GOVERNMENT OF KERALA

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL
EDUCATION
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
MEENANGADI – WAYANAD
[DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING]

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

2022-2023
PRESENTED BY
GROUP-4
 GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
MEENANGADI WAYANAD
[DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING]

This is to certify that the record of ‘INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT’ has done by AHAMMED
NAJAH,IBRAHIM SAFWAN,MUHAMMED TAMIM,MUHSINA KP,NISHANA FATHIMA
P,RIYA FEBIN,SEBASTIAN RODRIGUES,SHABANA SHERIN M,TK AHAMMED
NIYAS,SULFICKER PN 3rd year students of CIVIL ENGINEERING under the DIRECTORATE OF
TECHNICAL EDUCATION, Government of kerala during the accademic year 2022-2023 under the
guidance at Govt. polytechnic college Meenangadi.

Staff in charge Head of the department

External examiner Internal Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us a great pleasure to present the report of the industrial training during 19.09.2022 to
26.09.2022 under SALMIA BUILDERS,PERUMBAVOOR,ERANAKULAM.We owe a special debate
of gratitude of Mr.Jhony( A E O Of SALMIA BUILDERS)for his support and guidance through out the
training period.

We also take the opportunity to acknowledged Mr. Favas (site engineer of SALMIA
BUILDERS) for their kind assistance and co-operation during the kind period.

We would like to thanks to Ms.Divya nath. Our HOD of Civil Department in government
polytechnic college, Meenangadi for her support and guidance.Her sincerity,throughness and
perseverance have been a constant source of inspiration for us.

We also take the opportunity to acknowledge Mr.Vipin -lecturer of department of civil

engineering for their guidance for prepatring this report.

Last but least,we would like to thank all department faculity members for their assistance for
preparing this report.and also thanks to our friends for their contribution during the completion of report.
 INTRODUCTION
A short term Industrial Training intended to expose the students to emerging technology and
knowledge which is required in construction industry. This cannot be obtained from the classroom.
Industrial Training also enable student to find place application of theories thought in classes. It is very
much important for upcoming engineers to get a feel of working environment and Industrial Training is
thus a necessity. Industrial Training makes the students real professionals who can skilfully interact with
industrial coleus. Industrial Training should also make up a good attitude towards amongst the newly
budding engineers.
 NEED AND SCOPE

Industrial Training is an opening for new comers in the construction area to directly take part in
the activate course of construction. Theoretical knowledge about construction only forms a base for the
practice and hence there is much of an importance for physical session, planning, designing and
construction. Producers require a training prior to actual work thus their less a wide scope for industrial
training where the building engineers are directly exposed to work.
 GROUP MEMBERS

SL ROLL
NO NO NAME OF STUDENT REGISTER NO

1 8 AHAMMED NAJAH 20010548

2 31 IBRAHIM SAFWAN 20010575
3 36 MUHAMMED TAMIM 20010580
4 37 MUHSINA K.P 20010581
5 39 NISHANA FATHIMA P 20010583
6 41 RIYA FEBIN K.K 20010585
7 59 SEBASTIAN RODRIGUES 20011303
8 46 SHABANA SHERIN M 20010591
9 54 TK AHAMMED NIYAS 20010599
10 61 SULFICKEER P.N 20013326
TABLE OF CONTENT
 LIST OF NOTATIONS
1 % Percentage

2 sqm Square meter

3 RB-1 Residential building-1

4 RB-2 Residential building-2

5 CB-1 Commercial building-1

6 ltr litre

7 W/C Wate closet

 LIST OF FIGURES

1. Fig 1.5.1-load transfer diagram

2. Fig 1.7.2.2-a)wall footing
3. Fig 1.7.2.2-b)grillage foundation
4. Fig 1.7.2.2-d) Some types of combined foundations
5. Fig 1.7.2.2-e)cantilever foundation
6. Fig 1.7.2.2-f)continues foundation
7. Fig 1.7.2.2-g) raft foundation
8. Fig 3.3.1 Model of the residential building
9. Fig 3.3.2 Model of the residential building
10. Fig 3.4.1 RCC Plan
11. Fig 3.4.2 RCC Plan
12. Fig 3.5.1 Elevation of the residential building
13. Fig 3.6.1 Waterproofing
14. Fig 3.6.2 Waterproofing
15. Fig 3.7.1 Beams
16. Fig 3.7.2 Beams
17. Fig 3.10.1 Steel works
18. Fig 3.10.2 Window
19. Fig 3.10.3 Door attached to the window
20. Fig 3.11.1 Steel roofing
21. Fig 3.12.1 Errors in the structure
22. Fig 3.12.2 Errors in the structure
23. Fig 4.1.1-Images during the construction proposed CB-1
24. Fig 4.2.1-Location Map of CB-1
25. Fig 4.3.1-ground floor plan of CB-1
26. Fig 4.3.2-first floor plan of CB-1
27. Fig 4.3.3-second floor plan of CB-1
28. Fig 4.3.4-dervice plan of CB-1
29. Fig 4.3.5-plan of solid waste pit and composite pit of CB-1
30. Fig 4.3.6-rainwater harvesting 7600 ltr capacity of CB-1
31. Fig 4.3.7-plan of septic tank of CB-1
 LIST OF TABLE

1. Table 4.1.1 CB-1 Details

2. Table 4.5.1-Parking availability of CB-1
3. Table 4.6.1 Sanitation availability of CB-1
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION SECTION

1.1GENERAL
Construction is the major activity of civil engineering which is continuously improving. As land
cost is going up there is demand for tall structures in urban areas while in rural areas need is for low
constructions. One has to develop technology using locally available materials. Load acting on a structure
is ultimately transferred to ground. In doing so, various components of the structure are subjected to
internal stresses. For example, in a building, load acting on a slab is transferred by slab to ground through
beams, columns and footings. Assessing the internal stresses in the components of a structure is known as
structural analysis and finding the suitable size of the structural components is known as design of
structure.

