Landscape Architecture A Manual of Environmental Planning and Design 5nbsped 9780071797658 0071797653 Compress
Landscape Architecture A Manual of Environmental Planning and Design 5nbsped 9780071797658 0071797653 Compress
ARCHITECTURE
About the Authors
John Ormsbee Simonds, who died in May 2005, was one of the twen-
tieth century’s most important figures in landscape architecture and
environmental planning. He was recognized worldwide for his visionary
thinking and innovative spirit. Mr. Simonds’s work and career spanned
more than 70 years, bridging an era during which the profession of land-
scape architecture expanded from a small number of individuals in the
early 1900s to more than 30,000 land use and environmental planners
in the United States today. His many contributions, including Landscape
Architecture, helped lay the groundwork for today’s focus on environ-
mentally responsible planning and design. Mr. Simonds was President
and a Fellow of the American Society of Landscape Architects, which
awarded him its highest honor, the ASLA Medal, and its one-time
Centennial President’s Medal. He was a member of the President’s Task
Force on the Environment and Florida Governor’s Task Force on
Natural Resources, and was a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Design in
Great Britain.
LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE
A Manual of Environmental
Planning and Design
FIFTH EDITION
BARRY W. STARKE
JOHN ORMSBEE SIMONDS
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This book is dedicated
To Marj
Wife of John Ormsbee Simonds for 63 years, without whose “help and
inspiration” the first and subsequent editions of this book would not have
been written.
I also wish to acknowledge that this edition would not have been possi-
ble but for the generous contributions of my landscape architect col-
leagues, firms, and agencies around the world; the many outstanding
photographers; the support of my wife, Laurie; the work of my staff; and,
especially, the enthusiasm, dedication, and tireless devotion of my assis-
tant, landscape architect Breanna Rau.
Barry W. Starke
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Contents
Prologue ix 5. VEGETATION 75
Foreword xiii Topsoil Mantle 75
The Hunter and the Philosopher xvii Plants in Nature 76
Plant Identification 78
Plant Culture 79
1. THE HUMAN HABITAT AND Introduced Plantations 81
SUSTAINABILITY 1 Invasive Species 82
The Human Animal 1 Vanishing Green 83
Nature 7 Urban Agriculture 84
The Natural Sciences 10 Urban Forestry 85
The Ecological Basis 13
Earthscape 15
Sustainability 18
6. THE VISUAL LANDSCAPE 87
The View 87
2. CLIMATE 23 The Vista 91
Climate and Response 23 The Axis 94
Social Imprint 24 The Symmetrical Plan 100
Accommodation 25 Asymmetry 104
Microclimatology 30 Visual Resource Management 110
Climate Change/Global Warming 36 Landscape Character 112
Modification 114
The Built Environment 120
3. WATER 39
Water as a Resource 39
Natural Systems 43
Management 46 7. THE PLANNED ENVIRONMENT 131
Water-Related Site Design 50 A Conservation Credo 132
Environmental Issues 132
4. LAND 57
Human Impact 57
Land as a Resource 60 8. COMMUNITY PLANNING AND
Land Grants 62 GROWTH MANAGEMENT 143
Land Rights 62 The Group Imperative 143
Surveying 63 Problems 144
Use 64 Possibilities 148
Reuse 66 New Directions 158
Topography 67 Growth Management 164
Surveys 70 Scatteration and Urban Sprawl 169
Supplementary Data 72 Restoration 171
vii
9. THE REGIONAL LANDSCAPE 179 13. CIRCULATION 289
Interrelationships 179 Motion 289
Regional Form 188 Sequence 300
Open-Space Frame 189 Pedestrian Movement 303
Greenways and Blueways 190 The Automobile 307
The Essentials 191 Complete Streets 314
Regional Planning 191 Travel by Rail, Water, and Air 317
Governance 192 People Movers 323
viii Contents
Prologue
In 1961, over 50 years ago, the first edition of Landscape Architecture was
published and instantly filled the void that existed for a comprehensive
presentation of the profession and how to plan for the human use of
land harmoniously with the environment. These were the early days of
what became known as the environmental movement, sparked by a
series of wake-up calls, such as Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring, send-
ing a signal throughout the country—and, indeed, the world—that peo-
ple had to fundamentally change the way they viewed and interacted
with their surroundings. No longer could we continue to think we had
dominion over the Earth and ignore the fact that we are an inseparable
part of nature and nature is part of us. No longer could we destroy our
forests, abuse our soil, pollute our air and water, squander our natural
resources, and overpopulate the Earth without dire future consequences.
This placed him in a unique position that enabled him to become the
profession’s major advocate for the environmental movement and to tell
the story of the role of landscape architecture in it. John wrote the first
edition of Landscape Architecture “because,” he said, “I felt compelled to
get the word out about the comprehensive profession of landscape archi-
tecture.” Over the next 30 years, two revised editions were published
with John as the sole author. The story of my role as coauthor began
some ten years later.
ix
On the afternoon of December 12, 2004, my phone rang, the caller ID
read “John Simonds,” and a dreadful thought flashed through my mind.
It had been several years since John and I had talked, following two years
of intense communication preparing for the American Society of Land-
scape Architect’s Centennial Celebration. John was not well at that time
and I feared it was his family calling to say that he was gravely ill or had
passed away. Following my hello, the sound of John’s voice engendered
a sigh of relief, and what he was about to say would shift my emotions
from fear to total elation.
Then, on May 26, I received the phone call that I had feared that
December 12 call to be. After a fall and a brief stay in the hospital, John
returned home, where he passed away near family and friends. When
John died, he had already finished the manuscript for the fourth edition,
leaving his wife, Marj, in charge of final editing. With renewed vigor
x Prologue
and commitment to John’s legacy—the legacy of one of the most influ-
ential landscape architects of the twentieth century—my work shifted
into high gear, and, as Marj liked to say, “the rest is history.” (Marj
Simonds died in April 2012.)
Barry W. Starke
Prologue xi
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Foreword
Landscape Architecture has been written in response to the need for a
book outlining the land-planning process in clear, simple, and practical
terms. In a larger sense it is a guide book on how to live more compati-
bly on planet Earth.
This book is not intended to explain all forms of the practice of the pro-
fession or to explicate the latest technology. Nor is it proposed that the
reader will become, per se, an expert land planner. As with training in
other fields, proficiency comes with long years of study, travel, observa-
tion, and professional experience. The reader should, however, gain
through this book a keener and more telling awareness of our physical
surroundings. The reader should also gain much useful knowledge to be
applied in the design of homes, schools, recreation areas, shopping
malls, trafficways . . . or any other project to be fitted into, and planned
in harmony with, the all-embracing landscape.
xiii
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The work of the landscape architect
(architect of the landscape)
is to help bring people,
their structures, activities, and communities
into harmonious relationship
with the living earth—
with the “want-to-be” of the land.
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The Hunter and the Philosopher
Once there was a hunter who spent his days tracking the wide prairies of
North Dakota with his gun and dog and sometimes with a small boy
who would beg to trot along.
On this particular morning, hunter and boy, far out on the prairie, sat
watching intently a rise of ground ahead of them. It was pocked with
gopher holes. From time to time a small striped gopher would whisk
nervously from the mouth of his den to the cover of matted prairie grass,
soon to reappear with cheek food pouches bulging.
“Smart little outfits, the gophers,” the hunter observed. “I mean the way
they have things figured out. Whenever you come upon a gopher village,
you can be sure it will be near a patch of grain where they can get their
food and close by a creek or slough for water. They’ll not build their
towns near willow clumps, for there’s where the owls or hawks will be
roosting. And you’ll not be finding them near stony ledges or a pile of
rocks where their enemies the snakes will be hiding ready to snatch
them. When these wise little critters build their towns, they search out
the southeast slope of a knoll that will catch the full sweep of the sun
each day to keep their dens warm and cozy. The winter blizzards that
pound out of the north and west to leave the windward slopes of the
rises frozen solid will only drift loose powder snow on top of their
homes.
“When they dig their dens,” continued the hunter, “do you know that
they do? They slant the runway steeply down for 2 or 3 feet and then
double back up near the surface again where they level off a nice dry
shelf. That’s where they lie—close under the sod roots, out of the wind,
warmed by the sun, near to their food and water, as far as they can get
from their enemies, and surrounded by all their gopher friends. Yes, sir,
they sure have it all planned out!”
“Is our town built on a southeast slope?” the small boy asked thought-
fully.
“No,” said the hunter, “our town slopes down to the north, in the teeth
of the bitter winter winds and cold as a frosty gun barrel.” He frowned.
“Even in summer the breezes work against us. When we built the new
flax mill, the only mill for 40 miles, where do you think we put it? We
built it right smack on the only spot where every breeze in the summer-
time can catch the smoke from its stack and pour it across our houses
and into our open windows!?”
xvii
“At least our town is near the river and water,” said the boy defensively.
“Yes,” replied the hunter. “But where near the river did we build our
homes? On the low, flat land inside the river bend, that’s where. And
each spring when the snows melt on the prairie and the river swells, it
floods out every cellar in our town.”
“Gophers would plan things better than that,” the small boy decided.
“When gophers plan their homes and towns,” the boy philosophized,
“they seem to do it better than people do.”
“Yes,” mused the hunter, “and so do most of the animals I know. Some-
times I wonder why.”
P eople are animals, too. We still retain, and are largely motivated by,
our natural animal instincts. If we are to plan intelligently, we must
acknowledge and accommodate these instincts; the shortcomings of
many a project can be traced to the failure of the planner to recognize
this simple fact.
A human standing in the forest, with bare skin, weak teeth, thin arms,
and knobby knees, would not look very impressive among the other
creatures. As an animal, the bear with powerful jaws and raking claws
would clearly seem superior. Even the turtle seems more cunningly con-
trived for both protection and attack, as do the dog, the skunk, and the
lowly porcupine. All creatures of nature, upon reflection, seem superbly
equipped for living their lives in their natural habitat and for meeting
normal situations. All except the humans.
1
We alone of all the animals have the ability to weigh the factors of a
problem and reason out a solution. We are able to learn not only from
our own experiences but also from the disasters, the triumphs, and the
Intelligence, by one definition, must be lesser experiences of untold thousands of our fellows. We can borrow
the ability to respond adaptively to the from and apply to the solution of any problem the accumulated wisdom
environment—that is, the ability to plan a
course of action based upon information of our species.
gained through the senses.
John Todd Simonds Our essential strength—the very reason for our survival and the key to
all future achievement—is our unique power of perception and deduc-
tion. Perception (making oneself aware of all conditions and applicable
factors) and deduction (deriving, through reason, an appropriate means
of procedure) are the very essence of planning.
Down through the dim, chaotic ages, the force of the human mind has
met and mastered situation after situation and has raised us (through
this planning process) to a position of supremacy over all the other crea-
tures of the earth.
We have, in fact, inherited the Earth. This vast globe on which we dwell
is ours, ours to develop further, as an agreeable living environment.
Surely, we, with our twinkling minds, should by now have created for
ourselves a paradise upon this earth.
Have we? What have we done with our superlative natural heritage?
2 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Many contemporary ailments—our hypertensions and neuroses—are
no more than the physical evidence of rebellion against our physical
surroundings and frustration at the widening gap between the environ-
ment we yearn for and the stifling, artificial one we planners have so far
contrived.
The naturalist tells us that if a fox or a rabbit is snared in a field and then
kept in a cage, the animal’s clear eyes will soon become dull, its coat will
lose its luster, and its spirit will flag. So it is with humans too long or too
far removed from nature. For we are, first of all, animals.
USDOE
Everything we have to do to live, nature makes
us do with lust and pleasure.
Seneca
We have learned to unleash the awesome power contained within the atom. Now
we must learn the means by which to control it.
It has been proposed by many sages that, other things being equal, the
happiest person is one who lives in closest, fullest harmony with nature.
It might then be reasoned: Why not restore humans to the woods? Let
them have their water and earth and sky, and plenty of it. But is the
primeval forest—preserved, untouched, or simulated—our ideal envi-
ronment? Hardly. For the story of the human race is the story of an
unending struggle to ameliorate the forces of nature. Gradually, labori-
ously, we have improved our shelters, secured a more sustained and var-
ied supply of food, and extended control over the elements to improve
our way of living.
4 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
plants, and air into our areas of planning concentration, and by
thoughtfully and sympathetically spacing our structures among the hills,
along the rivers and valleys, and out into the landscape.
We are perhaps unique among the animals in our yearning for order and
beauty. It is doubtful whether any other animal enjoys a “view,” contem-
plates the magnificence of a venerable oak, or delights in tracing the undu-
The basic premise of science is that the lations of a shoreline. We instinctively seek harmony; we are repelled by
physical world is governed by certain disorder, friction, ugliness, and the illogical. Can we be content while our
predictable rules.
towns and cities are still oriented to crowded streets rather than to open
parks? While highways slice through our communities? While freight
trucks rumble past our churches and our homes? Can we be satisfied while
Genius of place symbolizes the living ecological our children on their way to school must cross and recross murderous traf-
relationship between a particular location and ficways? While traffic itself must jam in and out of the city, morning and
the persons who have derived from it and
added to it the various aspects of their evening, through clogged and noisy valley floors, although these valley
humanness. No landscape, however grandiose routes should, by all rights, be green, free-flowing parkways leading into
or fertile, can express its full potential richness spacious settlements and the open countryside beyond.
until it has been given its myth by the love,
works, and arts of human beings.
René Dubos We of contemporary times must face this disturbing fact: our urban,
suburban, and rural diagrams are for the most part ill-conceived. Our
community and highway patterns bear little logical relationship to one
another and to our topographical, climatological, physiological, and
ecological base. We have grown, and often continue to grow, piecemeal,
haphazardly, without reason. We are dissatisfied and puzzled. We are
frustrated. Somewhere in the planning process we have failed.
1
Translation from a manuscript in the possession of H. H. Li, descendant of architects
of the imperial family.
6 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
NASA
Spiral nebula.
Nature
Nature reveals itself to each of us according to our interests. To the nat-
uralist, nature unfolds a wonderland of spiderweb, egg mass, and fern
frond. To the miner, nature is the tenacious yet prodigious source of
Nature is more than a bank of resources to minerals—coal, copper, tungsten, lead, silver. To the hydroelectric engi-
draw on: it is the best model we have for all neer, nature is an abundant reservoir of power. To the structural engi-
the design problems we face.
Sim Van der Ryn neer, nature in every guise is an eloquent demonstration of the universal
Stuart Cowan principles of form creation to be understood and applied.
With our prodigious store of knowledge we have it within our power to
create on this earth a veritable garden paradise. But we are failing. And
NASA
Forms in nature.
8 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Just as a hunter is at home with nature—drinks of the springs, uses the
cover, hunts into the prevailing winds, knows when the game will be
Tao, the Way—the basic Chinese belief in feeding on the beechnuts and acorns of the ridges and when on the
an order and harmony in nature. This grand berries in the hollows; just as he senses the coming of a storm and
concept originated in remote times, from instinctively seeks out shelter; and just as a sailor is at home on the sea,
observation of the heavens and of nature—
the rising and setting of the sun, moon, and reads the shoal, senses the sandbar, interprets the sky, and observes the
stars, the cycle of day and night, and the changing conformation of the ocean bottom—just so must planners be
rotation of the seasons—suggesting the conversant with all facets of nature, until for any major tract of land,
existence of laws of nature, a sort of divine local building site, or landscape area we can instinctively recognize the
legislation that regulated the pattern in the
heavens and on earth. It is worth noting that natural characteristics, limitations, and fullest possibilities. Only by
the original purpose of ritual was to order the being thus aware can we develop a system of compatible relationships.
life of the community in harmony with the
forces of nature (tao) on which subsistence and History shows us inspiring examples of humanized landscape planned in
well-being depended.
Mai-mai Sze harmony with nature. One such example was the breathtakingly beauti-
ful city of Kyoto as it existed at the turn of the twentieth century. Until
only recently it could be said:
Kyoto, Set amidst a national forest of pine and maple trees, Kyoto over-
Mountain Green, looks a broad river valley in which clear mountain water slides
And water clean. and splashes between great mossy boulders. Here in ordered
Sanyō Rai
arrangement are terraced the stone, timber, and paper buildings
of the city, each structure planned to the total site and fitted with
great artistry to the ground on which it stands. In this remark-
able landscape, each owner considers his land a trust. Each tree,
rock and spring is considered a special blessing from his gods, to
be preserved and developed to the best of his ability, for the ben-
efit of city, neighbors, and friends. Here, as one overlooks the
Improbable as it may sound, it is a fact that wooded city or moves through its pleasant streets, one realizes
the contemporary architect or engineer faces the fullest meaning of the phrase “the stewardship of land.”
few problems in structural design which
nature has not already met and solved. By our
own standards, her designs are structurally Kyoto, as an illustrious example of oriental land planning, was laid out
more efficient and esthetically more satisfactory in accordance with the precepts of geomancy. These deal with the loca-
than ours. tion and design of land use patterns and structural forms in response to,
We should—to paraphrase that forthright and in harmony with, the paths of energy flow through the earth and the
pre-Civil War critic, Horatio Greenough—
learn from nature like men and not copy her atmosphere.
like apes. But the truth of the matter is that we
have only recently perfected the means whereby To the Western mind, this practice may seem dubious. In the more
her structures can really be understood. mature cultures, its efficacy is unquestioned. Unfortunately its principles
Fred M. Severud
have been veiled in religious mysticism and never clearly defined in tech-
nological terms. Let it be said only that historically architects, planners,
and engineers have expressed in their constructions an intuitive feeling
for those geological conditions and natural forces which have shaped and
continue to govern the physical landscape and which have a powerful
influence on all elements introduced. Such pervasive conditions include
surface and subsurface rock formations, strata, cleavages, fissures,
drainageways, aquifers, mineral seams and deposits, and lines and
upwellings of electrical flow. They include also the air currents, tides,
variations in temperature, solar radiation, and the earth’s magnetic field.
Geology
To understand the topographical base for any building project it is
essential to know the structure and soil type of the earth’s surface layers.
The geologist learns early on that the tops of hills and ridges are gener-
ally underlaid with the denser subsoil or rock—which make for solid
footing. They make excavation more difficult and expensive, however.
This suggests the design of buildings without basements or lower levels.
Such costly excavated space is replaced where feasible with on-grade
building units around courts, which also serve to block hilltop winds
and hold the warming winter sun.
Sloping topography suggests terraced structures, open to the outward
view and with low retaining walls. Except in regions of drought, lower
ground and especially valley bottoms below vegetated uplands can be
expected to have deeper, moister, richer soils for crops and gardens. Here
basements or deeper foundations may be required to reach bearing, but
C.R. Thornber,U.S. Geological Survey,
Volcano. Hawaiian Volcano Observatory the digging is easy.
William Smith
William Smith’s Strata of England & Wales, one of the first geologic maps.
10 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
The level site, as on the plain, suggests an expanded building plan form,
All organisms turn energy and food into living with wings to catch and check the breeze and courts to protect from the
matter while producing waste materials of wind and drift. The study of geology also makes one extremely conscious
various kinds. This waste matter becomes food
for legions of saprophytes, literally “decay of the deep-lying and shifting tectonic plates, the fault lines, volcanic
eaters.” These decomposers, which outnumber cores, and the potential hazards of tornados and flooding. On a more
species of all other kinds, include beetles, fungi, modest scale it teaches of the various soil types and their qualities such as
nematodes, and bacteria. Through their erosion resistance, fertility, and structural bearing. In land use planning,
complementary metabolic pathways, they
return both essential nutrients and trace these are to be avoided for major transportation/transitways or settlements
minerals to active circulation. where lives are endangered. They are better reserved for welcome open
Sim Van der Ryn space—left natural or with limited use, as for game lands or recreation. In
Stuart Cowan
storm-prone areas, early detection and monitoring techniques provide for
early evacuation, saving thousands of lives and untold destruction.
Hydrology
Hydrology relates to land and resource planning in the form of water
management. Those with an understanding of topography have learned
to develop land use patterns in which extensive drainage inlets and deep
sewer mains are not needed. Instead, surface drainage is conducted by
swales to retention ponds or natural streams. Wastewater also flows by
gravity in shallow laterals to outfall mains which follow the slope of the
land. Water management has become increasingly important in regional
planning since potable water shortage has become common. Irrigation
and the transmission to urban centers have drained once-abundant
rivers and watersheds. Population growth along both coasts has drawn
down well fields to the point where saltwater intrusion is serious. This
problem can no longer be overlooked. Nor can the large sweeps of lawn
irrigated with freshwater be allowed. Irrigation of lawns and croplands
will soon be treated by wastewater. With dual potable and treated waste-
water systems, our freshwater reserves can be replenished.
Botany
A first-year botanist has learned the value of vegetation. In the immense
cloud of carbon dioxide or exhaust fumes that surround planet Earth it is
only by the transpiration of vegetation that the essential oxygen of the
fresh air we breathe is produced. Moreover, it is the earth’s vegetation that
catches, transpires, and transmits to the aquifers the water on which all life
depends. If that weren’t enough, it is from the worldwide store of vegeta-
tion that we gather an astounding variety of foods, fibers, and timber. This
knowledge should make conservationists of us all. It may in time. Mean-
while, in most unmindful construction a first thought is to clear the land.
Belt Collins
Botanical specimen.
12 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
ground cover replacement will thus be precluded. In the landscape plan-
ning process a botany doctorate is not needed, except in special cases. It
is enough to know the local plants, their characteristics, and the condi-
tions of growth under which they thrive. When existing plants are left
undisturbed they need little care. Exotic ornamentals, needing more
attention, are to be used sparingly.
Ecology
Ecology is the scientific study of the relationship of living things and
their environment. As such it should be the primary science that informs
humans about their environment and how to plan their activities and
the use of land in a compatible, thus sustainable, way.
Other
A generalized knowledge of the natural sciences is the mark of a well-
schooled landscape architect. No other profession is trained in this vital
aspect of comprehensive land use planning.
Biosphere
This life matrix, or biosphere, born of earth, air, fire, and water, constitutes
In Spengler’s most moving passage, where he the whole of our living environment. It is as vast as the space between the
identifies the “landscape” as the base of the basalt floor of the deepest ocean bed and the highest rarefied reaches of the
“culture,” he says that . . . man . . . is so held
to it by myriad fibres, that without it life, soul, outer ionosphere. It is as awesome as the towering thunderheads, the roar-
and thought are inconceivable. ing hurricane, and the crashing surf. It is as tough as the granite hulk of a
Stanley White mountain. It is “as fragile as frost at dawn.”2 The biosphere, so fearfully
and wonderfully contrived, is home to countless plant and animal com-
munities that range in type and size from the invisible virus cluster to the
The biosphere of the planet Earth is divided roaming elephant herd or the pod of sounding whales. The biosphere is
into several major habitats: the aquatic, the home as well to all members of the human race. As yet, we have no other.
terrestrial, the subterranean, and the aerial.
Interdependence
Natural systems supply, transport, treat, and
store water; modify the climate, oxygenate and We are just beginning to learn the extent to which all organisms are
purify the air; produce food; treat or assimilate interrelated and interdependent and the sometimes critical effects of
waste; build land; maintain beaches; and
provide protection from hurricanes. . . . almost imperceptible changes in the temperature, chemistry, moisture
If essential components are destroyed, or if content, soil structure, air movements, and water currents on our habi-
the system as a whole is overstressed, the process tat. The slightest change in the delicate web of life may have repercus-
will break down and the system will fail. sions throughout the whole of a natural system such as that of a marsh,
Albert R. Veri et al.
pond, watershed, or receiving ocean basin.
Nature’s ingenious process of pollination. As the honeybee lands and presses into the blossom after nectar, it triggers the flower
stamen, forcing it down in an arc to make contact with and deposit on the bee’s body. Bee, flower, mechanism—what have we
humans made to compare?
14 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Every process in nature has its necessary form. areas can no longer be treated as little more than pictorial stage sets of for-
These processes always result in functional est, billowing grass, limpid water, or lavender hills amid which construc-
forms. They follow the law of the shortest
distance between points: cooling only occurs on tions can be blithely aligned or indiscriminately plunked. It is no longer
surfaces exposed to cooling, pressure only on acceptable that any land area be considered an isolated private domain, to
points of pressure, tension on lines of tension; be shaped at will to the heart’s desire or carved up unfeelingly into cold
motion creates for itself forms of movement— geometric patterns. No smallest parcel can any longer be considered apart
for each energy there is a form of energy.
All technical forms can be deduced from from all other contiguous land and water areas. For it is now well recog-
forms in nature. The laws of least resistance nized that each draws upon the other and in turn affects them. Ecologi-
and of economy of effort make it inevitable cally, all land and water areas are interconnected and interrelated.
that similar activities shall always lead to
similar forms. So man can muster the powers
of nature in another and quite different way Natural Systems
from what he has done hitherto.
If he but applied all the principles that the It is fundamental to intelligent land and resource planning that the nat-
organism has adopted in its striving toward ural systems which protect our health and well-being be understood and
useful ends, he will find there enough sustained. That those most sensitive and productive, together with
employment for all his capital, strength and nature’s superlatives, may be preserved in their natural condition; that
talent for centuries to come. Every bush, every
tree can instruct him, advise him, and show protective support and buffer areas be conserved and devoted to limited
him inventions, apparatuses, technical and compatible uses; that the less critical areas selected for development
appliances without number. be so planned as to do no significant harm to their environs; and that all
Raoul France
land use plans be so conceived as to bring people into the best possible
The occupied landscape may be richer by far in relationships with each other and with the living landscape.
all the subtle amenities of the original land if
only the designs we apply are . . . becoming to
the form as well as to the complexion of the
Earthscape
meadows, woods and slopes we presume to We have come to learn through the centuries that the spinning orb on
compliment. . . . Landscape character should be
intensified, not obliterated; and the ultimate which we live is a minor planet suspended in limitless space—an infini-
harmony should emerge as a blend in which the tesimal speck of matter in the universal scheme of things. Yet it is our
native quality of the region and the spot still world—vast, imponderable, and wonderful to us, a world of marvelous
prevails. . . . These “humanized” landscapes are order and boundless energy. It is illumined and warmed in rhythmic
to us the most inviting and beloved, and we are
pleased and inspired largely insofar as the whole cycles by the heat of our sun, bathed in a swirling atmosphere of air and
structure and sentiment of the landscape can be moisture. Its white-hot core is a seething mass of molten rock; its thin,
preserved. . . . cool crust, pocked and creased with hollows and ridged with hills,
There can be no deviation from the rule mountain ranges, and towering peaks. The greater part of its area is
that the newly prepared landscape must
be . . . a distillate or sublimation of the immersed in saltwater seas, which ebb and flow with heaving tides and
original myriad forms if it is to be a work of are swept to their depths by immense and intricate patterns of current.
art in the sense of a high art form, timeless and
historical.
