Aristotle: Poetics

Biography
Aristotle was born around 384 B.C.E. in Stagira, a village in Central Macedonia in Northern Greece. Not much is
known about Aristotle’s mother, Phaestis; however, Aristotle’s father, Nicomachus, was a court physician for the
Macedonian KingAmyntas II. Both Phaestis and Nicomachus died when Aristotlewas an adolescent, and he spent the
rest of his childhood under
the care of a guardian.
When Aristotle was 17 years old, he went to Athens and enrolled in Plato’s Academy, where he lived and
studied for nearly 20 years. Aristotle was taught by Plato, who was taught by Socrates before him. Aristotle left the
academy around the time Plato died, and he travelled to the island Lesbos to study botany.
There, Aristotle met and married his wife, Pythias, and had a daughter by the same name.
Aristotle returned to the Macedonian court around the year 338 B.C.E. and served as personal tutor to
Alexander theGreat, the future king of Macedonia. During this time, Aristotle taught at the Lyceum, a temple in Athens,
where he founded the Peripatetic school of philosophy, which was based on science and inductive reasoning.
Aristotle had several prominent students, including Ptolemy, a general under Alexander the Great and the
future pharaoh of Egypt.
Around 335 B.C.E., Aristotle’s wife, Pythias, died, and he went on to marry his second wife, Herpyllis and have
additional children—including a son, Nicomachus, named after Aristotle’s
father.
335 to 323 B.C.E. are thought to have been the most productive years of Aristotle’s life. He extensively studied
subjects like philosophy, politics, physics, poetry, and biology, and he published over 200 books, likely in manuscript
form on papyrus. Thirty-one of Aristotle’s works have survived
antiquity, including Poetics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, and Rhetoric.
In 322 B.C.E, Aristotle died at age 62 of natural causes on the Greek island of Euboea. Aristotle had a profound
impact on early thought and philosophy and is often referred to as the
“Father of Western Philosophy.” Along with Plato and Socrates, Aristotle pioneered many of the theories and ideas that
inform modern economics, politics, ethics, and science.

Historical Context
In Poetics, Aristotle writes about irrationalities in poetry, and he gives Sophocles’s Electra as an example. In
Sophocles’s play, Electra is told that her brother, Orestes, was killed in a chariot race during the Pythian Games.
Aristotle considers Electra irrational, since the Pythian Games existed in Sophocles’s lifetime, not during the time when
the events of the play are set.
The Pythian Games—also known as the Delphic Games—began in the sixth century B.C.E. and were one of the Panhellenic Games of
Ancient Greece. The Pythian Games included several events in track and field (including a race ran in full armour), wrestling, boxing, horseback races,
and a chariot race drawn by four horses. The games also included
events in dance and music, including pipe music and singing.

Summary
In Poetics, Aristotle discusses poetry—both in general and in particular—and he also considers the effects of
poetry on those who consume it and the proper way in which to construct a poetic plot for maximum effect. He
explores each component part of poetry separately and addresses any questions that come up in the process.
Aristotle starts with the principles of poetry, which he says is only “natural.” He enumerates the
different types poetry: epic, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, and music by pipe or lyre. Additionally, he claims
that all poetry is a form of imitation that only differs in three ways: its medium, its object, and/or its mode of imitation.
The medium of imitation depends on the kind of art (a painter or a sculptor uses colour or shape as a
medium), whereas a poet uses the medium of rhythm, language, and melody—each of which can be used alone or
together to create some desired effect.
The object is the thing that is imitated in a work of art or in a poem. Objects, which include people, things, and
events, can be either admirable or inferior, means that objects are either morally good or morally bad.
Lastly, an object’s mode of imitation is the way in which an object is imitated. In epic poetry, an object is
imitated through narration; however, in tragedy, an object is imitated via actors on a stage.
Aristotle argues that human beings have a natural proclivity (tendency) for imitation, and since humans learn
lessons through imitation from a young age, he maintains that people have a strong tendency to imitate people and
things. Furthermore, people take pleasure in viewing distressing images from a safe distance, such as a stage. The