1.1 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION STEPS

1.1.1 SPECIFY THE PROJECT TARGET
Each project has a specific target and use such as schools, offices, commercial buildings,
residential buildings, roads, bridges, dams …etc. At the beginning of any project must locate the building
site and utilities such as water supply, electrical power and sewage drain lines…etc. Any project must
have a budget, which play an important role in design and construction.
1.1.2 PROJECT REQUIREMENTS
After specify the idea, target and uses of any project, project documents must be prepared which
include different activities such as necessary information about costs, construction time, construction
materials to prepare the preliminary design and specifications.
1.1.3 ENGINEERING DESIGN
It means all architectural, civil, electrical, mechanical…etc. drawings which include: site plan,
buildings plans and details. The drawings must be satisfy the specifications and codes and depend upon
soil investigation report to ( Limit type of soil and soil bearing capacity to choose the appropriate
foundation type ), forms of contract, the bill of quantities for each item and schedule which include all the
work categories and the execution time.
1.1.4 EXECUTION OF PROJECT
The construction and execution of any building demand a contract form such as direct execution…etc.
and many steps must be achieved after the construction documents were complete. The first step in the

construction process is the application for the a building permit, then is all plans and details are submitted
to the building department where they are reviewed for compliance with local zoning

ordinances and building codes, when the review is complete, a permit for construction is issued. 2
Preparation of the building site for construction include, cleaning the site and extending utilities such as
water, electrical power and sewage drain to the building.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN AND DETAILING

Every structure must be designed to satisfy three basic requirements;
1) Stability to prevent overturning, sliding or buckling of the structure, or parts of it, under the action of
loads.
2) Strengths to resist safely the stresses induced by the loads in the various structural members.
3) Serviceability to ensure satisfactory performance under service load conditions – which implies
providing adequate stiffness to contain deflections , crackwidths and vibrations within acceptable limits ,
and also providing impermeability , durability etc.
A good structural design often involving elaborate computations is a worthwhile exercise if only
it is followed by good detailing and construction practices. In normal design practices it is often seen that
analysis of structures for stress resultants and design of individual members (critical sections of beams,
slabs and columns) for maximum load effects(bending moments, shear, torsion and axial forces) are done
regularly with insufficient attention given to supposedly lesser important aspects e.g. termination,
extending and bending of bars, anchorage and development, stirrup anchorage, splices, construction
details at joints or connections (slab-beam, beam-column etc.), provision of continuity and discontinuity
at connection of members , construction sequencing and reinforcement placement, deflection calculations
and control, crack control, cover to reinforcement ,creep and shrinkage etc. The factors as enumerated
above are very critical from the point of view of a successful structure and needs to be fairly assessed with
sufficient accuracy and spelt out in detail through various drawings and specifications by the designer so
that the construction of the structure can be handled by the site engineer.
A good building needs the following requirements:
• Good design
• Suitable construction materials
• Good execution
• Materials quality control and used modern methods of execution
1.3 DESIGN CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS
Buildings must be designed and constructed according to the provisions of a building code, which
is a legal document containing requirements related to such things as structural safety, fire safety,
plumbing, ventilation, and accessibility to the physically disabled. A building code has the force of law
and is administered by a governmental entity such as a city, a county, or for some large metropolitan areas,
a consolidated government. Building codes do not give design procedures, but specify the design
requirements and constraints that must be satisfied. Of particular importance to the structural engineer is
the prescription of minimum live loads for buildings. While the engineer is encouraged to investigate the
actual loading conditions and attempt to determine realistic values, the structure must be able to support
these specified minimum loads.

1.4 DESIGN PROCESS

Design of any structure needs the following aspects to be covered:-
1- Requires a fundamental knowledge of material properties and mechanics.
2- Requires knowledge of various types of structural forms and configurations
3- Calculation of loads and load effects acting on the structure as a deflections.
4- Knowledge of structural analysis to calculate design forces.
5- Requires knowledge of designing structural members and connections
6- Ability to evaluate designs and consider other options.

1.4 TYPES OF LOADS

1- Dead loads.
2- Live loads.
3- Wind loads.
4- Snow loads.
5- Earthquake loads.

1.5 LOAD TRANSFER

Loads can be transferred from one element to another as shown in figure from slabs to beams to
columns to footings.
 Fig 1.5.1-load transfer diagram

1.6 DIFFERENT METHODS OF DESIGN

Over the years, various design philosophies have evolved in different parts of the world, with
regard to reinforced concrete design. A design philosophy is built upon a few fundamental assumptions
and is reflective of a way of thinking.

1.6.1 WORKING STRESS METHOD

The earliest codified design philosophy is that of working stress method of design (WSM). Close
to a hundred years old, this traditional method of design, based on linear elastic theory is still surviving in
a number of countries. In WSM it is assumed that structural material e.g. concrete and steel behave in
linearly elastic manner and adequate safety can be ensured by restricting the stresses in the material
induced by working loads (service loads) on the structure. As the specified permissible (allowable) stresses
are kept well below the material strength, the assumption of linear elastic behavior considered justifiable.
The ratio of the strength of the material to the permissible stress is often referred to as the factor of safety.
While applying WSM the stresses under applied loads are analysed by ‘simple bending theory’ where
strain compatibility is assumed(due to bond between concrete and steel).
1.6.2 ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD
With the growing realization of the shortcomings of WSM in reinforced concrete design, and with
increased understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete at ultimate loads, the ultimate load method
of design (ULM) evolved in the 1950s and became an alternative to WSM. This method is sometimes also
referred to as the load factor method or the ultimate strength method. In this method, the stress condition
at the state of impending collapse of the structure is analysed, and the nonlinear stress-strain curve of
concrete and steel are made use of the concept of ‘modular ratio’ and its associated problems are avoided.
The safety measure in the design is introduced by an appropriate choice of the load factor, defined as the
ratio of the ultimate load(design load) to the working load. This method 4 generally results in more slender
sections, and often more economical design of beams and columns (compared to WSM), particularly when
high strength reinforcing steel and concrete are used.

1.6.3 LIMIT STATE METHOD

The philosophy of the limit state method of design (LSM) represents a definite advancement over
the traditional WSM (based on service load conditions alone) and ULM (based on ultimate load conditions
alone). LSM aims for a comprehensive and rational solution to the design problem, by considering safety
at ultimate loads and serviceability at working loads. The LSM uses a multiple safetyfactor format which
attempts to provide adequate safety at ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability at service loads by
considering all possible ‘limit states’.

1.7 MAIN STEPS IN CONSTRUCTION OF A BUILDING

1.7.1 EARTHWORKS
Each construction project has a specific earthwork which classified to two types:
1.7.1.1 Excavations
1.7.1.2. Earth filling
1.7.1.1.EXCAVATION
Excavation works include foundations, basements, trenches…etc. Excavation down by hand or
mechanically or both together depend on many factors such as soil conditions, shape of cut section, ground
water and time required to complete the job.

• Hand excavation: It’s done by using simple tools. This type of excavation can be used for small
job such as continuous wall foundation, isolated foundation, short trenches, and shallow combined
foundation and also to complete the excavation done mechanically to reach the proper
 level. Hand excavations don’t used with rock soil. The soil carted away to a tip. If the soil is inert
it could be spread over low levels on the site, while the big quantities carry out of the site. During
excavation, a path of 70-100cm wide between sides of pits and removal soil must be left to allow
the concrete works to be easy done.
Sides of trenches and pits are important to be stable to keep the workers and concrete safe and these
depend on:
a. Type of soil
b. Water ground and its movement
c. Deep of excavation
d. Loads
• 1.2 Mechanical excavation: This type of excavation used for big quantity and when all soil carries
away from the site and when the time plays important role to complete the job. A popular machine
is the industrial tractor with shovel, backacter or blade attachment. This can deal with most
earthmoving operations on site and bucket sizes can be changed at will. Care must be taken not to
over- excavate as the earth will have to be replaced with weak concrete.

