Module 4

• Curve Surveying – Elements of simple and compound

curves – Methods of setting out (Angular methods only)–
Elements of Reverse curve (Introduction only)–
Transition curve – length of curve – Elements of
transition curve - Vertical curve (Introduction only)

• Total Station – concept of EDM, principles and working,

advantages and applications
CURVE SURVEYING
Why Curves ?
• Roadways
• Railways
• Canals
• Buildings
Curves
• The center line of a road consists of series of straight lines
interconnected by curves that are used to change the alignment,
direction, or slope of the road.
• Those curves that change the alignment or direction are known as
horizontal curves, and those that change the slope are vertical curves.
Types of curves

Reverse curve
Simple curve
• Simple curve is one which consists of a single arc of a circle. It is
tangential to both the straight lines.
Notations of simple curve
Notations
• Tangent distance
• Back tangent
• External (Apex) Distance
• Forward tangent
• Length of curve
• Point of intersection
• Long chord
• Point of curve
• Mid ordinate
• Point of tangency
• Normal chord
• Intersection angle
• Sub chord
• Deflection angle
• Right and left hand curve
Designation of a curve
• Sharpness of curve designated by
• Radius R
• Degree of curvature D
• In Great Britain the sharpness of the curve is designated by
the radius of the curve while in India and many countries it
is designated by the degree of curvature.
• There are two different definitions of degree of curvature:
• (i) Arc Definition
• (ii) Chord Definition.
Degree of curvature
According to arc definition degree
of curvature is defined as angle
in degrees subtended by an arc
of standard length
used in highway practice.
The length of standard arc used in
FPS was 100 ft and in SI as 30 or
20 m.
Degree of curvature
According to chord definition
degree of curvature is
defined as angle in degrees
subtended by a chord of
standard length.
Commonly used in railways.
The length of standard chord
used in FPS was 100 ft and in
SI as 30 or 20m.
Elements of simple curve
• Length of curve, s = R π Δ/180
• Tangent Length T
• Length of long chord
• Apex distance E=
• Mid Ordinate M =
Problem 1
• A circular curve has 300 m radius and 60° deflection angle. What is its
degree by (a) arc definition and (b) chord definition of standard
length 30 m. Also calculate (i) length of curve, (ii) tangent length, (iii)
length of long chord, (iv)mid-ordinate and (v) apex distance
Setting out of simple curves
• Location of tangent points, point of intersection, point of curve, point
of tangency.
• Peg interval
• Peg stations
• Normal chord
• Sub chord
 Setting out of simple curves
The various methods used for setting curves may be
broadly classified as:
• (A) Linear methods (chain or tape is used)
• Offsets from long chord
• Successive bisection of chord
• Offsets from the tangents– perpendicular or radial
• Offsets from the chords produced
• (B) Angular methods (instrument methods -
theodolite)
• Rankine method of tangential (deflection) angles.
• Two-theodolite method
• Tacheometric method
Angular methods
• Used when length of curve is large
• More accurate than the linear methods.
• Theodolite, with or without tape is used

• The angular methods are:

• Rankine method of tangential (deflection) angles.
• Two-theodolite method
• Tacheometric method
 Angular methods- Rankine method of
tangential (deflection) angles
• A deflection angle to any point on the curve is the angle at P.C between the back tangent and the chord from
P.C to that point.
• Rankines method is based on the principle that the deflection angle to any point on a circular curve is
measured by one half the angle subtended by the arc from P.C to that point.
Angular methods- Rankine method of
tangential (deflection) angles
ie,
Δ1 = δ1
Δ2 = δ1 + δ2 = Δ1 + δ2
Δ3 = δ1 + δ2 + δ3 = Δ2 + δ3
Δn = δ1 + δ2 + δ3 +………….+ δn = Δn-1 + δn

• Thus,
deflection angle for any chord is equal to the deflection
angle for the previous chord + tangential angle for that
chord.
Setting out by Rankines method
 Angular methods-Two theodolite method

• When ground is unsuitable for

chaining.