M.Rehan Basra Ph.D Scholar 03004089826

pleasure people feel in viewing an imitation is in large part due to understanding. A person views an imitation,
recognizes the thing being imitated, and finds pleasure in this understanding. Aristotle further argues that
human beings also have a natural proclivity for rhythm and melody, so it is no wonder they tend to create imitations like
poetry, which relies on language that has both rhythm and melody. Tragedy was born from dithyrambic poetry, which
incorporates both poetry and dance. From there, tragedy evolved into what it is in Aristotle’s time—which he refers to
as tragedy’s “natural state.”
Aristotle claims comedy imitates inferior people but such characters are not inferior in every way. Characters
in comedy are guilty of “laughable errors”; however, such errors do not elicit painful emotions in the audience. A
comedy does not imitate pain, and it should not provoke these emotions in others. Conversely, tragedy and epic poetry
imitate admirable people, but epic uses only verse and is in narrative form. Plainly put, an epic does not involve song,
and it is usually told through the lens of a single character narration. Epics are usually long, whereas a tragedy is often
restricted to the events of a single day. Those who have a firm understanding of tragedy will also have a firm
understanding of epic, as everything present is epic is also present in tragedy. However, all that is present in a
tragedy cannot be found in an epic poem.
A tragedy is an imitation of an admirable action that has unity and magnitude. Tragedy is written in language
that has rhythm and melody, and it is performed by actors, not by narration. Most importantly, tragedy purifies the
audience by producing in them the emotions of fear and pity in a process known as catharsis. A tragedy has six
components—plot, character, diction, reasoning, spectacle, and lyric poetry—and these components determine a
tragedy’s quality. Plot, however, is the most important component part of tragedy. Tragedy imitates actions, not
people, and these actions are the events that make up the plot. Plus, the most effective way in which a tragedy
produces catharsis is through recognition and reversal, which are both part of the plot. A tragedy must be “whole,” and
it must have a definite beginning, middle, and end. A tragedy must have magnitude, or it must produce astonishment in
the audience, but its imitation cannot be arbitrary. If the action being imitated in a tragedy is too big or too small, the
entire plot cannot be appreciated at once, and unity is forfeited. An imitation has unity if it represents a complete
action, and the same goes for plot—a plot is only unified if it imitates a complete action.
Poetry does not imitate “what has happened,” Aristotle argues, it imitates “what would happen,” as long as it
is probable or necessary. Historians and poets are not different because one writes in prose and one in verse; they are
different because the former writes what has happened, while the latter writes what would happen. Even if all historian
wrote in poetic verse, their writing would still not be considered poetry. It is a poet’s job to make plots, and those plots
can include the sort of thing that has happened, since the sort of thing that has happened is likely to happen again. It is
not enough for a tragedy to simply imitate a whole action—the imitation must also provoke in the audience the
emotions needed for catharsis, and catharsis is most effectively produced through events that are unexpected.
Every tragic plot involves a change of fortune, and such plots can be either complex (in which a change of
fortune involves recognition, reversal, or both) or simple (in which a change of fortune does not involve recognition or
reversal). A reversal “is a change to the opposite in the actions being performed,” which, of course, occurs because of
“necessity or probability”—that is, in a way that seems likely and that follows logically from the story’s previous events.
Recognition “is a change from ignorance to knowledge, disclosing either a close relationship or enmity, on the part of
the people marked out for good or bad fortune.” The best plot, according to Aristotle, is one in which recognition and
reversal occur at the same time, as they do in Sophocles’s Oedipus Rex. Recognition combined with reversal involves
fear and pity, which are the very foundation of tragedy, and either good fortune or bad fortune will be the outcome of
such a combination. Tragedies that involve human suffering, such as in war, are also effective in bringing about
catharsis.
The best tragedies, according to Aristotle, are those with complex plots. A good tragedy should not depict an
overly moral character undergoing a change in fortune from good to bad, as this upsets audiences and does not inspire
fear and pity. Similarly, an overly wicked character should not undergo a change of fortune from bad to good, as such a
change isn’t tragic and will not inspire fear or pity either. Still, a good tragedy does include a change in fortune from
good to bad, as such plots are more tragic than plots that end in good fortune and will therefore elicit more fear and
pity. Tragedy includes acts that are “terrible or pitiable,” and these acts can occur between people of a close
relationship (like family members), between enemies, or between neutrals. There is maximum fear and pity in “terrible
or pitiable acts” between close characters, such as the murder of one’s father or son.
Aristotle next considers characters within tragedy: he defines four things that go into the construction of a
character. The first is goodness, or the moral essence of a character’s actions and disposition. A character’s imitation
must also be appropriate, and it must have likeness, or similarity. Lastly, a character must be consistent, and if it is
necessary or probable that a character behave in an inconsistent way, they should be “consistently inconsistent.” Poets
should always visualize a plot as they construct it so that they can spot inconsistencies and inappropriateness. A tragedy
must also have complication and resolution, and both complication and resolution should be constructed with equal
care and attention.