1.7.1.2.EARTH FILLING

All buildings need refilling to refill for example sides of foundations, trenches and floor to reach
proper level. This involves demolition, if any, the removal of rubbish and waste to 15cm depth of topsoil
to reach the good and clean soil. All filling shall be deposited in layers, not exceeding 20 cm. loose depths.
In the general, the contractor shall mix fertilizer into the top layer and then sow the grass seed and lightly
compact. For landscaping and planting only grass plants, bushes and trees which are known to thrive in
the soil and climatic conditions of the site are to be used. The planting is to be carried out in well prepared
ground, watering, 8 rolling, racking, fertilizing, protection, etc.. is to be carried out where necessary to
ensure that the landscaping scheme is successful. For roads yards and parking areas, all filling up to
underside of the Sub- base shall be of a material suitable for rolling compaction and have as low capillary
pressure as possible. Filling shall be in layers not exceeding 20cm. If the work is of lesser extent lighter
rollers may be permitted if the thickness of the layers is brought down. All timbering and rubbish shall be
removed from the excavation prior to back filling and no soft clay or mud will be permitted as filling.
Backfilling shall not commence without the approval of the Engineer. Backfilling shall generally consist
of excavated material excluding upper layers of top soil. Back-fill shall be placed and compacted in 0.20m.
Horizontal layers to achieve a proper field dry density. Mechanical tamping
may be necessary to achieve the required density but no extra will be paid to the contractor on this account.
Material for refilling around buildings and other zones may consist of excavated material but

no rubbish material to be permitted. Refilling for ground floor slabs shall be compacted. Material which
is either classified as unsuitable or not required shall be used as directly by the engineer or where shown
on drawings.

1.7.2 FOUNDATIONS
The foundations of buildings bear on and transmit loads to the ground. Foundation can be built in
various types of material. Generally bricks, stones, concrete, steel…etc, and are used in different forms
for construction the foundation of building. The foundation is that part of walls, piers and columns in
direct contact to with and transmitting loads to the ground. In practice, the concrete base of walls, piers
and columns is described as the foundation.

1.7.2.1 DEPTH OF FOUNDATION

Depth of foundation influenced by the following factors:

1. Types of soils and its layer which can carry loads of building.
2. Climate situation and how to avoid the affect of freeze and extension and contraction, so the foundation
must be not less than 30cm depth to avoid these affects.
3. Groundwater level and how to construct foundation above water table level
4. Foundation location on the building and if there is basement, shelter, car park …etc. in the building. 5.
Existing building foundation close to new foundation..
6. Underground services and their relationship with the depth of foundation. 7. Provision of existing trees.

1.7.2.2 TYPES OF FOUNDATION

a. Wall footing: It uses to carry applied loads that transfer through bearing wall. A footing may have a
base course of concrete or may be entirely built up of one material (bricks or stones). Bearing wall transfer
applied loads to footing at angle equal to 45° which causes shear stresses, so the width of footing with
thickness ( Y ) equal ( X+2Y ) where X is the wall thickness ( Fig. 3-1 A ), where the minimum value of
Y is 15cm for ordinary concrete footing and 20cm for reinforced concrete footing.
 Fig 1.7.2.2-a)wall footing

b. Strip Footing: It consist of a continuous, longitudinal strip of concrete designed to spread the load from
uniformly loaded walls of brick, masonry or concrete to sufficient area of subsoil. The spread of the strip
depends on foundation loads and the bearing capacity and shear strength of the subsoil. The thickness of
the foundation depends on the strength of the foundation material. Strip foundation with a wide spread
are commonly of ordinary or reinforced concrete.

The strip footing is so constructed to the following:

• Save time compare with other foundations.
• To play as damper for ground water movement and water proof for vertical movement of damp.
• Work as deep girder to prevent differential settlement and bending moment at the openings of large
doors and windows.
c. Isolated Foundation: The foundation which receives concentrated loads from one column or pier and
transmits the load to the ground. The footing shape is square or rectangular depend on the column shape
to resist the applied bending moment. The isolated foundation is made from ordinary or reinforcement
concrete, timber section for temporary structure and from steel section and called grillage foundation. The
area of this type of foundation depends on the loads on the foundation and the bearing and shear strength
of the subsoil and its thickness on the strength of the foundation material. Tie beams in one or both
directions may be added to the isolated foundation to avoid differential settlement.

Fig 1.7.2.2-b) grillage foundation

d. Combined Foundation: Where there is a wide spread of pad foundation to a framed building due to the
low bearing capacity of the subsoil or the close spacing of columns, such that the edge of adjacent separate
foundations would be close together, it may be economical and convenient to form one continuous
foundation . Combined foundation receives concentrated loads from two columns. The footing shape is
rectangular if columns loads are equal and take trapezoidal shape if the loads are unequal or one of the
columns close to the site boundary.
 Fig 1.7.2.2-d) Some types of combined foundations

e. Cantilever Foundation: Where a framed building is to be erected alongside an existing building it is

often necessary to use a cantilever foundation for the columns next to the existing building, so that pressure
on the subsoil due to the base may not so heavily surcharge the subsoil under the foundation of the existing
building as to cause it to appreciably.

Fig 1.7.2.2-e) cantilever foundation

f. Continuous Foundation: It receives concentrated loads from more than two columns at the same axis.
The footing shape is rectangular with constant width and length equal the sum of all length between
centers of columns plus convenient length at either edges or one of them where the other is close to the
site boundary. Soil pressure is the main factor for design continuous foundation, in spite the pressure under
columns is more than the pressure away from columns and this affect on compact soil, so it is necessary
to use tie beam.

Fig 1.7.2.2-f) continues foundation

g. Raft Foundation: Raft foundations consist of a raft reinforced concrete under the whole of the building
designed to transmit the load of building to the subsoil below the raft. Raft foundations are used for
buildings on compressible ground such as very soft clays, alluvial deposits and compressible fill material
where strip foundations would not provide a stable foundation.

Fig 1.7.2.2-g) raft foundation

 • h. Piles: This is an element of construction placed in the ground either vertically or slightly inclined
to:
• Increase the load carrying capacity of the soil.
• Support the layer of subsoil subject to side force
• Compact the subsoil
The reasons for use piles as foundations are:
• When the soil is poor and cannot carry the load with other types of foundation.
• When the soil is clay and has seasonal shrinkage and swell according to the moisture
content and ground water movement.
• When the structure construct above water like water intake.
• When we cannot excavate deep because of the existing building foundation close to
new building.
• When we need to equilibrium to tensile or lateral forces then the piles called (anchor
piles) when it is vertical and (batter piles) when it is with slope.
• For earthquake region .
• When ground water not deep from natural ground level.
• When it need to support existing building foundation by used jacked piles.
• When it need to support side pressure like soil or water by used sheet piles.

