of the OR gate becomes high logic (1),
w.
OR gate gives the high logic (1) output. The output is High only for
the case when all the inputs are at Low logic (0). Now, for 5-inputs,
w
we have
Total number of input conditions = 2 5 = 32
w
Out of the 32 conditions, all inputs are zero (0) for only one condition.
i.e. for only one condition the output is low.
Hence, 31 input conditions produce the high output from a five-input
OR gate.

From the given logic diagram, expression of the output can be written
as
Z = A + _AB + BC i + C
= A+A+B+B+C+C
= A+B+C
4
= ABC
From the above logic function, we can observe that options (A) and
(B) are matched. Now, we check the expression given in option (C).

SALIENT FEATURES

Z = AB + BC + AC
= A+B+B+C+A+C
= A+B+C
Hence, all the options are same, and equal to the output Z of the given
logic circuit.

Expression of the output for the circuit is given by
Y = _A 5 B i : C
= _AB + AB i : C
= _AB + AB i + C {Using De Morgan’s theorem}
i. n
= _AB + A B i + C { A 9 B = A 5 B or A 5 B = A 9 B }
o
= A B + AB + C
a . c
i
d
From the given circuit, we can observe that input to last XNOR gate
o
is same. So, the XNOR output is given by (Let input is X )
n
Z = X : X + X : X = X + X = 1
.
i.e. the output will be High (logic 1), irrespective of the inputs A and
w
B.
SOL 1.8
w w
OR gate output Y = A + B + C
If any one input is HIGH, output will be HIGH. Output will be LOW
only when all three inputs become LOW.
Out of 8 input possibilities, seven cases have one or more inputs high
results in HIGH.

Expression of the output Z for the circuit is given by
Z = _A : B i : _B + C i
= A : B : B + ABC
= ABC { B : B = 0 }

Given expression is A + BC . Using distributive law, we have
A + BC = _A + B i_A + C i
This law states that ANDing of several variables and ORing the result

with a single variable is equivalent to ORing that single variable with

each of the several variables and then ANDing the sums. It can be
verified from the table below.
A B C A+B A+C _A + B i_A + C i A + BC

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
i. n
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
o
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a . c
SOL 1.11 Correct option is (C)
d i
n o
.
From truth table, the expression of the function f is given by

w w f = ABC + ABC
= B _AC + AC i
w
= B _A + C i_A + C i

Given logic expression is
Y = _AB i : _AB i
On simplification by using Boolean algebra, we get
Y = _AB i : _AB i (Using De-Morgan’s theorem)
= _A + B i_A + B i
= _AA + A B + AB + BB i = A B + AB

Given that Z = XY + XY
So, we simplify the given function as
XZ + X Z = X _XY + XY i + X _XY + XY i
= X _XY + X Y i + XY
= XY + XY
= Y _X + X i = Y

SALIENT FEATURES


We check the circuits in given option for the required condition. The
output of the logic circuit will be high only when both inputs of last
AND are high. Now, we have the two conditions:
1. Given that A and B are both High. For A and B as logic High,
one input of last AND gate is high for the circuits given in options
(A) and (B).
2. Given that C and D are either both LOW or both HIGH. For the
circuit given in option (A), if C and D inputs are either both high
i. n
or both low, i.e. C = D applied to XNOR gate then
C 9 D = 1 for C = D
o
i.e. another input of last AND gate will be High.
. c
Thus, the circuit given in option (A) is HIGH whenever A and B
a
i
are both HIGH as long as C and D are either both LOW or both
d
HIGH.
n o
.
SOL 1.18
w w
w
For the given network, we obtain
Output of gate 1 = X0 X1
Output of gate 2 = X0 X1 + X2
Output of gate 3 = _X0 X1 + X2i X3
= X0 X1 X3 + X2 X3
Similarly, we may deduce
Output of gate 4 = X0 X1 X3 + X2 X3 + X4
Output of gate 5 = _X0 X1 X3 + X2 X3 + X4i X5
= X0 X1 X3 X5 + X2 X3 X5 + X4 X5
Hence, the output of gate n would be
F = X0 X1 X3 X5 .........Xn + X2 X3 X5 .........Xn + X4 X5 X7 ..........Xn + ........ + Xn − 1 Xn

Given that G1 has delay of 10 ns and G2 has delay of 20 ns. Let output
of G1 is X . So, we get the output waveform for the given circuit as
shown below.


i. n
From the circuit diagram, we have
o
X = PQ
Y = P + Q
a . c
Z = X : Y = _PQ i_P + Q i
i
and
= _P + Q i_P + Q i

o d
= PQ + PQ
= P5Q
and
. n
M1 = Z 5 R
M1 = _P 5 Q i 5 R
w
Hence,
M1 = _P XOR Q i XOR R
w w
Y = A + B = A $ B = NAND gate logic

Given logic circuit is
So, the output Z is given by

Z = X + X + Y
= X : X + Y = X : _X + Y i
= X + XY
= X _1 + Y i = X = X

SALIENT FEATURES

In option (D), the circuit provides the output X as shown below.
Hence, the circuit given in option (D) is minimized form of the logic
circuit.