Stanley White
From the ice-sheathed poles to the blazing equator, the earthscape varies
endlessly. Wandering over it for something close to a million years, the
human Earth dwellers have learned first to survive and later to thrive
Hermann Eisenbeiss, courtesy LIVING LEICA
In our lifetime, we have for the first time scaled earth’s highest peak,
plumbed its deepest ocean trench, and penetrated outer space. We are
tempted to believe that we have conquered nature. There are those who
hold that in the years ahead we will finally subject nature to our control. Let
us not delude ourselves. Nature is not soon to be conquered by puny man.
Jocelyn Augustino/FEMA
16 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
©2010 AECOM/Photography by David Lloyd
Wildlife management area.
with nature’s rhythms and cycles. They have learned that to do otherwise
is to court inevitable disaster.
Years ago the urge to wander to strange new lands led the coauthor to live
for some months in lonely, exotic British North Borneo (Sabah). There he
Interaction between man and environment in came to be profoundly impressed by the tremendous joy of the people in
the West is abstract, an I-it relationship; in the simply being alive—exultantly healthy and happy sons and daughters of
East it is concrete, immediate, and based on
an I-Thou relationship. Western man fights nature. On the islands, all live not only close to nature but by nature.
nature; Eastern man adapts himself to Nature Their whole life is guided day by day and hour by hour by the sun, the
and nature to himself. These are broad storms, the surf, the stars, the tides, the seasons. A full moon and an
generalizations and, like all generalizations, ebbing tide give promise of successful milkfish spearing on the shoal. The
should be taken with a grain of salt. But I
believe that they may help to explain some of wheeling and screeching of the birds give warning of an approaching
the essential differences out of which the storm. In the quiet freshness of early morning, a hunter may draw his lit-
different attitudes of East and West to life and tle daughter to his side and, crouching, point a long brown finger to the
environment develop and which are each in its peak of Mount Kinabalu looming high above the palm fringe. “Tiba, lit-
own right destined to play its part in the
transformation of the present and the future. tle Tiba,” he may caution. “Look now at the clouds on the mountaintop.
E. A. Gutkind Soon it will be blowing and raining there, and the streams will be rushing
full. So stay away from the banks today and play at home with your
mama.” On the islands, clearly, the closer one’s life is adapted to nature,
the happier one’s life will be. But not only on the islands. This observation
is fully as true of our life on our farms and in our suburbs and cities. Some-
times we tend to forget this salient fact as we go about our living and plan-
ning for living. And often this forgetting is the root of much distress.
Although most, if not all, humans cannot comprehend really deep time,
having a basic understanding of geologic time in the development of
Woudloper
Geologic time.
18 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Joseph Graham, William Newman and John Stacy, 2008
Earth’s evolution.
Years ago
• Earth is formed 4,500,000,000
• Beginning of life 3,000,000,000
• First humanoids (prehumans) 7,000,000
• First modern humans (Homo erectus) 2,000,000
• Modern man (Homo sapiens) 200,000
• Beginning of civilization 7,000
• Beginning of Industrial Revolution 200
16:08 p.m. Homo erectus appears. During the first 7 million years of human evolution, as hunter-gatherers,
the species, as with all other species, was biologically coded through
DNA with a set of instructions regarding its relationship to its environ-
ment and how to survive as part of that environment. Simplified, mod-
ern biology tells us that humans have been programmed through DNA
to do three basic things: stay alive as long as we can, reproduce and per-
petuate the species, and accumulate things that facilitate staying alive
and reproduction. This programming has served humans very well until
recent times.
23:19 p.m. Homo sapiens appears.
Modern humans, Homo sapiens, despite a relatively frail body as com-
pared to other animals, have survived for over 200,000 years and have
increased their life span from 20 years to the current world average of
67.2 years. In the 200,000 years since first appearing on Earth, they have
reproduced, increasing their numbers from zero to 8 billion.
20 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division
Long-term world population growth, 1750 to 2050.
23
described, together with soil types and depths and the existing vegetation
and wildlife. Finally, the working together of all the physical elements as
an ecological system is described to complete the story of regional climate.
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
The cyclic buildup and melt of polar ice are
unpredictable. The periodic advance and
retreat of the polar caps as they respond to
solar forces in turn exert a massive influence on
world weather conditions.
24 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Richard Felber Photography/Raymond Jungles
Color and plants characteristic of their region.
Accommodation
There is little to be done about the world climate except to adjust to it.
The most direct form of adjustment is to move to that region which has a
climate best suited to one’s needs or desires. Such migrations or attempted
migrations are the basis of much of human history. The alternative
approach is to make the best of existing conditions wherever one may be.
In broad terms, the climatic regions of the earth are four: the cold, the
cool-temperate, the warm-humid, and the hot-dry. North America pro-
vides examples of all four. While the boundaries of these regions or zones
cannot be defined precisely and while there are within them considerable
variations, each has its distinctive characteristics and its strong influences
upon any site development or structures to be planned. As in the two-
dimensional plan layout of farm, home, and community, so it is with the
three-dimensional design of sites and structures within a region. Just as
the use area or trafficway is oriented “into the breeze,” “away from the
wind,” or “across the sun” in some instances, so are site and architectural
volumes shaped to afford exposure to the sun’s warmth and light summer
airs or protection from glare, oppressive heat, or fierce winter winds. All
site and architectural spaces of excellence are weather-responsive; their
form, materials of construction, and even colors are all climate-related. A
postcard received from any part of the world depicting people, their
dress, or their buildings will convey at a glance an informative story
of region. It is proposed that within each region there is, for a given
climatological condition, a logical planning-design response. The accom-
panying examples show for various conditions an appropriate accom-
modation in the shaping of community patterns, site plans, or building
designs.
Climate 25
Ken Graham Photography/Charles Anderson
Condition
1. Extreme winter cold.
2. Deep snow.
3. Strong winds.
4. High windchill factor.
5. Deep frost.
6. Scrub forest cover.
7. Short winter days.
8. Long winters.
9. Alternating freeze and thaw.
10. Rapid spring melt.
26 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Robert Cardillo/Stephen Stimson Associates
Condition
1. Variable temperatures, ranging from warm to hot
in the summer, cold in winter, and moderate in
spring and fall.
2. Marked seasonal change.
3. Changing wind directions and velocities.
4. Violent storms occur infrequently.
5. Periods of drought, light to heavy rain and frost
and snow may be expected.
6. Soils are generally well drained and fertile.
7. Many streams, rivers, and freshwater lakes.
8. An abundant supply of water.
9. Land cover varies from open to forests with rich
vegetative variety.
10. Topographically scenic, including marine, plain,
plateau, and mountainous areas.
The Cool–Temperate
Region
Climate 27
Robin Hill/Raymond Jungles
Condition
1. Temperatures high and relatively constant.
2. High humidity.
3. Torrential rainfall.
4. Storm winds of typhoon and hurricane force.
5. Breeze often constant in the daylight hours.
6. Vegetative covers from sparse to luxuriant and
sometimes junglelike.
7. The sun’s heat is enervating.
8. Sky glare and sea glare can be distressing.
9. Climatic conditions breed insects in profusion.
10. Fungi are a persistent problem.
28 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Christopher Brown, FASLA, JJR|Floor
Condition
1. Intense heat in the daytime.
2. Often intense cold at night.
3. Expanses are vast.
4. Sunlight and glare are penetrating.
5. Drying winds are prevalent and often raise devas-
tating dust storms.
6. Annual rainfall is minimal. Vegetation is sparse to
nonexistent except along watercourses.
7. Spring rains come as a cloudburst, with rapid
runoff and heavy erosion.
8. Water supply is extremely limited.
9. Limited agricultural productivity necessitates the
importation of food and other goods.
10. Irrigation is a fact of life.
Climate 29
Barry W. Starke, EDA
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Microclimatology
Microclimatology is the study of climatic conditions within a limited
area. It is sometimes referred to as the “science of small-scale weather.” It
may be inferred that the purpose of the scientific study is to discover
facts and principles which may be applied to improve the human condi-
tion. This is precisely the case.
An Example
As a hypothetical example, let us consider a small walled courtyard in a
hot-dry (desert) setting. It is proposed that by the application of well-
known principles of microclimatic design, an ambient air temperature at
a point 3 feet above the ground surface could be reduced by as much as 30
to 40°F. This could well improve the existing condition from an intolera-
ble situation to one of comfort and delight—all in all, a worthy enterprise.
As a base condition, let us assume the worst. Let us assume that the
Every property has to some degree a variety of enclosing walls are solid, admit no breeze, are high enough to provide an
microclimates. These are dependent upon extensive sun-receiving, heat-radiating area, and are dark in color to
orientation, wind and breeze direction, land maximize their heat absorption. Let us then compound the disaster by
conformation, vegetation, soil depth and types,
moisture content—and even colors. Such off-site
flooring the empty courtyard space with solid concrete, thick enough for
conditioners as hills, forests, rivers, water bodies, massive heat buildup and radiation and colored in a dark-red hue. To
and urbanization make a difference too. complete our experimental volume, let us imagine the courtyard to be so
oriented as to receive the full force of the burning midday sun. It can be
seen that a subject seated on a metal chair in the center of this unfortu-
nate cube would be properly grilled, and that shortly.
30 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
In contrast, wishing to create a cool and refreshing courtyard in the same
locality, let us “wing out” and open the side walls to catch the slightest
breeze that might be channeled through the space. The walls themselves
could be formed of light-gray textured concrete or stone rough enough
to be heat-refractive and to receive several clumps of vines. A pool, a
As the daytime sun heats the land surface and warm brimming basin, or a splashing fountain installed on the base plane
air rises, the cool moist air from adjacent water bod- would introduce water. Water would also be used as a spray to moisten
ies moves landward to fill the void.
low mounded beds of planting edged with gravel mulch for rapid evap-
oration. From the irrigated planting bed, a multistemmed shade tree
might support a canopy of foliage and flowers, to cast patterns of
shadow across the wall and paving. Additional shade could be provided
on the overhead plane by light sails or panels of cool-colored nylon fab-
At night the cooler air from the vegetated land mass ric. Tubbed and potted plants would add green relief and decorative
flows toward the water bodies.
THE DAILY LAND-WATER AIR EXCHANGE interest. With webbed rattan furniture, iced drinks, and the sound of
Note: The temperature advantage gained by alert wafting music, the oasis would be complete.
siting and landscape improvement may sometimes be
measured in no more than a few degrees. But aside
from the factor of increased comfort the savings of en-
ergy required in cooling and heating can be significant.
The example is extreme, but it serves to illustrate the possibilities of
small-scale climate improvement.
Design Guidelines
Whatever the climate or weather, when it comes to planning an agree-
able living environment there are many microclimatic principles that
can be applied to advantage. Among them are these:
Climate 31
PWP Landscape Architecture
Slopes with southerly exposure receive the most
hours and greatest intensity of solar heat each
day. Spring can come weeks earlier on the
sunny side of a hill.
Evaporative cooling.
32 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
It provides sunscreen, shade, and shadow.
It helps to prevent rapid runoff and recharges the water-bearing soil
strata.
It checks the wind.
• Install new plantings where needed. They may be utilized for vari-
ous types of climate control. Windscreens, shade trees, and heat-
The glare from water, sand, or other reflective absorptive ground covers are examples.
surfaces can increase heat loads. • Consider the effects of altitude. The higher the altitude and latitude
(in the northern hemisphere), the cooler or colder the climate.
• Reduce the humidity. Generally speaking, a decrease in the humidity
effects an increase in bodily comfort. Dry cold is less chilling than
wet cold. Dry heat is less enervating than wet heat. Humidity can be
decreased by induced air circulation and the drying effects of the sun.
• Avoid winter winds, floods, and the paths of crippling storms. All
can be charted.
• Explore and apply all natural forms of heating and cooling before
Buildings are temperature modifiers. By their
turning to mechanical (energy-consuming) devices.
positioning as well as by their form and
character they suggest related uses. Reduction of Heat Loss
• Avoid exposure to prevailing winds and cold downdrafts from upper
slopes.
• Avoid extremes in elevation.
• Avoid site areas with wet, impervious soils, dead-air basins, and frost
pockets.
• Provide wind shielding by ground forms and existing tree cover
(preferably evergreen).
• If exposure cannot be precluded, plan compactly and for a slip-
Abrupt forms cause unpleasant air turbulence. stream effect, with narrow and solid building walls facing into the
winter winds.
• Protect the dwelling entrances.
• Orient building facades to the east, southeast, and south and to the
high arc of the sun.
• In cold climates, locate use areas and structures in the lee of wind-
breaks to utilize snow outfall for ground and building insulation.
Smooth forms induce the smooth flow of air. • Provide open space around buildings for air circulation and the play
of the winter sun.
• Deciduous tree cover provides summer shade and casts shadows
while admitting winter sunlight.
• Dig in. Partially buried structures receive insulation from the earth
and present a lower profile.
• Select construction materials, surface treatments, and colors that
absorb and radiate solar heat.
Climate 33
Tom Fox, SWA Group
A mild summer breeze can be amplified by the
venturi effect of well-placed buildings, walls, Windbreak.
hedges, or mass plantings.
OLIN
34 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
• Promote ventilation by the use of breezeways, screened patios, lou-
vered walls, and fans.
• Feature the use of water for its cooling effects. Utilize porous soils,
mulches, ground covers, and irrigation to promote evapotranspiration.
• Use heat-reflective materials, rough textures, and cool colors.
Climate 35
Climate Change/Global Warming
For a decade or more the phenomenon of climate change and global
warming has become a major focus of the scientific community.
Throughout geologic time there have been shifts in world climate from
extreme cold periods or ice ages and glaciations to periods of thaw dur-
ing which glaciers retreated. The Earth is currently in a state of sustained
rising temperatures, and, as evidence builds, most scientists agree that
the rise in temperatures is due, at least in part, to human activity.
Sean Carpenter
Air pollution contributes to global warming.
It should be noted that this is the first time in the history of the Earth
that the effects of living organisms (humans) are changing world cli-
mate. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution and the beginning
of the release of large amounts of carbon and other greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere, an increase in Earth’s atmospheric temperature is occur-
ring which is widely believed to be changing world climate. The results
will have profound effects on the environment of entire regions and
planning for human habitation. The results of climate change brought
about by global warming that most affect human habitation include
more severe weather events (hurricanes, tornadoes, flooding, droughts,
etc.), sea-level rise, and threats to and the migration of plant and animal
species.
36 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
is already taking place and that which is inevitable. This includes plan-
ning and designing for sea-level rise, which will have a large impact on
coastal areas, ranging from the inundation of coastal wetlands to signif-
icant flooding of urban areas. In some cities and communities, the
impact will be so significant that certain existing land uses in low-lying
areas will have to be relocated and replaced with aquatic open spaces.
Others may be redesigned to address the effects of more significant and
frequent flooding.
The increased severity of individual weather events will also require dif-
ferent responses from the planning and design community. The location
of communities out of harm’s way from flooding, hurricane, and tor-
nado impacts will require more consideration than has been given in the
past. The potential short- and long-term impact of climate change on
animal and plant communities will have to be taken into account in
determining the future land use of an area or a specific site.
Atmospheric composition.
Climate 37
3
WATER
F ree water is the shining splendor of the natural landscape. From the
bubbling spring and upland pool to the splashing stream, rushing
rapids, waterfall, freshwater lake, and brackish estuary and finally to the
saltwater sea, water has held for all creatures an irresistible appeal. To
some degree, we humans still seem to share with our earliest predecessors
the urgent and instinctive sense that drew them to the water’s edge.
Perhaps at first they were drawn only for drink, to lave hot and dust-
streaked bodies, or to gather the bounty of mollusk and fish. Later, water
for the cooking pots would be dipped and carried in gourds, skins, hol-
low sections of bamboo, and jars of shaped, fire-baked clay. Perhaps our
affinity for water has increased with the discovery of its value in gardens
and irrigation and with the knowledge that only with moisture present
can plants flourish and animals thrive. It may be because in the deep,
moist soils of the bottomlands the grasses are richer, the foliage more
lush, and the berries larger and sweeter. Here, too, the refreshing breeze
seems cooler and even the song of the birds more melodious.
Water as a Resource
Almost every human activity is dependent upon the use of fresh water,
but of all the water found on planet Earth only 3 percent is fresh and, of
that, most is frozen in glaciers and polar regions, making less than 1 per-
cent of the Earth’s fresh water potentially available for human use.
Tom Lamb, Lamb Studio
39
In planning the use of land areas in relation to waterways and water bodies,
a reasonable goal would be to take full advantage of the benefits of proxim-
ity. These benefits would seem to fall within the following categories.
USGS
will be located near the sources. Those site functions requiring the most
moisture in the soil or air will be given location priority. Usually gravity
flow will have much to do with the plan layout.
Use in Processing
When drawn from surface streams or water bodies for use in cooling,
In Florida at least 65 percent of all marine washing, or other processes, water of equal quantity and quality is to be
organisms, including shrimp, lobsters, returned to the source. Makeup water may be supplied from wells or
oysters, and commercial and game fish, public water supply systems.
spend part of their life cycle in the brackish
waters of tidal estuaries and coastal
wetlands. Transportation
Within the past century, over half of the
state’s wetlands have been dredged, filled, or When waterways, lakes, or abutting ocean are to be used for the trans-
drained.
The only way to protect fish and wildlife port of people or goods, the docking installations and vessels are to be so
is to protect their habitat. designed and operated that the functional and visual quality of the water
is at all times ensured.
Microclimate Moderation
The extremes of temperature are tempered by the presence of moisture
and by the resulting vegetation. This advantage may be augmented by
the favorable placement of plan areas and structures in relation to open
water, irrigated surfaces, or water-cooled breeze.
Wildlife Habitat
Lakeshores, stream edges, and wetlands together form a natural food
source and habitat for birds and animals. When flora and fauna are to be
protected, the indigenous vegetation is to be allowed to remain standing
40 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
whenever feasible, and continuous swaths of cover are to be left intact to
permit wildlife to move from place to place unmolested. The denser
growth is usually concentrated along water edges and converging swales.
Recreational Use
Our streams and water bodies have long provided our most popular types
of outdoor recreation such as boating, fishing, and swimming. Along their
banks and shores is found the accretion of cottages, mobile home parks,
and campsites that attest to our love of water. It is proposed that in long-
range planning, with few exceptions, all water areas and edges to the limits
of a 50-year flood would be acquired and made part of the public domain.
Water 41
A glimpse, a view, an unfolding panorama of the aquatic landscape is a
scenic superlative. Streams and water bodies are the punctuation marks
in reading the landscape. They translate for us the landforms and the
story of their geologic formation. They set the mood; they articulate;
they intensify. They give the essential meaning. What is a prairie with-
The subsurface reservoir of fresh water may out its sloughs? A meadow without its meandering brook? A mountain-
be tapped and used freely as long as the side without its cascade? A valley without its river?
local supply is not thereby depleted.
Depletion is caused not only by overuse but
also, and more often, by destruction of the Site Amenity
natural ground covers and vegetation, which
would otherwise retain precipitation for Fortunate is the landowner whose property includes or borders upon an
filtration to the aquifer. attractive stretch of water or affords even a distant view. In landscape
and architectural planning, a chief endeavor will be the devising of rela-
tionships that exact the full visual and use possibilities.
Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
Aquatic environment.
42 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Attribute
Most attributes of nature—the hills, the trees, the starlit sky—are usu-
ally taken for granted, but the value of free water is not. Where it exists,
as in the form of pond, stream, lake, or ocean, the adjacent landholdings
are eagerly sought. They are prized as sites for parks and parkways, for
homes, institutions, resort hotels, and other commercial ventures. It
could almost be stated as a law of land economics that “the closer a site
to open water, the higher its value as real estate.”
Natural Systems
In the past, freshwater in all its forms has been used, and too often mis-
used or wasted, as if these were God-given privileges. Except in irrigated
lands, where water rights and supply are jealously guarded, there has
From upland spring to ocean outfall the river
basin, river, and all its tributaries are part of a been little concern for what is happening upstream or downstream
unified system. unless the flow should be cut off or increased to the point of flooding.
Water flows, inevitably, from source to receiving ocean basin. This con-
tinuity of rivulets, streams, and rivers can be readily observed. Not so
obvious are the sequential and interacting relationships of the ponds,
lakes, and wetlands. These, too, are links in the chain of flow. They are
affected not only by the things that happen at their sides but by all that
transpires within the upper watersheds or the subsurface aquifers that
feed and help sustain them. These same subsurface water-bearing, water-
transporting, water-yielding strata provide, also, the groundwater essen-
tial to farmland, meadow, and forest and to maintaining the level of the
well fields from which our water supplies are drawn.
Water and water areas well used can benefit all who live within their
sphere of influence. If, however, they are unwisely used, contaminated,
or wasted, dependent life is thereby threatened, sometimes with minor
Tidal wetlands.
Water 43
loss or inconvenience, sometimes with major disaster, as by devastating
drought or overwhelming flood.
It is only recently that entire river basins have come to be studied as uni-
fied and interrelated systems. Such a rational approach increases rather
than limits the possibilities of fuller use and enjoyment and sets a work-
able framework within which all subareas may then be better planned.
Problems
The problems to be precluded are those of overuse, rapid runoff, ero-
sion, siltation, flooding, induced drought, and contamination. Simply
stated, any use that causes one or more of these abuses to any significant
degree is improper and should not be condoned. It can be left to biolo-
gists and legal experts to define a significant impact. But it can no longer
be left to individuals or groups to determine whether or not their activ-
ities may cause harm to their neighbors, no matter if the “neighbors” live
next door or at the river mouth 1,000 miles downstream.
What happens in the wheat fields of North Dakota can have a telling
effect on the working of the lower Missouri and Mississippi rivers. What
happens or doesn’t happen on the forest slopes of the upper James River
may decimate the wildfowl yield of the distant salt marsh or contami-
Every activity which impacts a resource, such nate the oyster beds of Chesapeake Bay. In Florida a cloud of spawning
as the Chesapeake Bay, imposes a cost and that
cost must be paid by someone. For years, we shrimp may die where the Apalachicola River debouches, because of an
cheerfully operated under the assumption that oil spill on a tributary two states away.
where the environment and natural resources
were concerned we could operate outside the In most nonarid parts of our land it is assumed that the supply of fresh-
laws of nature and economics. Cities disposed water is limitless. It is not. It has recently been common for reservoirs
of their sewage for “free” by simply directing
their outfalls to the nearest river. Factories and wells to reach such low levels that whole regions are alerted and
poured wastes into the bay and its tributaries rationed. Along much of our coastline, the aquifers that flow under-
at little or no cost—to their owners. ground to the oceans have been so lowered by drawdown that saltwater
Unfortunately, even though the cost of such intrusion for many miles inland has been a vexing problem.
activities did not show up on any ledger book,
they were being paid for, with heavy interest,
by—the downstream municipality forced to The normal solution to such shortages has been to extend aqueducts, no
find another water supply, the waterman matter how far, to tap additional sources. Serious thought has even been
facing condemned oyster grounds, the seafood given to the massive melting of the arctic icecap as a source of supply. This,
packer forced to look further and further afield even as we are beginning to realize the disastrous effects of global warm-
for products to market—all of them picked up
the tab for this “free” activity. ing. Today the supply of freshwater is not equal to our use (or misuse) and
W. Tayloe Murphy demands. This has become a major land planning consideration.
44 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
The irrigation of thousands upon thousands of acres of otherwise
parched semidesert, converting it into lucrative farmland, was a good
thing as long as the water was abundant. Overuse, however, has dried
the beds of such rivers as the Colorado and lowered the levels of water
tables nationwide. Recently, newly assembled macrofarms with rolling
irrigation machines gush fountains of potable water skyward, while in
nearby homes, faucet flows have been reduced to a trickle.
Water 45
then be clustered within a green-blue surrounding of field, forest, and
clean water, linked with parklike transportation ways. Far more than
many may realize, we are already well on our way to such a concept, and
Ecologically managed wetlands are rapidly ethic, of land and water management.
becoming an important alternative to
conventional wastewater treatment systems.
Proficient land and site planning will help solve the water-related prob-
lems and ensure that the possibilities are fully realized. The level of per-
formance should be continually improved in the light of increasing
public support and advancing technology. It is quite possible that within
the span of our lifetimes wide reaches of our land and waterways may be
restored to the fairer form that our naturalist friends Thoreau, Muir, and
Aldo Leopold once found so exhilarating.
Management
In considering the site development of any landscape area, a first concern
is the protection of the surface and subsurface waters both as to quality
and as to quantity. Quality is maintained by precluding contamination in
any form, as by the flow or seepage of pollutants, by groundwater runoff
charged with chemicals or nutrients, by siltation, or by the introduction
of solid wastes. The assurance of acceptable water quantity is largely a
matter of retaining surface runoff in swales, ponds, or wetlands to pre-
vent the flooding of streams or water bodies, to sustain the level of the
underlying water table, and to replenish the deep-flowing aquifers.
Utilize
Avoid the water-edge ring of roads and buildings
that seal off water bodies and limit their use. Since propinquity to water is so highly desirable, since there is only so
much water area and frontage to go around, and since the protection of
our water and edges has become so critical in our environmental planning,
it would seem reasonable that all water-oriented land areas should be
planned in such a way as to reap the maximum benefits of the water fea-
ture while protecting its integrity. This goal often resolves itself into the
simple device of expanding the actual and visual limits of water-related
land to the reasonable maximum. This is not as difficult as it might seem.