• Method is based on the principle

that Angle between the tangent
and chord is equal to angle
which that chord subtends in the
opposite segment
Angular methods-Tacheometric method
Angular methods-Tacheometric method
Compound Curves
• This curve normally consists of two simple curves joined together and
curving in the same direction
Elements of compound curves
There are 7 parameters for
compound curve: R1, R2,
θ1,θ2,θ,T1,T2
Knowing any 4 of these
parameters; R1, R2, θ1,θ2 (θ 1 +
θ 2 = θ), T1 andT2, the others
will be known.
In general, θ 1 and θ 2 or θ are
measured in the field.
The minimum values for R1 and R2
are governed by design speed,
usually established from plan.
Elements of compound curves
Setting out of Compound curves
1. Knowing four quantities of the curve,
calculate the remaining three quantities.
2. Locate V, T1 and T2. Obtain the chainage of B
from the known chainage of V.
3. Calculate the length of the first arc and add it
to the chainage of B to obtain chainage of C.
Similarly, compute the chainage of the second
curve which when added to the chainage of
C, gives the chainage of E.
4. Calculate deflection angles for both the arcs.
5. Set the theodolite on B and set out first arc
as explained earlier.
Setting out of Compound curves
6. Shift the instrument to C and set it. With the
vernier reading set to (360-θ1/2)
7. Take back sight to B and plunge the telescope,
8. Thus directing it to BC produced. If the telescope is
now swung through θ1/2 the line of sight will be
directed along the common tangent CV2 and the
vernier will read zero.
9. Set the second curve from the deflection angle method
from C
10. Measure angle BCE to check the accuracy of the work.
It should be equal to {180 – (θ1 + θ2)} or {180° – θ/2}

2
Problem – Rankines method
Problem
• Two straights intersect at a chainage of 64.265 m. They have to be
smoothly connected by a simple curve of radius 10m. The total
deflection angle is 48°30’. Work out the data required for setting out
the curve by the deflection angle method. Note the least count of the
theodolite is 20”.
Problem -5 Compound curves
Two straights AV and BV are intersected by a line MN. The angle AMN and MNB
are 150° and 160° respectively. The radius of the first arc is 650 m and that of the
second arc is 450 m. Find the chainage of the tangent points and the point of
compound curvature, given that the chainage of the point of intersection V is
4756 m
Problem Compound curve
• Two straights AC and BC meets at C at a deflection angle of 63°29’.
They are to be smoothly connected by a compound curve consisting
of two circular branches AD and DB of radii 18 chains and 36 chains
respectively. If the length of the first tangent AC is 15.78 chains, find
a) Angles subtended by the two branches at their respective centres
b) Length of second tangent CB
c) Chainages of starting point, point of compound curvature and the
end point of the curve, if the chainage of intersection point is
243.60 chains.
Reverse curves
∆ – the angle of deflection (<A’VB)
R1 – the radius of first circular arc
R2 – the radius of second circular arc.
T1, T2 – the tangent points
C – the point of reverse curvature
α1 – the angle subtended at the centre
by the first curve
α 2 – the angle subtended at the centre
by the second curve
β1 – the angle of deflection between the
first tangent and the line joining
tangent points
β2 – the angle of deflection between the
second tangent and the line joining
tangent points
Horizontal curve
• Vehicle travelling around a curve will tend to be thrown outwards
(centrifugal force)

• A force (centripetal) must be applied to resist this tendency and is a

function of gravity, super elevation and side friction
Super elevation (cant)
• Super elevation is slope across pavement surface and
is fully developed in the circular curve.
• Super elevation is the amount by which outer end of
the road or outer rail is raised with respect to the
inner one.
• e is +ve when road slopes towards centre of curve or
–ve (adverse) if road slopes away from the centre of
curve
Analysis of super elevation
Analysis of super elevation
At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of pavement we get:
●

Dividing by Wcosθ we get:

●
Analysis of super elevation

This is an exact expression for superelevation. But normally, f = 0:15

and θ < 4o, 1-f tanθ ~ 1 and for small θ, tanθ ~ sin θ = e
Analysis of super elevation
• v2/Rg = f + e
• Converting v (m/s) to V (km/hr)

V2/127R = e + f

• Accurate e for small values of e and f (e up to 0.12 or 12%)

TRANSITION CURVE

• Horizontal curve is a circular curve, the radius is fixed at any point on the curve.
• For tangent portion (straight) radius is fixed, radius is infinity.
• For a transition curve the radius changes along the length of the curve.
• Radius varies from infinity to a designated radius over the length of the curve.
Functions of transition curve

1. To accomplish gradually the transition from the tangent to the

circular curve, so that the curvature is increased gradually from zero to
a specified value.

2. To provide a medium for the gradual introduction or change of the

required super elevation.
Requirement of transition curve
• Tangential to straight • Length of transition curve = full
• Meet circular curve tangentially super elevation attained at the
junction with circular curve
• At origin on straight curvature
should be zero.
• Curvature should same at
junction of circular curve.
• Rate of increase of curvature =
rate increase of super elevation.
TRANSITION CURVE (Contd…)

• All transition curves the radius will change over length.

