SCIENCE

 From Latin word "scientia," which means "knowledge”

 Systematized body of knowledge obtained through study and experimentation.
Scientific Method - The collection of various activities that people use in their attempt
to describe and explain natural phenomena accurately
Scientific Attitude
This is the scientist's way of doing and thinking, especially when performing
experiments or any scientific investigation. Some of the scientific attitudes are the
following:
 Curiosity - pays particular interest and asks questions about observations
 Honesty - reports results of observations truthfully.
 Humility - accepts that he does not have the monopoly of ideas about the
phenomenon
 Unbiased - ability to separate his own personal ideas from the actual findings
 Open-mindedness - readiness to accept or consider opinion of others
 Patience and perseverance - does not easily give up when investigation seems
difficult

Mechanics
Force
 Push or pull that changes or tends to change the motion of the body
Motion
 Continuous change in position of a body with respect to a reference point
 Speed is the rate of motion.
 V= d/t, where v= speed, d= distance, and t= time
 Velocity is also the rate of motion, only it is a vector
 An odometer or odograph is an instrument for measuring the distance travelled
by a, vehicle, such as a bicycle or automobile. The device may be electronic,
mechanical, or a combination of the two.
Newton's Three Laws of Motion
 Law of Inertia - a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will
continue to move in uniform motion unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
 Law of Acceleration - When acted upon by a net farce, the body will accelerate,
and that the acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the force applied
and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. F= ma.
 Law of Interaction - for every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction.
Work
 The product of the force applied and the displacement through which the force is
directed.
 W= Fd, measured in N.m or joule (J)

 Can be done easier and faster with the use of machines

 Machine is any device that helps in doing work
 The six simple machines are: lever, pulley, wheel and axle, inclined plane, screw
and wedge.
 Mechanical advantage is the number of times a machine can do work compared
to the work done without a machine.
 The efficiency of machine is the ration of work output to work input
] Efficiency = work output/work input x 100%
Power
 Rate of doing work
P= Wit, measured in joule/sec or watt
Energy
 Ability to do work
 Forms of energy

o Mechanical energy
Potential energy (PE) - energy due to position of the body
PE = mgh, where m= mass of the body, h = height and g= acceleration
Due to gravity which is 9.8 m/s₂.
Kinetic energy (KE) - energy of the body which is in motion
KE = 1/2 mv₂
o Electrical energy - energy of the moving electrons
o Chemical energy - energy of the atoms and molecules of matter
o Nuclear energy - energy resulting from the fission or fusion reactions in atoms
o Radiant energy - energy in the form of electromagnetic waves
o Thermal energy - internal energy of a body which is the total kinetic energy of
the molecules of a body
Fluids
 Density is the mass of the substance at a given volume, d=m
 If the density of the material or substance is greater that the density of the liquid,
the material will sink in the liquid, if the density of the material or substance is
less than the liquid, the material will float in the liquid.
 The greater the density of the liquid, the greater the buoyant force.
 Pressure is the force exerted at the given unit area, p = F/A
 Liquid pressure depends on the density and height of the liquid. Liquid pressure, p = dhg
where p is the liquid pressure, d is the density and h is the height of the liquid. G is the
constant and does not affect the pressure,
 Atmospheric pressure or air pressure
depends on the height The higher the position,
the thinner is the air, and the lesser is the air
pressure.
Heat and Temperature

 Heat is the total kinetic energy of molecules

of a body
 Temperature is the average kinetic energy of
molecules

Methods of Heat Transfer

o Conduction - heat transfer from one molecule to an adjacent molecule
o Convection - heat transfer by the actual movement of heated molecules. The
circulation of the heated molecules is called a convection current.
o Radiation - transfer of heat across space in the form of electromagnetic waves