Classification of piles: Piles can be classified according to:

1. The method it transmit load to subsoil, then it classified to:
a. Friction pile: These are designed to transmit the loads by the frictional force existing between the sides
of the pile and the ground.
b. Bearing pile: These are transmitting the super-imposed load to stronger strata below.
c. Combine work pile: These are transmitting the loads by the frictional force and carry stronger strata
below. Most of the piles designed like this type.
2. Material used:
a. Wooden piles: Usually timber trees are used as piles after bark and the branches are removed
Chemical preservation or mechanical protection is commonly provided as a treatment of wooden piles.
Advantages of wooden piles:
i. They are less expensive as most of the timber available can be used after suitable treatment.
ii. They can be made in longer lengths by joining the individual pieces easily.
iii. Cutting of these piles is very easy.
iv. They can be driven quickly and with lighter machinery.
Disadvantages:
i. They deteriorate by the action of water or insects.
ii. They have a lesser load bearing capacity.
iii. Whenever long piles are to be driven, it if necessary to join a number of small individual units and this
entails lot of joining work and the cost is high.
b. Concrete piles:
Concrete piles can be broadly classified into two types:
i. Precast concrete piles: These are cast at a suitable place, cured and afterwards driven like a timber piles.
ii. Cast-in-situ piles: These are cast at the place where they have to rest finally. They may have a casting
which also remains intact.
c. Steel Piles: Steel pile may be of I-section or hollow pipe. Because of a small sectional area, steel piles
are easy to drive. The pipes are driven with open ends. Compressed air may be used to drive out the soil
within the pipe and thus facilitate driving. These pipes are filled with concrete. Steel piles are mostly used
as bearing piles because of their less available surface area to take the loads by frictional forces.

1.7.3 CONCRETE WORKS

The concrete contains blocks of natural stone is made by mixing cement, sand, gravel and water.
That the active substance in the mixture is the cement which binds physically and chemically with water
and solidifies.
1.7.3.1 COMPONENTSOF CONCRETE
1. Cement: Portland cement is manufactured from limestone and clay which are ground together with
water to form slurry. This is then dried and burnt at high temperature after which it is ground to a fine
powder.
2. Aggregates: The type and quality of aggregates, which make up the bulk of concrete, vary according to
the purpose. The size, shape, grain, density and grading of aggregate all affect the workability of the
concrete. They also affect its strength. Aggregate used in concrete classified to fine and coarse aggregate.
3. Water: Mixing water should be clean and free from acids, vegetable or deleterious matter. Normally it
should be fit for drinking. 4. Admixtures: They are used in concrete to get especial properties.

1.7.3.2 MIXING
Hand mixing is used where only small quantities of concrete are needed. It should be carried out
on a clean hard surface or platform to prevent soil contamination. The cement, sand and coarse aggregate
must be thoroughly mixed before water added. The amount of water must given a good

workable mix but the slump should not normally exceed 50mm. Water should be added from a watering
can through a rose and mixing continued with shovels or hoes until a uniform colure is obtained. Hand
mixing must only be used for non-structural concrete. 32 Concrete mixers are in wide use today even in
for jobbing or maintenance work. For small-scale concreting, gauge boxes with bottoms are filled and
tipped into the mixer drum as it revolves, the boxes being counted as they are tipped in. larger mixers have
loading skips at ground level which are loaded with dry materials as required, then lifted mechanically
and tipped into the drum and water is added as necessary. Bottomless gauge boxes placed in the skip can
be used for measuring in this case. Some machines, termed weigh batchers, have dials which record the
weight of these measured materials. This is done before the mixing starts thus eliminating any further
need for boxes throughout the day. Measured materials should be weighed and dials reset daily.

1.7.3.3 CURING OF CONCRETE

Main methods of curing are;
• Spreading with water
• Submerged in water
• Covered with wet soil or sand
• Covered with plastic sheets
• Covered with wet clothes
• Paint with chemical materials
• Steam curing

1.7.4 BRICKWORK
The bricks of the oldest building materials known to and used by humans. As are used clay in
primitive buildings, and clay are cut and dried in a lump and potteries. The man used bricks to the
availability of clay material in nature and ease of manufacture and used in construction.
1.7.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS
Bricks can be classified by different methods:
1. According to the raw materials:
a. Clay bricks
b. Sand lime bricks
c. Concrete bricks
d. Glass bricks

2. According to the shape:

a. Solid
b. Perforate
c. Hollow
d. Cellular
e. Bricks with openings

1.7.4.2 FACTORS EFFECTING THE STABILITY OF A BRICK BUILDING

• Vertical loads
• Binding is not good enough, which makes the wall subjected to failures when downloading any
weight .
• The side pushing.

1.7.4.3 BRICK WALL CLASSIFICATION

Brick walls may be classified according to:
1. Construction design:
a. Bearing walls: which are built to transfer loads to the soil as in the light building like houses, schools
and others. These walls constructed for buildings with one or two floors and rarely three floors. Its
thickness variables between 24-36 cm.
b. Non bearing walls: built to bear its weight only. It is divided the internal space in light buildings as well
as heavy buildings. They should be of thickness 24cm for external one and 12 cm for internal one and in
some cases the thickness 7cm.
c. Retaining walls: design to resist lateral forces of the output of the dust materials as water in dams and
other hydraulic structures. Short wall is one type of retaining walls which has a little height less than 1m
to support the fill soil, which is used in walkways around the buildings and gardens.
2. Density design:
a. Solid walls: This constructed without any voids between bricks.
b. Hollow or cavity walls: This constructed with hollow according to the desire to improve one of the
followings:
i. Thermal isolation by leave the hollow or fill it with isolated material
ii. Bearing capacity by fill the hollow with reinforcement concrete Or to allow the engineer to use
the hollow as service duct.

1.7.4 STONE MASONRY

 Stone masonry is used for the construction of walls, columns, lintels, arches, beams, etc., of a
building. Stones are abundantly available in nature and when cut and dressed to proper shapes, they
provide an economical material for the construction of various parts of building.
Materials used for stone masonry: The materials used for masonry are stone and mortar.
1.7.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF STONE
The natural stones used in building can be classified to their origin as:
1. Igneous: The igneous stone principally used in building is granite, which was formed from the
fusion of minerals under great heat below the earth’s surface many thousands of years ago.
2. Sedimentary: It was formed gradually over thousands of years from particle of calcium
carbonate or sand deposited by settlement in bodies of water. Gradually layer upon layer of particles of
lime or sand settled into depression in the earth’s surface and in course of time these layers of lime or sand
particles became compacted by the water or earth above them.
3. Metamorphic: Those that have been changed from igneous or sedimentary stone or from earth
into metamorphic stone by pressure, or heat, or both in the earth’s crust. Example are marble which was
formed from limestone and slate and shale formed from clay.
The common types of stones available are:
1. Granite: It consists of grains of quartz in combination with felspar and mica. These are the hardest types
of stones and difficult to work with. They are available in various colors ranging from white to green.
These are used for the construction of steps, walls, sills and as facing over other masonry.
2. Sandstone: They are made of quartz cemented by a matrix of silica. They also contain mica, felspar and
oxides of iron. The colors of sandstones are due to the presence other minerals in them. They can be
worked easily to take any ornamental shape. Their texture being coarse, they give a good appearance when
used along with brick masonry. Colored sandstones are used in the face work of building to give
architectural treatment. They are used for walls, columns, facing, steps, flooring, etc.
3. Limestone: These are calcareous rocks and consist of carbonate of lime. They are available in various
colors and easy to work with. They are used for walls, floors, steps, etc.
4. Marbles: They are like limestone, are calcareous rocks and consist and consist of carbonate of lime.
They are very useful material for flooring and monumental structures. Marble are available in various
colors and can very good polish. 5. Slates: These are available in hilly areas and are metamorphic rocks.
Generally they have a black color. Slates can be split in thin sheets along their bedding planes. They
mostly used for roofing work. The properties of stones: The proprieties of stones which are important for
stone masonry are strength and durability. Economy and appearance are additional requirements. The
main considerations for durability are the lasting qualities of the stone itself and the locality where it is