• This rate of change will depend on the shape of the curve.

TRANSITION CURVE (Contd…)

Necessity of TC

1. Gradual introduction of Centrifugal force

2. Enable the driver to steer gradually

3. Promote uniformity in speed as the encroachment is minimum

4. Enable gradual introduction of desired super elevation.

5. Enable gradual introduction of desired extra widening.

6. Improve aesthetic appearance of road

TRANSITION CURVE (Contd…)

Advantages of TC
• Increase comfort to passenger on curve
• Reduce overturning
• Allow higher speed
• Less wear on gear, tyre
TRANSITION CURVE (Contd…)

Types of transition curve

1. Cubic parabola ‐ For railway
2. Spiral or Clothoid‐ Ideal transition
‐ Radius α Distance
3. Lemniscates - Used for road

No significant difference up to 90
Radius decrease with increase in length
For 1 and 3 Rate of change of R is not constant at large deflection angle
Length of transition curve (IRC method)

1. Based on rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.

If Ls is the length of the curve in m, v is the design speed in m/sec

Time taken to traverse transition length Ls , t = Ls/v ---(1)
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration (m/sec3) C = V2/(Rt)-- (2)

Sub (1) in (2), Ls = V3/ CR

Sub V in kmph, Ls = 0.0215V3/ CR [C= 80/(75+V)]
Where R = radius in m
Cmin= 0.5, C max = 0.8 (IRC Limit)
Length of transition curve (IRC method)
2. Based on rate of change of super elevation
• Rate of change should not cause discomfort to travelers
• Raise e of the outer edge wrt inner edge by e = eB = e(W +We)
• Ls = Ne(W +We) when rotated about inner edge
• Ls = [Ne(W +We)]/2 when rotated about central line

• Ls = length of transition curve, N = rate of change of super

elevation 1 in N, e = super elevation, W = tangent width, We =
extra widening provided

As per IRC, 1 in N is 1 in 150 for roads in plain and rolling terrain

1 in 60 for mountainous or steep terrain

Length of transition curve (IRC method)

Empirical formula
For plain and rolling terrain,

Ls = 2.67V2/ R

For mountainous or steep terrain,

Ls = 1.0V2/ R

Actual recommended design length should be higher than this calculated length.
TRANSITION CURVE (Contd…)

• Transition curve cannot be provided for some practical reasons - two-third

of the super elevation will be attained on straight section itself before the
start of the circular curve and balance one-third on the circular curve itself.

• Two-third before the beginning of the circular curve and one-third within
the circular curve length.
Problem - Transition curve
A transition curve is required for a circular curve of 200m radius, the
gauge being 1.5m and maximum superelevation restricted to 15 cm.
The transition is to be designed for a velocity such that no lateral
pressure is imposed on the rails and rate of gain of radial acceleration
is 30cm/sec3. Calculate the required length of curve and design
speed.
Solution:

L = v3/ CR
C= 0.3 m/sec3 , R = 200 m, v = velocity in m/s
L = v3/ CR = v3/ (0.3 x 200) = v3/ 60
The velocity v is determined from the requirement of no lateral
pressure on a superelevation of 15 cm for G = 15 cm.
tan θ = 15/150 = v2/ gR
v = [(15/150) x gR] ½
= [(15/150) x 9.81x200] ½
= 14 m/sec 0r 50.4 km/hr
Length = L = v3/ 60 = 143/ 60 = 46 m
Problem - Transition curve
A transition curve is required for a circular curve of 400m radius, the
gauge being 1.5m and maximum superelevation restricted to 12 cm.
The transition is to be designed for a velocity such that no lateral
pressure is imposed on the rails and rate of gain of radial acceleration
is 30cm/sec3. Calculate the required length of curve and design
speed.
Problem 7- Transition curve
Design the length of transition curve for a two lane highway having circular
curve of 250m radius and the design speed is 70 Km/h.

➢Based on Allowable rate of acceleration Ls = 0.0215 V3/CR

C= 80/(75+V) 0.5-0.8
➢Based on Rate of change of SE Ls = Ne(W+We)/2
N= 150, W= 7m
e =V2/225R,check < 0.07, ( check f V2/127 R – 0.07)
We = nl2 / 2R + V/9.5 √R l=7m
➢Check for minimum value Ls = 2.67V2/ R
Vertical Curves

• Vertical alignment is the elevation of central line of road

• Vertical alignment basically should provide for a smooth profile
consistent with the general topography.