Change of Phase
o Melting or fusion - a physical process that results in the phase transition of a
substance from a solid to a liquid.
o Freezing or Solidification - change of phase from liquid to solid at its normal
freezing point
o Vaporization - change of phase from liquid to gas at its normal boiling point
o Condensation - change of phase from gas to liquid
o Sublimation - Change of phase from solid to gas without passing the liquid state
Wave and Sound
A wave is a disturbance propagated through a medium.
o Mechanical waves are waves that require a medium. This means that they have to have
some sort of matter to travel through
o Electromagnetic waves are waves that can travel through a vacuum (empty space).
They don't need a medium or matter.
o Transverse waves are waves where the disturbance movies perpendicular to the
direction of the wave.
o Longitudinal waves are waves where the disturbance moves in the same direction as the
wave.
The properties of waves are reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.
Sound is a longitudinal wave, coming from a vibration source, transmitted through a
medium and interpreted by the sense of hearing.

Light
Theories about the nature of light:
Corpuscular theory - light is made up of particles known as corpuscles; Wave theory -
light is a wave
Electromagnetic Wave theory - light is composed of electric field and magnetic field
Since light behaves as a wave, it can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, and interfered.
The image formed by a mirror is due to the reflection of light. The kinds of mirrors are
plane and curved mirrors. Curved mirrors can be convex or concave.
The image formed by a lens is due to the refraction of light. Lenses are categorized as
diverging and converging.
Electricity
Classifications of electricity:
 Electrostatics is electricity at rest. It only involves electric charges and their
behavior. Electric charges are of two kinds:
o Negative charge when there is an excess of electrons
o Positive charge when there is a deficiency of electrons

 Current electricity - electricity due to moving charges.

 Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing is directly proportional to voltage and
inversely proportional to resistance. I = V/R.

CIRCUITS
A circuit (in electronics) is a path between two
or more points along which an electrical
current can be carried.
 In a series circuit, all components are
connected end-to-end, forming a single
path for electrons to flow.
 In a parallel circuit, all components are
connected across each other, forming.
exactly two sets of electrically common points.
 A "branch* in a parallel circuit is a path for
electric current formed by one of the loads
components (such as a resistor).

Electromagnetism

Magnet - an object that attracts magnetic objects like metals

A magnet has two poles, north and south.
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
 Generator - a device that changes mechanical. Energy to electrical energy
 Motor- a device that changes (electrical energy to mechanical energy
Nuclear Energy
Atom - smallest and indivisible particle of matter. it is composed of sub-particles,
namely, electron, which carries negative charge, and proton which is positively charged;
and neutron which is neutral.
Types of Nuclear Reaction:
 Fission - when a heavy nucleus splits together with the release of energy
 Fusion - when two light nucleus combine with the release of energy
 CHEMISTRY
Study of the composition and changes in matter
Matter
Anything that has mass and occupies space
 Mass - refers to the quantity of matter. It's also a measure of inertia.
 Volume - space occupied
Classification of Matter:
Pure substances - made of definite kind of material
 Elements - made of the same atoms) Ex. Gold, aluminum, oxygen, carbon,
platinum, etc.
 Compounds - made of 2 or more different atoms in definite composition or ratio
and which cannot be separated by ordinary physical means Ex. Water - H20 -
composed of 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen
Mixtures - physical combination of 2 or more substances which can be separated by
mechanical means.
 Homogeneous mixture - a mixture in which the molecules are thoroughly
mixed; a mixture that is uniform throughout.
- Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. The components of solution are solute,
which is the dissolved particles, and the solvent, which Is the dissolving
particles
 Heterogeneous mixture
- Suspensions - heterogeneous mixture where particles are too large that they
settle at the bottom of the container.
- Colloids - heterogeneous mixture whose particles are not large enough to
settle nor small enough to be dissolved, like the Tyndall Effect, which is the
scattering of light by the particles.
Properties of Matter
 Physical properties:
o Extensive - depends on the amount of the substance (Ex. Mass, volume,
weight, pressure)
o Intensive. - does not depend on the amount of substance (Ex. Density,
taste, color, smell, specific heat)
  Chemical Properties
- Property exhibited due to composition of the substance
Ex. Combustion, corrosion, decomposition, etc.