to be used. Porous stones are unsuitable for areas prone to heavy rainfall and frost. Stones, e.g. marbles
having low porosity and low coefficients of expansion and contraction should be used in areas subjected
to large variations in rainfall and temperatures. Generally lime and cement mortars are used for stone
masonry. Their function is to provide a workable matrix and ultimately a hard building material, which
renders masonry into a monolithic unit.
1.7.4.2 TYPES OF STONE MASONRY
Masonry can be classified according to the thickness of joints, continuity of courses and finish of
face. Broadly speaking there are two types of stone masonry, namely:
1. Rubble masonry: This consists of blocks of stones either undressed or roughly dressed and having wider
joints.
a. Random rubble:
i. Uncoursed
ii. Coursed

b. Squared rubble
i. Uncoursed
ii. Coursed
iii. Built to regular courses

2. Ashlar masonry: This built of stones carefully dressed and has narrow joints.

1.7.4.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF STONE

MASONRY
• The stone used shall be hard, durable and tough. All stones should be laid on its natural bed.
• The pressure acting on the stones should not act parallel to the bedding planes. This will try to split
the stones. Sometimes stones used in corbels are laid with pressure acting parallel to bedding
planes.
• The bond stones and headers should not be of dumb-bell shape.
• Large flat stones should be laid under the ends of girders, roof trusses, etc.
• In all slopping retaining walls, the beds of the stones and the plan of the courses should be at right
angles to the slope.
• All laid fine dressed stone work should be protected against damage during further construction
by means of wooden boxes.
• Jambs for door and window openings should be made of quoins which are equal in height to the
course. They should be in breadth equal to at least 1½ times the height of the course and their
length should be at least twice the height.

• All the surfaces should be kept wet while the work is in progress and also till the mortar has set.
 • Double scaffolding will be used wherever it is difficult to fit in the stones later on.
• All the portions of the masonry should be raised uniformly. Wherever this is not possible, the stone
work built earlier should be raked (stepped) so that the new work can be bonded well with the old.
Sufficient through stones should be used and they should form ¼th of the area in elevation.
• The hearting of the masonry should be properly packed with mortar and chips, if necessary, to
avoid any hollows or very thick mortar joints.
• Vertical faces of the masonry walls should be checked with a plumb rule and the battered faces
should be tested with wooden template corresponding to the batter and a plumb rule to ensure a
constant batter.
• The stones used in the masonry should be wetted before use to avoid moisture being sucked from
the mortar.
• Masonry should not be allowed to take tension.

CHAPETR 3
SITE NO: 2
RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
3.1. DETAILS OF THE PROJECT
`PROJECT NAME RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

LOCATION KURUPPAMPADI ERNAKULAM

COMPANY SALIMA GROUP OF CAMPANIES

2nd FLOOR VADAKKANETHIL TOWER,
PERUMBAVOOR , ERNAKULAM

OWNER OF THE Mr. JERIN

BUILDING

`FLOORS PROPOSED GF+1 FLOOR

PARKING DETAILS TWO BIKE AND A CAR AT A TIME

 3.2. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
3.2.1 .INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
The building is a kind of structure which is built with materials and including with foundation, plinth,
walls, floors, roofs, chimmneys, plumbing eyc. Broadly speaking building consists of three parts namely
(1) Foundation (2) Plinth and (3) Super structure.
(1) FOUNDATION
It is the lowest artificially prepared part, below the structure of the sorrundings ground which is in
direct contact with substrate and transmit all the loads to thr subsoil.
(2) PLINTH
It is the middle part of the structure, above the surface of the surrounding ground up to the surface of
the floor (i.e., floor level immediately above the grounds.)
(3) SUPER STRUCTURE
That part of the structure constructed above the plinth level ( or ground floor level ) is termed as super
structure.
3.2.2 . STEPS INVOLVED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
1. Site clearance
2. Surveying and layout
3. Excavation
4. Laying of PCC
5. Waterproofing
6. Bar binding and placement of foundation steel
7. Concreting
8. Electrical & Plumbing
9. Wall construction
10. Beam and Columns
11. Plastering
12. Flooring & Tiling work
13. Finishing and whitewasing
14. Final completion & handling over the project.
3.3 MODEL OF THE RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

FIGURE 3.3.1
FIGURE 3.3.2
3.4 RCC PLAN

FIGURE 3.4.1
FIGURE 3.4.2
3.5 ELEVATION OF THE RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

FIGURE 3.5.1
 3.6 WATERPROOFING

Waterproofing in building is the formation of an impervious barrier over surfaces of foundations, roofs,
walls, and other structural members of building to prevent water penetrations through these surfaces.
The building surfaces are made water-resistant and sometimes waterproof.

FIGURE 3.6.1

FIGURE 3.6.2
 3.6.3 ADVANTAGES OF WATER PROOFING

• Water absorption will be reduced.

• Prevents the formation of cracks on the surface of the concrete.
• Easy application.
• Increases the lifespan of the concrete structure.
• Prevents the rusting of reinforcement.
• Prevents dampness inside the building.
• Prevents seepages from the ceiling and walls.
• It reduces the maintenance coast of the building.
• The property value will be increased because no one wants to buy a house with water leaking
problems.
• It provides a healthy environment, good waterproofing system helps in creating a clean living
and workspace. It safeguards the property as well as the people in it.