We redraw the given digital circuit as
i. n
. c o
i a
o d
n
Output Y is given by
.
Y = AB + AB
= A 5 B = A _XOR i B
SOL 1.24
w w
In order to convert the given circuit using only NAND gate, we apply
bubbles at the input terminal of each gates as shown below.
From the Boolean algebra, we have
and
Therefore, by using the above conversion, we get the logic circuit with
NAND gates as


We redraw the given logic circuit as
i. n
. c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
DRIVE is active-HIGH, and it will go high only when
X = Y = 0
w
X will be LOW only when either A8 and A9 is HIGH.
Y will be LOW only when W = 0 and A7 = 0
W will be LOW only when A0 through A6 are all HIGH.
Putting this all together, we have the condition for DRIVE to be high
as
A0 = A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = A5 = A6 = 1
A7 = 0
and either A8 or A9 or both are 1

For given logic circuit, expression for output X is
X = _A + B i : B
= _A + B i + B
= Â + B h + B
= A+B
Output waveform for the given input waveforms is

SALIENT FEATURES

i. n
. c o
i a
o

d
**********
. n
w w
w

STUDY PACKAGE 1e
GATE
Vol 5 of 5
►► Signals and systems
►► Communication systems
►► Control systems and process control
R. K. Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
NODIA & COMPANY

MRP 540.00
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To Our Parents
Preface


the concepts.
[email protected]
Authors
Acknowledgements
Authors
Syllabus

interpretation.

separable method.

parameters.






sensing.
**********
Contents
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS 2.3 Linear Time Invariant System 26

2.3.1 Impulse Response of LTI System 26
2.3.2 Convolution of LTI System 26
1 Continuous Time Signals
2.4 Impulse Response of Inter-
1.1 Introduction 3 connected Systems 28
1.2 Signal-classification 3 2.4.1 Systems in Parallel Configuration
1.2.1 Analog and Discrete Signals 3 28
1.2.2 Deterministic and Random Signal 3 2.4.2 System in Cascade 28
1.2.3 Periodic and Aperiodic Signal 4 2.5 Correlation 29
1.2.4 Even and Odd Signal 4 2.5.1 Cross-Correlation 29
1.2.5 Energy and Power Signal 4 2.5.2 Auto-Correlation 30
1.3 Basic operations on signals 2.5.3 Relationship between Correlation
and Convolution 30
5
1.3.1 Addition of Signals 6 2.6 Block Diagram Representation 30
1.3.2 Multiplication of Signals 6
1.3.3 Amplitude Scaling of Signals 6 3 DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS
1.3.4 Time-Scaling 6
3.1 Introduction 47
1.3.5 Time-Shifting 7
1.3.6 Time-Reversal or Folding 7 3.2 Representation of Discrete Time
signals 47
1.4 Basic Continuous Time Signals 7
3.2.1 Graphical Representation 47
1.4.1 The Unit-Impulse Function 7
3.2.2 Functional Representation 47
1.4.2 The Unit-Step Function 8
3.2.3 Sequence Representation 48
1.4.3 The Unit-Ramp Function 9
1.4.4 Unit Rectangular Pulse Function 9 3.3 Classification of discrete time
1.4.5 Unit Triangular Function 10 signals 48
1.4.6 Unit Signum Function 10 3.3.1 Periodic and Aperiodic DT Signals
48
1.4.7 The Sinc Function 11
3.3.2 Even and Odd DT Signals 49
2 Continuous Time Systems 3.3.3 Energy and Power Signals 49
2.1 Introduction 25 3.4 Basic Operations on Discrete time

Signals 50
2.2 Continuous Time System &
Classification 25 3.5 Basic Discrete Time Signals 51
3.5.1 Discrete Unit Impulse Function 51
3.5.2 Discrete Unit Step Function 52 Continuous LTI System Using
3.5.3 Discrete Unit Ramp Function 53 Laplace Transform 93
3.5.4 Unit-Rectangular Function 53 5.5.1 Causality 93
3.5.5 Unit-Triangular Function 53 5.5.2 Stability 93
3.5.6 Unit-Signum Function 54 5.5.3 Stability and Causality 93
5.6 System Function For

4 DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS Interconnected LTI Systems 93
4.1 Introduction 69 5.6.1 Parallel Connection 93
5.6.2 Cascaded Connection 94
4.2 Classification of Discrete Time 5.6.3 Feedback Connection 94
Systems 69
5.7 Block Diagram Representation
4.3 Linear-Time Invariant Discrete of Continuous LTI System 94
System 70
4.3.1 Impulse Response of LTI System 70
6 Z-TRANSFORM
4.3.2 Convolution of LTI System 70
4.4 Properties of Discrete LTI system
In Terms of Impulse Response 71 6.2 Bilateral and unilateral
z -transform 107
4.5 Impulse Response of 6.2.1 Existence of z-Transform 107
Interconnected Systems 72
6.2.2 Region of Convergence of
4.5.1 Systems in Parallel 72 z-Transform 108
4.5.2 System in Cascade 72
6.3 Inverse Z-Transform 110
4.6 Correlation 72 6.3.1 Partial Fraction Method 111
4.6.1 Cross-Correlation 72 6.3.2 Power Series Expansion Method
4.6.2 Auto-Correlation 73 111
4.7 Block Diagram Representation 74 6.4 Properties of Z-Transform 111