M.Rehan Basra Ph.D Scholar 03004089826

 A tragedy includes reasoning and diction, which can be broken down further into several of its own
component parts, including nouns, verbs, and utterances. Clarity is most important in diction, as long as there isn’t “loss
of dignity.” Clear diction includes standard words in common usage; however, using only common words in a poem
is unoriginal and inartistic and leads to a “loss of dignity.” Thus, a balance must be struck between standard words in
common usage and “exotic expressions,” which are coined by the poet or are otherwise non-standard. Good poetry
uses all forms of diction, especially metaphor and uncommon words.
According to Aristotle, objections to poetry usually involve one of the following: a poem is impossible,
irrational, harmful, contradictory, or incorrect. Often, that which seems impossible or irrational isn’t as impossible as it
may seem, especially since it is paradoxically likely for unlikely things to happen. Furthermore, that which seems
contradictory or incorrect might be an imitation of an object as it should be or as it is thought to be, not as it actually is.
In other words, Aristotle easily dismisses each of the usual objections to poetry. People might ask if tragedy is superior
to epic, and Aristotle maintains that tragedy is absolutely superior. An epic poem lacks spectacle and lyric poetry, which
are a “source of intense pleasure,” and a tragedy is shorter. Aristotle argues that “what is more concentrated is more
pleasant than what is watered down by being extended in time.” For instance, if Sophocles’s Oedipus Rex were as long
as Homer’s Iliad, it would be much less impactful. Lastly, since an epic is so much longer than a tragedy, unity in an epic
can be difficult to achieve. Because of this, Aristotle considers tragedy superior; however, he argues that it is fear and
pity, and the subsequent catharsis, that really make tragedy superior to epic poetry.

When Written: Unknown; likely between 335 and 323 B.C.E.

Where Written: Athens, Greece
When Published: Unknown; likely between 335 and 323 B.C.E.
Literary Period: Classical Greek
Genre: Literary Theory
Point of View: First Person

Major Characters
1. Aristotle 9. Aeschylus
2. Oedipus 10. Ajax
3. Iphigeneia 11. Creon
4. Odysseus 12. Hector
5. Sophocles 13. Medea
6. Homer 14. Menelaus
7. Achilles 15. Merope
8. Aegisthus 16. Orestes
Minor Characters
1. Euripides
2. Aristophanes
3. Herodotus
Terms
1. Catharsis 18. Object
2. Change of fortune 19. Plot
3. Character 20. Poetry
4. Comedy 21. Reasoning
5. Complex plot 22. Recognition
6. Complication 23. Resolution
7. Diction 24. Reversal
8. Dithyrambic poetry 25. Rhetoric
9. Epic poetry 26. Simple plot
10. Error 27. Spectacle
11. Iambic trimeter 28. Tragedy
12. Imitation 29. Unity
13. Lampoon
14. Lyric poetry
15. Magnitude
16. Medium
17. Mode

M.Rehan Basra Ph.D Scholar 03004089826

Themes
1. Tragedy vs. Epic Poetry
2. Imitation
3. Fear Pity and Catharsis
4. Component Parts and Balance
Symbols
1. Oedipus Rex

1. Tragedy vs. Epic Poetry

Through Poetics, Aristotle examines both tragedy and epic poetry and ultimately argues that tragedy, which he
maintains is more pleasurable and more artistic, is a superior form of poetic expression. Aristotle first examines
tragedy, which he defines as an
“imitation of an action that is admirable, complete and possesses magnitude.”
According to Aristotle, tragedy must be put “in language made pleasurable,” meaning the language should
have “rhythm and melody” and even include song. A true tragedy can be separated into parts:
• Plot
• Character
• Diction
• Reasoning
• Spectacle
• Lyric poetry