3.6.4 DISADVANTAGES OF WATERPROOFING

• Bitumen based product soften under summer heat due to black color.
• Bitumen based product have a limited life due to solvent evaporation.
• Polyurethane protective coating is not very flexible.
• Ployurethane protective coating has limited pot life the impermeable surface coating allows
water to build up below the surface coating.
• Cementitious waterproofing is the inability to hold up cracks, which further cause leakage.
 3.7 BEAMS

A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to beam’s axis. Its mode of
deflection is primarily by bending. The load applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam’s
support points. The total effect of all the force acting On the beam is to produce shear force and bending
moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflection of the beam.
1. Singly reinforced beams:
Effective resisiting in the tensile bending. In singly reinforced simply supported beams steel
bars are placed near the bottom of the beam. In cantilever beams reinforcing bars placed near the
top of the beams, for the same reason as in the case of simply supported beam.
2. Doubly reinforced concrete beams:
It is reinforced under compression tension regions. The necessity of steel of compression region
arises due to two reasons. When depth of beam is restricted. The strength availability Singly
reinforced beam is in adequate.

FIGURE 3.7.1

FIGURE 3.7.2
 3.8 REINFORCEMENT STEEL

RCC stands for reinforced cement concrete. To enhance the load carrying capacity of the conceret it is
reinforced with steel bar of different diameters provided in an appropriate manner. Such concrete is
called reinforced concrete and the bars are called the reinforcement. These bars are provided at various
locations to resists the internal forces, which are developed due to the loads acting on the structure.
Reinforcing steel contributes to the tensile strength of the concrete. Concrete has low tensile, but high
compressive strength. The tensile deficiency is compensated by reinforcing the concrete mass through
insertion of plain or twisted mild steel bars. Both branded and unbranded bars are available. It is wise to
buy good brands the names of which are marked on the steel. During construction make sure that steel
reinforcement is provided exactly as the engineering design specification.

PRECAUTIONS:
• Steel bars/rods should be responsibly clean and free of rust.
• Bars that cannot be easily bent manually or mechanically should be rejected.
• Optimum length bars must not be choose to reduce wastage in cutting.
• To avoid laps, shorter bars must not be accepted.
• Welded length of the bars should not be accepted.
 3.9 REINFORCEMENT CEMENT CONCRETE
Plain concrete is very strong in compression but its tensile strength is only about 1/10 of the strength in
the compression. So, the use of the plain concrete is limited to the structure in pure compression. Steel
being equally strong in compression and tension, is, therefore, used to reinforce the concrete in a
suitable way so that it can be used to build supporting structure where tension also develops. Concrete,
thus reinforced is known as reinforced concrete.
This combination is made because long steel bars can develops its full strength where it cannot carry
equal amount of compressive force due to its buckling which is caused by the slenderness. Thus, the
combination of concrete and steel bars has proved to be ideal, as the two material are used to resist the
stresses for which they are most suitable.
3.9.1 PROPERTIES OF THE REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE:
1. The concrete develops very good bond with the surface of the steel bars and therefore the
stresses are transferred from one material to the other which cannot resist individually.
2. The steel posses a high tensile strength, a high modulus of elasticity and same coefficient of
expansion and contraction as concrete. Due to equal linear coefficients of expansion and
contraction as concrete. Due to equal linear coefficiants, no internal stresses are set up within
reinforced concrete due to variation in temperature.
3. The coating of cement grout or paste on the surface of the reinforcement protect it from
corrosion and at the same time it does not chemically react with the reinforcement.

3.9.2 ADVANTAGES OF THE REINFORCEMENT CEMENT CONCRETE:

1) It is overall economical in ultimate cost.
2) Its monolithic character provides more rigidity to the structure.
3) It is highly durable and fire resisting. It is not affected by the vermins termits fungus or such
other insects.
4) Well-compacted R.C.C structure is impermeable to moisture penetration.
5) Care and cost of maintenance of R.C.C structure are almost negligible.
6) The fluidity of the concrete and flexibility of reinforcement make it to possible to mould the
R.C.C member into variety of shapes desired.
3.10 STEEL WORKS

FIGURE 3.10.1

FIGURE 3.10.2
[WINDOWS]
 FIGURE 3.10.3
[DOOR ATTACHED TO THE WINDOW]
 3.11 STEEL ROOF

FIGURE 3.11.1
3.11.2 ADVANTAGES OF A STEEL ROOF STRUCTURE:
• It is easy and quick to erect-compared to timber framing, its installation is less labour-intensive
and does not require a large number of workers,
• It has high strength.
• It is a relatively cheap solution.
• Properties of steel – it does not require drying out or maintenance.
• Moisture resistance ( however, it must be properly prepared beforehand) – this prevents the
appearance of mould or fungi.
• It has high resistance to adverse weather conditions.
• Unlike wooden rafter framing, the one made of steel will definitely not be inhabited by insects,
pests or parasites.
• At the production stage, steel elements are covered with special additional protective and anti-
corrosive coatings.

3.11.3 DISADVANTAGES OF THE STEEL ROOF STRUCTURE:

• Corrosion proofing must be carried out.
• Although the steel roof structure is effectively protected against corrosion, if this protective
coating is scratched, it will become susceptible to corrosion.
• Although it does not require regular maintenance, regular inspections are required,
• Due to its low weight, heavy roofing, such as ceramic and especially cement tiles, cannot be laid
on it.
 3.12 ERRORS IN THE STRUCTURE

FIGURE 3.12.1
The last tread of the stair and floor of the first floor is not in the same level.

FIGURE 3.12.2
Main bars are not properly covered.
 CHAPTER-4
SITE NO;3
4.1 PROJECT IN A NUT SHELL

Table 4.1.1 CB-1 Details

Project name Commercial building

Pipeline Junction, Palarivattom, Cochin

location (Ernakulam), Village :Edappally South

Total Plot area 662.9 sqm

Total build up area 859.45

Total cost of project 8,325,000

Floors proposed GF+ Two floors

Car parking details Total No. of car parking space proposed is 9

Nos.

• Municipal water connection from Kerala

Water supply Water Authority.
• 7600ltr capacity pro;rainwater
harvesting system
Fig 4.1.1-Images during the construction proposed CB-1
4.2 PROJECT LOCATION
The proposed project site is in Ernakulam town. The general topographical features of the area
reveal that the proposed project site and its surroundings is generally a plain land with gentle slope. The
soil nature observed is generally sandy loam soil. The land around the project site indicates a mixed land
use pattern. There are residential Apartments, villas, and commercial Establishments surrounded by
areas like Alinchode, Vyittila, Palarivattom etc. The project site is a vacant land previously occupied by
M/s. Siraj Mather and now it has been purchased by M/s. Narmada Builders for the purpose of
constructing a commercial building.
• Transportation : The project site is located at pipeline junction, N.H. Bypass, Ernakulam -
Thiruvananthapuram bypass.
• Agricultural Lands : No agricultural lands are seen in the surrounding area.
• Forest : Thekkadi Tiger Reserve is at 125.00 Km from project site.

• Water Bodies : Aluva river is at 16.00Km from project site.