6.5 Stability and Causality of LTI
5 LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Discrete Systems Using z-Transform
5.1 Introduction 87 113
6.5.1
Causality
113
5.2 Bilateral and unilateral
6.5.2
Stability
113
Laplace transform 87
6.5.3 Stability and Causality 113
5.2.1 Existence of Laplace Transform 88
5.2.2 Region of Convergence 88 6.6 Block Diagram Representation
113
5.3 Inverse Laplace Transform 91
5.4 Properties of The Laplace 7 CONTINUOUS TIME FOURIER
Transform 92 TRANSFORM
5.5 Stability and Causality of 9.1 Introduction 157
9.2 Different forms of continuous 9.2.3 Polar Fourier Series 159
time Fourier series 157
9.2.1 Trigonometric Fourier Series 157
9.3 Existence of Fourier Series 159
9.2.2 Exponential Fourier Series 158 9.4 Properties of Exponential CTFS
9.2.3 Polar Fourier Series 159 159
9.3 Existence of Fourier Series 159 9.5 Relation Between CTFT and CTFS
160
9.4 Properties of Exponential CTFS 159
9.5.1 CTFT using CTFS Coefficients
9.5 Relation Between CTFT and CTFS 160
160 9.5.2 CTFS Coefficients as Samples of
9.5.1 CTFT using CTFS Coefficients CTFT 161
160
9.5.2 CTFS Coefficients as Samples of 10 DISCRETE TIME FOURIER SERIES
CTFT 161
8 DiSCRETE TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM 10.2 Definition of Discrete time
Fourier series 173
10.3 Properties of Discrete Time
8.2 Definition of discrete time
Fourier Series 173
Fourier transform 145
8.2.1 Existence of DTFT 145
11 DIGITAL FILTERS
8.2.2 Inverse DTFT 146
11.1 introduction 181
8.3 Properties of Discrete-Time
Fourier Transform 146 11.2 Classification of digital filters
181
8.4 Relation Between The DTFT and
11.2.1 Classification Based on Shape of
The z-Transform 148
Magnitude Spectrum 181
8.5 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 11.2.2 Classification Based on Length of
148 Impulse Response 182
8.6 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) 150 11.3 filter realization 183
8.6.1 Radix-r FFT 150 11.4 FIR filters 183
8.6.2 Number of Calculations 150 11.4.1 Direct Form 184
11.4.2 Cascaded Form 184
9 CONTINUOUS TIME FOURIER SERIES 11.4.3 Linear-phase FIR Filters 184
9.1 Introduction 157 11.5 iiR filters 185
9.2 Different forms of continuous 11.5.1 Direct form I 186
time Fourier series 157 11.5.2 Direct form II 186
9.2.1 Trigonometric Fourier Series 157 11.5.3 Cascaded Form 187
9.2.2 Exponential Fourier Series 158 11.5.4 Parallel Form 188
COMMUNICATION 3.4.2 Digital Pulse Modulation 56
SYSTEMS 3.5 Delta Modulation 59
3.6 Multiplexing 59
1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 3.6.1 Frequency-Division Multiplexing
60
1.1 Introduction 3
3.6.2 Time Division Multiplexing 60
1.2 Amplitude Modulation 3
1.3 DSB-SC AM Signal 7 4 DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEME
1.4 SSB-SC AM Signal 9 4.1 Introduction 79
1.5 Vestigial-Sideband AM Signal 10 4.2 Digital Bandpass Modulation 79

4.3 Coherent Binary systems 80
2 ANGLE MODULATION 4.3.1 Amplitude Shift Keying 81
2.1 Introduction 31 4.3.2 Binary Phase Shift Keying 82
4.3.3 Coherent Binary Frequency Shift
2.2 Angle Modulation 31 Keying 83
2.3 Types of Angle modulation 32 4.4 Noncoherent Binary Systems 83

2.3.1 Phase Modulation System 32 4.4.1 Differential Phase Shift Keying 84
2.3.2 Frequency Modulation System 32 4.4.2 Noncoherent Frequency Shift
Keying 85
2.4 Modulation Index 33
4.5 Multilevel modulated bandpass
2.5 Transmission Bandwidth of
Signaling 85
Angle modulated Signal 33
4.5.1 Relations between Bit and Symbol
2.5.1 Deviation Ratio 34
Characteristics for Multilevel
2.5.2 Expression of Transmission Bandwidth Signaling 85
in Terms of Deviation Ratio 34
4.5.2 M-ary Phase Shift Keying (MPSK)
2.6 Power in Angle Modulated 86
Signal 34 4.5.3 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(QPSK) 87
3 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION 4.5.4 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

88
3.1 Introduction 54 4.5.5 M-ary Frequency Shift Keying
(MFSK) 89
3.2 Sampling Process 54
4.6 Comparison between Various
3.3 Sampling Theorem 55
Digital Modulation Scheme 89
3.3.1 Nyquist Rate 55
3.3.2 Nyquist Interval 55 4.7 Constellation Diagram 90
3.4 Pulse Modulation 55

3.4.1 Analog Pulse Modulation 55
CONTROL SYSTEMS 3.3.2 Unit Step Response of First Order
AND PROCESS CONTROL System 54
3.4 Second Order System 55

3.4.1 Unit Step Response of Second
1 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
Order System 56
1.1 Introduction 3
3.5 Steady state errors 58
1.2 Control System 3 3.5.1 Steady State Error for Unity
Feedback System 58
1.3 Transfer function 5
3.5.2 Steady State Error for Non-unity
1.4 Feedback system 5 Feedback 60
1.5 Block diagrams 6 3.6 Sensitivity 61
1.6 Signal flow graph 9 4 ROOT LOCUS TECHNIQUE

1.6.1 Basic Terminologies of SFG 9
1.6.2 Gain Formula for SFG 4.1 Introduction 79
(Mason’s Rule) 10
4.2 The Root-Locus Concept 79
2 STABILITY 4.3 Properties of Root Locus 80
2.1 Introduction 31 4.4 Rules for sketching root locus