He emphasis that a true tragedy is performed by actors, and elicits feelings of pity and fear in those who watch
or read it. Aristotle argues that the most important component of a tragedy is the plot. The purpose of tragedy is not to
imitate people, but rather to imitate actions and life more generally. Therefore,
“the events, i.e., the plot, […] is the most important thing of all.”
Aristotle claims tragedy imitates not “what has happened,” but “the kind of thing that would happen, i.e.,
what is possible in accordance with probability or necessity.” Therefore, tragedy is not concerned with historical
particulars, but with things that are more universal, like human suffering. For this reason, Aristotle maintains that
tragedy is more poignant and meaningful than other forms of poetry. Tragic plots involve some change of fortune,
either from good to bad or vice versa. Aristotle maintains that the best tragedies are those with complex plots, the plots
that involve a change of fortune that comes about because of reversal, recognition, or both. Whereas reversal is a
change in the opposite direction, and recognition involves a change from ignorance to knowing.
As an example, Aristotle offers Sophocles’s Oedipus Rex, in which Oedipus discovers that he unknowingly
murdered his father and slept with his mother. Aristotle argues that such complex plots are better than simple plots,
which, by comparison, do not involve recognition or reversal in their change of fortune.

Epic poetry is similar to tragedy, both imitate admirable actions “in language made pleasurable.” However,
epic poetry relies only on verse and is narrative in form. It is often a story told through the lens of a single person rather
than through multiple actors. Aristotle further points out that tragedies and epic poems differ in length, as epics are
“unrestricted in time,” but tragedies are usually confined to the acts of a single day and not much more. For instance,
Sophocles’s tragedy Oedipus Rex is just over 1,600 lines long; in contrast, Homer’s epic poem the Iliad has over 15,000
lines of verse. Like a tragedy, an epic poem involves a plot that is either complex or simple, and it has the same
components as tragedy. But only tragedy features lyric poetry (such as songs performed by the chorus of a play) and
spectacle (action on a stage that is not related to language). Aristotle states that everything that is present in epic
poetry is also present in tragedy. However, all that is present in tragedy cannot be found in epic poetry, which is why
Aristotle argues that tragedy is superior to epic poetry.
Epic poetry has “language made pleasurable,” which means it is written in verse that is naturally rhythmic and
melodic, like iambic verse, but it lacks spectacle and music. Aristotle argues that spectacle and music are sources of
“intense pleasure” because people have a natural proclivity for rhythm and melody and are attracted to spectacle.
Aristotle also claims that tragedy is better because
“what is more concentrated is more pleasant than what is watered down by being extended in time.”
Aristotle declares if Oedipus Rex had as many lines as the Iliad. The power of Oedipus’s story and the resulting
emotions, it elicits in the audience would be diminished. General, tragedy beats epic poetry in terms of "artistic effect"
and is thus a better way to express one's creativity since it must evoke emotions such as dread or sadness in its
audience rather than just "any random pleasure."