In practice, the rim of frontage is extended landward from the water edge
in such a manner as to define an ample protective sheath. This variform
vegetated band, at best following the lines of drainage flow and respond-
ing to the subtle persuasions of the topography, will provide frontage for
compatible development and serve as access to the water. The possible
By expanding the traffic-free lake environs to variations are limitless, but the principle remains always the same. Each
include park, wildlife preserve, and public
variable diagram must stand the test of these three underlying conditions:
areas as well as private cottages and resorts,
the use and enjoyment of the lake (and sur-
rounding real estate values) are enhanced. 1. All related uses are to be compatible with the water resource and
landscape.
2. The intensity of the introduced uses must not exceed the carrying
capacity or biologic tolerance of the land and water areas.
46 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
3. The continuity of the natural and built systems is to be ensured. If
these three principles are adhered to, it can be seen that all land-
water areas, from homesite to region, can be planned and developed
in such a way that both the scenic quality and the ecologic functions
are maintained.
Open water is fast disappearing from the American scene. Expanding agri-
As a breakthrough in the treatment of cultural lands and development continue to follow the drainage ditches
wastewater and toxic effluents it has been and tile fields across prairie wetlands and everglades. The urgent compul-
discovered that ecologically engineered
wetlands can be devised to extract and sion to dredge and fill, while slowed by recent conservation legislation, con-
retain the contaminants while storing the tinues to reclaim the marsh, the cedar bog, and the mangrove strands.
clarified water and providing habitat. Rivers, lakes, and oceanfront are being hidden from public view and
shielded from public access by a rising wall of apartments and office towers.
Protect
Where water features exist, protect them. Work to preserve not only the
open water but the supporting watershed covers, the natural holding
ponds, the swampland, the floodplain, the feeding streams, and the
green sheath along their banks. To be protected as well are the coastal
wetlands, the landward dunes, and the outward reefs or sandbars.
Rediscover
Many water features of great potential landscape value have been
bypassed in the process of building or roadway construction. They
remain “out back” or “yonder,” often in their natural state, more often as
silted or polluted drainage sumps or dump sites. They are waiting to be
reclaimed by the community as parkland or open space preserves. Pre-
served or modified, they may be rediscovered and featured in new pub-
lic or private landscape development.
Restore
Again, a spring, a pond, or a section of stream may have been enclosed
in a culvert or buried in fill. Or it may have been used as a dumping
ground and covered with brush and trash. Sometimes, to add to the dis-
grace, such water features have been shamefully polluted with oils and
chemicals and are coated with scum. In most urban and suburban
Water 47
Phillips Farevaag Smallenberg, Photo taken by Jim Breadon
Xeriscape landscape construction, planting,
and gardening is that requiring a minimum
of irrigation.
Constructed wetlands.
precincts and often in the open countryside, there are to be found such
unrecognized landscape treasures waiting to be reclaimed.
Conserve
The alarming drawdown and depletion of our freshwater reserves under-
scores the need for new attitudes toward water use and resource manage-
ment. Even in times of moderate drought, many city reservoirs are
Only in America with its abundance of emptied. While in most parts of the world water is considered a precious
buildable land and fresh water has it been commodity and used sparingly, in the United States it is squandered as
the fashion to surround single-family homes
and apartments with irrigated lawn. With though the supply were unlimited. It is not.
land and water supplies in short supply it
will no longer be affordable or acceptable. To conserve our diminishing supply in the face of ever-increasing
demands, several courses of action are proposed:
Limit consumption.
Regulate household use by sharply escalating the rates on a sliding
scale for use above a basic norm.
Preclude use of well water for irrigation.
Lawns cover over fifty thousand square miles Recycle wastewater. In urban areas this suggests a dual system of water
of the surface of the United States—an area
roughly equal to Pennsylvania, and larger supply—one for drinking, cooking, and bathing, the other for all other
than that occupied by any agricultural crop. purposes. Treat and sanitize wastewater (at a much lower unit cost) to be
Wade Graham used exclusively for irrigation, air-conditioning, street washing, and
industrial processing.
Replenish
In undisturbed nature, the subsurface water reserves are sustained automat-
ically—by the retention and soil filtration of precipitation. When trees,
48 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
grasses, and other vegetative covers are removed—and especially when
replaced by paving or construction—the water tables are thereby lowered.
Preplan
Sometimes in the necessary process of mining or in the excavation of
open extraction pits, there exists the need to create new water areas.
From the air in some regions these can be seen to dot the landscape, usu-
ally in the form of dull rectilinear dragline creations. Each may now be
recognized as a lost opportunity. With advanced planning and some-
times little additional cost, these pits and the bordering property area
could have been, and yet can be, shaped into new and attractive water-
scapes, with free-form lakes, grassy slopes, and tree-covered mounds.
This reasonable preplanning approach, as a condition of obtaining exca-
Water 49
vation permits and combined with soil conservation and afforestation,
provides the opportunity to preclude new scars on the countryside and,
instead, to create new landscapes from the old. With enterprise, many
existing extraction pits could be acquired, reshaped, and transformed
into highly attractive and valuable real estate.
In their existing state, the banks of streams and rivers are lined by a
fringe of grasses, shrubs, and trees that stabilize soils and check the sheet
inflow of surface storm water drainage. The bank faces are held in place
by stones, logs, roots, and trailing plants that resist currents and erosion.
For safety, a beach should slope to a depth
exceeding a swimmer’s height (6 feet plus) Lakeshores and beaches, armored with wave-resistant rock or protected
before reaching a deep-cut line. by their sloped edges of sand or gravel, are ideally shaped to withstand
the force and wash of wind-driven waves. Even the quiet pond or lagoon
is edged with reeds or lily pads, which serve a similar purpose.
Where a water feature such as a spring, pond, lake, or tidal marsh occurs
in nature, it is usually a distillate of the surrounding landscape and a rich
contributor to its ecologic workings and the scene. Such superlatives are
to be in all ways protected. This is not to preclude their use and enjoy-
ment, for the purpose of sensitive planning is to ensure protection while
facilitating the highest and best use of the landscape feature.
50 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
At a miniscale, a trickling rivulet can be impeded by a few well-placed
stones to increase its size and depth. By the construction of a proper
Ocean beaches are built and rebuilt by the dam, larger and deeper pools can be created for fishing, swimming, or
forces of currents, storms, and tides. They are boating or as landscape features.
essentially temporary, since the forces that built
them can also alter them beyond recognition—
sometimes during a single great storm. Even At a greater scale, huge reservoirs or lakes may be impounded for water
the most costly stabilization projects have storage, flood control, or the provision of hydroelectric energy. Provided
proven ineffective against. . . . beach the drawdowns are not too severe or frequent, such large impoundments
evolution.
Albert R. Veri et al. offer the opportunity for many forms of water-related recreation and
often become the focal attraction for extensive regional development. To
ensure their maximum contribution and benefits, all major reservoirs
and the contiguous lands around them should be preplanned before
construction permits are issued, with dedication provided for necessary
Often, and particularly in large parks and rights-of-way and for appropriate public and private uses.
nature preserves, the migratory aspect of
beaches and shores is acknowledged, and
they are allowed full freedom to assume and From the smallest dam to the largest, the location must be well selected to
constantly adjust their natural ensure its stability, for a failure and surging washout can bring serious
conformation. This eminently sound problems downstream. Water levels are to be studied in relation to topo-
approach deserves far wider application. graphical forms so that the edges of the pond or lake may create a pleasing
shape well suited to adjacent paths of movement, use areas, and structures.
Bridges, too, are designed with regard for much more than basic func-
Ribbon path at river’s edge. tion. At their best they provide an exhilarating experience of crossing.
Water 51
Seen from many directions and angles, they are to be given sculptural
form. Every bridge is to be designed with utmost simplicity as a clear
expression of its materials, structure, and use. Each will derive distinc-
tive character from the locality and the nature of the site.
Water Edges
The meeting of land and water presents a line of special planning
significance.
It has been noted that where the uses are mild and where the banks or
shores are attractive, they are best left essentially undisturbed. As water-
related uses are intensified and the need for space increased, the degree
of edge treatment is correspondingly increased until in some instances it
may become entirely architectural.
52 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
• Design to the worst conditions. Consider recorded water levels and
the height of wind-driven surf.
The qualities of water are infinite in their • Preclude flooding. Hold the floor level of habitable structures above
variety. the 50-year-flood stage as a minimum.
In depth, water may range from deep to • Promote safety by the use of handrails, nonslip pavement, buoys, mark-
no more than a film of surface
moisture. ers, and lights.
In motion, from rush to gush, plummet, • Use weather- and water-resistant materials, fastenings, and equipment.
spurt, spout, spill, spray, or seep. Corrosion and deterioration are constant problems along the water-
In sound, from tumultuous roar to front.
murmur.
Each attribute suggests a particular use and • Prevent the flow of polluted surface runoff into receiving waters. Such
application in landscape design. runoff should be intercepted and treated, or filtered by the use of
detention swales.
Water 53
54
Kongjian Yu/Turenscape Belt Collins
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Barry W. Starke, EDA Belt Collins
In even the smallest garden also, water has its essential place. Wherever
plants are used, for example, irrigation is needed and is to be considered
in the design. A trickling spout or well-placed spray can moisten and
cool a patch of gravel mulch, a bed of ivy, or a square of sunlit paving.
The simplest container of water placed out for the birds adds interest
and refreshment, as does a quiet pool, a dripping ledge, or a splashing
fountain. Such water features, easy to devise and construct, can yield
long hours of watching and listening pleasure.
Water 55
4
LAND
Wherever their urgings or headings led them, our forebears avoided the
unfavorable situation and sought those conditions within the landscape
best suited to their needs. Sometimes these were as immediate as water,
food, or forage, sometimes as permanent as fortification or homestead.
With the same atavistic instinct, each of us by habit still constantly sur-
veys the landscape about us to avoid areas of hazard or discomfort, to
trace the most favorable path, and to attain the most suitable situation.
This feel for the land is inborn; it is in our bones and blood.
Human Impact
For many thousands of years, our predecessors have gathered the bounty
of the grasslands, waterways, and forests without causing significant
damage. As they fished, set their snares, or hunted game, they left the
land and waters as they found them. Their canoes glided silently through
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
57
the unspoiled wilderness, their horses were tethered, and their herds
grazed without lasting disruption of the natural cover. Their early
Every day some 12 square miles of
American farmland is usurped by encampments left no lasting scars and were soon overgrown. Even the
development. first settlements and clearings fitted to the slopes and water edges were
of little ecologic consequence.
Sonoran Preserve.
We have traveled inviting roads that weave pleasantly through the land-
scape, introducing us to woodland, meadow, streams, well-ordered
fields, orchards, and abundant valleys. We have delighted in towns that
seem to have blossomed spontaneously upon the crown of a hill or in
cities terraced gracefully down to the river edge or harbor.
58 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Well-suited developments intelligently planned can produce an integra-
tion of designed forms and modified landscape superior to the original.
The best of the indigenous features can be preserved and incorporated.
Or they may be conserved for limited uses and to maintain the native set-
ting. The natural attractions may thus be enjoyed and appreciated daily
to enrich the living experience. Such installations convey a sense of stabil-
ity and fitness. They “sing” in the landscape, and they sing in harmony.
A better way is building with nature and in compression, which provides the human
scale and charm we find so appealing in the older cultures, in which economy of materi-
The natural ground forms are best accepted als and space dictated a close relationship of structure and landscape form.
as givens. They are the resolution of myriad
forces at work over a long period of time. To Where, however, the uses imposed are unsuited, where they are awkward
adapt to them is to harmonize with the
forces and conditions by which they have in plan or clumsy in execution, the result is distressing to both the eye
evolved. and the intellect. Moreover, the disruptive consequences may be costly,
even catastrophic. For the immutable forces of nature have a way of
rejecting those built intrusions which violate the land.
Land 59
If humankind is to thrive—yea, even survive—it is incumbent upon us
to study and apply those principles by which we can bring our species
and nature into symbiotic balance. The problems of encroaching civi-
Each state, country, or municipality has as lization, the imperiled land, and the increasing need for its care have
one of it’s chief responsibilities a plan for together become our heritage.
the conservation and best use of the lands
within its jurisdiction.
Land as a Resource
Land and the waters that lap its edges, flow across its surface, seep into
its upper soil strata, and move within its deep aquifers are our ultimate
resources. Mismanaged, they may be lost to us forever, and our national
wealth and well-being proportionately diminished.
60 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
hauled, or washed and blown away to the rivers and thence transported
to the sea. This is a loss no nation can afford. The disastrous conse-
quences of misuse and waste of topsoil are to be observed in most of the
arid regions of the world.
Productivity
All forms of life derive from the land and its cover of soil. There, in the
Conservation is a way of life which deals chlorophyll of rooted plants, carbon dioxide and moisture are trans-
wisely with all natural resources, recognizing formed by the energy of the sun into the basic sugars and starches of our
them to be . . . irreplaceable and essential to
the welfare of mankind. food chain. This is a miracle of chemistry occurring only when the con-
Warner S. Goshorn ditions are right. The resulting types of vegetation and animal life vary
endlessly from patch to patch and from region to region. It is only
recently that we have come to understand how closely all are interrelated.
When any area of land is disturbed, the delicate balances are shifted and
An analogy: that in its land and resource the repercussions of change may be felt many miles away. This is not to
planning each state be considered as a imply that all natural or cultivated food-yielding land should be left
developing farmstead. An astute farmer
would study the land until he or she came unmodified. Often, with husbandry, its nutrient yield may be increased,
to understand it—its nature, constraints, and for many types of terrain there may be more important uses. It is,
and possibilities. The farmer would then so rather, proposed that in land planning and utilization the most produc-
lay out (and continually adjust) the working tive areas are to be defined and protected. This is fully as true in the lay-
components—living quarters, barn, pens,
fields, orchard, and lines of connection—as out of a residential property as in the comprehensive planning of a state.
to bring them into best relationship to each
other an to the land-water holding. The
farmer would plan the whole and each new Habitat
element in such a way as to conserve and
take full advantage of the land’s best The land is our terrestrial home not only for the human species but for
features: the ground forms, the woodlot, the all living organisms, which together constitute the biomass of the planet
spring, the drainageways, the soil, and the Earth.
natural covers.
Not only is such a farm (state) more
productive, Ecology has taught us that all organisms and creatures are interacting and
Not only is it more efficient, interdependent; that all are contributors and have their necessary func-
Not only is it more agreeable as a place tions in the biologic scheme of things; that the mountains, forests,
to live and work,
It is also the best possible investment for marshes, and rivers together form a community without definable limits;
the farmer, the farmer’s spouse, and and that the integrity of the natural systems must somehow be preserved.
their heirs.
It is only within very recent times that members of the human race have
seen fit to claim sole rights in land. This newly acquired compulsion to
own land and take a permanent fix has become epidemic. Today, whole
A natural system is a co-related assemblage regions of the earthscape have been marked off by boundary posts and line
of topographic, climatic, or ecologic fences, only to be further divided and subdivided, again and yet again.
elements interacting in accordance with
natural law.
Watersheds, wetlands, coral reefs, Most such property ownership demarcations have been made on a
meadows, and anthills are examples. wholly haphazard, geometric basis, without regard for topographic
conformation.
Reason would tell us that if land must be parceled and subdivided (our
entire culture seems now to be operating on this premise), new lines of
Land 61
ownership should be brought into consonance with the boundaries of
functioning land and water systems.
It can be seen that from our country’s beginnings to the present time the
dynamics of land transfer, ownership, and use have had profound polit-
ical, social, and economic implications. The story of land exploration,
land hunger, land transactions, regulation, and use (and too often abuse)
The topsoil mantle is teeming with life.
Scoop up a handful almost anywhere, and is the story of America. Land is our ultimate resource. We must plan for
you are holding a cosmos of microscopic its conservation, regulation, and development on a more scientific basis.
organisms and cells of regeneration. We must learn to use it more wisely.
Land Rights
Once in private ownership, land can be readily used or sold as a valued
commodity. A factor of use or sale is, of course, the ability to define and
62 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Almost imperceptibly the relationship of prove rights of ownership by clear title to the property. Such proof pre-
society to the land has changed, to a point supposes a survey and the establishment on the ground of stakes, mon-
at which the public good now largely
transcends the rights of the individual. uments, or other markings by which the property boundaries can be
identified. Further, there must be a means by which a lot or parcel may
be so described as to differentiate it from and relate it to all other land-
holdings. Finally, there is need for a systematic and orderly means of
recording land descriptions and titles.
Surveying
The original land survey has left an indelible mark upon those parts
of the United States to which it was applied. There was much to com-
mend the system. As Marion Clawson has noted, we are a rectilinear
country, divided into squares and oblongs like a haphazard checker-
board, with the lines running directly north-south and east-west.
Roads typically follow the surveyed section lines even though this means
going up and down hills instead of around them. Farmers tend to lay out
their fields parallel to the boundaries of their land even though this may
mean cultivating up and down the slope rather than along the contours.
Grant Heilman
Land 63
Much erosion has been caused or accelerated in this way. Some land
Targets over random field stakes can be plotted experts, observing these types of bad land use, have been highly critical
by coordinates from an aerial photo grid. of the rectilinear land survey and argue for modification.
Perhaps the time has now come. The crude magnetic surveying instru-
ments and need for range lines cleared through forest and swamps made
the mechanical grid quite reasonable in its time. But now, with the
advent of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), photogrammetry,
laser sighting, computer techniques, coordinates, and electronic traverse
computation, it is time for a whole fresh look at the process of land
description and measurement. A gradual land resurvey to follow and
respond to natural topographical conformation is clearly in order. Gov-
ernmental regulation could now require that future land surveys and
dispositions be based, as appropriate, on more logical parcel boundaries
to meet sound land use criteria.
Use
We Americans, with a seemingly inexhaustible land reserve, have been
extremely wasteful. We have claimed, cleared, and too often exploited,
then moved on, to do it all over again. It is only now, with open land at
a premium, that we have begun to understand the need for husbandry.
With photogrammetry even freely meandering
lines can be plotted for property description and There are many examples of land well used—among them, New En-
recording—with a trace of the line and coordi- gland villages fitted to the topography, the Amish farmsteads of Pennsyl-
nates on an aerial map for the record. vania, Florida citrus groves, Wisconsin dairy farms, wheat and corn
Only when all or part of the boundary line
fields of the prairies, ranch lands of the plains, and bean fields, vine-
needs be staked or monumented is a field crew
needed. yards, and orchards along the west coast—and across the breadth of the
land, well-tended homesites and gardens.
Meandering property lines are easily established.
In the good examples, we may perceive these simple precepts of sound
land management:
We abuse land because we regard it as a
commodity belonging to us. When we see land Learn to read the landscape,
as a community to which we belong, we may
begin to use it with love and respect. . . . to comprehend the grandeur of its geologic framework,
That land is a community is the basic to understand the vital workings and interdependence of the
concept of ecology, but that land is to be loved land and water systems,
and respected is an extension of ethics. to discern in each form and feature the unique expression of
Aldo Leopold
nature’s creative process.
Let the land’s nature determine its use. And so address each
measure of the landscape as to evoke, through our planning, use,
The carrying capacity of land-water area is and treatment, its highest qualities and potential.
the population or level of activity that can
be sustained for a given length of time
without depletion of the resources or When land passes from one ownership to another, certain legal rights are
breakdown of the biological (natural) transferred with the property. Unless otherwise specified in the deed or
systems. governing regulations, these include the right to use, cultivate, mine,
perform earthwork, remove the soil or vegetation from the land, or build
upon it.
64 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
SWA Group
Plan to the land.
Running with the land are also certain responsibilities, many firmly
established by our land law tradition. It is unlawful, for instance, to
cause damage by directing an increased flow of storm-water runoff onto
Landowners have the responsibility to use a neighbor’s property. It is not lawful to alter grades significantly along a
their property so as to protect its natural property line, or to create off-site earth slippage, erosion, or siltation, or
values and cause no harm to neighbors.
to generate undue air, water, noise, or visual pollution. Other more
recent restrictions dealing with such matters as wetland protection,
beach access, erosion control, and unregulated grading are still to be
fully tested in the courts.
Since most sites were acquired in the first place because they were attrac-
tive or had other positive qualities, it might well be proposed as a gen-
eral rule that the less modification, the better. A fundamental principle
of landscape design is to “plan to the site,” letting the natural contours,
conditions, and covers dictate the building and landscape forms.
Where for one reason or another it may be desirable to alter the grades,
as to provide required use areas or to dispose of excavated materials, the
topsoil on disturbed areas should first be stripped and stockpiled. The
revised contours will then be reshaped to accommodate the proposed
uses, to express the meld of natural and constructed elements, and to
enhance the building-site composition.
Land 65
Reuse
Land is a finite resource. As usable land becomes scarcer, the need to
reuse formerly abused land—or brownfields, as they have come to be
known as—is clear. Brownfield sites are usually abandoned or under-
utilized former industrial areas that contain varying degrees of con-
tamination by chemicals and other pollutants. Once these pollutants
are removed, the land becomes suitable for other selective uses. These
sites are often in close proximity to urban infrastructures, making their
location highly desirable. In turn, for many instances, cleanup
becomes cost-effective as a result of the increased land value. Examples
in the United States include Gas Works Park in Seattle, Washington;
Atlanta Station in Atlanta, Georgia; and Pittsburgh Technology Cen-
ter in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
66 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Topography
Topography is defined as the art of showing in detail on a major map the
physical features of a place or region.
Land areas and the bottoms of water bodies are seldom level. They slope
up or down; they undulate; they sometimes pitch precipitously to great
heights or depths, and are often creased with streambeds, ravines, or
seismic faults.
Representation by Contours
The shape, or relief, of the ground surface can be indicated by contours.
These are lines of equal height above a fixed reference point, or bench
mark, of known or assumed elevation. For some engineering projects
of exceptional scope or precision, the bench mark will be a permanent
monument with machined brass cap—its elevation recorded in hun-
dredths of feet above mean sea level. Again, for a project of lesser scope
the bench mark may be no more than the top of a rock or a driven pipe
assigned an arbitrary elevation of, say, 100.0 feet.
Where the land gradient is mild, the contour interval or height differen-
tial may be reduced. Where the land is rugged, as in mountainous coun-
try, the interval may be increased to 10 feet, 100 feet, or more depending
upon the need.
It can be seen that by contours alone the modulations of the Earth’s sur-
face can be graphically portrayed. In architectural or landscape planning
a site plan prepared with a contour map as a base gives an invaluable feel
for the land.
Land 67
Figure 1 is the plan of a small land area at scale of 1 inch = 100 foot. The
dot represents a stone or stake, the top of which has an assumed elevation
of 100.0 feet. The X is a spot elevation used to mark a high point, a low
point, or some other spot of relevance. The curving contours are lines of
equal height at 1-foot intervals above or below the level of the bench
mark (BM). The closer together the contours (as along section A-A) the
steeper the slope compared with B-B (a valley) or C-C (a ridge).
Figure 1.
Kathryn Gustafson
68 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Moore Planning Group, LLC
Illustrative section.
Sections
As a further aid, the contour map provides the opportunity to plot sec-
tions wherever an accurate land profile is needed. In Figure 2, for exam-
ple, if section lines are drawn through any area of the map, as at lines
A-A, or B-B, a profile can be plotted and enlarged or reduced to any use-
ful scale.
Figure 2.
Land 69
Models
Even more graphic than plans or sections is a model prepared by cutting
and superimposing sheets of matboard, plywood, or plastic of the appro-
priate thickness along the contour lines. By means of such an exhibit the
Landscapes of Place
surface conformation or modeling of the entire property can be per-
ceived at a glance. Aerial or perspective views of the model in photo-
graphic form are often used for ready reference.
Surveys
It is well to understand that surveying methods and maps are of many
types and must be suited to their purpose. As for methods, the compass
and chain is good enough for plotting logging roads but hardly suited to
precision mapping. The plane table survey may be adequate for a limited
site where precisely accurate property line descriptions and elevations are
not needed. The stadia survey has long been the standard for accurate
Cardboard contour model. topographic mapping, but has recently been superseded by the laser
transit. For larger-area coverage, a photogrammetric survey is usually pre-
scribed. This involves the piecing together of overlapping aerial mosaics
and the plotting of surface features by stereoptic projection. Commonly
used in military reconnaissance, it yields a high degree of precision.
If contouring and spot elevations are needed they must be requested. With
detailed site planning to be accomplished, the topographic survey specifi-
cation may be expanded to include the location and description of specific
surface and subsurface features. Core borings or test pits may be required
and such elements as the adjacent roadway or the nearest off-site utility
leads and projected capacities. When a topographic survey is needed, it
is well to meet with the surveyor and review the requirements in detail.
A specification and work order can then be drafted for execution. For an
extensive or complicated development project, the survey specification
may be many pages in length. For a typical residential homesite, how-
ever, the following sample specification should normally suffice.
Topographic Survey Specification
Property: The property to be surveyed is marked on the enclosed
Terrace edges simulate contour lines. location map (to be provided to the surveyor by the owner or
landscape architect).
General: Surveyor shall do all work necessary to determine accu-
rately the physical conditions existing on the site.
70 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Datum: Elevations shall be referenced to any convenient and per-
manent bench mark with an assumed elevation of 100.0 feet. The
bench-mark location shall be shown on the map.
Information required:
Land 71
Supplementary Data
Aside from the basic topographic, or “topo,” survey prepared by a profes-
sional surveyor or civil engineer and needed for most project design and
construction, there are other sources of useful maps and reports available
at nominal cost. Of these the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) maps war-
rant special mention.1 Several series are available, at different scales, but
the one most often useful to the planner is the 7.5-minute series, in which
each map (or quadrangle, as it is called) covers an area of about 60 square
miles at a scale of 1 inch to 2000 feet. These survey maps show most of
the pertinent topography of the area, including relief, wooded areas, all
bodies of water, transportation routes, and major buildings.