Fig 4.2.1-Location Map of CB-1

4.3 PLAN

Fig 4.3.1-ground floor plan of CB-1

Fig 4.3.2-first floor plan of CB-1

Fig 4.3.3-second floor plan of CB-1

Fig 4.3.4-dervice plan of CB-1

Fig 4.3.5-plan of solid waste pit and composite pit of CB-1

Fig 4.3.6-rainwater harvesting 7600 ltr capacity of CB-1

 Fig 4.3.7-plan of septic tank of CB-1

4.4 AREA CALCULATION

4.4.1 BUILD UP AREA CALCULATION

• Build up area of ground floor =249.89 sqm

• Build up area of first floor =290.01 sqm
• Build up area of second floor =290.01 sqm
• Build up area of stair room =29.54 sqm
Total build up area=859.45 sqm
4.4.2 FLOOR AREA CALCULATION
• Floor area of ground floor =249.17 sqm
• Floor area of first floor =266.61 sqm
• Floor area of second floor =266.61 sqm
• Floor area of stair room =25.15 sqm
Total floor area=807.54 sqm

4.4.3 OPEN YARD AREA CALCULATION

• Front yard area =246.95 sqm
• Front yard parking area =118.42 sqm
• 50% of front yard free area =246.95/2
=123.47 sqm
• Total front yard free area =246.95-118.42
=128.53 sqm
• Side yard area =14.25 sqm
• Side yard parking area =6.75 sqm
• 50% of side yard free area =14.25/2
=7.12 sqm
• Total side yard free area =14.25-6.75
=7.5 sqm
In front side,side1,side2 and rear side below 50% of open yard has been used mandatory parking

4.4.4 FSI and COVERAGE CALCULATION

• AREA OF LAND =662.9 SQM

• COVERAGE = COVERED AREA / PLOT AREA X 100
= 292.97 / 662.9 x 100
= 44.20 %
• F.S.I = FLOOR AREA / PLOT AREA
= 807.54 / 662.9
= 1.22
4.5 PROPOSED PARKING AVAILABILITY

Table 4.5.1-Parking availability of CB-1

REQUIREMENTS PROVIDE

Car parking = Commercial(F) every 90 sqm floor = 807.53 / 90 = 8.97 nos Provide = 9 nos
area =1 parking

Disable parking (360 X 550 )19.80 sqm = 1 nos

Two wheeler parking= total parking area/25% = 118.80+19.8=138.60X0.25 = 34.65= 35 Sqm

Two wheeler parking providr =9.52+6.75+18.75 = 35.02 Sqm

Loading and unloading above 700 sqm up to =30 sqm

1000 sqm
4.6 PROPOSED SANITATION AVAILABILITY

Table 4.6.1 Sanitation availability of CB-1

REQUIRED PROVIDE

Sanitation requirement =( F )Build up area / 5.90 = 859.54 sqm / 5.90 = 145.60 Providde 146
sqm Persons
= 146 /3= 48.66 = 49 = 49 female = provide4 W/C
Toilet for female = total persons/ 3 = ( 146 - 49 ) = 97 male= provide 4 W/C
Toilet foe male=total femaleX2

Urinal
25 persons 1 urinal = 146 persons provide 6 urinal

25 male 1 W/C = 100 male provide 4 W/C

15 female1 W = 46 female provide 4 W/C
 CHAPTER-5
PRE ENGINEERED STEEL BUILDING
5.1 GENERAL
Pre-Engineered Steel Buildings are manufactured or Produced in the plant itself. The
manufacturing of structural members is done on customer requirements. The detailed structural members
are designed for their respective location and are numbered, which cannot be altered, because members
are manufactured with respect to design features. These components are made in modular or completely
knocked condition for transportation. These materials are transported to the customer site and are erected.
Welding and cutting process are not performed at the customer site. No manufacturing process takes place
at the customer site.
The most common and economical type of low rise buildings is a building with ground floor and two
intermediate floor plus roof. The roof of low rise buildings may be flat or sloped. Intermediate floors of
low rise buildings are made of mezzanine systems. Single storied houses for living take minimum time
for construction and can be built in any type of geographical location like extreme cold hilly areas, high
rain prone areas, plain land obviously and extreme hot climatic zones as well.

5.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF PEB

• Reduction in Construction Time: Buildings are typically delivered in just a few weeks after
approval of drawings. Foundation and anchor bolts are cast parallel with finished, ready for the
site bolting. In India the use of pre engineered buildings will reduce total construction time of the
project by at least50%. This also allows faster occupancy and earlier realization of revenue.
• Lower Cost: Due to the systems approach, there is a significant saving in design, manufacturing
and on site erection cost. The secondary members and cladding nest together reducing
transportation cost.
• Flexibility of Expansion: Buildings can be easily expanded in length by adding additional bays.
Also expansion in width and height is possible by pre designing for future expansion.
• Larger Spans: Buildings can be supplied to around 80M clear spans.
• Quality Control: As buildings are manufactured completely in the factory under controlled
conditions the quality is assured.
• Low Maintenance: Buildings are supplied with high quality paint systems for cladding and steel
to suit ambient conditions at the site, which results in long durability and low maintenance costs.
• Energy Efficient Roofing and Wall Systems: Buildings can be supplied with polyurethane
insulated panels or fiberglass blankets insulation to achieve required U values.
 • Architectural Versatility: Building can be supplied with various types of fascia’s, canopies, and
curved eaves and are designed to receive precast concrete wall panels, curtain walls, block walls
and other wall systems.
• Single Source Availability: As the complete building package is supplied by a single vendor,
compatibility of all the building components and accessories is assured. This is one of the major
benefits of the pre-engineered building systems.
5.1.2 DISADVANTAGES OF PEB
• Rusting / Corrosion Sensitive, as if the quality of steel used or paint used for coating of
steel members is not of good quality , than it can damage the structure and thus reduces

the life of structure.

• Insulation Cost, as insulating the building to an agreeable benchmark will furthermore

add to your construction costs.
• Appearance, Steel Sections can be unattractive when left exposed.

5.1.3 APPLICATION OF PEB

Almost every conceivable building use has been achieved with PEB; the most common
applications are industrial, institutional and commercial buildings.
In India, Pre-engineered building systems find application primarily in the construction of Warehouses,
& Industrial sheds & Buildings. The recent focus has also shifted to cover rural as well as urban, individual
and mass housing projects, farmhouses, slum re-organization projects and rehabilitation projects, amenity
structures like health centers, kiosks, primary schools, panchayat etc. The pharmaceutical industries and
exhibition centers, and functional requirements like offices, seminar halls, call centers, supermarkets,
showrooms etc. have also attracted PEB. Earthquake-resistant buildings are the recent applications of PEB
with wide and immediate acceptance.
Applications of Pre Engineered steel buildings include:-
1. Houses & Living Shelters.
2. Factories.
3. Warehouses.
4. Sports Halls (Indoor and Outdoor).
5. Aircraft Hangers.
6. Supermarkets.
7. Workshops.
8. Office Buildings.
 9. Labour Camps.
10. Petrol Pumps/Service Buildings.
11. Schools.
12. Community centers.
13. Railway Stations
14. Equipment housing/shelters.