M.Rehan Basra Ph.D Scholar 03004089826

2. Imitation
Aristotle’s Poetics is particularly concerned with mimesis, a Greek word used within literary theory and
philosophy that loosely translates to “representation” or “imitation.” In Ancient Greece, where Aristotle lived and wrote
was considered mimetic. This idea means that all art is a representation or imitation of nature, including human nature.
Mimesis was a hot topic in Aristotle’s time, and some writers and philosophers, such as Plato in his work The Republic,
warned that art, especially poetry, should be approached with caution, as it is merely an imitation of nature as created
in God’s vision. Since poetry only imitates nature, Plato argues, it is too far removed from absolute truth.
In Poetics, Aristotle weighs in on this broader argument about mimesis; however, he isn’t concerned with
imitation in quite the same way as Plato. Instead of arguing against poetry as Plato does, Aristotle more deeply explores
the human tendency to imitate nature through art. In Poetics, Aristotle upholds the popular belief that all poetry is a
form of mimesis; however, he implies that imitation isn’t necessarily a bad thing, in large part because all human beings
are naturally prone to imitation and respond to it with pleasure.
Aristotle argues that all forms of poetry—tragedy, epic poetry, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and dance; and
music performed by pipe or lyre, are forms of imitation and can only differ three ways:
1. Their Medium of imitation
2. Their Object of imitation
3. Their Mode of imitation
In all poetry, Aristotle says, “the medium of imitation is rhythm, language and melody,” and different types of
poetic expression employ these mediums separately or together in some combination. For instance, music may use
melody and rhythm, whereas dance uses only rhythm and tragedy uses all three.
Imitations must have an object, and poetry imitates “agents,” i.e., people and events. These objects “must be
either admirable or inferior,” and the difference, Aristotle argues, is the difference between a tragedy and a comedy.
According to Aristotle, comedies aim to “imitate people worse than our contemporaries,” and tragedies imitate those
who are “better” than us.
Lastly, poetry differs in its mode of imitation. Imitation is accomplished in Homer’s Odyssey, an epic poem,
through the narration of a single person. In other forms of poetry, like tragic plays, imitation is created through multiple
agents engaged in some activity. Poetry as a form of artistic expression can vary in many ways, however, Aristotle
maintains that all poetry is a form of imitation.
Aristotle further argues that the human tendency to create art and poetry comes from a natural instinct for
imitation. According to Aristotle, “imitation comes naturally to human beings from childhood.” Aristotle says that this
is how humans are different from animals as people learn through imitation and have a strong inclination to imitate
people and things.
Furthermore, Aristotle claims that human beings find “universal pleasure in imitations.” People naturally take
pleasure in looking at an accurate imitation of an object. People find pleasure in viewing distressing and believable
images, as long as there is adequate distance, such as that created through art and imitation. Aristotle states that when
human beings look upon an imitation in any form, they find pleasure in the understanding of what exactly that form is
attempting to imitate.
Aristotle uses a painted portrait as an example. A portrait is the imitation of a specific person, and when one
recognizes that person, it is a pleasurable experience. According to Aristotle, the pleasure derived from imitation is in
knowing what an imitation aims to represent.
For Aristotle, imitation is not a question of good or bad, as it is for Plato; imitation is simply human nature and
will always be a part of the human experience. Aristotle maintains that some imitation is bad, such as a poorly-written
poem that ignores probability or necessity, or a badly executed painting in which a female deer is depicted with antlers
(because only male deer have antlers).
For Aristotle, the fact that some imitations are bad doesn’t mean that all imitations are bad. Aristotle implies
that its existence is inevitable and should be assessed and questioned more thoroughly.

3. Fear, Pity and Catharsis

In Poetics, Aristotle argues that the true aim of tragedy is to bring about a “purification” of emotion.
Aristotle claims that “one should not seek every pleasure from tragedy, but the one that is characteristic of it.” In
other words, since fear and pity are characteristic of tragedy, these are the emotions a tragedy should produce in those
who read or view it. This “purification,” or production of fear and pity in the audience, is also known by the Greek word
catharsis, and catharsis is evidence of the successful construction of a tragedy. According to Aristotle, writers of tragic
poetry “should produce the pleasure which comes from pity and fear, and should do so by means of imitation.” Such
imitation is achieved one of two ways: through the representation of human suffering, which involves both destruction