81
2.2 Stability 31
2.3 Dependence of stability on 5 FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS
location of poles 31 5.1 Introduction 101
2.4 Methods of determining 5.2 Frequency response 101
stability 34
5.3 Polar plot 103
2.5 Routh-hurwitz criterion 34
2.5.1 Routh’s Tabulation 34 5.4 Nyquist criterion 103
2.5.2 Location of Roots of Characteristic 5.4.1 Principle of Argument 103
Equation using Routh’s Table 35 5.4.2 Nyquist Stability Criterion 104
2.5.3 Limitations of Routh-Hurwitz
5.5 Bode plots 104
Criterion 37
5.6 Gain margin and phase margin
3 TIME RESPONSE 105
5.6.1 Determination of Gain Margin and
3.1 Introduction 53
Phase Margin using Nyquist Plot
3.2 Time response 53 106
5.6.2 Determination of Gain Margin and
3.3 First Order Systems 53 Phase Margin using Bode Plot
3.3.1 Unit Impulse Response of First 107
Order System 54
5.6.3 Stability of a System 107 7.2 Mechanical system 165
7.2.1 Translational Mechanical Systems
5.7 Constant m-circles and constant 165
n-circles 107 7.2.2 Rotational Mechanical System 166
5.7.1 M-Circles 108
5.7.2 N-Circles 108 7.3 Hydraulic system 167
7.3.1 Model of Hydraulic Linear
5.8 Nichols charts 109 Actuators 167
7.3.2 Electrohydraulic Servovalves 168
6 STATE VARIABLE ANALYSIS
7.4 Pneumatic system 168
6.1 Introduction 133 7.4.1 Basic Elements of Pneumatic
System 168
6.2 State variable system 133
7.4.2 Construction and Working of
6.2.1 State Differential Equations 134
Pneumatic System 169
6.2.2 Block Diagram of State Space 134
6.2.3 Comparison between Transfer 7.5 Synchros 170
Function Approach and State
7.6 Servomotors 172
Variable Approach 135
7.6.1 DC Servomotors 173
6.3 Solution of state equation 135 7.6.2 AC Servomotors 174
6.4 Transfer function from the 7.7 Stepper Motor 175
state model 136 7.7.1 Classification of Stepper Motors
6.4.1 Characteristic Equation 137 175
6.4.2 Eigen Values 137 7.7.2 Characteristics of Stepper Motors
6.4.3 Eigen Vectors 137 177
6.4.4 Determination of Stability Using
Eigen Values 137 8 DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
6.5 Controllability and 8.1 Introduction 195
observability 138
8.2 Controllers 195
6.5.1 Controllability 138
8.2.1 Proportional Controller 195
6.5.2 Output Controllability 138
8.2.2 Proportional-Derivative (PD)
6.5.3 Observability 138
Controller 196
6.6 Steady state error in state 8.2.3 Proportional-Integral (PI)
space 139 Controller 197
6.6.1 Analysis Using Final Value 8.2.4 Derivative Feedback Control 197
Theorem 139 8.2.5 Proportional-Integral-Derivative
6.6.2 Analysis Using Input Substitution (PID) Controller 198
139
8.3 Compensators 199
8.3.1 Lead Compensator 199
7 MODELLING OF PHYSICAL SYSTEM
8.3.2 Lag Compensator 201
7.1 Introduction 165 8.3.3 Lag-Lead compensator 202
8.4 Fuzzy controller 203
8.4.1 Fuzzy Logic 203
8.4.2 Fuzzy Set 204
8.4.3 Fuzzy Relations 205
8.4.4 Fuzzification 205
8.4.5 Defuzzification 206
8.4.6 Function Analysis of Fuzzy
Control System 207
**********
CHAPTER 4

Root Locus Technique
4.1 Introduction
A graph showing how the roots of the characteristic equation move
around the s -plane as a single parameter varies is known as a root
locus plot. Following topics related to root locus technique are included
in the chapter:
•• Basic concept of the root locus method
•• Properties of root locus
•• Useful rules for constructing the root loci
4.2 The Root-Locus Concept
The roots of the characteristic equation of a system provide a valuable

concerning the response of the system. To understand the root locus
concept, consider the characteristics equation
q ^s h = 1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
Now, we rearrange the equation so that the parameter of interest, K ,
appears as the multiplying factor in the form,
1 + KP ^s h = 0
For determining the locus of roots as K varies from 0 to 3, consider
the polynomial in the form of poles and zeros as
% ^s + Z h
m
K i
1+ i
= 0
% ^s + P h
n
i
j
% ^s + Pj h + K % ^s + Zih = 0
n m
or
when K = 0, the roots of the characteristic equation are the poles of P ^s h.
j i
% ^s + P h = 0
n
i.e. j
j
when K = 3, the roots of the characteristic equation are the zeros of P _ s i.
% ^s + Z h = 0
m
i.e. i
i
Hence, we noted that the locus of the roots of the characteristic

equation 1 + KP ^s h = 0 begins at the poles of P ^s h and ends at the
zeros of P ^s h as K increases from zero to infinity.

SALIENT FEATURES
Chap 4 Root Locus Technique Page 17

4.3 Properties of Root Locus
To examine the properties of root locus, we consider the characteristic

equation as
1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
or 1 + KG1 ^s h H1 ^s h = 0
where G1 ^s h H1 ^s h does not contain the variable parameter K . So, we get
G1 ^s h H1 ^s h =− 1
K
From above equation, we conclude the following result:
1. For any value of s on the root locus, we have the magnitude
G1 ^s h H1 ^s h = 1 ; −3 < K < 3
K
% ^s + Z h
i. n
m
i
G1 ^s h H1 ^s h =
o
i=1
= 1 ; −3 < K < 3
% ^s + P h K
n
. c
j
j=1
a
2. For any value of s on the root locus, we have

d i
G1 ^s h H1 ^s h = ^2k + 1h π ; where k = 0 , ! 1, ! 2 ,.......
o
= odd multiple of 180c for 0 # K < 3
G1 ^s h H1 ^s h = 2k π ; where k = 0 , ! 1, ! 2 ,.......
.
= even multiple of 180c for − 3 < K # 0
w
3. Once the root locus are constructed, the values of K along the
loci can be determined by
w % ^s + P h
n
w
j
j=1
K =
% ^s + Z h
m
i
i=1
The value of K at any point s1 on the root locus is obtained from

above equation by substituting value of s1 . Graphically, we write
Product of vector lenghts drawn from the poles of G ^s h H ^s h to s 1
Product of vector lengths drawn from the zeros of G ^s h H ^s h to s1
K=
Points to remember
1. Root loci are trajectories of roots of characteristic equation when

a system parameter varies.
2. In general, this method can be applied to study the behaviour
of roots of any algebraic equation with one or more variable
parameters.
3. Root loci of multiple variable parameters can be treated by varying one
parameter at a time. The resultant loci are called the root contours.