Changes of Matter
 Physical change - change in form and appearance but not in the composition
o Change in phase; melting, evaporation, condensation, sublimation, freezing
o Change in form or shape: cutting, breaking, folding, etc.
 Chemical change - change in the composition resulting to formation of a new
substance
o Observed when substances react with each other and form a different
substance
o Forming precipitates, evolution of gas, release or absorption of heat, change in
color and taste, production of sound and light
Law of Conservation of Energy
 During chemical reaction, the energy before and after the reaction is constant
Energy is not created nor destroyed, but only transformed?

Law of Conservation of Mass

 Total mass of the reactants before the reaction is equal to the total mass of the
products after the reaction.

Phases of Matter
 Solid - molecules are compact; small intermolecular spaces; strong molecular
attraction; molecular motion limited to vibrations; definite shape, size and volume
 Liquid - molecules are farther apart than solids, larger intermolecular spaces;
weaker intermolecular force of attraction; molecules
move pas one another, definite volume; takes the shape of container
 Gas - molecules are far apart; large intermolecular spaces; very weak
intermolecular force of attraction; molecules are free to move; no definite volume;
takes the shape of the container
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gas
Kinetic Energy - energy in motion
 Gas is a collection of particles that travels randomly along a straight-line path.
 Molecules do not occupy a definite volume.
 Molecules exhibit perfect elastic collision.
 Molecules do not exhibit attraction nor repulsion.
Atomic Structure
Atom - building blocks of matter; composed of 3 particles
 Protons -positively charged; located in the nucleus
 Electrons -negatively charged; orbiting around the nucleus
 Neutrons -ho charge, particle located in the nucleus
Atomic number is the same as the number of protons, while the atomic mass is the sum
of the number of protons and neutrons; Isotopes are atoms with the same number of
protons but that have a different number of neutrons.
Chemical Bonds - forces that join atoms together to form molecules.
 lonic Bond - formed between charged particles called ions due to electrons
transfer. lonic bond forms the NaCI compound.
 Covalent Bonds - are formed when atoms share electrons
Non-Polar Covalent-bond between atoms of the same kind that share electrons
equally
 Polar Covalent - bonds between atoms of molecules that do not equally share
the electrons.
 Metallic Bonds - bonds between metals

EARTH & SPACE SCIENCE

Branch of physical science that deals with physical aspects of the Earth
The study of Earth Science encompasses the following topics:
 Earth's origin and its relation to other celestial bodies
 Earth's structure and composition
 Earth's activities that bring about changes in the condition of the planet
Origin of the Earth
The "Big-Bang Theory’' is the closest to explaining how the Earth evolved
In this theory, the earth started to exist at the time the solar system originated.
The other theories that may explain the origin of the Earth are the following:
 Planetesimal Theory
 Binary Stars Theory
 Dust-Cloud Theory
The Solar System
 Composed of several celestial bodies, namely:
 The sun, is the central figure of the system.
 The planets, which are generally characterized by their revolution around the sun
 The moons or natural satellites that are revolving around its Mother Planet
 The asteroids, meteors, meteorites, and comets
  The solar system is composed of the inner planet, Mercury. Venus, Earth, and
Mars. The outer planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
 Pluto, which was once an outer planet, was temporarily excluded in the solar
system because astronomers were not able to track the movement of the planet.

Our Moon: Its Effects on the Earth

 Lone natural satellite of the Earth
 It makes one complete revolution in 27 1/3 days but its apparent revolution, that
is, completing its phases in 29 ½ days
 One effect of the moon is the occurrence of an eclipse. Solar eclipse occurs
when the moon passes directly between the earth and the sun at each new
moon.
 Lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes through the shadow of the earth
and this happens during full moon.
 Another effect of the moon is the occurrence of tides on the earth. Spring tides
occur when the moon and the sun are aligned every two weeks (new moon and
full Moon) resulting to high tides, which are higher than usual.
 Neap tides occur when the sun and the moon are at right angles to each other
(first and last quarters), resulting in high tides which are lower than usual.