M.Rehan Basra Ph.D Scholar 03004089826

and pain, or the representation of events that occur “contrary to expectation but because of one another,” as they do
in a tragic plot that involves reversal and recognition. In Poetics, Aristotle underscores the importance of catharsis
through fear and pity in the construction and consumption of tragedies, and he ultimately argues that tragic plots
involving reversal and recognition are best for producing feelings of fear and pity.
Aristotle maintains that catharsis is a crucial part of tragedy and that tragic plots should evoke fear and pity
specifically, as these are the emotions most often associated with tragic plots. Most tragedies involve human suffering,
which, according to Aristotle, “is an action that involves destruction or pain (e.g., deaths in full view, extreme agony,
woundings and so on).” Such “terrible and pitiable” actions should produce the emotions of fear and pity in the
audience. A tragedy that does not elicit these emotions fails to meet the purpose of tragedy, which is human suffering.
Aristotle ultimately argues that people find pleasure in viewing distressing imitations, like those found in tragedy, as
long as such imitations are viewed from a safe distance. Catharsis through tragedy not only allows the audience to view
a distressing image, it allows them to vicariously experience the same emotions.
According to Aristotle, the strongest catharsis comes from tragic plots that involve reversal. Aristotle defines
reversal as
“a change to the opposite in the actions being performed as stated—and this, as we have been saying, in
accordance with probability or necessity.”
In other words, catharsis is best achieved during tragedies in which events occur contrary to what is stated, as
long as those events are necessary and feasible.
Aristotle gives Sophocles’s Oedipus Rex as an example of tragic reversal. In Sophocles’s tragic play, a
messenger comes to Oedipus to free him of the fear that he has committed incest with his mother, and in doing so, the
messenger produces the “opposite result.” That is, instead of calming Oedipus’s fears, the messenger confirms
Oedipus’s true identity and reveals that Oedipus really has committed incest and patricide. For Aristotle, catharsis is
strongest in tragedies like Oedipus Rex, in which feelings of fear and pity are brought about because of an unexpected
reversal of the plot.
Aristotle maintains that unforeseen reversals add to astonishment, which is more powerful and complete when
it is achieved spontaneously and happens for a reason. In addition to reversals, Aristotle also argues that catharsis is
best achieved through tragic plots that involve recognition.
Aristotle defines recognition as
“a change from ignorance to knowledge, disclosing either a close relationship or enmity, on the part of people
marked out for good or bad fortune.”
In other words, recognition is a sudden understanding or revelation, which for most of the plot remains
unknown. Aristotle argues that there is more than one kind of recognition in tragedies. Recognition can occur “with
respect to inanimate and chance objects; and it is also possible to recognize whether someone has or has not
performed some action.” Recognition can also occur on both sides of a tragedy, as it does in Euripides’s Iphigeneia in
Tauris, in which both Orestes and Iphigeneia recognize they are siblings, albeit at different times. However, Aristotle
maintains, the type of recognition that involves good or bad fortune is particularly effective in the case of tragedy.
Aristotle argues that recognition is most effective when it occurs at the same time as reversal, as it does in
Oedipus Rex. In the play, Oedipus’s recognition of his true identity unfolds simultaneously with the plot’s reversal, when
the messenger arrives with the intention of allaying Oedipus’s incestuous fears, they reveal that Oedipus has murdered
his real father and married his mother. The dual surprise of an unexpected reversal and recognition produces the
strongest feelings fear and pity, which, Aristotle argues, is the true objective of tragedy.
Tragedies like Oedipus Rex that involve a change of fortune through reversal, recognition, or both are what
Aristotle refers to as complex plots, as compared to simple plots, which do not involve either reversal or recognition.
Aristotle contends that such reversals and recognitions “must arise from the actual structure of the plot, so that they
come about as a result of what has happened before, out of necessity or in accordance with probability.” Ultimately
Aristotle argues that complex plots are most effective at bringing about catharsis through feelings of pity and fear,
which is the hallmark of a tragedy.

4. Component Parts and Balance

In Poetics, Aristotle examines the defining features of a successful poem, specifically of tragedy and epic
poetry. He breaks down the required component parts of an effective tragedy—including plot, character, diction,
spectacle, reasoning, and lyric poetry—and he explores each component part individually. He discusses the parts of
diction, the rhetoric behind reasoning, and the natural human inclinations that make lyric poetry and spectacle so
pleasing and entertaining. Aristotle pays close attention to plot, which he contends is the most important component
part of both tragedy and epic. Plots can be either complex or simple, but Aristotle maintains that the best tragedies and
epic poems have complex plots with recognition and reversal occurring together at the same time, as they do in