Page 18 Root Locus Technique Chap 4
4. Root-Loci refers to the entire root loci for − 3 < K < 3,

5. In general, the values of K are positive ^0 < K < 3h. Under
unusual conditions when a system has positive feedback or the
loop gain is negative, then we have K as negative.
4.4 Rules for sketching root locus
Some important rules are given in the following texts that are useful
for sketching the root loci.
Rule 1: Symmetry of Root Locus
i. n
Root locus are symmetrical with respect to the real axis of the s -plane.
o
In general, the root locus are symmetrical with respect to the axes of
symmetry of the pole-zero configuration of G ^s h H ^s h.
Rule 2: Poles and Zeros on the Root Locus
a . c
points.
d i
To locate the poles and zeros on root locus, we note the following
o
1. The K = 0 points on the root loci are at the poles of G ^s h H ^s h.
n
.
2. The K = !3 points on the root loci are at zeros of G ^s h H ^s h.
w
Rule 3: Number of Branches of Root Locus
w
The number of branches of the root locus equals to the order of the
w
characteristic polynomial.
Rule 4: Root Loci on the Real axis
While sketching the root locus on real axis, we must note following
points:
1. The entire real axis of the s -plane is occupied by the root locus
for all values of K .
2. Root locus for K $ 0 are found in the section only if the total
number of poles and zeros of G ^s h H ^s h to the right of the section
is odd. The remaining sections of the real axis are occupied by the
root locus for K # 0 .
3. Complex poles and zeros of G ^s h H ^s h do not affect the type of
root locus found on the real axis.
Rule 5: Angle of Asymptotes of the Root Locus

When n is the number of finite poles and m is the number of finite
zeros of G ^s h H ^s h, respectively. Then n - m branches of the root
locus approaches the infinity along straight line asymptotes whose
angles are given by

SALIENT FEATURES

^2q + 1h p
qa = !
; for K $ 0
n−m
!^2q h p
and θ a = ; for K # 0
n−m
where q = 0 , 1, 2,.......... ^n - m - 1h
Rule 6: Determination of Centroid
The asymptotes cross the real axis at a point known as centroid, which
is given by
/ Real parts of poles ofG^s hH^s h

− / Real parts of zeros of G ^s h H ^s h
i. n
s =
A
n−m
o
Rule 7: Angle of Departure
. c
The angle of departure from an open loop pole is given by (for K $ 0 )
fD = !6^2q + 1h π + φ@; q = 0 , 1, 2,........
i
where, f is the net angle contribution at this pole, of all other open
d
loop poles and zeros. For example, consider the plot shown in figure
o
below.
. n
w w
w
Figure 4.1: Illustration of Angle of Departure
From the figure, we obtain

f = q3 + q5 − ^q1 + q2 + q4h
and fD = !6^2q + 1h π + φ@; q = 0 , 1, 2,.......
Rule 8: Angle of Arrival
The angle of arrival at an open loop zero is given by (for K $ 0 )
fa = !6^2q + 1h π − φ@; q = 0 , 1, 2,.....
where f = net angle contribution at this zero, of all other open loop
poles and zeros. For example, consider the plot shown in figure below.


Figure 4.2: Illustration of Angle of Arrival
From the figure, we obtain

f = q2 − ^q1 + q3h
i. n
and fa = !6^2q + 1h π − φ@; q = 0 , 1, 2,.......
o
NOTE
For K # 0 , departure and arrival angles are given by
c
φD = " 7_2q + 1i π + φA
and φa = " 7_2q + 1i π − φA
i a .
d
Rule 9: Break-away and Break-in Points
o
To determine the break-away and break-in points on the root locus, we
. n
consider the following points:
w
1. A root locus plot may have more than one breakaway points.
2. Break away points may be complex conjugates in the s -plane.
3.
w w
At the break away or break-in point, the branches of the root
locus form an angle of 180c
n with the real axis, where n is the
number of closed loop poles arriving at or departing from the
single breakaway or break-in point on the real axis.
4. The breakaway and break-in points of the root locus are the
solution of
dK = 0
ds
i.e. breakaway and break in points are determined by finding
maximum and minimum points of the gain K as a function of s
with s restricted to real values.
Rule 10: Intersects of Root Locus on Imaginary Axis

Routh-Hurwitz criterion may be used to find the intersects of the root
locus on the imaginary axis.
**********

SALIENT FEATURES
EXERCIS
MCQ 4.1 Consider the sketch shown below.
i. n
. c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
The root locus can be
w
(A) (1) and (3)
(B) (2) and (3)
(C) (2) and (4)
(D) (1) and (4)
NAT 4.2 The forward-path transfer function of a ufb system is

K (s + 2)
G (s) =
(s + 3) (s2 + 2s + 2)
The angle of departure from the complex poles is !φ D ; where φ D =
______ degree
MCQ 4.3 An open-loop pole-zero plot is shown below

The general shape of the root locus is

i. n
MCQ 4.4
c o
An open-loop pole-zero plot is shown below.
.
i a
o d
. n
w w
The general shape of the root locus is

SALIENT FEATURES

MCQ 4.5 The root locus is a
(A) time-domain approach

(B) frequency domain approach
(C) combination of both
(D) none of these
NAT 4.6 A unity feedback control system has an open-loop transfer function
G (s) = K
s (s2 + 7s + 12)
The gain K for which s =− 1 + j1 will lie on the root locus of this
i. n
system is
o
______
MCQ 4.7
a
The root locus can be used to determine
. c
i
(A) the absolute stability of a system of a system
d
o
(B) the relative stability of a system
n
(C) both absolute and relative stabilities of a system
.
(D) none of these
MCQ 4.8
w w
The forward-path open-loop transfer function of a ufb system is
w
K (s2 + 1)
G (s) =
s2
The root locus of this system is

MCQ 4.9 Consider the feedback system shown below.