Perigee - the point in the orbit of the moon or a satellite at which it is nearest to the earth.
Apogee - the point in the orbit of the moon or a satellite at which it is farthest from the earth.
The Motion of the Earth and their Effects
There are two principal motions of the Earth:
Rotation
 The Earth rotates on its axis every 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds -the
length of the day on Earth
 As the earth rotates, half of the Earth is lighted by the sun: This part experiences
daytime. The other side which does not receive light experiences night time.
Revolution
 The Earth revolves around the sun in 365 ¼ days. This is the length of the day.
 The seasonal change is caused by the tilt of the Earth and the able of sunlight
where it hits the Earth
 Aphelion - the point in the orbit of an object where it is farthest from the Sun.
 Perihelion - the point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid, or comet at which it is
closest to the sun.
The Four Spheres (Layers) of the Earth
 Lithosphere
- It is the solid, rocky crust covering the entire planet. It is made up of the following
layers that extend from the outermost to the innermost part of the earth: crust,
mantle, outer core, and inner core,
 Hydrosphere
- It is composed of all the water on or near the surface of the Earth.
- This includes the oceans, lakes, rivers, streams and even the moisture in the air.
 Atmosphere
- It is the body of air that envelops the Earth,
- The atmosphere is composed of 80% nitrogen and just around_16% oxygen. The
small amount remaining, about 4%, is made up of other gases, such as carbon
dioxide, helium, argon and neon.

Composition of the Earth

The Earth is composed of the materials and substances found in the lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere, which are solid materials, water and air respectively. Of
these three, the solid materials are predominantly visible and diversified. These are the
minerals, rocks and soil,
Minerals
 General Characteristics
o Single elements, or compounds, found naturally in the Earth's crust)
o Inorganic, that is, not derived from living things
o Solids
  Visible Characteristics
o Color - the most dominant color of the mineral
o Streak - the color of a thin layer of a mineral. This is sometimes seen as a
line of color in a mineral.
o Luster - the ability of a mineral to reflect, refract or absorb light falling on its
surface
o Crystal form - the geometric pattern of the mineral due to the arrangement of
atoms and molecules
o Cleavage and fracture - definite flat surfaces that yielded after the breaking of
minerals

 Distinguishing Properties
o Hardness - the ability of a mineral to, scratch or cut another mineral
o Specific Gravity - density of the substance compare to the density of water.

 Classification of Minerals
o Siliceous - ex. Quartz, Agate, Hornblende
o Non-metals - ex. Calcite, Sulfur, Gypsum
o Metal-ore - ex. Gold, Silver, Copper
o Gems - ex. Jade, Topaz, Opal

Rocks
The study of rock is called Petrology, they are classified according to their color, texture,
composition, and origin. Based on their origin, rocks are classified as:
 Igneous rocks
o Formed as magma cools off and crystallizes
o Those formed inside the Earth are called intrusive, while those outsides are
call extrusive rocks
o Examples are volcanic tuff, granite and basalt
 Sedimentary rocks
o Formed from sediments of weathered materials
o Used to tell much of Earth's history because these rocks contain fossils
o Example of these rocks are limestone, gravel and pebbles
 Metamorphic rocks
o These rocks undergo stages of development due to heat, pressure and
chemical reaction.
o Examples of these rocks are slate, marble, and graphite.
Soil
Soil is a natural resource formed out of weathered rocks with humus on the Earth's
surface. It consists of visually and texturally distinct layers which are classified as:
o Topsoil - the uppermost layer with decomposed organic matter, mixed with small
amount of minerals. Plants mostly grow in topsoil because it is rich in humus.
o Subsoil - this is also called mineral layers because it is composed of the soil and
its parent mineral. This contains less humus and also acts as reservoir of water.
Soil Conservation
The following are some of the ways to conserve soil:
o Contour plowing - plowing in furrows which follow the contours of the land
o Strip cropping - planting crops arranged in alternate bands of row crops and
cover crops
o Terracing - construction of step-like ridges following the contours of the slopes of
the land
o Crop rotation - alternate planting of row crops one year with cover crops the next
year