USGS
USGS map.
1
U.S. Geological Survey maps may often be purchased locally at map or stationery
stores, or they may be ordered directly from the main distribution center at USGS
Information Services, Box 25286, Denver, CO 80225 (http://geography.usgs.gov/
esic/to_order.html). If requested, an index map shows for each state the quadrangle to
be ordered for a particular location.
72 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
For many counties the Natural Resources Conservation Service (for-
merly the U.S. Soil Conservation Service) has available published Soil
Survey Reports, which include 11- by 14-inch field sheets of aerial pho-
tos on which soil types are delineated. These may be purchased at the
nearest field office. For the areas covered, they can be most useful. Then
there are the various types of coverage by satellite mapping and photog-
raphy, which for certain localities show surface conditions with startling
detail and accuracy.
Planning agencies and highway departments are often able and willing
to provide survey information and reports for extensive metropolitan
areas. This is especially useful in large-scale comprehensive planning, as
for a campus, community, river basin, or park and open-space systems.
Other public agencies also can help with overall background mapping
and data, which may be sufficient for site selection and preliminary land
use diagrams. When it comes time, however, for detailed site planning
and recording there is need for a certified topographic survey.
Digital maps in GIS format are a useful form of mapping used for
supplementary data on a project. GIS maps, provided by most local
governments through an online system, provide the basic topography,
vegetation, waterways, transportation routes, buildings, soils, zoning,
floodplains, utilities, easements, aerial photography, zoning restrictions
or overlays, and individual lot information. More extensive data files are
available from local, state, federal, and private agencies for everything
from demographics to geographic and ecological data. Analytical GIS
software helps the designer to process multiple layers of data and apply
it in the design process.
United LAB
Land 73
5
VEGETATION
N ot many centuries ago, except for the water bodies and windswept
deserts, the whole of planet Earth above the level of the sea was
covered with vegetation. From the lichens, mosses, and sedges at the
water’s edge to the billowing grass of the prairies and plains. From the
lush foliage of the swamp and marsh to the sparse fringe at the moun-
tain timberline. In between, the dunes, rolling hills, and upland slopes
were for the most part clothed with a dense growth of deciduous shrubs
and trees or needled conifers.
Topsoil Mantle
In the Americas, until the migrations across the land bridge of the Bering
Sea (the latest some 10,000 years ago), there were no living humans on
either the North or South American continents to disturb or destroy this
vegetative cover. As long as it remained intact, the fertile topsoil mantle,
laid down by the ages, was secure and protected. This rich and loamy top-
soil substance which overlays the weathered subsoils and rocky earth
crust is the wealth of every nation, for only where it remains in place can
food, fiber, or timber be produced. Where the vegetative growth has been
destroyed by overgrazing, by unsound tillage, or by the clearing or burn-
ing of timberlands, the vital topsoil is soon washed or blown away to
leave the vulnerable substrata or naked rock exposed. As noted, this has
been the case in many countries of the Mideast, where much of the once
forested land now resembles a deeply eroded moonscape.
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
75
In the United States we’ve not been immune to such wanton and
destructive practices. Within the past century, with our power saws,
earthmoving equipment, careless farming, and lax developmental regu-
lations, we have lost a third or more of our topsoil heritage to the wind,
storm-water erosion, and construction.
Aside from its protective function, the vegetation of the earth serves to
catch and retain precipitation. Its foliage and roots absorb and transpire
but a fraction of the falling snow or rain, the dew or drifting mist. Much
of the rest is retained to filter through the soils to replenish the underly-
ing freshwater tables or aquifer reservoirs.
Plants in Nature
The vegetal growth that covers most of our globe occurs in myriad forms
that range from the towering redwoods of the Pacific coastal forest to the
microscopic forms of algae and plant diatoms of our streams, freshwater
bodies, and teeming saltwater seas. This wonder world of vegetation
provides the habitat and basic food supply of all living creatures.
Barry W. Starke, EDA
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Andropogon
Plants in nature.
76 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Food Chain
In the green chlorophyll cells of plants, and only there, the energy of the
sun is transformed into the simple starches at the base of the biologic
food chain. In this process of photosynthesis, plants draw moisture from
the air and soil and in the presence of sunlight convert carbon dioxide
into free oxygen and carbohydrates. It is in this vital miracle of chem-
istry that both the oxygen we breathe and the simple starches and sugars
upon which all life depends are produced and replenished.
Transpiration
It is not only the free oxygen produced by plants that refreshes the air.
Water drawn by the plants from the soil and water table is given off by
foliage as vapor through evapotranspiration. This cooling and moisturiz-
ing function contributes to the growing conditions for other plants and to
creature comfort as well. Where it is lacking, arid desert conditions exist.
Climate Control
Derek Locke
Plants ameliorate the climate in other ways also. They serve as buffers
against a storm. Their foliage and mat of fallen leaves protect the soil
against drying winds and sun. Even in wintertime their branches, twigs,
and stems form a mesh to receive and transmit solar heat and help pro-
tect soils from freezing temperatures.
Water Retention
Plants store the moisture that falls as precipitation—in the crevices of
their bark, in the fountain of woody yet aqueous cells that constitute
their internal structure, and in the fibrous mat of detritus and roots that
Tree roots help control soil erosion. cover and penetrate the earth. Water retained is water allowed to cleanse
the air or seep into the topsoil and subsurface aquifers. Runoff
unchecked is erosion in the making, with siltation as a result.
Soil Building
In the cycle of living and dying, plants return to the earth their decaying
fibers and cells to provide humus and deepen the film of topsoil. This
slowly accreting and vital substance, if protected from erosion, increases
available nutrients and moisture and the earth’s fecundity.
Vegetation 77
The fallen leaves, fruits, stems, and rotting wood that are not retained by
the soil as humus are washed away in the stream and river systems to
enrich the broth of the tidal estuaries. This organic material in turn
becomes food for aquatic plants and for oysters and spawning shell and
fin fish.
Productivity
Long before our progenitors gathered their first handfuls of berries or
dragged in the first game to their campfires, the forest, prairies, and waters
had provided provender for a vast and voracious domain of insects, fish,
reptiles, soaring birds, and roving animals. Today, natural conditions would
be much the same as they were a million years ago were it not for the ascen-
dancy of humankind. Human hands first stripped and stored nature’s
bounty, then harvested the grass, grain, and timber, and finally pushed back
and destroyed the indigenous covers to make room for garden patches,
fields, and settlements. Too often we humans have gained our abundance
at the expense of the earth’s other inhabitants, until the destruction of veg-
etative cover and wildlife has now reached devastating proportions. It is
only within very recent times that we have paused to consider the conse-
quences. More recently have we begun to understand the direct relation-
ships that exist within the whole biologic realm of animals and plants.
Plant Identification
To work with plants, one must come to recognize them and be able to
describe them in terms that others can comprehend. Botany, as a field of
Ferdinand Bauer
Otto Wilhelm Thome
Botanical prints.
78 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
scientific inquiry, has grown from the early classification of plants and
their systematic study. Linnaeus,1 sensing a need to better understand the
relationships, established the botanical orders and introduced the concept
of standardized nomenclature. With over 250,000 plant species now
known to exist, it is doubtful that more than a few thousand yet remain
unclassified. All plants (and other organisms) are given two scientific
(Latin) names. One is for the group or genus; the second is for the species.
The scientific names are generally descriptive of the plant characteristics or
botanic significance. Latin is used because the meaning of Latin words is
unchanging and universal. Were it not for scientific classification it would
be impossible to identify a plant or describe it to others, since the common
name or name commonly used in a given locality may differ from place to
place—even within limited regions of the same country. In view of the
international scope of plant study and use it can be seen that standardized
plant names are a great boon, even if they are in Latin.
Plant Culture
The rambling sorties of the first botanists have given way to well-
organized expeditions. In more recent times, plant explorers such as
E. H. Wilson and David Fairchild have ranged the world, from the jun-
gles of Africa to the Mongolian deserts and the peaks of the lofty
Himalayas, in search of specimens for herbaria and botanic garden col-
lections and for introduction to our gardens and farms.
Breeding
Early attempts at selective plant breeding and cross-pollination have
led to more sophisticated techniques of hybridization. The pioneering
feats of the plant breeder Luther Burbank excited enthusiastic interest
and produced a tantalizing array of new and superior roses, potatoes,
oranges, plums, and other improved plant varieties. Today, plant selec-
tion, plant crossing, and seed radiation are creating a veritable cornu-
copia of hardier, more disease-resistant grains, more luscious fruits, more
nutritious vegetables, and more attractive ornamental plants.
Bioengineering
Over the past decade or so, the practice of bioengineering has emerged,
which essentially involves combining the DNA of one living thing with
that of another, thus creating a new organism. As pertains to plants, the
object is to create new plants with enhanced characteristics such as
drought resistance, frost tolerance, longer blooming, and so on. How-
ever, many fear the unintended consequences of this practice may
threaten natural systems, and this debate is still being played out as of
the writing of this edition.
1
Carolus Linnaeus, Swedish botanist, 1707–1778, who was the first naturalist to clas-
sify the plants of the earth in an orderly arrangement.
Vegetation 79
Horticulture
The science of horticulture holds great promise. Yet, in our exuberant
pursuit of new and improved plant varieties, we tend to ignore the vast
and marvelous store of indigenous plants that surround us. They have
evolved over countless centuries in nature’s selective scheme of things.
Each is a miracle of evolutionary adaptation and survival—the result of
all natural forces. Each, where and as it stands, represents the highest
form of plant life that the given situation can produce and for the time
being sustain. We are only beginning to understand the essential func-
tions of plants in our biosphere or the full extent of their contributions
to the environment in which we work and live.
80 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
For the initiate, the simplest plant guide will suffice as a start on the trail
of exploration, but think twice before scanning the pages; they may lead
you a very long way.
Introduced Plantations
Who could it have been, in the dim and distant beginnings of human
development, that on some daily food-gathering round first thought to
dig and transplant a tuber? Or who consciously gathered and sowed the
first seeds, to watch with impatience and then exclaim at the wonder of
their sprouting? Whoever, whenever, these acts were the start of agricul-
ture and, together with fire and toolmaking, the start of civilization.
From that time, the culture of plants has become, in one way or another,
an almost universal enterprise.
The propagation and cultivation of plants for food and fiber are a logi-
cal extension of the nomadic way of life. Nature’s yield of forage, cereals,
vegetables, nuts, and fruits was often sporadic and scattered. The farm
field, orchard, and vineyard have increased the bounty manyfold, while
barns, silos, storage cellars, and bins have sustained the supply.
Agricultural land.
Vegetation 81
Tom Lamb, Lamb Studio
Disappearing farmland.
Invasive Species
The steady increase of world trade throughout the nineteenth and twen-
tieth centuries into the globalized economy of today has resulted in the
worldwide distribution of plant and animal species, both intentional
and unintentional. For centuries, explorers and entrepreneurs have
deliberately gathered plants and animals from one region and trans-
ported them to another region, generally for the commercial purposes of
producing food, fiber, or ornamentation. Much of the intentional redis-
tribution has served its intended purposes: to enhance agricultural pro-
duction and to provide a wider variety of ornamentals, other types of
plants, and so forth.
82 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Jil M. Swearingen
Both intended and unintended distribution also takes place as seeds, lar-
vae, small plants and animals, and the like, are carried as stowaways in
the transport of other products. Unintended redistribution has resulted
in a new category of flora and fauna designated as invasive species. These
species are considered invasive because of their aggressive growth and
spread, to the detriment of indigenous species with which they compete.
Indigenous species may also become invasive if their natural controls are
Kudzu vine. removed or become out of balance. Perhaps the best example of this is
the explosive increase in the population of the native whitetail deer.
Vanishing Green
A new American landscape is taking form. There are encouraging signs.
We find in our rural, suburban, and urban areas many examples of land
well used and natural features preserved. Many farmsteads, homes, and
communities have been planned in sympathetic response to their topo-
©2011 AECOM/Photography by David Lloyd
graphical settings, and extensive areas of open space have been acquired
to conserve scenic mountain slopes, riverbanks, and shores. Unfortu-
nately, however, the good examples are far outnumbered by the bad.
It is not a lost cause—far from it. We have learned that the wanton
destruction of our earthscape can be precluded, that defilement and pol-
lution can be stopped, that eroded land can be healed, that towns and
cities can in time be rebuilt, and that the natural vegetation can be
restored. Moreover, we are learning much about our ecology, we are
developing a whole new science of resource management, and we are
constantly increasing our knowledge of community and landscape plan-
ning. Within the next few decades it will be well within our capacity to
preserve our natural systems and reshape our constructed environment
more responsibly. In this endeavor, the preservation and creative use of
Reestablished wetlands. plants will play an essential role.
Reestablishment
Many of those who have witnessed the slow degradation of the Ameri-
can landscape and the destruction of the vegetative covers have taken
steps to reverse the trend.
Concern for the vanishing upland meadows, mountain and riverine forests,
prairies, and coastal wetlands has resulted in the setting aside of millions of
acres of state and national preserves. In addition, vast areas of cutover for-
Vegetation 83
est have been reestablished, and new plantations of trees (afforestation)
have been installed on depleted or eroded lands as watershed protection,
wildlife management preserves, and shelterbelt windscreens and for timber
and grain production. These commendable programs have received and
deserve wide public support and are to be expanded.
Urban Agriculture
Urban agriculture is the growing and distribution of food and other
agricultural products within or in close proximity to urban areas. It has
existed in one form or another since the beginning of civilization and
agriculture itself. Although urban agriculture is not considered to be a
replacement for traditional rural agriculture, it nonetheless provides
urban residents with a valuable source for a larger variety of fresh prod-
Gardening promotes community. ucts than they otherwise would have access to.
bags,” used where no actual land area is available, to small garden beds
in a townhouse environment, to community gardens of a half-acre or
more in urban neighborhoods. Innovative planners and designers are
increasingly looking at new ways to turn areas of underutilized open
space, such as that on college and corporate campuses, into agricultural
production. During the economic downturn and real estate bust of the
recent past, some metropolitan areas demolished abandoned or dilapi-
dated housing and converted the land to community gardens.
It’s interesting to note that during World War II, the American Victory
Garden movement produced almost half of U.S.-grown produce during
that time. The potential of urban agriculture is far greater than is cur-
Agriculture on a college campus. rently being realized; however, its popularity is quickly growing.
84 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Urban Forestry
Seeking the cool shade of a tree might well be one of the most basic
human reactions to the environment. The benefits of trees in an urban
setting are many, including environmental and social benefits. Trees help
mitigate the harsh microclimate created by increased building density
and paved areas. They convert carbon dioxide into oxygen, mitigate the
effects of increased urban runoff, and have many other benefits. Trees
also make a significant contribution to the creation of social places and
spaces in urban areas.
These considerations and the special requirements for the planting, care,
and management of trees in urban areas have evolved over the years into
what is now known as the practice of urban forestry. Urban forestry is
practiced primarily by municipal governments, but in recent years non-
profit organizations, such as the Friends of Urban Forests and Casey
Trees, have joined the effort.
AECOM
Vegetation 85
6
THE VISUAL
LANDSCAPE
The View
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
87
Suitability as a Factor
To be enjoyed, a view must be related to people and to those areas and
spaces used by them. We must be sure, however, that the use and the
view are compatible. A scene of great activity or excitement, for instance,
should hardly be introduced visually into an area of quiet repose.
88 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
A view need not be seen full front or be approached from a fixed direc-
tion. It is a panorama or a segment of a panorama to be seen from any or
all angles. It may be viewed on the oblique, on the sweep, or broadside.
A view is an impeller. A powerful magnet, it will draw one far, and from
one position to another, for the opportunity of better commanding its
limits or seeing some part in a new and intriguing way. The skilled plan-
ner will let a view develop as the viewer moves across it, just as a moun-
tain climber experiences more and more of a view in the ascent until it
is seen in total.
If the view is to serve as a backdrop, the object The modulation of a view. From a glimpse through loose foliage, to enframing
placed against it must be in character. slot, to wider sector, to reverse interest, to vista, to object seen against the
view, to reverse interest, to objects placed against the view seen through a
film of fabric, to concentration in a cavelike recess, to full, exuberant sweep.
Some areas, to give respite, might best be planned without apparent rela-
tionship. For a heady view, like a heady drink, should be absorbed slowly
and in moderation.
It has long been the belief of the Zen Buddhists, writes Kakuzo Okakura
in A Book of Tea, that “true beauty could be discovered only by one who
mentally completed the incomplete. It was this love of the abstract that
led the Zen to prefer black and white sketches to the elaborately colored
A view is usually better if enframed or seen paintings of the classic Buddhist School.”
through an appropriate screen.
It has been told that, near the village of Tomo in Japan, a celebrated tea
master planning to build a teahouse purchased, after much deliberation,
a parcel of land with a startlingly beautiful view of the idyllic Inland Sea.
His friends were most curious to learn how this great artist would exhibit
his scenic prize, but during the time of construction they were, of course,
too polite to investigate and waited to be invited.
90 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
© D.A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Only when reaching the precise spot is the distant view revealed.
On the day when the first guests arrived at the entrance gate, they could
hardly contain their eagerness to see the fabulous ocean view that would
surely be eloquently revealed. As they moved along the narrow stone path-
way toward the teahouse, they were aware that the sea was teasingly hidden
from sight by the alignment of the path through thin bamboo clumps. At
the door of the teahouse, they reasoned, the view would be opened to
them in some highly sensitive enframement. They were more than a little
perplexed to find the view there effectively concealed by a shoulder of lich-
ened rock and a panel of woven straw fencing. As is the custom before
entering a teahouse, they paused and bent over a stone basin brimming
with water to rinse their hands. As they raised their eyes from this bowed
position, they caught a glimpse, no more than a glimpse, between the
great rock and a low, dark branch of ancient pine, of the shining sea below
them. And as they looked, they sensed with tingling comprehension the
relationship of the mother sea and the cool water at their fingertips.
Inside on the mats of the teahouse with the translucent screens closed
around them they performed the simple ritual of the tea ceremony, still
mindful of the lesson of the sea. Relaxed and refreshed at the ceremony’s
conclusion, the guests were half surprised when their host rose quietly to
slide back the screens at one side of the room, revealing in its perfect
completeness the overwhelming beauty of a seascape that stretched from
the edge of the grass floor mats to the farthest distant limits of the sky.
The Vista
A vista is a confined view, usually directed toward a terminal or domi-
nant feature. It may be a natural vista, as an allée opened through a grove
The three together should make a satisfactory visual unit and are usually
conceived as an entity. If one or more of the elements already exist and
are allowed to remain, then the others must, of course, be designed in
conformity.
Again, vista and the allied places and spaces must be compatible. If the
vista is planned as an extension of a use area or space, the relationships
of character and scale are important. For example, from the boardroom
of a powerful bank the vista, if there is to be one, should hardly termi-
nate at the roller coaster of an amusement park or the gates of the state
penitentiary. Commanded by such a rarefied viewing box of marble,
92 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
gilt, and paneled rosewood, the vista and its terminus should be equally
impressive and richly conservative. The vista toward a national monu-
ment should hardly commence at a service station, drugstore, or factory.
It might well be observed from another monument, a civic building, or
a public gathering space. It is fundamental to the fine vista that the end
justifies the beginning and the beginning justifies the end.
The Terminus
The terminal feature on which the vista is focused sets the theme to be
developed. All other elements must fall into cadence, support the theme
in harmony and counterpoint, and carry the work to a final satisfying
crescendo. There is no room for discord, the superfluous, or the inap-
propriate; instead, the eye must see the right thing seen from the right
place with just the right enframement.
Progressive Realization
The terminal feature may be displayed in progressive stages. If a vista can
be seen from several stations along the approaches, the section seen from
each station is to be treated separately. Sometimes a terminus may be
viewed along an entire approach. In such a case, it should be revealed by
its evolving spatial containment to exact the full potential of its changing
perspectives. If the approach is long, the vista becomes tiring and should
be divided into segments by changing the level, by expanding or con-
tracting the frame of reference, or by altering the character of the spaces
through which and from which it is seen. Often, in moving toward a dis-
tant focal point, one can at first discern no more than the outline of the
terminal feature. As one continues, the feature reveals itself progressively:
the component masses, the subcomponents, and finally the details.
All vistas subject the observer to a compelling line of sight. A vista is insis-
tent, a directional attraction to the eye. As such, a vista is a function of
the axis.
The Axis
Essentially, the axis is a linear plan element connecting two or more
points. In use it may be a court, a mall, or a drill field. It may be a path,
a drive, a city street, or a monumental parkway. Always it is to be
regarded as an element of connection.
An axis is directional.
An axis is orderly.
An axis is dominating.
An axis is often monotonous.
This is not to say that the axis is always best avoided. It is only to suggest
that none of these attributes are conducive to relaxation, pleasant confu-
sion, nature appreciation, freedom of choice, or many other such expe-
riences that we humans tend to enjoy.
94 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Barry W. Starke, EDA
Axial Characteristics
From a given use area, an axis is a dynamic plan line leading out and thus
orienting the area outward. Such an area, both as a viewing point and as a
source of axial movement, might well express this outward flow. How can
this be accomplished? By shaping the space to induce movement outward.
By constructing, in effect, a viewing box with its aperture well focused. By
fanning the paving lines out and away or by sighting them accurately down
the axial center line. By concentrating interest at the forward edge of the
staging area, inducing flow to and past it. By directional forms. By use
of concentric arcs circling outward, as from pebbles tossed into a pond.
Often, in an axial plan, the viewing stations and termini are inter-
changeable. It can be seen that the forms and lines and details that dis-
patch us from one station would, if we approached from the opposite
direction, seem to beckon and receive us. This is fortunate, because most
axial treatments allow for looking both up and down the line of sight
and for moving from one end to the other and back again. We find that
each transmitting area thus becomes, in turn, a receiving area. We may
correctly conclude that when viewing points and terminal features are
interchangeable, each must express the characteristics of the source as
well as the terminus of axial view and movement.
Much lyrical praise has been heaped upon that prototype of all grand
boulevards, the Champs-Élysées of Paris. Much criticism has also been
leveled at its social and economic impact on the city at the time of its
construction, for it cleared out a wide swath of living urban tissue. But,
Courtesy French Embassy and for the moment, let us dismiss from our minds such weighty implica-
Information Division, New York City
tions and let ourselves rise up in our imagination until we can gaze down
upon the whole stirring expanse of this magnificent axis.
Below us we see the grand Étoile, a wide traffic circle with forcefully radi-
ating streets that disappear in the distance. The circle is massively defined
by the stately trees and severe gray buildings at its sides. Its glistening
pavement of clipped granite blocks is precise in pattern. The whole mar-
tial space has about it a stiffly proud and solemn air, as well it might, for
there at its center looms the Arc de Triomphe, and at the arch’s wreath-
lined base the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, with its eternally glowing
flame of tribute. The Étoile is a volume remarkably suited to its uses. As
Arc de Triomphe and the Champs-Élysées.
a focal point, the arch is seen fittingly framed for miles in all directions.
The circle, a marshaling space and point of generation for, as well as the
powerful terminus of, the Étoile, is also the head of the Champs-Élysées,
and its archway commandingly rallies attention to the start of the wide
boulevard.
96 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Beyond the ordered spaces of the Place de la Concorde we come to the
Tuileries, the magnificent public gardens and park. At the garden’s end,
and handsomely framed, we behold the Palace of the Louvre, with its
warm stone walls and rich ornamentation. Fronting the majestic Louvre
we see the espaliered allées of sycamore, the gardens rolling with color,
the screeching traffic, trim nursemaids, perambulators, barking dogs,
and dodging children, the white-bearded, pink-cheeked old men in blue
berets drowsing on benches in the sun, the well-scrubbed jaunty sailors
and the belles jeunes filles. All that is in this whole exuberant space
belongs to it—is of its very essence.
Today, we are more honest, more practical,
and quite functional, but it has been at the And where along the length of this great axis do we find the discrepan-
expense of grace and gentility. . . .
Pietro Belluschi cies in plan, the discordant notes? Some there must be, and many per-
haps, but they are lost in the captivating and ringing experience of
moving down through this evolving complex of boulevard volumes, the
Yes, we have forgotten the simple courtesy of “elysian fields,” from the hushed memorial solemnity of the arch at the
pleasing. What is true of architecture is even
more so of city planning where the chief object Étoile to the palatial, then stately, governmental core to the splendid
seems to be to get the driver from A to B sitting apartments, the chic shops, the lively café district, and on through the
down. carefree expanse of the public gardens to the grandiose museum of fine
Henry H. Reed Jr.
arts. We feel ourselves to be, in turn, in one brief morning’s stroll, the
soldier, the courtier, the statesman, the person of wealth, the gay dilet-
What is the monumental? The word, by the tante, the poet, the lover, the relaxed, free, and happy boulevardier, the
way, in the architectural sense, is quite new. stimulated observer, and finally the distinguished connoisseur.
Ruskin a hundred years ago spoke only of
power. Actually it is a recent borrowing from
the French. “Monumental” they tell us is said If planned today, this Champs-Élysées would have a different mien. And
of a building “qui a un caratére de grandeur so it should, for since its conception times have changed and conditions
et de majesté,” for a monument is an have changed, and plan concepts and forms have changed with them. The
“ouvrage d’architecture considerable par sa
masse, son étendue, sa magnificence.” new boulevard would have less of the old despotic formality, less unbend-
Grandeur, majesty, magnificence! ing symmetry. Retaining its hallowed monuments, it would be less mon-
Henry H. Reed Jr. umental. It would open out and free the teeming residential districts at its
sides. It would be less of the classifier and more of the synthesizer.
It would be more flexible and allow more flexibility. It would take its
form from an empathetic understanding of individual Parisians and their
emerging culture. It would express their new freedom, new ideas, and
new aspirations. But let those who would change the present Champs-
Élysées first study it long and thoughtfully because, in light of the times
and the society for which it was built and its masterful handling of forms
and space, there is no boulevard of its equal.