• Vertical alignment includes tangent and curves but in this case

tangents are essentially grades and curves are vertical curves.
• When two different gradients meet at a point along a road surface,
they form a sharp point at the apex.
• Unless this apex point is rounded off to form a smooth curve, no
vehicle can move along that portion of the road.
• This curve is called the vertical curve.
Vertical Alignment - Overview

Summit curve or Crest Curve

G2 G3
G1

Valley curves or Sag Curve

Crest vertical curves
Gradient

• Gradient of curve is expressed in two ways:

1. As a percentage
eg: 1%, 5% etc
2. As 1 in n, where n is the horizontal distance and 1 represents the
vertical distance
eg: 1 in 100, 1 in 200 etc.
Rate of change of grade

• The characteristic of curve is that the gradient changes from point to

point but the rate of change of grade remains constant.
• Recommended rate of change of grade is 0.1% per 30 m at summits,
and 0.05% per 30 m at sags
Criteria for determining the length of the vertical curve
The main criteria are:
➢ Provision of stopping sight distance/ OSD For crest / sag
vertical curves
➢Headlight sight distance
➢ Adequate drainage
➢ Comfortable in operation
For sag curves only
➢ Pleasant appearance
Length of vertical curve

Length of vertical curve = change of grade

rate of change of grade
= g1-g2
r
Where,
g1 and g2 - % of grade
r – rate of change of grade
Total station
• A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in
modern surveying and building construction that uses electronic transit
theodolite in conjunction with electronic distance meter (EDM).
• It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic data collector and storage
system.
• This Microprocessor unit enables for computation of data collected to further
calculate the horizontal distance, coordinates of a point and reduced level of
point.
• Data collected from total station can be downloaded into computer/laptops for
further processing of information.
• The instrument is used to measure sloping distance of object to the instrument,
horizontal angles and vertical angles.
Principle
• Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or
infrared carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the
instrument's optical path, and bounced off of the object to be measured.
• The modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the
onboard computer in the total station.
• The distance is determined by emitting and receiving multiple frequencies,
and determining the integer number of wavelengths to the target for each
frequency.

• Most total stations use a purpose-built glass Porro prism as the reflector
for the EDM signal, and can measure distances out to a few kilometers.
The typical Total Station EDM can measure distances accurate to about 3
millimeters.
Principle of EDM
• The instrument to reflector distance is measured using an Electronic
Distance Meter (EDM).

• Most EDM’s use a Gallium Arsenide Diode to emit an infrared light beam.
This beam is usually modulated to two or more different frequencies.

• The infrared is emitted from the total station, reflected by the reflector and
received and amplified by the total station.

• The received signal is then compared with a reference signal generated by

the instrument and the phase shift is determined.

• This phase shift is a measure of travel time and thus the distance between
the total station and the reflector
Measurement of transit time
Modulation
Types of EDM instruments
• 1. Microwave instruments – tellurometers
- 3 to 30 GHz carrier waves
- 100 km range
- Master unit and remote unit
• 2. Infrared instruments - Distomats
- 3.3 x 10^14 Hz carrier waves (gallium arsenide infrared diode)
- 2 to 5 km range
- + 10 mm accuracy
- Lens or mirror system to radiate waves and corner cube prisms to reflect (parallel
to incident ray)
• 3. Visible light instruments - geodimeter
- 5 x 10^14 Hz carrier waves (visible light waves)
- Lens or mirror system
- reflector with one or more corner prisms
Total station
 PARTS
Battery latch

Battery pack
Objective lens

Display panel

Optical plummet

Keyboard

Circular level

Lower plate screw

Levelling screw
 PARTS
Handle Grip

Collimator

Focussing
Screw

Eye piece

Plate level Tangent Screw

Clamp screw

Remote

Memory
Compartment Clamp screw

Display Panel Tangent Screw

Keyboard

Detaching Knob Battery Data Port

Accessories
1. Retroreflector – prism used as target
2. Track light – align pole with prism along line of sight
3. Geotronics Unicom – voice communication system by means of a
microphone in total station. Communicates voice to person at pole
prism
Field Operation

• Loosen the clamp on the telescope

• Rotate the telescope about the vertical axis by 360°. Can hear a beep at this
point.
• Rotate the telescope about the horizontal axis by 360°. Can hear a beep at
this point.
• Configure the total station
• Determine the orientation to a backsight point
• Elimination of Parallax
Focussing the eye-piece
Focussing the objective
Applications