Activities that Change the Condition of the Earth

 Weathering - the breaking down of rocks by-physical or chemical means
 Erosion - the transport of weathered materials
 Diastrophism - the movement of the landforms
 Continental drift - a theory that explains the drifting of one continent to its present
position
 Plate tectonics - this theory explains that the outermost rigid layer of the Earth
called plates are continuously moving. This also explains the cause of
earthquakes, volcanoes, ocean trenches and formation of mountains.
 Rock deformation - refers to the changes in volume and shape of rocks that may
cause fractures and lead to the formation of faults.

Volcanism - covers all kinds of volcanic activities which include the formation of
volcanoes, the building, and expulsion of magma. Volcanoes may be classified
according to cones, which are:
 Cinder cone - with narrow base and steeper slope
 Shield cone - with broad base and gentle slope
 Composite cone - with a nearly perfect shape whose slope is gently at the base
and become steeper as one approaches the peak
Earthquake - vibration resulting fro the movement along the existing fault line. The
point where the vibration originated is called focus. The point on the surface which is
directly above the focus is known as the epicenter.
o Intensity: The severity of earthquake shaking is assessed using a descriptive
scale)
o Magnitude Earthquake size is a quantitative measure of the size of the
earthquake at its source. It measures the amount of seismic energy released by
an earthquake.
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within
the earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is
recorded on seismographs.
Body waves - travel through the interior of the earth; they arrive before the surface
waves emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface
waves.
1. P wave or primary wave - he fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first
to "arrive'’ at a seismic station
2. S wave or secondary wave - the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave
is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid
medium
Surface waves - Travel only through the crust, they are of a lower frequency than body
waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result; responsible for the
damage and destruction associated with earthquakes.
3. Love wave - the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side.
Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.
4. Rayleigh wave - rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an
ocean, because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same
direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to
the Rayleigh wave
Weather and Climate
 Meteorology is the study of weather and climate
 Weather refers to the atmospheric condition at a particular place and time
 Climate is the pattern of weather in a bigger land area over a long period of time
 Tropical disturbances are classified as tropical depression, storm, and typhoon.

Theses disturbances are measured by the strength of accompanying winds

The prevailing winds in the Philippines are the northeast monsoon and the southwest
monsoon.
BIOLOGICAL & ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
(Living Things)
Composed of cells
 Unicellular (1 cell) or multi-cellular (many cells)
Exhibit levels of organization: complex and organized
 Cell--tissue/organ/system-organism
 Cell as the basic unit of structure
Grow and develop
 Increase in size (grow) develop (less to more complex organism) through cell
division
Mitosis. - division in somatic or body cells; Meiosis - division of gametes or sex
cells
Respond to stimulus/stimuli
 Ability to react to any change in condition; Stimulus > the condition to which an
organism reacts/responds
Need and Transform energy
 Energy is required in order for the organism to grow, develop, and later
reproduce.
Adapt or adjust
 Ability to adjust to conditions in its environment in order to survive; Tropism:
phototropism (light); hydrotropism (water); geotropism (gravity), Mimicry,
camouflage, growing thorns, producing chemicals that affect the other organisms
Reproduce - the ability to produce a new organism of its own kind
 Asexual - no sex cells involved; one parent only: binary fission, budding, spore
formation, regeneration, vegetative propagation
 Sexual - sex cells or gametes are involved; male and female parents
Cell Theory
Cell is the basic component of a living organism.
New cells are produced from existing cells
Cell is the building block of life.
Parts/Structures
o Cell wall- protects and supports the plant cell; allows entry of water and other
substances into the cell.
o Cell membrane - between the cell and its environment which maintains
homeostasis,
o Nuclear membrane -controls substances, entering. and leaving. the nucleus
o Nucleus - carries the genetic material and controls cellular activities
o Cytoplasm - jelly-like part outside the nucleus that houses and protects the
organelles
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - a network of tubes that carries materials through the cell
 Ribosome - synthesize proteins
 Mitochondrion - breaks down sugar and releases energy; where aerobic respiration
takes place
 Vacuole -food or water storage
 Lysosome - breaks large food molecules into smaller ones
 Chloroplast - where photosynthesis takes places
 Nucleolus - nucleus” inside, the nucleus responsible for making ribosomes
 Golgi Apparatus_- modify and export proteins
 Centrioles - separate chromosome pairs during mitosis.