Illustration courtesy of the National Capital Planning Commission’s Extending the Legacy Plan. Rendering by Michael McCann.
98 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Additional Characteristics
A powerful axis requires a fitting terminus. Conversely, powerful design
features are often of such form or character as to require an axial approach.
Such features are those best seen head-on.
A powerful axis requires a powerful terminus. In the whole fabulously delightful grounds of the Summer Palace,
planned for sumptuous divertissement, there is scarcely a conscious axis
to be found. But where the imperial presence was to be made manifest or
the people were to be subjected to the concept of supreme deity, omnipo-
tence, or military might, the axis was employed with sensitive under-
standing, as witness the military roads that stretch in broad grandeur
from the city gates to the entrance of the once golden-roofed Forbidden
City of the emperor—dynamic lines of force, subjecting the whole city
to the will and authority of the all-powerful emperor.
Axial planning also highlights the Temple of Heaven, which lies on the
The axis is a unifying element. plain to the south of the Imperial City. Here, each year at the time of the
vernal equinox, the great khan rode in magnificent pomp and ceremony
The axis.
to welcome the coming of spring. The approach to this once sublimely
beautiful temple was a wide causeway of white marble that commenced
at a circular platform of noble proportions, rising in balustraded tiers.
The spacious causeway, elevated above the level plain, extended to the
gilded and deep-red-lacquered gates of the temple. Spaced out along the
In the dark hours before the great annual event, the khan’s subjects
Terminus as a generator of axial movement.
flocked through the streets of their city and out through the gates toward
the temple, where they massed along the wooded edges of the plain to
stand in watchful, wide-eyed wonder and respect. Then, through the
gates, the foot soldiers came marching, division after bristling division of
seasoned warriors, in dark helmets, chain breastplates, and padded felt
boots, to mass in ordered formation along the causeway flanks. The
courtiers and nobles followed in dazzling array, thousands upon thou-
sands on horseback, each noble and mount in trappings of silk, gold,
costly furs, and precious gems and each proudly taking his appointed
place along the white marble pavement. The high priests, with smolder-
ing incense pots, then moved in solemn procession, chanting, fur-
capped, and in silken robes and gowns of unbelievable splendor. Slowly,
Often objects adjacent to a strong axis suffer in
the relationship. with vast dignity, they took their august posts on the terraced platform,
commanding the length of the ceremonial causeway.
Finally, as the first faint traces of light tinged the eastern sky with pink, the
khan and his mounted retinue pranced through the golden gates of the
Forbidden City and out through the throngs to the head of the causeway.
There, to the cadenced booming of drums and the crashing of brass and
silver gongs the khan rode imperiously past the blazing fire pits, down
the avenue of floating banners, on through the massed troops and kow-
An axis may be symmetrical. But usually it is not.
towing nobles, to the resplendent temple and the gleaming altar seen
through its opened doors. Precisely at that hushed moment when he
reached the high altar and bowed his head in grave salutation, the blaz-
ing red orb of the rising sun arched above the purple hills to the east, and
every face and every eye and every thought in all Peking were focused
down the length of that great axis to the sacred place where the exalted
khan, their emperor, knelt to greet the spring.
The elements of a symmetrical plan are the same and are in equilibrium
about a central point or opposite sides of an axial line. The central point
may be an object or an area, such as a fountain or the plaza that contains it.
A small exhibit area may function well without
a major vista or axis. Such a scheme permits
a crowd to filter freely through the entire
The symmetrical axis may be a line or plane of use, such as a path, a
complex. In this case a powerful focal broad avenue, or a mall. It may be a powerfully induced line of sight or
center is mandatory. movement, as through a series of imposing arches or gates, or between
The symmetrical plan has a quality of stability. Each pole generates its
own field of force, and between these two fields is a field of dynamic ten-
sion. Each element within this field is at once in tension and in repose.
By definition, every symmetrical composition must be in balance and,
therefore, in repose. But the repose of symmetry is the more compelling
About an axis or plane for the fact that it bespeaks the resolution of myriad opposing forces
held in equilibrium.
The notion of identical figures to the right and A symmetrical plan may be of crystalline form. This may be desirable if the
left of an axis was not the basis of any theory function is by nature crystalline in its pattern of growth and expansion.
in ancient (European) times.
Camillo Sitte
A symmetrical plan may be of geometric design. Such plan geometry
may be excellent, but only if the function can be logically expressed in
geometric line and form.
The Greeks used symmetry when appropriate, There are those who believe that geometry is the root of all beauty and that
they did not use symmetry when not
appropriate, and they never used symmetry beauty of form and pattern can be consistently achieved by the application
in their (site) planning layouts. of mathematical formulas to the planning process. This thinking, they
Eliel Saarinen hold, gains support from the fact that people take pleasure in the compre-
hension of order. The writer contends, however, that the preference is
generally for order over chaos rather than for symmetry over asymmetry.
In far too many cases, symmetrical plans are conceived as a design expe-
dient, a sort of geometric doodling. Such plans are repetitious and dreary,
as uninspired as their authors. When geometric layouts are truly fitting,
it is found that their symmetry is derived through clear logic and a con-
scious synthesis of all plan forms into symmetrical plan arrangement as
the highest and best expression of the function. When appropriate and
when intelligently applied in limited areas, symmetry is a plan form of
compelling power.
Asymmetry
In nature, we can seldom find the elements of a landscape symmetrically
balanced on either side of a line of sight. Yet visual balance is fundamental
Sasaki Associates, Inc.
First, until an observer wanders along, how could there be visual balance?
And then, does it not seem highly improbable that, from any given point
of observation, the landscape should happen to balance visually on either
The mind-eye selection of visual images. side of a line of sight? Upon reflection it would seem, rather, that the eye
must find or define in any landscape those vistas, views, or sight lines
that produce a satisfactory visual balance. The trained eye is offended by
the unbalanced and attracted to the balanced and tends constantly to
The natural landscape is an indeterminate seek out and bring into register those sections or portions of the visual
object; it almost always contains enough landscape that provide a pleasant optical resolution of forces.
diversity to allow the eye a great liberty in
selecting, emphasizing and grouping its
elements, and it is furthermore rich in Visual Balance
suggestion and in vague emotional stimulus.
A landscape to be seen has to be composed. . . . The human eye is constantly darting about, probing and exploring a
George Santayana
vague and luminous flux of evolving visual impressions. These are sensed
The eye, especially, demands completeness. subconsciously. At intervals, the mind permits or directs the eye to bring
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe out of optical limbo and into conscious focus certain visual images. This
The child or the primitive perceives only objects in space. A more highly
developed mind and a more selective eye perceive relationships. It can be
Asymmetrical occult balance: equilibrium achieved seen that only rarely in nature would a sensed composition be balanced
by mind-eye evaluation of form, mass, value, symmetrically on either side of a visual axis, but because equilibrium is
color, and association.
required of all visual images, it must be possible to have balance without
Occult balance. bilateral symmetry. This is indeed the case. Such asymmetrical, or occult,
balance is the norm. Except in those cases in which bilateral symmetry
has for some reason been contrived, it is by occult balance that we com-
pose and comprehend the world about us.
Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
biological approach to the entire process of
design, mainly in the sense that one broad
biological field, known as ecology, undertakes
to investigate the dynamic relations of all the
organisms—both fauna and flora—in natural
association with each other and with the other
forces of the total environment in a given area
of the surface of the earth.
Norman T. Newton
Organic plan.
of our European lords with all his retinue. But how many of
these palaces would you think there are in the different valleys of
this vast enclosure? There are more than two hundred.
They recognize and consider the numbers and types of viewers, the
duration of viewing time, and the relative quality and intensity of the
viewing experience. They assume that all lands are to be viewed on
the ground, from passing roads or transitways, and from the air. They
build upon the principle that all landscapes have a definable character
and that those with the greatest dramatic power and/or variety have the
greatest scenic value. They assess each potential view in terms of its fore-
ground, midground, and background contribution. They give priority,
in each scene, to the dominant elements in terms of line, form, color,
and imagery. They consider the capacity of each landscape area to absorb
alteration without loss of its visual character. Finally, they outline a sys-
Brochure promoting visual resource tematic, step-by-step process of evaluation that makes good sense. Often,
management. in the recommended procedures of some agencies, far too much empha-
sis is given to the numerical weighting and tabular mathematical rating
of the various scenic elements. (How many points should be assigned,
for instance, for a view of a historic church, an acre of mountain laurel,
or a plummeting waterfall?)
John O. Simonds
John O. Simonds
Beach.
John O. Simonds
The blazing desert, the fetid mangrove swamp, the rockbound Califor-
nia coast—each has its own distinctive landscape character, and each
evokes in the observer a strong and distinctive emotional response. No
matter what the natural landscape character of an area and no matter
what the mood it produces in us—exhilaration, sadness, eeriness, or
awe—we experience a very real pleasure in sensing the unity and har-
mony of the total scene. The more nearly complete this oneness and
wholeness, the greater the pleasure of the observer.
Modification
With only the visual aspects of site character in mind, it would seem that
in developing a natural area we should do all that we can to preserve and
intensify its inherent landscape quality. We should therefore eliminate
objects that are out of keeping, and we may even introduce objects to
increase or accentuate this native character.
One morning he found that a battered yellow oil drum had been washed
into his frog pond by a storm. He pushed it outside the cattails. Next
morning it was back. Again he pushed it from the pond, farther this
time, but not far enough. Finding it once again floating jauntily among
the lily pads, he shoved it out and went for a rowboat. With the anchor
rope he towed the drum to the deepest part of the lake, bashed a jagged
hole in its top with a hatchet and scuttled it. As he watched it slowly
founder, he wondered why he had felt such anger at an old, rusty metal
barrel. Years later, when he recollected the pond in terms of its landscape
character, he realized at last why the drum had to go. It was a disturbing,
inharmonious element in the miniature landscape, and it had to be
removed. (Note: In later years he also came to realize that the lake bot-
tom was no place to leave a barrel.)
During the Ming dynasty in China this art was so highly refined that
within a single garden of a few acres one might experience lofty moun-
tain scenery, a misty lakeshore, a bamboo grove at the edge of a quiet
pond, a pine-sheltered forest overlook, and a cascading waterfall. And,
through the skill of the designer, the transition areas between viewing
points were so masterfully contrived as to be fully as pleasant and dra-
matic as the major views themselves.
Major Features
There are dominant natural landscape forms, features, and forces that
we can alter little, if at all. We must accept them and adapt ourselves and
our planning to them. These unchangeable elements include such topo-
graphical forms as mountain ranges, river valleys, and coastal plains;
such features as precipitation, frost, fog, the water table, and seasonal
temperatures; and such forces as winds, tides, sea and air currents,
growth processes, solar radiation, and gravity.
The notable planning projects of any age demonstrate with clarity the
adaptation of a structure or activity area to the landscape in such a way
that the best qualities of each are made to complement the other. In such
works, not only the constructed elements but the natural elements as
well appear to have been designed by the planner, as in one sense they
The essence of land planning for any project:
were, for all were considered together as integral parts of the total con-
1. Seek the most suitable site.
2. Let the site suggest plan forms. ceptual plan.
3. Extract the full site potential.
Minor Features
Taking a hill as an example, its landscape character may be such that its
optimum yield or use is realized if it is carefully preserved from change.
In its undisturbed state it might better produce its crop of timber, maple
sap, nuts, or fruit. Throughout the United States we find huge tracts of
land that have been set aside in their natural state as game preserves,
parks, forests, or regional open space. In Japan many a village or town is
nestled among hills or islands that have for centuries been left undis-
turbed by decree, in the best interest of the community.
Let us assume, for example, that we are the owners of a resort hotel in
New Hampshire to which summer guests come each season for fresh air,
rest, and exercise. We have noticed that many of the guests, for diver-
sion, walk the easy path to the top of a nearby rise from which they can
view the countryside. It occurs to us that the hill has become an impor-
tant part of the resort life, and we decide during the off-season to
improve this feature by giving it more interest and affording more of a
climb to its top.
Next summer, when our guests leave the porch and set out to walk to the
hilltop, they find themselves hiking and climbing over a beautiful natu-
ral terrain they have never seen before. Through tangled wild-grape
cover, around narrow ravines, pulling themselves from rock to rock, they
carefully pick their way until they finally reach the summit. They have
made it! Nothing, they may think as they rest, enjoying the view, is more
exhilarating than mountain climbing. While 800 feet away and 200 feet
below them, the oldsters sit rocking on the veranda, looking placidly out
at the hill. For our purpose, we have eliminated the negative aspects of
our hill and accentuated its positive qualities.
Early in his career the coauthor was engaged by the Michigan State
Department of Parks in the planning of several campgrounds. His first
assignment was to develop a site in northernmost Michigan as a state
park for tourists, who would come to experience the joys of “wilderness
The planner’s first step was to spend several weeks exploring the tract to
become acquainted with all its natural features, good and bad. His aim
was to utilize these features to the utmost. He proposed, in short, to
intensify the native landscape quality of the site.
The site’s main attraction, a spring-fed pond, was drained, scooped out,
and developed as a natural swimming pool with a clean sand and gravel
bottom. Above it, a large area of water was impounded to form a settling
basin, and here the marsh birds, muskrats, and other wildlife could be
seen from a timber bridge that was arched across the dam. At the lower
end of the swimming pool a second bridge was built across the waterfall
and spillway, where large speckled trout rolled and swam in the sparkling
water of the pool below.
Trails were slashed through the densest cover and between the most
jagged ledges. Every point of interest was strung on the new trail system
like an offset bead.
In the development of any land or water area, the landscape designer will
focus on the essential effect to be conveyed (one inherent in the site). By
emphasis, by articulation, and by the creation of progressive sequences
of revealment, the observer will be led to discover the positive features of
the locale and thus exact its full pleasurable impact.
Use
Mont-Saint-Michel, France, surrounded by its
rushing tides and reached only by causeway, We generally consider land in terms of use. At this point one is quite
is an ingenious and powerful adaptation of likely to ask: “What’s all this talk about beauty and landscape character?
structure to natural forces and forms.
What I want to know is, how can this property be used?”
But the hard, cold fact of the matter is that the most important factor in
considering the use of land is a thorough understanding of its landscape
character in the broadest sense. For the planner must first comprehend
the physical nature of the site and its extensional environment before it
is possible to:
• Recognize those uses for which the site is suited and that will utilize
its full potential.
• Introduce into the area only those uses which are appropriate.
• Apply and develop such uses in studied relationship to the landscape
features.
• Ensure that these applied uses are integrated to produce a modified
landscape that is functionally efficient and visually attractive.
• Determine whether or not a project is unsuited and would be incon-
gruous not only on the immediate site but in the surrounding envi-
rons as well and thus appear to be misplaced, unfit, and (by definition)
ugly. Such an improper use would be disturbing not only aesthetically
but practically, for an unsuitable use forced upon an unreceptive par-
cel of land generates frictions that may not only destroy the most
desirable qualities of the landscape area but preclude proper function
of the development as well.
Suitability
Since we are repelled by disorder, the discordant, and that which is ugly,
since we are instinctively drawn to that which is harmonious and well
formed, and since most artifacts and developments are designed to
please, it follows that resultant beauty is a highly desirable attribute.
Harmony
The untouched landscape is in repose, a repose of equilibrium. It has its
own cohesive, harmonious order in which all forms are an expression of
geologic structure, climate, growth, and other natural forces. In the
primeval forest or upon the open plain, the human is an intruder.
Contrast
It is known that the form, color, or texture of a handsome object can be
It is not yet conceivable that a well-designed emphasized through contrast. This principle applies as well to planning in
and well-placed building, a bridge or road,
can be an addition rather than a menace to the landscape and is exemplified by the bridges of the brilliant Swiss engi-
the countryside? neer Robert Maillart. All who have seen them marvel at the lightness and
Christopher Tunnard grace of the white reinforced-concrete arches that span the wild mountain
gorges in Switzerland and Bavaria. Surely the lines and materials of these
structures are foreign to the natural character of the craggy mountain
In our national parks, bridges have usually been built of indigenous mate-
rials. Although some may quarrel with this policy, it has produced many
bridges of high design quality and spared the park-using public from more
of the typical fluted and fruited cast-metal or balustraded cast-stone mon-
strosities that clutter up so many of our American river crossings.
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salginatobel_Bridge
We have said that to create a pleasing character for an area all components
must work together in harmony. We find striking examples that seem to
violate this precept: Maillart’s bridges, for instance, and Frank Lloyd
Wright’s Fallingwater at Bear Run. At first appraisal, these structures would
seem to be completely alien to their surroundings. Yet with study, one
senses in each a quality of fitness—of spirit, purpose, material, and form.
Gary Knight & Associates, Inc.
There are countless other features of the built environment that, if per-
haps less dominant, still have great effect on our planning. To under-
stand their importance we might list a few that deserve investigation in
project siting. For openers the list will include:
Peripheral streets
Walkway access
Adjacent structures to remain
Structures to be demolished
Subsurface construction
Energy sources and supply
Utility leads and capacities
Applicable zoning
Building code and regulations
Easements
Deed restrictions
This sampling may in itself seem formidable, but it does not include
such additional considerations as neighborhood character, general site
aspects, mineral rights, amenities, public services, and so forth. Any one
of these features might well spell the failure or success of an enterprise.
The list will differ considerably, of course, with projects of such varying
types as a residence, school, shopping mall, or marina.
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Compatibility
The most constant quality of the landscape is the quality of change.
Aside from the processes of growth and the changing seasons, we are for-
ever tugging and hauling at the land, sometimes senselessly, destroying
the positive values and sometimes intelligently developing a union of
131
Much of the new thinking falls under the category of dynamic conserva-
tion. This concept has its roots in the emerging realization of the need for
stewardship, of caring for the earth, and of providing a sustainable living
environment. All point to the need for comprehensive land use planning.
By proven planning techniques and
legislative measures, the presently scattered Not a stance for the status quo, which is impossible to achieve. Not a
urban components can be gathered up and negative approach of uncompromising opposition, block and delay, and
regrouped into activity nodes of various endless litigation. Not a stubborn resistance to growth, which in the
types—each fitted harmoniously to the present scheme of things is in most areas destined to occur for the fore-
land, each more self-sufficient and
complete, and each connected by parkways seeable future. But rather a cooperative approach by the public agencies
and aerial glideways to an intensified and private enterprise working together to outline a long-range evolving
city-regional core. land use plan by which orderly regional growth and development may
best be accommodated.
A Conservation Credo
For what does the conservation movement stand?
Environmental Issues
We’ve heard much in recent years of environment concern. The concern
is worldwide. Among the more knowledgeable, it often extends to the
dimension of human survival. For many, the term environment is so
vague and general that it has come to have little meaning. Yet while the
term with its problems and possibilities has become so complex, the
issues to be addressed are clear. Since they all affect or are affected by
land planning, they are listed as follows, with brief comments suggesting
proven solutions.
Growth Management
At the dawn of civilization, say 5,000 years Growth management implies and requires the long-range planning by a
ago, the population of the world cannot have regional planning or metro government agency. Development of any
numbered much more than 20 million. Today
the yearly increase in world population is kind is approved only when in consonance with an adopted regional
nearly twice this amount. Self-multiplying, land use plan. Occupancy or use is permitted only when all required
like money at compound interest, world services are in place and operational.
population reached the billion mark in the
1850’s and the 2 billion mark in the 1920’s.
Even more disquieting the rate of increase has Regional Planning
also been steadily increasing. At the present
rate, today’s population will double itself in less The number of people in an area is often less important than the way
than fifty years.
Julian Huxley
in which their centers are arranged. There is a common misconception
that the more people to be attracted to live or work in a given jurisdic-
tion, the more income and tax benefits. Under most existing conditions
of uncontrolled land use and scatteration, the reverse is true. Costly
road and utility extensions combined with schooling, welfare, fire and
police, and other services soon overtake the overall tax yield. Moreover,
increased traffic and disruption usually drive the original owners away.
The officials and staffs of individual jurisdictions tend to work for the
local good rather than the long-range good of the larger regional commu-
nity. There are many highly successful examples of officially designated
Metro Government
A further step, with glowing examples, is the metro form of government.
With metro government, several contiguous counties are granted a char-
ter by the state. Although wide general authority is granted, only specific
major duties of regional scope are assigned. Otherwise, local govern-
ments are assured their continued offices and sovereignty. The efficiency
and effectiveness of such a government—one unified government over a
multiplicity of jurisdictions—is soon apparent.
Civic action groups may be of many sizes and forms. They need only be
composed of one or more dedicated citizens. Sometimes their member-
ship is numbered in the thousands. Such examples as the Sierra Club and
the American Conservation Foundation are making an immense contri-
bution to our living environment.
Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
Soil Loss
The basic wealth of a nation is its fertile topsoil mantle. Our entire food
chain is utterly dependent upon it. Without topsoil we would have no
vegetation to retain precipitation and transpire it in the fresh air we
breathe and upon which life depends. Nor would it retain the falling mois-
ture to gradually seep into the underlying water tables. The desert coun-
tries, or vast areas thereof, are examples of erosion in the extreme. They
were once forested or grasslands with flowing streams and abundant water.
Shipbuilding, lumbering, and the clearing of land for vineyards, orchards,
and farms allowed the soil to erode in deep gullies and wash irretrievably
to the sea. Barren Greece, Israel, Syria, and Spain were once entirely green.
In our short history, and mostly within the past century, America has lost
one-third of its precious topsoil to erosion by wasteful farming practices,
deforestation, and construction. Needed is education and the recognition
Pollution
Our once pristine living environment is now polluted shamefully. In
many districts the air we breathe is so polluted that health is affected.
People die, livestock dies, wildlife and vegetation die from noxious fumes
and acid rain. Even the global climate is adversely affected by the sheath
of carbon dioxide which is increasingly enveloping planet Earth. It will
take time, public outcry, legislation, and immense funding to reduce
and, hopefully, eliminate these problems.
Our water is polluted, too. Contaminated runoff and seepage from sur-
rounding lands has so polluted our streams, aquifers, and water bodies
that it is no longer safe to eat fish in quantity if taken from even the far-
thest reaches of the Great Lakes. Farming and development must be so
controlled as to ensure that contaminated surface runoff is intercepted
and filtered.
The public views pollution with varying degrees of alarm and is demand-
ing governmental action and relief. We are beginning to realize that pol-
lution abatement and control lie at the very heart of environmental
planning.
Safety
Safety at home, at work, or in travel is dependent upon thoughtful design.
Vehicles, be they autos, trains, boats, or barges, are undergoing constant
changes and improvements. So, too, must our land planning and routes
of interconnection. Designated traffic-free walkways and bikeways will
soon thread through our cities and across the countryside. Limited access
parkways and freeways with no roadside intrusion will link our centers.
On-grade street and highway crossings will be all but eliminated. Inter-
area transit routes, elevated or depressed at crossings, will swerve not
through but around communities, with ramp approaches at the sides.
Adam Jones, Courtesy of Jones & Jones Architects & Landscape Architects, Ltd.
Auto-free bikeway.
Climate
Some like it hot, some like it cool or cold. A first consideration in planning
is that the prospective builder make an early choice. For climate affects not
only temperature, but plan location, orientation, materials, and form.
Climate is more than high or low, wet or dry, or ranges on the thermome-
ter. It involves qualities of light (from desert glare to forest glimmer) and
marked differences in humidity. The seasons and their characteristics are
dramatic climatic factors.
Weather, breeze, wind force and direction, fog, precipitation, flood, and
drought—all are functions of climate.
Natural Disasters
Cyclones, hurricanes, earthquakes and floods are a fact of life. We can
only avoid them to the extent possible. That extent has been significantly
War
War is the ultimate environmental disaster. Villages and cities are shelled
into stinking ruin. Regions are blasted, gouged, and denuded. Populations
are decimated, and combatant cultures demeaned and demoralized. Com-
batants and noncombatants alike are mutilated or killed. War is sheer hell.
Wars won or lost have never ended war and never will. They are the result
of the human condition—overcrowding, hunger, poverty, inequalities,
greed, and national yearning for freedom, expansion, or power. Only by
addressing and curing wrongs in the human condition can war be averted.
No single mind or nation will ever be able to find the solution. This sug-
gests an evolving super, multinational civic action group comprised of
recognized nonpolitical leaders. Call it “The International Council for
Humanity” or the like. Membership would be one of a nation’s highest
honors.
Conservation
Although addressed elsewhere in this volume, conservation as an issue of
the environment is worthy of repetition. In tending to human needs, we
cannot afford to neglect or despoil the setting in which all life is lived.
These are to be preserved, protected, and built into the plan. Where pos-
sible they are to be shared with adjacent properties. Every project when
completed should add to, rather than detract from, the desirability of
the site and its surroundings.
143
pollution often became intolerable, and surrounding fields and wood-
lands melted inexorably away.
With the coming of the twentieth century and the advent of the auto-
Any consideration of the future of open space, mobile, the farm-to-city movement was suddenly reversed. Initially a
such as exists between our urban centers, few of the wealthy fled the industrial city to build romanticized farm-
requires a thoughtful appraisal of one of our steads and rusticated villas such as those along the Hudson River. They
most voracious consumers of land: housing.
Man’s preference in housing, especially in were soon joined by many members of the middle class, to whom social
urban fringe areas, results in the sprawl reform was bringing an improving standard of living and newfound
of single detached units in an awesome mobility. These families shared the beckoning dream of a better, more
continuum across the countryside.
What is the origin of the desire for this type fulfilling life out beyond the city outskirts, where they could live amid
of shelter expression—this compulsion to flee forest, fields, and gardens in communion with nature. As they surged
the city and to build cube on cube across the outward in ever-increasing numbers, the new suburbia was born. It was
open land? Is it a desire for tax relief ? Vested to become an American phenomenon. New types of dwellings would
equity? Breathing space? Contact with the
land? Or the poetics of “Home Sweet Home”? be designed, and innovative community patterns would be created. The
Regardless, is the solution largely that of better subdivision tracts, planned communities, and new towns gradually
design within the acceptance of this preference? evolved and are still evolving. If they fall somewhat short of the vision,
Or change from separated horizontal forms to it is because they have destroyed too much of the nature that they
unified collective density patterns? Perhaps as
space between units decreases, space between sought to embrace. It is because they have carried along with them from
our urban centers may be preserved, or may the city too many of the urban foibles—the bad habit of facing homes
increase. upon traffic-laden streets instead of pleasant courts or open-space pre-
Walter D. Harris
serves, of inexplicably lining schools, churches, and factories haunch to
haunch along the roaring highways. It is because we have allowed the
interconnecting roadways to become teeming thoroughfares along
which has coalesced mile after mile of crass, traffic-clogging commercial-
strip development. It is because we still have much to learn about the
basics and intricacies of group living, of land use, and of transportation
planning.