For this system, the root locus is
i. n
. c o
i a
o d
NAT 4.10
. n
The open loop transfer function of a system is
w
K ^s2 + 4h
G ^s h H ^s h =
s ^s + 2h
w w
The value of K at breakaway point is
______
MCQ 4.11 The root locus of the system having the loop transfer function,
G (s) H (s) = K has
s (s + 4) (s2 + 4s + 5)
(A) 3 break-away points
(B) 3 break-in points
(C) 2 break-in and 1 break-away point
(D) 2 break-away and 1 break-in point
NAT 4.12 The open loop transfer function of a system is

G ^s h H ^s h = K
^s + 1h^s + 5h
What is the value of K , so that the point s =− 3 + j5 lies on the root
locus ?
______

SALIENT FEATURES

MCQ 4.13 Consider the following statements :
Gopal/450/9.6 (P) The effect of compensating pole is to pull the root locus towards
left.
(Q) The effect of compensating zero is to press the locus towards
right.
(A) None of the above statements is true
(B) Statement (P) is true but statement (Q) is false
(C) Statement (P) is false but statement (Q) is true
(D) Both the statements are true
i. n
K (s + 6)
MCQ 4.14 For the system G (s) H (s) = , consider the following
(s + 2) (s + 4)
characteristic of the root locus :
o
1. It has one asymptote.
2. It has intersection with jw-axis.
a . c
i
3. It has two real axis intersections.
d
4. It has two zeros at infinity.
o
The root locus have characteristics
n
(A) 1 and 2
w.
(B) 1 and 3
(C) 3 and 4
w
(D) 2 and 4
MCQ 4.15
GK/98-17/90
w
If the characteristic equation of a closed-loop system is
K
s ^s + 1h^s + 2h
1+ = 0
the centroid of the asymptotes in root-locus will be

(A) zero (B) 2
(C) - 1 (D)
-2
MCQ 4.16 The characteristic equation of a closed-loop system is

s (s + 1) (s + 3) + K (s + 2) = 0, K > 0
Which of the following statements is true ?
(A) Its roots are always real
(B) It cannot have a breakaway point in the range − 1 < Re [s] < 0
(C) Two of its roots tend to infinity along the asymptotes Re [s] =− 1
(D) It may have complex roots in the right half plane.

MCQ 4.17 The open loop transfer function of a control system is

G ^s h H ^s h = Ke
−s
Anand k./373
/6.12
s ^s + 2h
For low frequencies, consider the following statements regarding the
system.
1. s = 2.73 is break-away point.
2. s =− 0.73 is break-away point.
3. s =− 0.73 is break-in point.
4. s = 2.73 is break-in point.
Which of the following is correct ?
(A) 1 and 2 (B) 3 and 4
i. n
(C) 1 and 3 (D) 2 and 4
MCQ 4.18
. c o
Consider the system with delay time ^tD h shown below.
i a
o d
. n
w
Suppose delay time tD = 1 sec . In root locus plot of the system, the
break-away and break-in points are respectively
w
(A) 0, 4.83 (B) 4.83, 0
w
(C) - 0.83 , 4.83 (D) 4.83, - 0.83
**********

SALIENT FEATURES
SOLUTION

Here, option (2) and option (3) both are not symmetric about real axis.
So, both can not be root locus.

i. n
o
Forward path transfer function of given ufb system is
K ^s + 2h
G ^s h =
. c
^s + 3h^s2 + 2s + 2h
a
i
So, we have the open loop poles and zeros as
d
zero: s =− 2
o
poles: s =− 3 and s =− 1 ! j1
. n
Therefore, we get the pole-zero plot as
w w
w
Angle of departure at pole P1 is given by

fD = !6180c + f@
where f is net angle contribution at pole P1 due to all other poles and
zeros.
f = fZ − fP
= fZ1 − 6fP2 + fP3@
where fZ1 = tan 1; fP2 = 90c; fP3 = tan−1 1
−1
2
So, f = tan−1 1 − :90c + tan−1 1 D

2
Therefore, we obtain the departure angle as
fD = !6180c + f@

= !:180c + tan−1 1 − 90c − tan−1 1 D

2
= !6180 + 45 − 90 − 26.56@
fD = ! 108.4c
Hence, departure angle for pole P1 is + 108.4c and departure angle for
pole P2 is- 108.4c because P1 and P2 are complex conjugate.

Given open loop pole-zero plot is
i. n
. c o
i a
o d
n
From the given plot, we have
.
Number of poles, P = 2
w
Number of zeros, Z = 1
w
Since, the number of branches of root locus is equal to number of poles,
so we have
w
Number of branches = 2
Thus (B) and (D) are not correct.
Again, the branch of root locus always starts from open loop pole and
ends either at an open loop zero (or) infinite. Thus, (C) is incorrect and
remaining Correct option is (A).

Root locus always starts from open loop pole, and ends at open loop
zero (or) infinite. Only option (A) satisfies this condition.
We can find the root locus of given plot as follows
Number of poles, P = 2
Number of zeros, Z = 0
So, we have number of asymptotes
P - Z = 2
Also, the angle of asymptotes is obtained as
^2q + 1h 180c
fa = ; q = 0, 1
P−Z

SALIENT FEATURES

^0 + 1h 180c
fa = = 90c; q = 0

2
^2 + 1h 180c 3 # 180c
and fa = = = 270c; q = 1
P−Z 2
Hence, we sketch the root locus plot as
i. n
. c o
i a
G _ s i = 2 K
o d
Given the open loop transfer function,
; H ^s h = 1
n
s ^s + 7s + 12h

w.
So, we have the characteristic equation
1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
or
w
or w 1+ 2 K
s ^s + 7s + 12h
= 0
s3 + 7s2 + 12s + K = 0 ...(1)

If point s =− 1 + j1 lies on root locus, then it satisfies characteristic
equation. Substituting s =− 1 + j1 in equation (1), we get
^− 1 + j h3 + 7 ^− 1 + j h2 + 12 ^− 1 + j h + K = 0
or − 10 + K = 0
So, K =+ 10

Forward path open loop transfer function of given ufb system is
K ^s2 + 1h
G ^s h =
s2
So, we obtain the zeros of the system as
s2 + 1 = 0
or s = ! j1

Also, the poles of the system are

s = 0 ; s = 0
So, we have the pole-zero plot for the system as
Hence, option (B) and (D) may not be correct option. A point on the
i. n
real axis lies on the root locus if the total number of poles and zeros
to the right of this point is odd. This is not satisfied by (C) because
o
at origin there are double pole. Thus, remaining Correct option is (A).
a . c
i
d
The given system is shown below.
n o
w.
w w
We redraw the block diagram after moving take off point as shown
below.
So, the forward path transfer function is

− K ^s + 2h
G ^s h =
^s + 1h^s + 3h

Root locus is plotted for K = 0 to K = 3. But, here the gain K

is negative. So, we will plot for K =− 3 to K = 0 . This is called
complementary root locus.
For this case, the root locus on the real axis is found to the left of an
even count of real poles and real zeros of G ^s h. Also, the plot will start
from pole and ends on zero. Only option (A) satisfies the condition for
given system.