M.Rehan Basra Ph.D Scholar 03004089826

Sophocles’s Oedipus Rex. Tragedy and epic poetry share many of the same component parts, and balance within each
component part is equally important. For Aristotle, a good poem needs more than just the component parts—a good
poem strikes the proper balance so that the poem is both astonishing and rational.
Through Poetics, Aristotle implicitly argues that balance is a defining feature of all successful poetry, especially
tragedy. Aristotle discusses the component part of character, which he defines as the moral disposition of a character or
action. Characters and actions can be either admirable or inferior but these traits must have proper balance in a poem.
According to Aristotle, every tragedy includes a change of fortune from either good to bad or vice versa, and certain
characters are marked within a play to undergo this change. A good tragedy should not depict overly moral characters
undergoing a change from good fortune to bad, Aristotle argues, because this produces “disgust” in the audience. Moral
characters who are left with bad fortune at the end of a play are upsetting to audiences. To avoid this, balance is
needed within characters, they shouldn’t be too good. Similarly, Aristotle argues that overly immoral characters who
undergo a change in fortune from bad to good are also ineffective. A bad character changing from bad to good fortune
is not tragic, Aristotle argues, and it will not lead to the feelings of fear and pity required for catharsis. Just as characters
shouldn’t be overly good, Aristotle likewise argues that they shouldn’t be overly bad. A successful poem finds a way to
make even bad characters look good, Aristotle says, but they shouldn’t be so good as to be implausible. People are
rarely all good and so implying they are isn’t believable; however, a character mustn’t be all bad either. Aristotle argues
that a successful blending of good and bad traits in character can be found in Homer’s Achilles, who kills Hector in the
Iliad but is still depicted as a good person. In Achilles, there is balance of good and bad character traits, which is what
makes his death at the end of the Iliad tragic.
Aristotle also discusses the component parts of diction, which includes nouns and verbs, and he argues that a
successful poem finds balance in its use of diction as well. Aristotle says that the most important thing about diction is
clarity, and the clearest words are those that are in frequent use and common circulation. Aristotle contends that clear
words which are easily understood are best in poetry, provided their use does not result in a “loss of dignity.” Using only
common words in a poem is unoriginal and inartistic. Thus, a poem must find balance between common words and
what Aristotle calls “exotic expressions.” According to Aristotle, “exotic expressions” are those words not in common
usage. Such “exotic expressions” may be in common use elsewhere, or they may be coined specifically by the poet.
“Exotic expressions” can be created though lengthening and the addition of vowels or syllables, or through shortening
and the removal of vowels or syllables. However, attention to balance is again required in diction, and
too many “exotic expressions” can render a poem nonsense. Another form of “exotic expressions” is the use of
metaphor, which is a noun applied to something else. For Aristotle, good use of metaphor is the mark of a natural poet
and can disguise any number of poetic errors; however, the use of metaphor alone does not make a successful poem
either. A good poem makes use of all parts of diction, including metaphor and other non-standard words. The blending
of “exotic expressions” and common words is crucial in a successful poem so that it is both understandable and
entertaining.
The need for balance is poetry is also seen in Aristotle’s explanation of magnitude and unity. Magnitude is a
tragedy’s ability to produce astonishment and wonder, but this magnitude must be according to necessity or
probability, and the tragedy must have unity. To have unity, a tragic plot must have a definite beginning, middle, and
end, and it shouldn’t be so large that it can’t be readily held in one’s memory. In other words, a tragedy needs balance
between magnitude and unity, and it shouldn’t be as big and astonishing as to disrupt unity or be implausible. For
Aristotle, a defining feature of poetry is balance, and this balance is equally important in all of a poem’s component
parts.

Terms
Catharsis – Catharsis is the process of feeling and purifying one’s body of strong emotion, particularly fear and pity.

Change of Fortune – A change of fortune is the part of a plot in which there is a change in fortune, either from good to
bad or vice versa.

Character – Character is one of the component parts of tragedy. By character, Aristotle does not always mean the
people depicted in poetry; instead, character in Poetics often refers to a character’s moral fortitude and disposition.

Comedy – Comedy is one of the five forms of poetry. According to Aristotle, comedy is an imitation of inferior people;
however, that is not to say characters in comedies are inferior in every way. A comedy is a play that depicts some sort of
“laughable error” or disgrace that, in turn, elicits some emotion in the audience, such as embarrassment or delight.

M.Rehan Basra Ph.D Scholar 03004089826

Complex Plot – A complex plot is one of the two kinds of plot. Plots can be either simple or complex, and a complex plot
is one in which the change of fortune comes about because of recognition, reversal, or both.

Complication – A complication is the part of a tragic plot that includes everything from the beginning of the play up to
the point of the change of fortune.

Diction – Diction is the composition of a poem’s verse. Diction includes utterances—like commands, answers, and
prayers—along with the following: phoneme, syllable, connective, noun, verb, conjunction, and inflection. Diction’s
most important quality is clarity as long as there is no “loss of dignity.”