Problems
Without controls, unsuitable uses infiltrate residential areas. Widened
streets and highways draw to their sides commercial-strip coagulations
that reduce their carrying capacity and restrict the traffic flow. Deterio-
ration and blight are rampant. Vacant structures are vandalized. Prop-
erty values plummet, and the solid citizens of the original homes move
out if they can. Sadly, wherever they go to start anew, without better
planning and regulation, the cycle will be repeated. It need not be so.
Monotony
Too often in suburban development a well-wooded site is leveled, the
trees and cover destroyed, the streams and drainageways encased in mas-
The subdivision as we know it is a typical
sive storm sewers or open culverts. Look-alike houses are then spaced
United States invention, with few out in rows along a geometric checkerboard of streets. A new flora of
counterparts in Europe or Asia. exotic plants is installed in the hard-packed ground. The native fauna—
the furred and feathered creatures of the wood and meadow—take off to
seek a more livable habitat.
Inefficiency
The well-planned neighborhood or community—urban, suburban, or
rural—should function as an efficient mechanism. This is to say that
energy and materials are to be conserved and frictions eliminated.
Energy conservation suggests that things and services needed—schools,
shopping, and recreation—should be convenient, easy to reach, and
close at hand. Yet in some neighborhoods many blocks must be traveled
and many streets crossed in order to buy a quart of milk or a loaf of
bread. Playgrounds and even elementary schools can be reached only by
braving a grid of rushing trafficways. As we know from reading the
papers, some children and adults never make it.
Radburn, New Jersey, 1928. This revolutionary concept of community living was
devised by its planners, Henry Wright and Clarence Stein, as an answer to living with
the automobile. Homes were grouped in superblocks with automobile access from
cul-de-sac streets precluding high speed through traffic. Pedestrian walkways, free
of automobile crossings, provided access to large central park areas in which and
around which were grouped the community social, recreational, and shopping centers.
In this plan concept were sown the seeds of ideas that have sprouted in most
of the superior neighborhood and community plans of succeeding years.
Unhealthful Conditions
Mens sana in corpore sano. A sound mind in a sound body. What has
community planning to do with the state of one’s health?
If we are, as it is said, largely the product of our heredity and our envi-
ronment, then let us hope that we come of hardy stock, for living in
neighborhoods that are obsolescent, polluted, and/or traffic-fraught is
hardly conducive to health.
Mental well-being derives from rational order and behavior. When liv-
ing conditions are clearly unreasonable; when the daily experience is one
of frustration, anxiety, or disgust, it is hard to maintain a positive state
of mind.
Danger
Who could deny that our present communities, as most of us experience
them, pose danger to life and limb?
In addition, there’s the increasing threat posed by crime in our streets and
alleys—the weekly muggings, break-ins, or drive-by shootings. These are
All these potential and very real dangers are subject to planned im-
provement.
Possibilities
As we set out to plan the more salubrious neighborhoods of the future,
wherein lie the possibilities? It is proposed that they will have:
Building Arrangements
Why do houses face upon streets? “Because,” some might say, “they
always have.” Probably such respondents are right, for we humans are
slow to accept any change, even when the advantage is obvious. Until
recently, in the United States it was uniformly a legal requirement that
all platted homesites be dedicated with frontage upon a public right-of-
way. As a consequence, homes sprouted row upon row along streets and
highways across the countryside. This posed few serious problems as
long as the roads were used by horses and horse-drawn carriages, wag-
ons, and carts.
Then came the automobiles. They came, and came, and they keep on
coming. The roadways are overwhelmed. They have been widened and
lengthened until today the trafficway network covers most of the land-
scape like a coarsely woven mesh. Meanwhile, buildings continue to
crowd alongside the pulsing motorways. Communities are thus cut
apart—divided and subdivided again by lines of fast-moving traffic.
This makes little sense for either the residents or the motorists.
This compaction is evident also in the better activity centers. Both at the
neighborhood and community levels, compatible uses are combined.
Examples include the elementary school and park; the high school,
game courts, and athletic field; the shopping, business, and professional
office complex; the community building, church, library, and perform-
ing arts assemblage; or the museum and center for arts and crafts. In all
such cases the intensification is beneficial. Moreover, the gathering
together of once dispersed uses into more vibrant nucleii also provides in
the overall community plan additional open area.
Open Space
Why community open space? Because without it there can be little sense
of community. It is mainly in the outdoor ways and places that commu-
nal living takes place.
Open space equates with many forms of recreation. Some, like lacrosse
or field hockey, require expansive areas. Others need only limited space.
A child’s slide or a basketball backstop, for instance, will fit almost any-
where. Baseball fields and basketball courts need precise orientation and
construction, while more passive kinds of recreation—picnicking, kite
flying, or playing catch—take little more than an open field. Lineal
spaces, as for jogging paths, health trails, or bikeways, must be carefully
woven into community plans to ensure continuity.
Open space has other values, too. If it follows and envelops the drainage-
ways and streams, it serves to preserve the natural growth and define
buildable areas with lobes of refreshing green. It also provides cover for
birds and small animals that contribute much delight to the local scene,
not only in the suburbs but in the inner city as well.
Where does such open space come from? As noted, it is a natural product
of the PUD planning approach which, with fixed densities, features clus-
tered building arrangements. Available open spaces include the unpaved
areas of the street rights-of-way—or the whole of utility easements. They
are acquired in part as segments of park and recreation systems. Unbuild-
able areas such as floodplains, marshes, steep slopes, and narrow ridges
make their contributions, as do the open areas of business office parks,
the university campus, and institutional grounds. Some highly desirable
open space may be derived from the reclamation of extraction pits, land-
fills, strip-mining operations, cutover timberlands, or depleted farms.
Public agencies such as the Department of Transportation, water man-
agement districts, or the military may transfer excess or vacated holdings.
Again, prime lands may be donated by foundations or by private citizens,
A planned community using the P-C-D approach (Pelican Bay, Collier County,
Florida). Beach, dunes, and tidal estuary preserved. Wetlands, waterways, and
native vegetation protected (conserved). Clustered development on the upland,
within an interconnected open-space frame. All work well together.
ground. Here the structures are usually clustered in more compact and
efficient arrangements within the blue and green open-space framework.
Here, without inflicting negative impacts, people can live and work at
peace with their natural surroundings.
EDP
Circulation patterns.
Request flexibility zoning. For larger tracts, this permits within the zone
boundaries the free arrangement and progressive restudy of the land use
and traffic-flow diagrams as long as the established caps are rebalanced
and not exceeded and as long as the plan remains consistent with com-
munity goals.
Make use of three-way (T) street intersections. They reduce through traf-
fic, increase visibility, and make pedestrian crossing much safer.
Relate to the regional centers. The larger business office campus, indus-
trial park, or regional commercial mall is best kept outside, but conve-
nient to, the residential groupings. Such centers are logically located
near the regional freeway interchanges and accessible to the intercon-
necting circulation roads.
Build out as you go. Scattered or partially finished building areas are
uneconomical and disruptive. In the better communities, construction
proceeds by the phased extension of trafficways, utilities, and develop-
ment areas. They are completed as examples. Construction materials
and equipment are brought in from the rear, and the prearranged stag-
ing areas and access roads retreat as the work advances.
Establish nature preserves. Every locality or site has in some degree its
prized natural features. Be they subtle or dramatic, they add richness and
interest and are to be protected, interpreted, and admired.
Form a design review board. The plans for all buildings and major site
improvements are best subjected from the start to a panel of qualified
designers for review and recommendation as to acceptance, rejection, or
modification. An architect, a landscape architect, and the environmen-
tal control officer would be appropriate members.
Growth Management
In the coming decades one of the most important aspects of land
planning will be that of growth management. On the face of it, the
regulation of population expansion and distribution might seem an
impossibility. How, for instance, can the awesome burgeoning of our
population be brought under control? Yet this is imperative, for by pres-
ent projection it will double and then double again within the next 100
years. One can imagine the stress on buildable land, farmsteads, food
production, freshwater reserves, and roadway capacities.
Project Review
Wherever uncontrolled development is permitted, it will in time
occur—most often causing an unwelcome incursion. Road and utility
capacities are exceeded, natural features destroyed, farmland eliminated,
and school systems overloaded. Pleasant communities are disrupted and
changed beyond redemption. Often their very nature is so changed that
existing homeowners move to more agreeable surroundings.
The first phase is a determination that the proposed project meets the
spirit and conditions of the guideline or can be amended to do so. If ten-
tative approval is granted, the development is carried through a series of
further stages, which include a detailed impact statement, cost/yield
analysis, and posting of performance bonds if called for. Only with such
a strict review process and presentations in public meetings can the citi-
zens and their leadership be assured of orderly growth and transition.
Required Services
Having satisfied the suitability and project review phases, the final key
to growth management is the assurance that all public services are in
place and operation before the first occupancy is permitted. Such ser-
vices include required approach-road improvements, all off-site utility
leads, adequate fire and police protection, school facilities (in the case of
It involves such broad and diverse concerns as the efficient use of energy.
It deals with such finite matters as limitation on consumption, land use
controls, and recycling. As to land and landscape planning, it soon leads
to the realization that urban sprawl and scatteration must be curbed and
reversed—replaced with concentrated and interconnected centers of
While the Athenians, as has been noted, faced their homes inward to
family domains of privacy, while the Egyptians expressed a compulsion
for lineal progressions, while the Chinese designed their homes and
streets and temples as incidents in nature, and while the Western
predilection was for a continuum of flowing space, perhaps the new uni-
versal philosophic guidelines may be a felicitous blending.
For the first time in the long sweep of history, environmental protection
is becoming at last a world concern. The wise management of our land
and water resources and the earthscape is becoming a common cause.
Fortunately, when the problems are nearing crisis proportions, the essen-
tial technology is at hand. Perhaps we can pull it all together in time, and
sooner than many suppose, with enlightened, creative planning.
The early towns and cities of America were compact and self-contained.
Compact for convenience. Streets were muddy. Horses, the only means
of locomotion, had to be harnessed and hitched to buggy or wagon. The
hostile forest closed in around. Self-contained because the only goods
and foodstuffs available were to be gathered from the forest or garden or
bought at the general store.
When towns and cities grew by accretion, their centers were strength-
ened by the growth that crowded around them. As new roads and high-
ways were built, comparable settlements formed as nodes along the way,
soon to be surrounded by farmsteads. When the railroads came, new set-
tlements coagulated at railroad or river crossings or natural harbors. In
time, transportation routes also found their way to remote centers of
agriculture, mining, lumbering, or to notable scenic attractions.
This congenial land use pattern prevailed until after the Second World
War. Then, with rampant industrialization and the rapid extension of
our road and highway networks, the urban centers, with their frictions
and fumes, had less appeal and the open countryside beckoned. Existing
Growth management is not a door homeowners or builders moved out from the towns and cities to outly-
slamming shut, as some might think—as ing homesites or the evolving suburbs, which were an American inven-
some might wish. It is more of a regulating
valve by which flow and capacities are tion. Stores and factories followed—to leave the hemorrhaging cities
brought into optimum balance. with ever-increasing vacancies, dilapidation, and taxes. An influx of
lower-income families and welfare recipients exacerbated the problems.
Not only the cities were faced with the resulting dilemmas—for wher-
ever new development occurred in the rural landscape, the adjacent
farm- and forestlands were taxed, not according to their use, but as
Historical Society of Pennsylvania Archives
Restoration
Fortunately, there are today those with a compelling vision of a better
way—and the knowledge by which troubled neighborhoods and cities
Individually or in sum they point the way to the end of urban sprawl
and the comprehensive planning of far more desirable living and work-
ing centers.
The City
Urban sprawl is for the most part flight from the city. When a city is
grossly polluted, poorly maintained, crime-ridden, and heavily in debt;
when the beckoning countryside is largely unzoned; and when a network
of unrestricted roads leads outward—this exodus is understandable.
What would it take to stop the outflow and reverse the trend—to bring
the entrepreneurs and home builders back? One answer, of course, is to
renovate the city and make it safer and more attractive. In city after city
this has proven to be not only feasible but an accomplished fact.
Activity Centers
Activity nodes—such as those of communities or commercial, business,
research, medical, university, or recreational centers—are working enti-
To better things for any type of center, it is well to list those components
necessary to make it complete—including housing for the workers—
and then designate areas for them to be constructed phase by phase for
optimum performance.
Each activity node is to be connected to others and the center city by park-
way or rapid transit. Such complete and functional centers planned within
the cities, or (if needed) beside controlled access highways, provide a
highly desirable alternative to urban sprawl. In addition, they greatly
reduce place-to-place travel time and traffic. They are more pleasant and
convenient. They are more profitable and successful for all concerned.
Fixed Boundaries
Scatteration or urban sprawl is the creeping dispersion of the more suc-
cessful enterprises and more desirable housing into the surrounding
countryside. All sorts of support services follow along. Not only does
this weaken vital centers, it infiltrates the outlying agricultural, forest,
and wetlands with a network of incompatible roadways and ill-matched
types of development.
How can this hemorrhaging of the city and the disruption of the sur-
rounding region be precluded? Only by the imposition of fixed bound-
aries and development controls to check the outward pressures.
Open Space
What constitutes open space? It is unpaved, un-built-upon land or water
bodies. Within a metropolitan area, the best possible open-space system
is comprised of recreational parks or parklets aligned along the natural
streams and drainageways. The latter, preserved to the 50-year flood
level, form an interconnected swath of green where the soils are richest
and the foliage and tree cover most luxuriant. Here, within or beside the
swath, is the preferred route for parkways, bikeways, and walking/
jogging paths. They belong in the public domain. Even where presently
enclosed in concrete culverts or built upon, waterways can in time be
reopened and restored to their natural flows. Urban open space can also
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Cole, USDA
EPD
Open space comes in countless forms.
The urban pattern of the future will be one of compact and confined
centers surrounded by park and recreation lands, gardens, agricultural
Roadways
Presumably, highways are designed to move motorists safely, efficiently,
and pleasantly from place to place. Yet, except for national parkways,
turnpikes, and interstate highways, there are few trafficways without
buildings fronting upon them, together with driveway openings—
sometimes 100 or more per mile. Every car slowing down to turn off or
to allow another to enter reduces the capacity of the highway and flow
of traffic—often to a standstill. By what right are abutting property
owners permitted to convert highways built with public funds into
highly valuable private building frontage? Highway engineers know the
hazard and friction of roadside intrusion and would opt for development-
free borders along all major roadways. By all reason, new through high-
ways and arterials should be designed with limited access—with off- and
on-ramps no closer than one-quarter mile on each side. Privileged
landowners would no longer gain at others’ expense; the traveling pub-
lic would have the free-flowing highways they paid for and deserve.
Thus, too, could be eliminated mile after mile of sordid strip commer-
cial and unplanned sprawl.
Recentering
Almost without exception, the dispersed elements of uncontrolled
sprawl cause stress and disruption. The problem is not only that of dis-
turbing the intruded land but mainly that of connecting those elements
to shopping, schools, and other destinations—all at public expense.
What can be done to heal scatteration and restore the integrity of rural
lands? There are many possibilities. Among them:
• The scattered parcels can be assessed and taxed to cover the cost of
the required services and off-site improvements. This, in most cases,
would soon make remote living prohibitive.
• Acquisition by purchase of an unsuitable property is the direct
approach. Often it costs less for a jurisdiction to buy the home or
development than to provide the road improvements, maintenance,
and schooling. A condition of purchase can be the granting of life-
time tenancy for the owners.
Zoning
Zoning cannot be a substitute for planning,
and planning cannot be a substitute for Conventional zoning as it is commonly practiced is as harmful as it is
design—the three must work together.
archaic. In traditional zoning practice, large areas of land are set aside and
restricted to a single type of use, as for detached single-family homes, row
houses, or apartments, or, again, as for commercial development, business
office, light or heavy industry, institutional, recreational, or open space.
Such PUD-designed activity centers are in all ways superior to the tradi-
tional pattern of structures lined out along streets and highways, with
their danger, fumes, and noise, and without ready access to recreation,
schools, or convenience shopping. With such attractive in-city commu-
nities and educational, commercial, or other centers as can be produced
under PUD zoning procedures, there is far less incentive to flee the city
and follow the highways to somewhere out beyond.
• Land use
• Impact statement
• Slope protection
• Clearing of natural vegetation
• Earthwork (excavation, filling, and grading)
• Topsoil conservation
• Drainage of wetlands
• Blocking of natural drainageways
• Water supply
• Road frontage
Every land or water holding abuts other properties and should respect
the relationship. Every downstream property is influenced by all that
transpires in the watershed above. Each habitation, community, and
municipality affects and is affected by conditions within its surrounding
social, economic, political, and physical region. Since these are not syn-
onymous, what should the regional boundaries be? They will vary,
depending upon the nature of the study.
Interrelationships
For too long the city has been considered a circumscribed entity. By
tradition we have thought of the city versus the farmland, the city ver-
sus the suburbs, the city versus the townships or counties in which the
city lies. Many serious and often needless conflicts have resulted from
a lack of coordinated planning. There have been costly duplications of
administration and facilities. Animosities have been generated that will
for years preclude intelligent cooperation on even the simplest of inter-
area issues. There is, however, a wise and growing tendency to plan for
the development of the city and its surrounding matrix as a unified
region.
© D.A. Horchner/Design Workshop
179
Concurrent with the trend to broaden the scope of planning from an
urban to a regional basis is the drive to structure or restructure residen-
tial districts into more self-sufficient neighborhoods. These, surrounded
by greenbelts and connected by freeways to the manufacturing com-
plexes, the urban cores, and the outlying hinterlands, give promise of a
more humanized living environment.
Family lifestyles as we know them today are far different from those of
The problem of the landscape architect—even
the log cabin, the working farm, or the plantation. The free and rigorous
as of the architect, the town planner, the life of the pioneer has given way to the more ordered routine of the
engineer, and indeed all men of good will—is farmers on their acreage or the conformity of confined city dwellers.
now, and will be more acutely every day, the Parental attitudes have changed. The discipline of once paternal- or
development of ways and means for bridging
the gap between town and country, the maternal-dominated family living has become more relaxed and casual.
antithesis between urban and rural life—more Salons, grand balls, and great dinners are almost a thing of the past, as
specifically between the masonry, the asphalt, are the chambermaid, the cook, and the well-trained staff of servants.
and the dingbat construction of the town and
the quiet greenery of meadow, forest, and
shore. How to open up the town to the country, Life has become so automobile-oriented that many families have taken
how to bring the town culturally to the their cars into their homes or parked them at the front door. Homes and
country—that is our primary problem. . . . gardens are less pretentious, less ornate. They are mechanized, less clut-
Garrett Eckbo
tered, more open. Front and rear porches have disappeared along with the
stable and alley. The wide front lawn has been replaced by the walled gar-
den courts of patio homes and town houses. Exterior house walls have
been opened up to let in more air and sunlight and to enframe the views
of garden, sky, and landscape—to provide more contact with nature and
with the stone, water, and plants of the earth. As concepts of family living
have changed, the forms of our dwellings have changed to reflect them.
The Cluster
It has been learned that from 3 to 12 families constitute the optimum
interfamily social group. If their dwellings are clustered in a convenient
plan arrangement, kaffeeklatsches, parties, children’s play and games,
and “get-togetherness” on a first-name basis are natural and sponta-
neous. Neighbors borrow cups of butter or sugar and exchange views
and form friendships at the parking compound; children share toys and
turf. Ideally, the families in such a cluster would have the same general
goals and standards but a diversity of individual status and interests.
Any architect worth his salt knows that a
building is not designed by putting together a
As a group exceeds 12 to 16 households in number, it becomes unwieldy,
series of rooms. Any building that is good has tends to lose its cohesion, and automatically breaks up into smaller social
an underlying design concept that binds all alliances.
the parts together into a whole. Without this
it is not architecture. Nor does a designed
neighborhood consist of a series of “projects” The most desirable plan arrangements for the cluster will afford an off-
that are strung together. There must be an street parking compound, freedom from the noise and danger of passing
underlying design plan that binds together the traffic, pedestrian interaccess, and a focal place or feature such as a central
pieces and makes the neighborhood an entity. lawn panel or a children’s play court. The grouping will have a harmo-
Edmund N. Bacon
nious site and architectural character and physical separation from adja-
cent clusters or structures. Compactness and the sharing of party walls are
the mark of many successful clusters, where the normally unusable side-
yard space is squeezed out and aggregated for group use and enjoyment.
The physical plan can seldom if ever, create a
“neighborhood” except in the most abstract use
of the word. It can, however, very materially The Neighborhood
assist other forces in fostering a true
neighborhood feeling. A neighborhood is at best a grouping of residential clusters around shared
Henry S. Churchill open space. It should be small enough to encourage participation of all
families in group activities and large enough to contain a convenience-
shopping center, playfields, and buffering. An enduring neighborhood
plan and one that has accommodated changing concepts of social behav-
The Community
East Hills A planned community, as differentiated from the neighborhood, would
at best comprise two or more neighborhoods separated by greenbelt
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Radburn
The land use patterns, traffic-flow diagrams, and population cap will be
determined initially. There will be defined flexibility zones (the more
extensive the better) within which the approved uses and number of
The City
A city is a large and densely populated center of economic, social, and
political activity, having a relatively fixed geographic position and spe-
cific governmental powers granted to it in charter form by the state. It is
the center of an urban culture.
EDSA
Open-Space Frame
The regional open-space frame will embrace and separate the various
The limited access concept of freeway land uses and activity nodes. It will provide background, base, and
development should be extended where breathing room, and when so arranged as to preserve the best of the land-
feasible to all through or distributor roads scape features, it will give each region its unique landscape character.
within the metropolitan region. While building
frontage would not be permitted on these
thoroughfares, connections to local streets Perhaps the most important task of regional planners is to define and
would be encouraged and facilitated. help to bring into being a spacious, interconnecting, and permanent
open-space preserve as the framework for ongoing development.
By a single regulation, and without cost, the most rational of all open-
space diagrams could be established by and for each region. To wit:
Governance
The citizens of each locality and jurisdiction like to handle their own
affairs—and should, within reason. It is reasonable that they have their
own school boards, committees, councils, and elected officials to keep
an eye on things and respond to local needs and aspirations.
By all reason, most (though not all) regional planning, construction, and
implementation procedures should be systematized and centrally con-
trolled. This calls for a metro form of government. Where this has been
most successful, several basics have applied:
• The metro government concept was voted into being by all citizens
affected, after an educational campaign and series of public forums.
Generally it can be stated as observable fact that whatever is good for the
region as a whole is good for the whole of its people.
Cityscape
To be bluntly truthful, our burgeoning American cities, squared off and
cut into uncompromising geometric blocks by unrelieved, unterminated
trafficways, have had more of this arid desert quality than those of other
cultures past or present.
195
something or somewhere beyond. Our cities, our suburbs, and our
homesites are laced and interlaced with these corridors, and we often
seek in vain to find those places or spaces that attract and hold us and
Our contemporary landscapes are satisfy. We do not like to live in corridors; we like to live in rooms. The
characterized by immense metropolitan cities of history are full of such rooms, planned and furnished with as
airports, zig-zag patterns of high-voltage power
lines and disturbed historical sites. Our much concern as were the surrounding structures. If we would have
familiar landscapes are not small farmsteads such appealing outdoor places, we must plan our corridors not as
and dirt roads, rather they are the yawning channels trying to be places as well but as free-flowing channelized
expanses of urban development. trafficways. And we must plan our places for the use and enjoyment of
Patricia C. Phillips
people.
The corridor canyons that are New York City’s streets stretch on
interminably without relief, without focal point, and without the
welcome interruption of useful or meaningful space.
City of Vancouver
J. Brough Schamp
Utilize rooftops.
OLIN
With surface traffic and parking restricted within the city center, rapid
transit will flourish. (Such cities as Stockholm, Toronto, and Paris are
telling examples.) Multilevel transit hubs, centrally located, are major
regional destinations and points of transfer. Linked, computerized cars
arrive and depart at swishing speeds through illuminated subsurface
transitways or by aerial monorail.
It is proposed that the CBD of the future will be confined, and con-
stricted, by a tight and inflexible ring to preclude its “leaking out” and
In city after city, such reclaimed tracts of inner-city wasteland are now
sprouting with well-planned, mixed-use, residential developments.
Dwellings range in type from single-family homes to multistory apart-
ments. Residents, many of whom are employed nearby, may be workers
of low to moderate income or high-salaried executives.
The inner city offers the greatest opportunity for urban renewal and
redevelopment, for with overall planning and self-help incentives it can
provide not only the housing but also a wide spectrum of the service and
supply facilities needed to support the adjacent CBD and the outer city.
With unemployment and the lack of housing two of the major urban
problems, the inner city teems with latent solutions.
Housing
It is in the inner city that low- to moderate-income housing will make
its most telling advances. While the tower apartments of the CBD (on
costly land and with elevators required) will be designed mainly for res-
There is a truism to the effect that in every idents with the higher incomes, the mixed-use neighborhoods outside
problem and seeming disaster are to be found
the seeds of opportunity. In many ways our the ring will include the full range of housing types for those of all
present cities are little short of disasters. income levels, including the displaced and presently homeless.
Where then do the opportunities lie?