5.1.4 OBJECTIVESS OF PEB

Structural Pre-engineered buildings are on the average 30% lighter because of the efficient
Weight use of steel

Quick and efficient design since PEB’s are mainly formed by standard sections
Design
and connections design, time is significantly reduced.

Construction
Average 6 to 8 weeks
Period

Foundation Simple design, easy to construct and light weight.

Erection and Since the connection of compounds is standard the learning curve of erection
Simplicity for each subsequent project is faster.

Erection Time The erection process is faster and much easier with very less requirement for
and Cost equipment

Seismic
The low weight flexible frames offer higher resistance to seismic forces.
Reistance

Over all Cost Price per square meter may be as low as by 30 % than the conventional building.

Outstanding architectural design can be achieved at low cost using standard

Architecture
architectural details and interfaces.

Future
Future expansion is very easy and simple.
Expansion
Safety and Single source of responsibility is there because the entire job is being done by
Responsibility one supplier.

All components have been specified and designed specially to act together as a
Performance
system for maximum efficiency, precise fir and peak performance in the field.

5.2 COMPONENTS OF PREE ENGINEERED STEEL BUILDING

Fig 5.2.1 components of pre engineered building

5.2.1 PRIMARY COMPONENTS
5.2.1.1 MAIN FRAMING
Main framing basically includes the rigid steel frames of the building. The PEB rigid frame
comprises of tapered columns and tapered rafters (the fabricated tapered sections are referred to as built-
up members). The tapered sections are fabricated using the state of art technology wherein the flanges
are welded to the web. Splice plates are welded to the ends of the tapered sections. The frame is erected
by bolting the splice plates of connecting sections together. All rigid frames shall be welded built-up “I”
sections or hot-rolled sections. The columns and the rafters may be either uniform depth or tapered.
Flanges shall be connected to webs by means of a continuous fillet weld on one side. All end wall roof
beams and end wall columns shall be cold-formed “C” sections, mill-rolled sections, or built-up “I”
sections depending on design requirements. Plates, Stiffeners, etc. All base plates splice plates, cap
plates, and stiffeners shall be factory welded into place on the structural members. Built-up I section to
build primary structural framing members (Columns and Rafters).
5.2.1.2 COLOUMNS
The main purpose of the columns is to transfer the vertical loads to the foundations. However
apart of the horizontal actions (wind action) is also transferred through the columns. Basically in pre-
engineered buildings columns are made up of I sections which are most economical than others. The
width and breadth will go on increasing from bottom to top of the column. I section consists of flanges
and web which are made from plates by welding.
5.2.1.3 RAFTER
A rafter is one of a series of sloped structural members (beams) that extend from the ridge or up-
to the wall-plate, down slope perimeter or eave, and that are designed to support the roof deck and its
associated loads.

5.2.2 SECONDARY COMPONENTS

Purlins, Grits and Eave struts are secondary structural members used as support to walls and roof
panels. Purlins are used on the roof, Grits are used on the walls and Eave struts are used at the
intersection of the sidewall and the roof. They are supplied with minimum yield strength of 34.5KN/m.
Secondary member’s act as struts that help in resisting part of the longitudinal loads that are applied on
the building such as wind and earthquake loads and provide lateral bracing to the compression flanges of
the main frame members for increasing frame capacity. Purlins, Grit-sand Eave struts are available in
high grade steel conforming to ASTM 607 Grade 50 or equivalent, available in 1.5 mm, 1.75 mm. 2.0
mm, 2.25 mm, 2.5 mm and 3.0 mm thickness. They come with a pre-galvanized finish, or factory
painted with a minimum of 35 microns (DFT) of corrosion protection primer. Purlins and girts shall be
cold-formed “Z” sections with stiffened flanges. Flange stiffeners shall be sized to comply with the
requirements of the latest edition of AISI.

5.2.3 SHEETING OR CLADDING

The sheets used in the construction of pre-engineered buildings are composed of the following:
Base metal of either Galvalume coated steel conforming to ASTM A 792 M grade 345B or aluminum
conforming to ASTM B 209M. Galvalume coating is 55% Aluminum and about45% Zinc by weight. An
exterior surface coating on painted sheets of 25 microns of epoxy-primer with a highly durable polyester
finish. An interior surface coating on painted sheets of 12 microns of epoxy primer and modified
polyester or foam. The sheeting material is cold-rolled steel, high tensile 550 MPA yield stress, with hot
dip metallic coating of Galvalume sheet.
5.2.4 ACCESSORIES
• Window
• Ridge Ventilator
• Sliding Door
• Roll up Shutter
• Turbo Ventilator
• Roof Skylight
• Adjustable Louvre
• Insulation
• Ladder with Safety Cage

5.2 EFFECTIVE TIPS TO MAINTAIN PEB

5.2.1 REGULAR CLEANING
Debris and other undesired dust particles that accumulate in the building area can cause
damage to the PEB structure. Moreover, the accumulation of dirt in tight spaces can cause moulds and
trap moisture as well causing the material to undergo corrosion at a premature stage.
And for these reasons, roof sheets to gutters must be subject to regular cleaning which can be done with
a low-pressure water hose and a good cleaning solution. Apart from preventing damage, cleaning the
building also helps in sustaining its visual appeal for a longer amount of time.
 5.2.2 MAINTENANCE OF FASTENERES

Fasteners are known to hold the elements of the building together and can also become
the reason for a fast decline of the building! If these fasteners are left loose and not tightened properly, it
will leave space for water to seep into the frame of the building causing the structure to corrode and rust
even more quickly.
Fasteners that have been subject to damage in any manner must be repaired or rather changed right away
to avoid jeopardizing the structural strength of the building. Moreover, this can also have an effect on the
load distribution which could result in an unanticipated PEB structure damage.

5.2.3 REGULAR PAINT JOBS

The exterior of Pre-Engineered Buildings is extremely resistant to harsh weather, UV
radiation as well corrosion. However, if the building isn’t cleaned properly or is located close to a water
body, there are increased chances of corrosion.
Small patches can become the starting point of corrosion which can subsequently spread throughout the
building. Hence to prevent this from happening it is important to protect the structure by regularly painting
these patch areas.

5.2.4 ACCESSORY MAINTENANCE

With the regular maintenance of the PEB, all the building’s accessories like doors, vents,
rolling shutters and the like must also be maintained. The frequent impact of the doors on the walls can
lead to structural deterioration.
In order to prevent this, one must lubricate the hinges of doors and locks on a regular basis as well as to
ensure they don’t swing all the way back to the door. Similarly, if there are sliding doors in that case the
guiding channels must be cleaned on a regular basis to ensure they run smoothly. Moreover, regularly
lubricating the moving shutters and applying grease to the vertical guides can lead to increasing the
soundness of the structure.
The excellence of durability is one of the prime reasons for the popularity of PEBs. This durability can be
enhanced further by taking excellent care of the building as well as proper maintenance. When maintain
PEBs efficiently and regularly, they can ensure saving money on repairs as well as enjoy the long
durability of their structure.