Classification of organisms based on energy

 Producer/autotrophs. - makes their own food through the process of
photosynthesis
During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are converted to carbohydrates
with the use of sunlight as an energy source. The process releases oxygen.
 Consumers/Heterotrophs - obtain energy from other organisms
 Decomposers/Saprotrophs- special type of consumers because they obtain
energy by consuming both the producers and consumers when they are already
dead.
Cell Division
Mitosis - body cells (somatic cells) are produced for, growth and development
Meiosis - gametes or sex cells are produces necessary for reproduction
Cytokinesis- breaking or division of the cytoplasm to form the daughter cells.
Meiosis. -reduces the chromosomes by one-half (diploid cell becomes haploid)
 Haploid daughter cells become diploid after fertilization
 Hall of the chromosomes come from the female gamete, and half comes from the
male gamete
Classification of Living things Organisms are grouped in three domains. There is a
relationship between the three domains and the six Kingdoms.
Bacteria and Archea consists of microscopic, mostly single-celled organisms. Members of the
domain archaea often live in in harsh environments that are very hot, cold, acidic, or sally,
Eukarya consists of larger, more complex cells containing a nucleus, special compartment that
contains the cell's DNA.
Pollution- the process of making land, water, air or other parts of the environment dirty
and unsafe or unsuitable to use. Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including
particulates and biological molecules are introduced onto Earth’s atmosphere.

 Water pollution is the

contamination of water bodies
(e.g., lakes, rivers, oceans,
aquifers and groundwater).
 Land pollution is the
deterioration (destruction) of
the earth's land surfaces, often
directly or indirectly as a result
of man's activities and their
misuse of land resources.
 Noise pollution or noise
disturbance is the disturbing or
excessive noise that may harm
the activity or balance of
human or animal life.
PUBLIC STORM WARNING SIGNALS
The new public storm warning signal system, signed last May 18, is as
follows:
PSWS No. 1 - tropical cyclone winds of 30-60 kph are expected within the next 36 hours
PSWS No, 2 - tropical cyclone winds of 61-120 kph are expected within the next 24 hours
PSWS No. 3 - tropical cyclone winds of 121-170 kph are expected within the next 18 hours
PSWS No. 4 - tropical cyclone winds of 171-220 kph are expected within the next 12 hours
PSWS No. 5 - tropical cyclone winds of more than 220 kph are expected within 12 hours

Tropical Depression - a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of up to 61

kilometers per hour or less than 33 nautical miles per hour (knots).
Tropical Storm - a tropical cyclone with a maximum wind speed of 62 to 88 kph or 34-
47 knots.
Severe Tropical Storm - a tropical cyclone with a maximum wind speed of 89 to 117
kph or 48 - 63 knots.
Typhoon - is a tropical cyclone with a maximum wind speed of 118 to 220 kph or 64-
120 knots.
Super Typhoon - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed exceeding 220 kph or
more than 120 knots.