The inner city, where the problems seem At the upper end of the housing scale will be zero lotline homes, town
most hopeless, may become the promised
land. In this deteriorated band are to be houses, garden apartments, and low-rise multifamily apartments resem-
found many sound homes and start-up bling horizontal condominiums. The separated single-family homes facing
business structures inviting rehabilitation. on local streets or culs-de-sac (with front yards devoted to display and side
Here too are endless opportunities for
employment in the demolition of obsolete
yards unused) will no doubt persist, but there will be a preponderance of
structures, clearing of land, reconstruction dwellings with common walls and fenced or walled outdoor living areas.
of streets and utility lines, and for privately
refinanced redevelopment and planned Town houses are a long-standing tradition—from Boston and Philadel-
communities.
phia to San Francisco. Georgetown in Washington, D.C., surely one of
the most delightful residential areas of our country, has narrow brick
homes set wall to wall along its narrow, shaded streets. Its brick walk pave-
ments, often extending from curb to facade, are opened here around the
smooth trunk of a sycamore or punched out there to receive a holly, a
boxwood, a flowering tree, or a bed of myrtle. In this compact commu-
nity, where space is at such a premium, the open areas are artfully enclosed
In working with urban renewal and model cities programs, we have dis-
covered that the openness of newer communities was at first the thing
Advanced
with greatest appeal to families relocated from older neighborhoods or
from cramped and aching slums. But the residents soon became dissat-
isfied with the severe buildings, the wide grass areas, and the play equip-
ment set out on flat sheets of pavement. One would hear the officials
ask, “What’s wrong with these people? Why aren’t they happy? What did
they expect? What more do they want?”
What they wanted, what they missed, what they unconsciously longed
for, were such congregating places as the carved and whittled storefront
bench, the rear-porch stoops, the packed-clay, sun-drenched boccie
courts, the crates and boxes set in the cool shade of a propped-up grape
Ultimate arbor or in the spattered shadow of a spreading ailanthus tree. They
Relaxation of side-yard, setback, and enclosure
missed the meandering alleys, dim and pungent, the leaking hydrants, the
restrictions will permit full use of lot, privacy, and hot, bright places against the moist, dark places, the cellar doors, the lean-
indoor-outdoor transitions. ing board fences, the sagging gates, the maze of rickety outside stairs. They
missed the torn circus posters, the rusting enameled tobacco signs, the
blatant billboards, the splotchy patches of weathered paint. They missed
the bakery smells of hot raisin bread and warm, sugared lunch rolls, the
fish market smells, the clean, raw smell of gasoline, the smell of vulcaniz-
ing rubber. They missed the strident neighborhood sounds, the intermit-
tent calls and chatter, the baby squalls, the supper shouts, the whistles, the
“allee, allee oxen,” the pound of the stone hammer, the ring of the tire
iron, the rumbling delivery truck, the huckster’s cart, the dripping, creak-
ing ice wagon. They missed the shape, the pattern, the smells, the sounds,
and the pulsing feel of life.
A further error of our planning has stemmed from the lingering compulsion
to force our cities into lots and blocks of uniform size and use. Such “ideal”
cities of monotonous conformity are gray in tone. If we examine most
recent plans, we find that one zone is designated for single-family homes,
another zone for town houses, and another for high-rise apartments; an iso-
lated district is set aside for commercial use; a green area will someday be a
park. May we place in this residential area an artist’s studio? It is not allowed!
An office for an architect? A florist shop? A bookstall? A pastry shop? No! In
a residential area such uses are usually not permitted, for that would be “spot
zoning,” the bureaucratic sin of all planning sins. These have too often been
the rules, and thus the rich complexities that are the very essence of the most
pleasant urban areas of the world are even now still being regulated out of
our gray cities. London, after the Blitz, was replanned and rebuilt substan-
tially according to this antiseptic planning order. The first new London
areas were spacious, clean, and orderly, and all would have seemed to be
ideal except for one salient feature: they were incredibly dull. Nobody liked
them. Our zoning ordinances, which to a large degree control our city pat-
terns, are still rather new to us. They have great promise as an effective tool
It is in the outer city also where new satellite centers—as for health, edu-
cation, business offices, manufacturing, and recreation—can take form
at receptive sites surrounded by the communities of their employees.
Such satellites connected center to center with intercity rapid transit and
at the peripheries by the regional freeway and parkway circumferentials
will attract those enterprises seeking togetherness in more conducive
surroundings. Thus will be achieved far more efficient activity centers,
with the advantage of nearby housing and optimum regional access.
Such “centering” is believed to be the only means of ending the all-
American scourge of urban sprawl.
Suburban sprawl.
People Places
Where do city people like to be? Not where they feel intimidated by
rushing traffic or the blank walls of massive office towers. Not where
getting from here to there entails a long walk, wait, or tiresome climb.
Not in a blazing or frigid windswept expanse of paving. Not where there
is little of interest to see or do. People prefer instead to be in or move
through ways and places of comfort, interest, and delight. They enjoy
the meandering walk through contracting and expanding spaces. They
With passage by Congress of the Americans enjoy the charm of diminutive nooks and passageways—of places where
with Disabilities Act (ADA), there is now a they can rest, to talk or people-watch. Such experiences are seldom hap-
national mandate to shape and reshape our
living environment with the disadvantaged penstance; they must be thoughtfully planned.
in mind. All people will benefit from such
sensitive planning. Well-designed ways and places, especially those intended for public use,
accommodate everyone—not only the spry, but, as well, all who by rea-
son of age or disability have special needs or problems. All of us in our
lifetimes—from stroller days to the times of crutches, the cane, the
walker or wheelchair—are “disadvantaged” to some degree in terms of
mobility or cognizance.
In general it can be said that in reviewing Only in recent years have our public agencies and physical planners
the merits of any architectural or landscape come to recognize the needs and possibilities, and take positive action.
architectural proposal it should be tested
vicariously by the experience of all potential Now most building codes and regulations incorporate requirements
users. designed to make life safer, more comfortable and convenient.
The starkness of once-hostile downtowns has been relieved with shade tree
plantings, miniparks, seating, fountains, and floral displays. Gradually our
evolving metropolitan areas are taking form around interconnected, traffic-
free business, shopping, and residential centers. On these well-furnished
islands the experience of getting about, or being, in safe, attractive, and
refreshing surroundings gives new meaning to town and city.
Urban green/blue.
But, one might ask, with urban real estate being sold by the square foot
instead of the acre, how can such open space be afforded and assembled?
In the center city the vacating of through and selected local streets would
yield more than enough area for the ring-road bypass with its buffering
parkland. The elimination of the divisive existing parking lots and struc-
tures can free up another 10 percent of the average CBD, as can the raz-
ing of half-used obsolete buildings. Reclaimed vacant or tax-delinquent
lands can be added to park and recreation holdings. If within the city
there are cliffs, steep slopes, or arroyos, so much the better. Where there
are in-city streams or a waterfront, the possibilities are expanded.
What are the human needs of which we speak? Some have been so long
ignored or forgotten in terms of city planning and growth that they may
now seem quaint or archaic. Yet they are basic. We human beings need
and must have once again in our cities a rich variety of spaces, each
planned with sensitivity to best express and accommodate its function;
spaces through which we may move with safety and with pleasure and in
which we may congregate. We must have health, convenience, and
mobility on scales as yet undreamed of. We also must have order. Not an
antiseptic, stilted, or grandiose order of contrived geometric dullness or
sweeping emptiness but a functional order that will hold the city
together and make it work—an order as organic as that of the living cell,
the leaf, and the tree. A sensed cohesive and satisfying order that permits
1
Kublai Khan, in outlining the plan for his new capital city, Tatu, the present-day Beijing.
the happy accident, is flexible, and combines the best of the old with the
best of the new. An order that is sympathetic to those structures, things,
and activities that afford interest, variety, surprise, and contrast and that
have the power to “charm the heart.” We humans need in our cities
sources of inspiration, stimulation, refreshment, beauty, and delight. We
need and must have, in short, a salubrious, pollution-free urban envi-
ronment conducive to the living of the whole, full life.
Such a city will not ignore nature. Rather, it will be integrated with
nature. And it will invite nature back into its confines in the form of
clean air, sunshine, water, foliage, breeze, wooded hills, rediscovered
water edges, and interconnected garden parks.
Gradually, but with quickening tempo, the face of urban America is tak-
ing on a new look. It is a look of wholesome cleanliness, of mopping up,
renovation, or tearing down and rebuilding. There is a sense of urgency,
directness, nonpretense, and informality. There is a new group spirit of
concerted actions and of people enjoying the experience of making
things happen, of coming and being together in pleasant city surround-
ings. There is a freshness, sparkle, and spontaneity as American as apple
pie. The movement was born partly of desperation—of the need by
property owners to “save the city” and protect their threatened invest-
ments. It responds to the need for energy conservation and the contrac-
tion of overextended development patterns. It stems from revulsion at
pollution, filth, decay, and delapidated structures. It is a strengthening
compulsion to clean house, repair, and rebuild, mainly by private enter-
prise. There is a new vitality. There is a sense of competition, too,
marked by inventiveness. Fresh winds are astir in our cities.
F or every site there is an ideal use. For every use there is an ideal site.
Program Development
A first step in the design of any architectural, landscape architectural, or
engineering project is to have a clear understanding of just what is being
designed.
213
draw freely upon their knowledge and views—with the owners, with
potential users, with maintenance personnel, with planners of similar
undertakings, with our collaborators, with anyone who can contribute
constructive thought. We will look to history for applicable examples.
In defining the program for a project we are We will look ahead to envision possible improvements based on newly
at this point less concerned about what it developing techniques, new materials, and new concepts of planning.
will look like and more concerned about
what it will be.
We will try to combine the best of the old with the best of the new.
To dream soaring dreams is not enough. Since the completed work will be the physical manifestation of this
To have value, dreams and ideas must be program, the program itself must be designed thoroughly, imagina-
translated into the hard reality of feasible tively, and completely.
proposals.
Each would seem, on the face of it, doomed to failure. Yet each, to the
coauthor’s knowledge, has been attempted. It is reassuring to those of
logical mind to note that in the due course of events each enterprise has
been subjected to disrupting strains, scathing antipathies, bankruptcy,
Any plan is essentially the scheduling of specific or collapse—all rooted in the choice of an inappropriate site for the
means to definite ends. . . . Any kind of given use.
planning implies conscious purpose. . . .
Catherine Bauer
In far too many cases, a project has started with the unquestioned
acceptance of an unsuitable location. This is a cardinal planning error.
An important, if not the most important, function of a planner is the
sometimes delicate, sometimes forceful task of guiding an entrepreneur
to the selection of the best possible location.
Alternative Sites
As advisers, we should be capable of determining the requisite site
requirements for any given venture and be able to weigh the relative mer-
With maps or other materials as a guide, we will visit the most likely
places and explore them. Such scouting parties may be launched by
automobile or plane or, even better, helicopter, which not only offers
immunity from barbed-wire fences, cockleburs, and no-trespassing signs
but also gives an ideal overall perspective of likely properties. Much can
be noted from an automobile, especially the relation of proposed sites to
If a client makes the wrong planning adjacent development patterns and approaches. But sooner or later, to
decision in site acquisition or otherwise, and be effective, we must get up off the seat cushions and cruise about the
has first advised the planner, the fault lies
not so much with the client as with the property on foot.
planner, who has failed to present a
persuasive case. Having narrowed our choice to several alternative tracts of land, we will
then analyze them in detail. The favorable and unfavorable aspects of
Given the facts and a full understanding of each will be carefully noted and assayed. Sometimes we will discuss the
the alternatives, reason tends to prevail. comparative analysis of the various parcels informally with the client.
Again, we may prepare a well-documented report for presentation, as to
a board of directors, an authority, or a city council. Such a report, oral or
graphic, may list the sites in order of suitability. Often, however, it is bet-
Site Analysis
Now that we have selected the location, what is our next concern? At
the same time that the program requirements are being studied and
Existing off-site features may guide or even dictate how the site is developed.
“I go to the land, and stay, until I have come to know it. I learn to know
its bad features—the jangling friction of the passing street, the awkward
angles of a windblown pine, an unpleasant sector of the mountain view,
the lack of moisture in the soil, the nearness of a neighbor’s house to an
Therefore, let us build houses that restore to angle of the property.
man the life-giving, life-enhancing elements
of nature. This means an architecture that
begins with the nature of the site. Which “I learn to know its good features—a glorious clump of maple trees, a
means taking the first great step toward broad ledge perching high in space above a gushing waterfall that spills
assuring a worthy architecture, for in the into the deep ravine below. I come to know the cool and pleasant sum-
rightness of a house on the land we sense mer airs that rise from the falls and move across an open draw of the
fitness we call beauty.
Frank Lloyd Wright land. I sense perhaps the deliciously pungent fragrance of the deeply lay-
ered cedar fronds as the warm sun plays across them. This patch I know
must be left undisturbed.
“I know where the sun will appear in the early morning, when its
warmth will be most welcome. I have learned which areas will be struck
“And so I come to understand this bit of land, its moods, its limitations,
its possibilities. Only now can I take my ink and brush in hand and start
to draw my plans. But in my mind the structure by now is fully visual-
ized. It has taken its form and character from the site and the passing
street and the fragment of rock and the wafting breeze and the arching
sun and the sound of the falls and the distant view.
“Knowing the owner and his family and the things they like, I have
found for them here a living environment that brings them into the best
Thus we seek two values in every landscape: relationship with the landscape that surrounds them. This structure, this
one, the expression of the native quality of the house that I have conceived, is no more than an arrangement of spaces,
landscape, the other, the development of open and closed, accommodating and expressing in stone, timber, tile,
maximum human livability. . . .
and rice paper a delightful, fulfilling way of life. How else can one come
Site planning must be thought of as the to design the best home for this site?”
organization of the total land area and air
space of the site for best use by the people who There can be no other way! This, in Japan as elsewhere, is in simplest
will occupy it. This means an integrated
concept in which buildings, engineering terms the planning process—for the home, the community, the city, the
construction, open space and natural materials highway, or the national park.
are planned together at one time. . . .
Garrett Eckbo
Regional Influences. The site analysis process most often begins with
the location of the project site on a regional map and a cursory investi-
gation of regional, vicinity, and area planning factors. From such docu-
ments as U.S. Geological Survey maps, road maps, various planning
reports, and the Internet, much useful insight can be gained about the
surrounding topographic features, land uses, roadway and transporta-
The Project Site. Before design studies can be initiated, the planner
must be fully conversant with the specific nature of the site—its con-
straints and possibilities. This knowledge is obtained mainly by means
of a topographic survey and site visitation.
• Abutting landownerships
• Names of utility companies whose lines are shown, company
addresses, phone number, engineers
• Routes and data on projected utility lines
• Approach patterns of existing roads, drives, and walks
• Relative abutting roadway traffic counts
• Zoning restrictions, building codes, and building setback lines
Most site and architectural studies, conceptual plans, and working draw-
ings will be prepared on reproducible prints of this base map.
Plan Set and Reference File. As the surveys, base sheets, overlays, site
analysis map, and other background data are developed, they are assem-
bled as a coordinated reference file—together with supporting plans,
reports, and correspondence. All are to be kept complete and updated
throughout the planning process. With the application of computer
techniques, the preparation, maintenance of, and access to the reference
files can be streamlined and expedited.
The material in the reference file will vary for each project depending
upon its size and complexity. For more extensive planning—as for a hos-
Perhaps the planning process can best be pital, stadium, or new community—the file may include such back-
explained as a series of subconscious ground data as:
conversations. . . . —the question posed, the
factors weighed, and then the recorded
conclusion. The more lucid the thinking, the • Regional and local master plans
more coherent the powers of idea • Zoning and subdivision regulations
communication . . . the better is the plan.
B. Kenneth Johnstone
• Projected highway network
• Regional water management program
• Airfields and flight zones
• Transmission lines and stations
• Utility systems
• Fire, police, and ambulance services
• Flood and storm records
• Air and water pollution sources and controls
• Demographic data and user profiles
• Schools
• Recreation facilities
• Cultural amenities
• Economic statistics and trends
• Tax rates and assessments
• Governance
Plan Concepts
If structure and landscape development are contemplated, it is impos-
sible to conceive one without the other, for it is the relationship of
structure to site and site to structure that gives meaning to each and
to both.
This point perhaps raises the question of who on the planning team—
architect, landscape architect, engineer, or others—is to do the con-
ceiving. Strangely, this problem, which might seemingly lead to warm
debate, seldom arises, for an effective collaboration brings together
experts in various fields of knowledge who, in a free interchange of
ideas, develop a climate of perceptive awareness and know-how. In such
a climate, plan concepts usually evolve more or less spontaneously.
Since the collaboration is arranged and administered by one of the
principals (who presumably holds the commission), it is usually this
team leader who coordinates the planning in all its aspects and gives it
expressive unity. It is the work of the collaborators to advance their
On larger commissions the landscape assigned tasks and to aid in the articulation of the main design idea in
architect often serves as a member of a all ways possible.
closely coordinated professional team,
which includes architects, engineers,
planners, and scientist-advisors. A
generalist, the landscape architect brings to Site-Structure Diagram
the planning-design process specialized
training in the physical sciences—such as When planning a project or a structure in relation to a land area, we
physiography, geology, hydrology, biology, first consider all the various uses to be fitted together and accommo-
and ecology—and a feeling for the land, dated. For a high school, for instance, we would determine the approx-
human relationships, and design.
imate architectural plan areas and their shapes—the general plan areas
required for service, parking, outdoor classrooms, gardens, game
courts, football fields, track, bleachers, and perhaps future school
expansion. Over a point of the topographic survey (or site analysis
map) we would then indicate, in freehand line, use areas of logical size
and shape in studied relation to each other and to the natural and built
And so it is with planning. We can create only that for which we have first
It is not the thing done or made which is developed an empathic understanding. A shopping mall? As designers,
beautiful, but the doing. If we appreciate the we must feel the quickening tempo, the pull and attraction, the bustle,
thing, it is because we relive the heady freedom
of making it. Beauty is the byproduct of
the excitement of the place. We must sense the chic boutique displays,
interest and pleasure in the choice of action. the mouthwatering sights and smells of the bakery shop; we must see in
Jacob Bronowski our mind the jam-packed counter of the hardware store and the drug-
store with its pyramids of mouthwash, perfume, nail polish, hot-water
bottles, and jelly beans. We must see in the market the heaps of grape-
fruit, oranges, rhubarb, brussels sprouts, bananas; whiff the heady fra-
grance of the floral stalls; picture the shelf on shelf of bargain books, the
bolts of cotton prints, the sloping trays of peppermints and chocolate
creams. We must feel the brightness of the sunshine on the sidewalks and
the coolness and protection of shaded doorways and arcades. We must
feel crowds and traffic and benches and trees and perhaps the sparkle and
splash of a fountain or two. And then we can start planning.
A children’s zoo? If we would design one, we must first feel like one of the
flocking children, the gawking, clapping, squealing kids; we must appreci-
ate the delight, the laughter, the chatter, the confusion, and the rollicking
thrill of the place. We must feel the diminutive, squeaky cuteness of the
mouse town, the bulk and immensity and cavelike hollowness of the spout-
ing whale with its dimly illumined interior. We must know the preening
strut of the elegantly wandering peacocks, the quack, quack, quacking of
the waddling ducks, the soft furry whiteness of the lop-eared rabbits, and
Meaningful design is far from an exercise in the clop, clop, clopping and creaking harness and the awed delight of the
graphic exposition. It is an empathetic pony ride. As we make our plans, we must, in our minds, be at the children’s
process—a creative act of the intellect.
Design begins with a conceptual zoo, and we must see it, hear it, feel it, and love it as a child would love it.
determination of the desired nature of space
or object. This “what shall it be” aspect may Are we to design a parkway, hotel plaza, terminal, or bathing beach? If
be focalized by a flash of intuitive genius, by we would create them, we must first have a feeling for their nature. This
a methodical analysis of possibilities, or by self-induced sensitivity we might call the planning attitude. Before we
logical extension and improvement upon
past examples. mature as planners, it will be intuitive.
The visual aspects of superior design are
marked by a clear and direct expression of Impact Assessment
idea, time, place, materials, and technology,
coupled with a fine instinct for three- It has been proposed that no development should be permitted if, all
dimensional form. things considered, it were to do more harm than good. But how is this
to be ascertained? Until recently this might well have been a matter of
hotly debated opinion. With the advent of the federally mandated Envi-
ronmental Impact Statement, however, there is now the means of making
a fairly rational appraisal.
The chart that follows provides a checklist of environmental and perfor-
mance factors to be considered in large-scale, comprehensive planning.
Computer Application
The advent of the computer, the Internet, and other cyberspace-
related advances has altered the planning/design process immensely—
yet fundamentally has changed it not at all. The goals and procedural
steps of planning remain the same. As a means of attaining the goals,
however, the computer has opened up an intriguing range of pos-
sibilities. Together with its accouterments it has provided a whole new
array of bright and radiant tools. It is important that in our fascina-
tion with the tools we are not distracted from the task to be accom-
plished.
Capability
The function of computer technology is to access, store, manage
(manipulate), and display information. As to access, once the planner
has developed the project program and decided upon the background
material needed, the computer can search the vast Internet storehouse of
facts and graphic examples and file them for easy reference. Even sur-
veys, plans, and photographs can be scanned and computerized—to be
recalled on the screen and enlarged, reduced, or edited at will.
The skill of drawing, that beautiful The advantages of computer use are manifold: not only in time-cost sav-
coordination between the hand, eye, and
mind, is as crucial to making good use of ings but as well in the scope of research material made available and the
computer graphics as it has always been to the ability to organize and store it for rapid retrieval; not only in the ability
design professions. to project, compare, and modify the schematic studies, but to test them
William J. Johnson
for relative cost; not only to display the various proposals by screen, but
to select the viewing points and to visualize the plans and spaces as by
sequential movement through them.
Site Development
The product of the site planning process is a conceptual plan. This is,
in effect, a diagram of fitting relationships—of areas to structure, of
area to area, and of all to the lay of the land. The land uses and their
relationship have grown out of the program and site analysis. They have
been explored in a number of quick schematics until the best fit is
achieved. The plan has been tested and adjusted to minimize its nega-
tive impacts and to provide the most of those features that are desired.
Upon its approval by the client or other decision makers, it becomes the
reference guideline in the preparation of detailed (working) site develop-
ment plans and specifications.
Site-Structure Expression
If to design a project or a structure in harmony with its total site is a
valid objective, it follows that the design expression would vary from site
to site in accordance with the variation in landscape character.
A City Lot
Interplay of horizontal and vertical spaces. Area is at a premium. The plan will be compact, of necessity. Space is
limited. Plan forms will probably be contrived to expand the apparent
space by the multiple use of areas and the interplay of volumes. Through
ingenious plan arrangement even the smallest structures are made to feel
spacious.
Areas and spaces are minute in scale. Scale, both induced and inductive,
is an important design consideration. An object well suited to the open
field could be overwhelming in the cityscape. A giant tree, for example,
might dwarf an urban complex, while a dwarf tree could give it increased
and more desirable visual dimension.
The city street is a source of noise, fumes, and danger. Plan elements
adjacent to the street may well be contrived to provide noise abatement,
depth, privacy, and security. Perforated visual screens or studded sound
barriers have useful application.
Living space in the city may extend from property line to property line.
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Courtyard garden.
From the street to the farthest limits of the city lot, there is little room
for the necessary transitions from the din of the passing street to areas for
quiet family living. Designed transitions are a mark of the successful city
house. The Japanese admire a quality called wabi that has application
here. This quality may be exemplified by a black walnut with its rough,
splotched, gray-green outer husk. With husk removed, the exposed wal-
nut shell is seen to be a handsome, rich brown case of hard ridges in
structural pattern. Cracked open, the shell reveals the walnut kernels
encased in a membrane of delicate veining and fitted to the smooth inte-
Rural Site
Land area is plentiful. The plan is more open, free, and “exploded.”
Although the specific site may be circumscribed by property boundaries,
the visual limits may include extensive sweeps of the landscape far beyond.
The scope of planning considerations is increased, since fence-line geom-
etry, orchards, paddocks, even a mountaintop miles away may become
design factors and elements. Our scheme must be planned to the horizon.
Freedom, with open view of fields, woods, and sky, is the essential land-
scape quality. We may logically orient our plan outward to embrace the
total site’s best features and to command the best views.
The choice of a rural site would indicate a desire to be at one with nature.
Make nature appreciation a design aim and theme. Insofar as possible,
the natural environment will be disturbed or modified only to improve it.
Ample area permits an exploded plan, each
element being related to the most compatible The major landscape features are established. Build to them, feature the
topographic features. best, screen out and de-emphasize those that are less desirable, and con-
trive structural forms in best relation to the natural forms.
Earth and ground forms are strong visual elements. A structure con-
ceived in studied relation to ground forms gains in architectural strength
and in harmony with the topographical features.
A rural site implies increased land area and greater maneuverability. The
automobile and pedestrian approaches, important elements in our
design, may often be so aligned within the property boundaries as to
Structural forms conceived in sympathy with
ground forms borrow power from and return reveal the best site and architectural features.
power to the landscape.
The indigenous materials of a rural site—ledge rock, fieldstone, slate,
gravels, and timbers—contribute much to its landscape character. The
use of such natural materials in buildings, fences, bridges, and walls
helps relate structures to their surroundings.
The essential quality of the landscape is the natural and the unrefined.
Our structural materials may well reflect this naturalness and forgo high
refinement.
The areas of relatively equal elevation are narrow bands lying perpendi-
cular to the axis of the slope. Narrow plan forms such as bars or ribbons
are suggested.
Sizable level areas are nonexistent. Where required, they must be carved
rest on a platform, out of or projected from the slope. If they are shaped of earth, the earth
must be retained by a wall or by a slope of increased inclination.
The essence of slope is rise and fall. A terraced scheme is suggested. Lev-
els may separate functions, as in split-level or multideck structures.
or stand completely free.
The slope is a ramp. Ramps and steps are logical plan elements. The
slope grade is perhaps too steep for wheeled traffic. Access is easiest
along contours. This fact dictates a normal approach from the sides.