Dithyrambic Poetry – Dithyrambic poetry is one of the five forms of poetry. A dithyramb is an ancient Greek hymn and
dance performed in honor of Dionysus, the Greek god of wine and theater, and it is one of the earliest forms of theater
and public performance.

Epic Poetry – Epic poetry is one of the five forms of poetry Aristotle examines in Poetics. Like tragedy, Aristotle argues
that epic poetry is an imitation of admirable people, but he maintains that epic isn’t as highly-regarded as tragedy.
Unlike tragedies, epic poems use only verse and are narrative in form, and epics also lack spectacle and lyric.

Error – Error is often referred to by the Greek hamartia, and it is best understood as the fatal flaw that brings about a
character’s downfall. In the plot of a tragedy, Aristotle argues, there should be some change of fortune—a change from
good fortune to bad or vice versa—and that change should arise from some sort of error.

Iambic Trimeter – Iambic trimeter is a form of poetic verse that has three iambic units, or “feet,” which is a unit of
poetry composed of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. According to Aristotle, iambic trimeter was
first developed by Homer and took the place of trochaic form, which has four iambic units instead of three. Aristotle
claims that iambic trimeter is a natural form of poetic verse because it mimics movement and is closest to natural
speech.

Imitation – Aristotle argues that all art is an imitation. Art imitates some object and that object is either admirable or
inferior. According to Aristotle, all imitations differ in one or more of three ways: their medium, object, and/or mode of
imitation.

Lampoon – A lampoon is a type of comedy in which a single person is satirized.

Lyric Poetry – Lyric poetry is one of the component parts of tragedy. Lyric poetry is verse put to song, and it is not found
in epic poetry.

Magnitude – For an artist to imitate an object of beauty that imitation must possess all the parts it aims to imitate, and
its magnitude cannot be arbitrary. Magnitude speaks to the actual size of something, but it also refers to metaphorical
size and scope.

Medium– Medium is the means through which an artist imitates an object. In visual art and painting, the medium of
imitation is color and shape.

Mode – Mode is the way in which an artist imitates an object.

Object – An object is the thing that is imitated in a work of art.

Plot – A plot is a component of tragedy and, according to Aristotle, the most important part. Per Aristotle, tragedy is an
imitation of “actions and of life,” and those events constitute the plot. Plots can be either complex, simple, or based on
suffering.

Poetry – Poetry is the form of art discussed by Aristotle in Poetics. According to Aristotle, the term poetry can be
applied to any of the following forms: tragedy, epic poetry, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, and music played on pipe or
lyre.

Reasoning – Reasoning is a component part of tragedy. Reasoning is best understood as the effect produced by

M.Rehan Basra Ph.D Scholar 03004089826

language—such as proof, refutation, or the production of fear and pity (catharsis)—and it allows characters to say what
is important and appropriate.

Recognition – Aristotle defines recognition as “a change from ignorance to knowledge, disclosing either a close
relationship or enmity, on the part of the people marked out for good or bad fortune” within a poem, particularly in a
tragedy or epic poem. Put simply, recognition is the plot device in which a character understands something that they
didn’t previously know.

Resolution – A tragedy has both complication and resolution and resolution is everything that happens from the
beginning of the change of fortune to the end of the play.

Reversal – Aristotle defines reversal as “a change to the opposite in the actions being performed” that occurs in
accordance with necessity or probability.

Rhetoric – Rhetoric is reasoning in written word. Aristotle doesn’t go too far into rhetoric in Poetics however, he does
claim that poets of contemporary tragedy make their characters speak rhetorically, meaning they argue some point or
express some idea.

Simple Plot – A simple plot is a plot in which a single, unified action is imitated and in which the change of fortune
comes about without recognition or reversal.

Spectacle – Spectacle is a component part of tragedy. Spectacle is best understood as the visual effects of a tragedy,
and Aristotle argues that it has more to do with “the art of the property-manager” than with the art of the poet.

Tragedy – Tragedy is one of the five forms of poetry. Tragedy “is an imitation of an action that is admirable, complete
and possesses magnitude.” Tragedy is written in “language made pleasurable” and it can be separated into parts
of verse or song.

Unity – Unity is the state of being complete or whole.

M.Rehan Basra Ph.D Scholar 03004089826