SALIENT FEATURES

For the given system, we have the characteristic equation

1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
K ^s2 + 4h
s ^s + 2h
or 1+ = 0
^s2 + 2s h
or K =− 2
s +4
The break points of the root locus are given by solution of
dK = 0
ds
−8^s2 + 4h^2s + 2h − ^s2 + 2s h^2s hB
= 0
^s2 + 4h
or
i. n
2
or 2s2 - 8s - 8 = 0
o
or s2 - 4s - 4 = 0
c
So, s = 4.82 , - 0.82
i a .
The root locus will be on real axis at any point, if total number of poles
and zeros are odd to the right of that point.
o d
. n
w w
w
Hence, breakaway point should lie between s = 0 and - 2 . So, breakaway
point is s =− 0.82 . Now, the open loop transfer function is
G ^s h H ^s h =
K ^s2 + 4h
s ^s + 2h

So, we obtain the value of K at break-away point as

G ^s h H ^s h = 1 at s =− 0.82
K ^− 0.82h2 + 4
^− 0.82h ^− 0.82 + 2h
or = 1
or K = 0.82 # 1.18 = 0.2

4.67

Open loop transfer function for given system is
G ^s h H ^s h = K
s ^s + 4h^s2 + 4s + 5h

So, we have the characteristic equation

K
s ^s + 4h^s2 + 4s + 5h
1+ = 0

or K =− s ^s + 4h^s2 + 4s + 5h ...(1)

Differentiating the above equation with respect to s and equating it to
zero, we have
8^ h^ h ^ h^ hB
dK =− 2s + 4 s2 + 4s + 5 + s2 + 4s 2s + 4 = 0
ds
or −^2s + 4h^s2 + 4s + 5 + s2 + 4s h = 0
or −^s + 2h^2s2 + 8s + 5h = 0 ...(2)
Solving the above equation, we get
s =− 2 and s =− 0.775 , - 3.225
Now, we check for maxima and minima value of gain K at above point.
If gain is maximum, then that point will be break away point. If gain is
minimum, then that point will be break in point. Again, differentiating
i. n
equation (2) with respect to s , we get
6^ h ^ h^
d 2 K =− 2s2 + 8s + 5 + s + 2 4s + 8
h@
o

ds2
=−^6s + 24s + 21h
c
2

.
For s =− 0.775 and s =− 3.225 , we have
i a
d 2 K =− 6.0 < 0
ds2
o d
So, the points s =− 0.775 and - 3.225 are maxima points. Hence, s
=− 0.775 and s =− 3.225 are break away points. Again, for s =− 2 ,
we have
. n
w
d 2 K =+ 3 > 0
ds2
w
So, the point s =− 2 is minima points. Hence, s =− 2 is break in point.
Thus, there is two break away points ^s =− .0775, − 3.225h and one
w
break in point (s =− 2).

First we check if point lies on root locus. For this, we use angle criterion
G ^s h H ^s h s = s = ! 180
0
Since, we have
G ^s h H ^s h s =− 3 + j5 = K
^− 3 + j5 + 1h^− 3 + j5 + 5h

K
^− 2 + j5h^2 + j5h
=
So, G ^s h H ^s h s =− 3 + j5 =− tan−1 b 5 l − tan−1 b 5 l

−2 2
=− 180c + tan−1 5 − tan−1 5

2 2
=− 180c
i.e. the given point satisfies angle criterion. Now, using magnitude
condition, we have

SALIENT FEATURES

G ^s h H ^s h s =− 3 + j5 = 1
K
^ 5h^2 + j5h
or = 1
− 2 + j
or K = 1
4 + 25 4 + 25
Thus, K = 29

The effect of compensating pole is to pull the root locus towards right
half of s -plane. The effect of compensating zero is to pull the root locus
i. n
towards left half of s -plane.
o
. c
Given the open loop transfer function,
K ^s + 6h
a
G ^s h H ^s h =
i
^s + 2h^s + 4h

o
Poles : s =− 2 and s =− 4
d
So, we have the open loop poles and zeros as
.
Zeros : s =− 6
n
w
Therefore, the number of asymptotes is
P - Z = 2 − 1 = 1
w
So, the characteristic (1) is correct.
w
Now, we have the characteristic equation for the system
^s + 2h^s + 4h + K ^s + 6h = 0
or s2 + ^6 + K h s + 8 + 6K = 0
For the characteristic equation, we form the Routh’s array as
s2 1 8 + 6K
s1 6+K
s0 8 + 6K
Root locus is plotted for K = 0 to 3. i.e. K > 0 .

Here, for K > 0 root locus does not intersect jw axis because s1 row
will not be zero. Thus, characteristic (2) is incorrect.
For the given system, we have two poles and one zero. So, one imaginary
zero lies on infinite. Therefore, the characteristic (4) is incorrect.
Hence, (B) must be correct option. But, we check further for characteristic
(3) as follows. We sketch the root locus for given system as


It has two real axis intersections. So, characteristic (3) is correct.