•Measurement of Angles
•Measurement of Distances
•Traversing
•Setting Out
•Checking of Errors – Closing
•Topographic Survey
•Boundary Survey
•Utilities Survey
Fundamental Measurements
1) The rotation of the instrument's optical
axis from instrument north in a
horizontal plane (horizontal angle),
2) the inclination of the optical axis from
local vertical (vertical angle), and
3) the distance between the instrument and
the target (slope distance)

All others are derived from these three

fundamental measurements.
Fundamental measurements made by a total station
Fundamental Measurements
1) The rotation of the instrument's optical
axis from instrument north in a
horizontal plane (horizontal angle),
2) the inclination of the optical axis from
local vertical (vertical angle), and
3) the distance between the instrument and
the target (slope distance)

All others are derived from these three

fundamental measurements.
Fundamental measurements made by a total station
1. Horizontal angle
• The horizontal angle is measured from the zero direction on the horizontal scale( or
horizontal circle).

• When the instrument first sets up, the choice of the zero direction is made – this is the
Instrument North ( can be set in the long axis of the map area or choose to orient along
any convenient direction such as true or magnetic North)

• The zero direction should be set so that it can be recovered if the instrument was set up
at the same location at some later date. This is usually done by sighting to another
benchmark, or to a distance recognizable object.

• The best procedure when using a Total station is to set a convenient ‘north’ and use this
through the survey by using backsights when the instrument is moved.
2. Vertical angle

• The vertical angle is measured relative to the local vertical (plumb)

direction.

• The vertical angle is usually measured as a zenith angle (0° is vertically

up, 90 ° is horizontal and 180 ° is vertically down)
Geometry of total station and reflector
3. Slope distance
• The distance from instrument to reflector is the slope distance.

• It is measured using EDM (Electronic Distance Meter)

• Most EDM’s use a Gallium Arsenide Diode to emit an infrared light beam. This beam is usually
modulated to two or more different frequencies.

• The infrared is emitted from the total station, reflected by the reflector and received and
amplified by the total station.

• The received signal is then compared with a reference signal generated by the instrument and the
phase shift is determined.

• This phase shift is a measure of travel time and thus the distance between the total station and
the reflector
Basic calculations
Total station measure 3 parameters:
a) Horizontal angle b) Vertical angle c) Slope distance

The other parameters are calculated based on these three.

The basic calculations are:

1. Horizontal distance
2. Vertical distance
3. Coordinate calculations
1. Horizontal distance
• Let I – instrument station
R – reflector
SD - slope distance
ZA – zenith angle
The horizontal distance between instrument station and reflector is
given by,

HD = SD cos (90° - ZA) = SD sin ZA

2. Vertical distance
• Let dZ – elevation difference between 2 points
IH – instrument height
RH – reflector height
VD – vertical distance between tilting axis of
instrument and tilting axis of reflector
From figure,

VD = SD sin (90° - ZA) = SD cos ZA

dZ = VD + ( IH - RH ) = SD cos ZA + ( IH - RH )

If the elevation of instrument is Iz, then the elevation of the reflector is

Rz = Iz + IH + VD - RH = Iz +SD cos ZA + ( IH - RH )
3. Computation of East and north coordinates of reflector
Coordinate calculation continued….
• Let IE,IN,Iz – Easting (X), Northing (Y) and Elevation (Z) of instrument
station
RE,RN,Rz – Easting (X), Northing (Y) and Elevation (Z) of reflector

The coordinates of the reflector relative to the total station are:

dE = Change in Easting = HD sin HAR
dN = Change in Northing = HD cos HAR

Where, HD – horizontal distance

HAR - horizontal angle measured in a clockwise direction
from instrument north.
In terms of fundamental measurements
dE = Change in Easting = SD sin ZA sin HAR
dN = Change in Northing = SD sin ZA cos HAR

If the easting and northing coordinates of the instrument station are known,
we can find out the coordinates of reflector.

The coordinates of reflector,

RE = IE + SD sin ZA sin HAR

RN = IN + SD sin ZA cos HAR
RZ = IZ + SD cos ZA + ( IH - RH )
SOFTWARE

• Data Transfer
• Plotting of Points
• Calculations of Areas
• Preparation of Contour Maps
• Preparation of Digital Terrain Models
Advantages

• Receiving and transmitting measured or layout data via digital files

increases processing efficiency

• Read and write errors are eliminated

• Data is saved and managed on a PC

• Designs can be implemented directly from the planning stage

Applications

•Measurement of Angles
•Measurement of Distances
•Traversing
•Setting Out
•Checking of Errors – Closing
•Topographic Survey
•Boundary Survey
•Utilities Survey