The given characteristic equation is
K
i. n
s ^s + 1h^s + 2h
1+ = 0
or 1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
o
So, the open loop transfer function is
G ^s h H ^s h =
. c
K
s ^s + 1h^s + 2h

The centroid sA is,
i a
d
^0 − 1 − 2h − ^0h
o
sA = =− 1
3−0
. n
w
Characteristic equation of the given closed loop system is
w
s ^s + 1h^s + 3h + K ^s + 2h = 0 ; K > 0
K ^s + 2h
or
w 1+
s ^s + 1h^s + 3h
= 0
So, the open loop transfer function is given as

K ^s + 2h
G ^s h H ^s h =
s ^s + 1h^s + 3h

Therefore, we have the open loop poles and zeros as

poles: s = 0 , s =− 1, s =− 3
zero: s =− 2
So, we obtain the pole zero plot for the system as
For the pole-zero location, we obtain the following characteristic of

root locus

SALIENT FEATURES

Number of asymptotes:
P - Z = 3 − 1 = 2
Angles of asymptotes:
^2q + 1h 180c
fa = ; P − Z = 2, q = 0, 1
P−Z
fa = 90c and 270c
Sum of Re 6P @ − Sum of Re 6Z @
Centroid: sA =
P−Z
^0 − 1 − 3h − ^− 2h
=
=− 2
3−1 2
=− 1
i. n
Thus, from above analysis, we sketch the root locus as
. c o
i a
o d
. n
w
For the root locus, we conclude the following points
w
1. The break away point lies in the range,
− 1 < Re 6s @ < 0
w
2. Two of its roots tends to infinite along the asymptotes Re 6s @ =− 1
.
3. Root locus lies only in left half of s -plane.

For low frequencies, we have
e-s . 1 - s
So, the open loop transfer function is
K ^1 − s h − K ^s − 1h
G ^s h H ^s h =
s ^s + 2h s ^s + 2h
=
K ^1 − s h
G ^s h H ^s h =
s ^s + 2h
or =1
s ^s + 2h
or K =
1−s
The break points are given by solution of
dK = 0
ds

d s ^s + 2h = 0
ds ; 1 − s E

or
or ^1 − s h^2s + 2h − s ^s + 2h^− 1h = 0
or s2 - 2s - 2 = 0
Therefore, the break points are
s = + 2 ! 4 + 8 = 1 ! 3
2
= 2.73, − 0.73 or - 0.73
Since, G ^s h H ^s h is negative, so the root locus will be complementary
root locus and will exist at any point on the real axis, if the total
number of poles and zeros to the right of that point is even.
i. n
. c o
i a
Root locus will exist on real axis between s =− 2 and 0 and also for
d
s > + 1. Hence, break away point will be s =− 0.73 and break in point
o
will be s =+ 2.73
. n
w w
w
For delay time tD = 1 sec , the characteristic equation of the system is
−s
1 + Ke = 0 ; K $ 0
s
Now, we have the approximation
1 − s/2 2 − s
e-s , =
1 + s/2 2 + s
So, the characteristic equation becomes
K ^s − 2h
s ^s + 2h
1− = 0 ...(1)
Therefore, the open loop transfer function is

SALIENT FEATURES

− K ^s − 2h
G ^s h H ^s h =
s ^s + 2h
Since, G ^s h H ^s h is negative, so the root locus will be complementary

root locus and will exist at any point on the real axis, if the total
number of poles and zeros to the right of that point is even.
So, the root locus (complementary) for the given system will exist on
i. n
real axis in the region
− 2 < s < 0 and s > 2
o
The break points of the system are given by solution of
. c
dK = 0 ...(2)
ds
From equation (1), we have
i a
s ^s + 2h

o d
K =
^s − 2h
. n
Substituting it in equation (2), we get
d s ^s + 2h = 0
ds > ^s − 2h H
^s − 2h^2s + 2h − s ^s + 2h = 0
w
or
w
or 2s2 - 2s - 4 - s2 - 2s = 0
or s2 - 4s - 4 = 0
So, s = 4 ! 5.657 = 4.83, − 0.83
2
Hence, break away point is s =− 0.83 and beak in point is s = 4.83 .
**********


General Aptitude (PDFDrive)

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Unit 1 English Grammar

1.2 Common Noun 1

2.2 Personal Pronoun 6

2.3 Reflexive Pronoun 7

2.4 Demonstrative pronoun 7

2.5 Indefinite pronouns 7

2.6 Distributive pronouns 8

2.7 Relative pronouns 8

2.8 Interrogative pronouns 9

3.2 Transitive and intransitive verb 12

3.5 Modal and auxiliary verb 15

4.2 Kinds of adverb 21

4.3 Uses of Adverb 21

5.2 Uses of Adjective 25

5.3 Kinds of adjective 25

6.2 Kinds of Preposition 30

6.3 Uses of Preposition 30

7.2 Coordinating Conjunctions 34

7.3 Subordinating Conjunctions 34

7.5 Uses of Conjunction 35

8.2 Use of A and An 39

8.3 Use of The 39

9.2 Active Voice 40

9.4 Active-Passive Conversion Process 40

10.2 Direct and indirect speech 43

10.3 Conversion of direct speech into indirect speech 43

Unit 2 Verbal Ability

Chapter 1 Critical Reasoning and Verbal Deduction 1

Chapter 4 Rearrangement of Jumbled Phrases 21

Chapter 5 Rearrangement of Jumbled Sentences 30

Chapter 6 Spotting the Errors 44

Chapter 7 Sentence Completion 62

Chapter 8 Sentence Improvement 92

Chapter 9 Spelling 102

Chapter 10 Synonyms 108

Chapter 11 Antonym 137

Chapter 12 Odd Word Out 158

Chapter 13 One Word for Many 163

Chapter 14 Verbal Analogies 168

Unit 3 Numerical Ability

Chapter 1 Number System 1

Chapter 2 Number Series 15

Chapter 3 LCM and HCF 28

Chapter 6 Power and Roots 68

Chapter 8 Ratio & Proportion 85

Chapter 9 Mixture and Allegation 102

Chapter 10 Profit Loss and Discount 117

Chapter 11 Interest 132

Chapter 13 Clock & Calender 158

Chapter 14 Time and Work 169

Chapter 15 Time and Distance 186

Chapter 16 Train & Boat 200

Chapter 17 Pipe and Cisterns 217

Chapter 18 Height, Distance, & Direction 230

Chapter 19 Areas & Volumes 249

Chapter 20 Algebra 265

Chapter 21 Coordinate Geometry 280