The pull of gravity is down the slope. Our design forms not only must
have stability, they must express stability to be pleasing. An exception, of
course, would be those structures in which a feeling of daring or condi-
tioned exhilaration is desired.
A structure imposed on a sloping site belongs to The sloping site has a dynamic landscape quality. The site lends itself to
the sky as well as to the earth. dynamic plan forms. The dramatic quality of a slope is its apparent
A slope inherently emphasizes the meeting of earth and air. A level ele-
ment imposed on a sloping plane often makes contact with the earth or
rock at the inner side and is held free to the air at its outer extremity.
Where the element makes contact with the earth, the jointure is to be
clearly expressed. Where the leading edge flies free, this airy union of
structure and sky should also be given design expression.
The top of the slope is most exposed to the elements. The planner may
exploit or create a land profile similar to the military crest of the artillery
manual—an adaptation or modification of the slope to preserve or enhance
the view while affording increased protection from winds and storm.
A slope brings out many of the most desirable qualities of water. The
play of water in falls, cascades, spouts, trickling rivulets, and films is an
obvious plan opportunity.
Level Site
A level site offers a minimum of plan restrictions. Of all site types, the level
site best lends itself to the cell-bud, crystalline, or geometric plan pattern.
A level site has relatively minor landscape interest. Plan interest depends
upon the relationship of space to space, object to space, and object to
object.
A flat site is essentially a broad-base plane. All elements set upon this
plane are of strong visual importance, as is their relation one to the
other. Each vertical element imposed must be considered not only in
terms of its own form but also as a background against which other
objects may be seen or across which shadow patterns may be cast.
A flat site has no focal point. The most visually insistent element placed
The level site adapts itself to the cell-bud,
crystalline, or geometric plan.
on this site will dominate the scene.
The site offers little privacy. The creation of privacy is a function of the
plan orientation. Privacy may be attained by the focus of spaces toward
screening elements, inward to enclosed courts or outward to infinity
from viewing points on the periphery.
If we must use our earthmovers to create a new landscape (and sometimes we must), let
us use them to create a landscape of topographical interest and pleasant and useful forms.
Other Sites
This same procedure of determining (by perception and deduction) the
abstract design characteristics suggested by a given landscape type may,
Where flatness equals monotony, maximize
every topographical opportunity. of course, be applied to sites of many varieties, including:
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
The inner city. The mountain resort.
David Vadlowski/City of Vancouver
Satellite Plan
As a total structure is conceived in harmony with the total site, so must
each element or area of the structure be conceived in harmony with
related site areas. In an elementary school, for instance, we would plan
the kindergarten, its outdoor play lot, garden, and entrance gate all as
one. The gymnasium we would coordinate with the game courts, equip-
ment areas, and playfields. We would consider the boiler plant together
Integral Planning
When a structure is imposed on a site, certain changes in landscape char-
acter are effected. It is important that these changes be controlled by the
planner. Our elementary school is not just plunked down in a city block
or in the midst of a suburban community. Rather, ideally, it is fitted to
the property and conceived in harmony with the community with such
skill that the new landscape created is an improvement over the original.
The best site plan is that which yields the For a lesson in relating architecture to site we may well look to the Ren-
greatest long-term benefit with the least aissance planners. In the building of the magnificent Piazza San Marco
total cost and stress. in Venice, the architect commissioned to design the cathedral, or the
campanile, or the Doge’s Palace, or the memorial columns at the water
gate never conceived of his building or columns as design entities solely.
Instead, he instinctively considered his works as integral parts of the
piazza in terms of his proposed structure, which he conceived, from
broad plan to most minute detail, in terms of its impact on the piazza
and vice versa. Each planner not only designed that for which he was
commissioned but redesigned the entire piazza and, in doing so, his city
of Venice. Thus, and only thus, was he fulfilling his obligation to his
client and his city. The secret of much of the charm and great beauty of
European towns and cities lies in the conscious application of this plan-
ning axiom. Much of the hodgepodge and helter-skelter appearance of
the American scene results from planning with seeming ignorance of
and indifference to the existing environs.
All these things are a part of church life and need to be arranged for in
its planning. The function of any project and the relationship of build-
ing to site may thus be tested by an imaginary introduction to and walk-
through by people typical of those who will see, service, and/or use it.
Site-Structure Unity
We have discussed the importance of developing responsive site-project
relationships. Let us now consider other means by which we may
achieve site-structure unity.
Just as the early French and English explorers in North America controlled
vast tracts of land by the strategic placement of a few forts, so can the well-
placed elements of a scheme control a given landscape. Such is true of our
national parks with their trails, lodges, and campgrounds sited to unfold to
the user the most interesting features of the park. Such is true, in linear
plan expression, of any well-planned scenic drive or highway extended into
the countryside. Our military installations are often, in plan, scattered
over extensive land areas, each function—be it rifle range, officers’ quar-
ters, tank proving ground, tent sites, or artillery range—relating to those
topographical features that seem most suitable. For this same purpose,
many of our newer schools are exploded in plan. Unlike the old three-
story monumental school set on the land, the newer schools of which we
speak are planned to the landscape, embracing and revealing its more
pleasant qualities with such success that school and landscape are one.
The site and the structure may be further related by the interlocking of
common areas—patios, terraces, and courts, for example. A landscape
feature displayed from or in such a court takes on a new aspect. It seems
singled out. It becomes a specimen held up to close and frequent obser-
vation under varying conditions of position, weather, and light. A sim-
ple fragment of rock so featured acquires a modeling and a beauty of
form and detail that would not be realized if it were seen in its natural
state. As we watch it from day to day—streaming with rain, sparkling
with hoarfrost or soft snow, glistening in the sharp sun and incised with
shadow, or glowing in subdued evening light—we come to a fuller
understanding of this landscape object and thus of the nature of the
landscape from which it came.
The landscape may be even more strongly related to structure by the ori-
entation of a room or an area to some feature of the landscape, as by a vista
or a view. A view or a garden may be treated as a mural, a mural of constant
change and variety of interest, extending the room area visually to the lim-
its of the garden (or to infinity for a distant view). It can be seen that, to be
pleasant, the scale, mood, and character of the landscape feature viewed
must be suited to the function of the area from which it is observed.
To this end they introduce into their dwellings the best of those
objects of nature that they can find or afford. The posts and lintels of
their rooms, for instance, are not squared and finished lumber but
rather a trunk or limb of a favorite wood shaped, tooled, and finished
to bring out its inherent form and pattern of grain and knotting. Each
foundation stone, each section of bamboo, each tatami (woven grass
mat) is so fashioned by the artisan as to discover, and reveal in the fin-
ished object, the highest natural quality of the material that is being
used. In the Japanese home one finds plants and arrangements of
twigs, leaves, and grasses that are startling in their beauty. Even in their
art forms the Japanese consciously, almost reverently, bring nature into
their homes.
In such ways we, too, may relate our projects and structures to their nat-
ural setting. We may use large areas of fenestration. We may devise our
approaches and paths of circulation to achieve the most desirable rela-
tionships. We may recall and adapt from the landscape colors, shapes,
and materials. We may make further ties by projecting into the land-
scape certain areas of interior paving and by extending structural walls or
overhead planes. We may break down or vignette our structures from
high refinement to a more rustic quality as we move from the interior
outward. This is a reverse application of the quality wabi mentioned
before. This controlled transition from the refined to the natural is a
matter of great design significance.
Site Systems
As a logical extension of the principles of site-project unification the
concept of site systems deserves special attention. The term implies sim-
ply that all site improvements are conceived to be constructed and func-
tion in a systematic way.
The least disruption of the natural drainage system should be the cardi-
nal rule in developing land; however, some disturbance and change to
the natural system are unavoidable. Nevertheless, the resulting changes
in runoff and drainage patterns must be managed to “return” them to
the natural condition in the surrounding downstream area as expedi-
ently as possible in terms of both time and distance, thus minimizing
erosion and flooding. This practice, referred to as stormwater manage-
ment, has become mandatory in many parts of the United States for
most land-disturbing activities.
Much of what the profession of landscape architecture and this book are
about is an approach to the planning, design, and use of land that pro-
duces the least possible impact on the land. Over the last several decades,
this practice has gradually been embraced by the larger planning and
design community and, increasingly, has become recognized by regula-
tors, who have incorporated some of the practices into land-use codes
and ordinances. As these practices have become more widespread, they
have become known as low-impact design (LID)
While LID practices can include anything that reduces the effects of
development on the land, the most common practices focus on the
biological—or natural—systems approach to stormwater management,
which is done by simulating conditions in nature. This includes the use
of bioswales, bioretention or rain gardens, green roofs, and permeable
paving, to name a few of the options. All of these devices are intended to
slow and temporarily store runoff water, filter sediment and pollutants,
and recharge groundwater in a more effective, efficient process than con-
ventional stormwater management techniques.
Movement
Planned paths of pedestrian and vehicular movement that oppose the
existing ground forms generate the problems and costs of earthwork,
slope retention, interception gutters, storm-sewer connections, and the
establishment of new ground covers. When such routes are aligned
instead to rise and fall with the natural grades, to follow the ridge lines
and ravines, or to trace a cross-slope gradient that requires no heavy cuts
or fills, they not only are more economical to build but are also better to
look at and more pleasant to use.
Lighting
Site illumination does many good things. It provides safety in traffic
movement and crossings, it warns of hazards, and it serves to increase
Well-conceived lighting gives clarity and unity to the overall site and to
each subarea within it. However, poorly conceived lighting can be dis-
cordant with a design, become a source of light pollution, or even create
hazardous conditions.
Planting
Planting excellence is also systematic. It articulates and strengthens the
site layout. It develops an interrelated pattern of open, closed, or semi-
enclosed spaces, each shaped to suit its planned function. Planting
extends topographical forms, enframes views and vistas, anchors free-
standing buildings, and provides visual transitions from object to object
and place to place. It serves as backdrop, windscreen, and sunshield. It
checks winter winds. It catches and channels the summer breeze. It casts
Aside from serving these practical functions, plants in their many forms
and varieties are also pleasing to the eye. But even their beauty is
increased if there is an evident reason behind their selection and use.
Fine plantings, like any other fine work of design, have a fundamental
simplicity and discernible order. Many experienced landscape designers
limit their plant lists to a primary tree, shrub, and ground cover and one
to three secondary trees, shrubs, and supplementary ground cover—
grasses, herbs, or vines, with all other supporting and accent plants com-
prising no more than a small fraction of the total.
Except in urban settings, the large majority of all plants used will be
native to the region and will therefore fit and thrive without special care.
Essentially, each plant used should serve a purpose, and all together
should contribute to the function and expressiveness of the plan.
Materials
Just as the palette of plant materials is limited in the main to those which
are indigenous, so is it also with the materials of construction. Wall
stone from local quarries seems most appropriate. Crushed stone and
gravels exposed as aggregate, bricks made of local clays, lumber from
trees that grow in the vicinity, and mulches made of their chipped or
shredded bark all seem right in the local scene. Even the architectural
adaptation of the natural earth, foliage, and sky colors relates the con-
structions to the regional setting.
Edging strips.
Paved mowing strips of concrete, set brick, The reduction of the number of materials used to a small and selective
or stone at lawn edges carry the wheel of an list lends simplicity and unity to the planned development.
edger and eliminate hand trimming.
Operations
All projects must be planned to work and work efficiently. Each build-
ing and each use area of the site must operate well as an entity, and all
together as a well-organized complex. This can be achieved only if all
From small-home grounds to campus, to components are planned together as an integrated system.
park, to large industrial complex, site
installation and maintenance costs can be
reduced and performance improved by the Maintenance
standardization of all possible components,
materials, and equipment. Use only the To be effective maintenance must be a consideration from the earliest
affordable best; therein lies quality and
economy. planning stages. This presupposes that all maintenance operations have
been programmed. It also assumes that storage for the required materials
and equipment is provided, that access points and ways are strategically
Spaces
Much of the art and science of land planning is revealed to the planner
when it is first realized that one is dealing not with areas but with spaces.
As an example, the playground composed of play equipment set about
on a dull base plane has little child appeal, while the same apparatus
arranged within a grouping of imaginative play spaces can provide end-
less hours of delight. It is a matter of designing the volumetric enclosure
and spatial interconnections to suit the use.
259
through which motorists may move speedily, safely, and freely while
enjoying a highwayscape designed to keep them relaxed and happy and,
at the same time, alert.
An outdoor space of far different mien is the cascade approach and plaza
of New York’s Rockefeller Center. It is walled by a canyon of metal,
masonry, and glass and has a base of cut stone and terrazzo; its overhead
plane is a tower-framed segment of sky, relieved by the tracery of foliage
Tension. and the moving color of waving flags. Here is a space artfully planned to
attract, refresh, and excite us and condition us for entry into the elegant
restaurants, shops, and offices at its sides. Not far away, we can find yet
another outdoor space of high design refinement. The garden of the
Museum of Modern Art is an urbane volume eminently suited as a back-
drop and visual extension of the adjacent galleries or as a place in which
to wander through sunlight and dappled shade, viewing the pools and
sculpture.
There will come to mind, upon reflection, many other similarly pleasant
site spaces—a picnic spot on some lakeshore, a stadium, a public square,
Relaxation. a residential swimming pool and garden. By analysis, we find that all are
pleasant because, and only because, in size, shape, and character they are
manifestly suited to the purposes for which they were intended.
A creation in space is an interweaving of parts If we were to list the requisites of the ideal space for each of a series of
of space . . . varying uses, we might be amazed at the variety of suggested spatial
László Moholy-Nagy characteristics and at the degree of precision with which the character-
istics can be defined. A child’s play lot, for example, would be designed
Architecture . . . is the beautiful and serious
game of space. as a Lilliputian wonderland of induced action, shrieks, and squeals.
Willem Dudok Intriguing forms, a rich variety of textures, and bright splashes of color
would be right, for children have an acutely developed tactile sense and
a love of shapes and primitive hues. Their play space might well be vari-
formed with tunnels, obstacles, baffles, movable objects, and things to
climb over, under, and through. It should be a place of strong contrasts;
sun to shadow, smooth to rough, bright to dull, open to closed, and high
to low. A well-designed play lot for a child gives full play to imagination.
It is in itself a plaything conducive to excitement and rollicking delight.
A space for private outdoor dining would have an entirely different set
of criteria. As a volume it should be simple in shape, intimate in size,
and refined in texture and detail. It should be shaped to invite repose. It
should create a serene and pleasant atmosphere conducive to conversa-
tion. For the point of highest interest, it might well focus on the surface
of the table and the faces of the diners poised above it. It should be a
casual space of studied subtleties. As can be imagined, if the child’s play
activities were to be transposed to a space such as has been described for
dining, the child would soon become restive. If, on the other hand, the
diners were moved to the space designed as a play lot, we could in time
expect no less than nervous collapse or chronic indigestion.
Spatial Qualities
The essence of a volume is its quality of implied containment.
A confined space may be static, inducing repose. It may direct and con-
centrate interest and vision inward. The whole spatial shell may be made
seemingly to contract and bear down, to engender a feeling of intensity
or compression.
Alternatively, a space may open out. It may direct attention to its frame
and beyond. It may fall away or seem to expand. It may seem to burst
outward. It may impel outward motion to its perimeter and to more dis-
tant limits.
A space may dominate an object, imbuing the object with its particular
spatial qualities. Or it may be dominated by the object, drawing from it
something of its nature.
Spaces may vary from the vast to the minute, from the light and ethereal
to the heavy and ponderous, from the dynamic to the calm, from the
crude to the refined, from the simple to the elaborate, and from the
somber to the dazzling. In their size, shape, and character they may vary
endlessly. Clearly, in designing a space for any given function, we would
do well first to determine those qualities most desirable and then to do
our best to provide them.
Spatial Size
Planned spaces are usually considered only as they relate to humans.
Sit.
Paddocks, corrals, dog runs, canary cages, and elephant traps are excep-
Dine. tions, but even these are best conceived with more than fleeting atten-
Talk. tion to the habits, responses, and requirements of the proposed
Fox-trot. occupants. Take the elephant trap, for instance. Few architects
Light opera.
Compare car mileages. approach their planning with a keener awareness of their client’s traits
than the native builder who directs the construction of the stout tim-
ber and rattan enclosure for the trapping and training of wild ele-
phants. The canary cage, too, with its light enframement, seed cups,
swinging perches, and cuttlebone, is a volume contrived with much
thought for the well-being of the canary. In planning spaces for people,
it seems plausible that their accommodation and happiness should be
of as great a concern to the planner as those designed for the bird and
Be seated. the pachyderm.
Banquet.
Converse.
Waltz.
It is well known that the size of an interior space in relation to people has
Symphony. a strong effect on their feelings and behavior. This fact may be illustrated
Discuss world trade relations. graphically in the accompanying diagrams.
Blue and green are the colors of the heavens, Between the micro- and macrospaces we may plan spaces of an infinite
the sea, the fruitful plain, the shadow of the range in size. The volumetric dimensions should never be incidental.
Southern noon, the evening, the remote
mountains. They are essentially atmospheric
and not substantial colors. They are cold, they Spatial Form
disembody, and they evoke impressions of
expanse and distance and boundlessness. It has been said that, ideally, in design, form follows function. This state-
Blue . . . always stands in relation to the dark, ment is more profound than it seems. It is open to argument unless we
the unillumined, the unactual. It does not
press in on us, it pulls us out into the remote. assume that aesthetic and intellectual considerations are an inherent
An “enchanting nothingness” Goethe calls it in aspect of function. What all this means is that any object, space, or thing
his Farbenlehre. should be designed as the most effective mechanism for doing the job at
Blue and green are transcendent, spiritual, hand; moreover, it should look it. If the designer can achieve an actual
nonsensuous, colors . . . yellow and red, the
classical colors, are the colors of the material, and apparent harmony of form, material, finish, and use, the object
the near, the full-blooded. Red is the should not only work well but also be pleasant to see. Let us take a sim-
characteristic color of sexuality—hence it is ple example. An ax handle has for its purpose the transmission of the full
the only color that works upon the beasts. It
matches best the phallus symbol—and power of the wielder’s stroke to the cutting edge of the blade. A superior
therefore the statue and the Doric column— handle, by long tradition, is made of selected straight-grained, seasoned
but it is pure blue that etherealizes the ash with just the right degree of toughness and flexibility. It is shaped to
Madonna’s mantle. This relation of colors has the grip and butted to prevent slipping. From the grip it swells in a
established in every great school as a deepfelt
necessity. Violet, a red succumbing to blue, is strong force-delivering, shatter-resistant curve of studied thickness and
the color of women no longer fruitful and of length. When the tapered helve is fitted and wedged at precisely the
priests living in celibacy. right angle to the head, the ax is in perfect balance, lies well in the hands,
Yellow and red are the popular colors, the and is good to use. It is also good to look at. To the experienced user it
colors of the crowd, of children, of women, and
of savages. Among the Venetians and the is truly an object of beauty.
Spaniards high personages affected a splendid
black or blue, with an unconscious sense of the If shown a new ax with a handle made of plastic, the wooden ax–handle
aloofness inherent in these colors. . . .
Oswald Spengler
user would probably be incredulous; a shaft that had no grain and
looked like glass surely couldn’t be trusted. It would appear incongruous
and ugly. If, however, one came to learn by experience that the new han-
dle was in all ways superior, it would come in time to be admired, and
no ax with a wooden handle could ever seem quite as admirable again.
A sloop is a vessel designed to utilize the driving force of the wind. In the
superior sloop the hull is fastidiously shaped to cleave the waves, slide
buoyantly through the water, and leave a smoothly swelling wake; the
Spatial Color
In passing, it is of interest to note an early Chinese theory of volumetric
color design. According to this theory, we have become so accustomed
to the color arrangements of nature that we have an aversion to any vio-
lation of the accepted rule. It follows that in selecting colors for any
space, interior or exterior, the base plane is treated in earthy colors—the
hues and values of clays, loams, stones, gravels, sands, forest duff, and
moss. The light blues and blue-greens of water, recalling its unstable sur-
face, are rarely used on base planes or floors, and then only in those areas
where walking is to be discouraged. The structural elements of wall and
overhead, when they are visually apparent, are given the colors of the
tree trunk and limb—blacks, browns, and deep grays. The receding wall
surfaces adapt their hue from the recessive planes of the landscape—
Barry W. Starke, EDA
Corridor spaces.
There are, of course, many other theories and systems of color applica-
tion. One would keep the volumetric enclosure neutral, in shades of
Positive, bold, forceful Tenuous, uncertain, gray, white, or black, and let the objects or persons within the space thus
wavering glow with their own subtle or vivid colors. Another calls for infusing a
space or coloring a form with those hues and values that, alone or in
combination, produce a prescribed intellectual-emotional response.
Primitive, simple, bold Effusive Given a basic color theme, this approach modulates harmonious over-
tones to soothe, contrasting ones to give interest and emphasis. Another
system manipulates spaces and objects within those spaces by the stud-
ied application of recessive and dominant values and hues.
Jagged, brutal, hard, Curvilinear, tender,
vigorous, masculine, soft, pleasant, A familiar and sound practice of interior designers is to use a dominant
picturesque feminine, beautiful
graphic, weaving, or other object as the chromatic theme piece of a space
and select all colors, vivid or pale, to recall and accentuate it.
Decreasing, Increasing, expanding
contracting Yet another would determine for any given area or structure one appro-
priate color which, running through the whole, could be used as a uni-
fying trunk. All other colors would be, to this trunk, its branches, twigs,
leaves, flowers, and fruit. Such a scheme can be likened to the overall
coloration of the willow tree, the oak, or sassafras—or to the blending
In motion Meandering, casual,
relaxed, interesting, hues of the clouded mountainside or river valley. All features or scenes
human observed in nature have, without exception, their own harmonious sys-
tem of coloration. In the creation of meaningful spaces, the knowledge-
able handling of color is essential.
Flowing, rolling Formal, priestly,
imperious, dogmatic
Abstract Spatial Expression
We have learned that just as abstract design characteristics may be sug-
Indecisive, weak Progressive gested by a given landscape type, so may they be suggested by a proposed
use as well. The spatial requirements of a cemetery, for instance, would
hardly resemble those of an amusement park. We come to the amusement
park for a laugh, for a shock, for a change, for relief and escape from
Indirect, plodding Concentrating, ordered routine. We want to be fooled, and we delight in confusion and
assembling
distorted, contorted, ridiculous shapes. We seek the spectacular, the spin-
ning, tumbling, looping, erratic motion. We love the roller coaster’s flash
and roaring crescendo, the brassy clash of cymbals, the jarring sock-ring-a-
Direct, sure, forceful, Opposing ling-ting of the tambourines, the rap of the barker’s hammer, and the
with purpose
raucous honky-tonk. We thrill to color as gaudy as greasepaint, as garish
as scarlet and orange tinsel, as raffish as dyed feathers, gold sequins, and
rainbow-hued glitter. We expect the scare, the boff, the flirt, the come-on,
Excited, nervous, Opposing with friction the tease, and the taunt. All is gay tumult; all is for the moment; all is
jittery
happy illusion. We accept materials as cheap and as temporary as bunting
Abstract line expression. and whitewashed two-by-fours. Everything is a surprising, attracting,
The horizontal—earthy, We come in grief, seeking that which will give solace and comfort. The
The vertical—noble, calm, mundane,
dramatic, inspirational, satisfied
spatial character might well suggest peaceful quietude in terms of subtle
aspiring harmonies of form and texture. Troubled and questioning, we seek here
reassurance and order. Order as a spatial quality is effected by evidence
Refined
of logical progressions, visual balance, and a regular cadence of plan or
sequential revelation.
Flamboyant
Smooth, swelling,
sliding Humbled and distraught by the presence of death, we would orient our-
Rough, rasping, selves to some superior power. The presence of divine power may be sug-
grating
Static, focal, fixed gested in plan form and by symbol. A sensitive variation of the classic axial
treatment that so compellingly relates humans to the concept has no bet-
Dynamic ter application than here. There may also be breathtaking vistas and sweep-
Logical, planned,
orderly ing views, as long as vistas and views are in keeping with the sacred and the
sublime.
Erratic, bumbling, At those thoughtfully selected plan areas where an inspirational quality is
chaotic, confused Falling, pessimistic,
defeated, depressed to be concentrated or brought to culmination we might use the verticals
that effect an uplift of the spirit. A simple cross of white marble lifted
Rising, optimistic,
Barry W. Starke, EDA
Regressive
Fall, sinking without
effort, degeneration
Broken, interrupted,
Dispersing, fleeing severed
Diverging, dividing Growing, developing Arlington National Cemetery. Vietnam Veterans Memorial.
We seek here a fitting and final resting place for those whom we have
loved. In design, this concept is translated into terms of the eternal and
the ideal. The eternal may be suggested by the timeless features of the
Complex for excitement, diversion, curiosity, sur-
landscape—the moss, the fern, the lichened rock, the sun, the grove of
prise, induced movement. gnarled and venerable oaks, the gently sloping summit of a hill. Materi-
als such as marble, granite, and bronze will be selected to endure.
Idealism may be expressed through the creation of those spaces and those
high art forms that will instill the conviction that here in this sacred place
the living and the dead are truly in the presence of their God.
Enclosure may be effectively implied by strong
demarcation of the base plane. In like manner, any such functional places and spaces we may name—
the shopping center, the summer camp, the amphitheater—will imme-
diately bring to mind desirable spatial characteristics. These, it should be
apparent, are fundamental to the design.
Simple enclosure for concentration on idea,
form, and detail.
Elements of Containment
In a large measure, all spaces acquire their being and character from the
Confined for relaxation and induced repose.
elements that contain them. Because each element so used will imbue
the space to some degree with its own qualities, it must be well related
not only to all other such elements but also to the essential resultant
character desired for the space.
Lines, forms, colors, textures, sounds, and odors all have certain pre-
dictable impacts on the human intellectual-emotional responses. If, for
example, a certain form or color says or does things to the observer, this
is reason enough to employ such a form or color in the shaping of those
structures, objects, or spaces that are to convey this message. Surely, if
Open and free for induced action and the abstract expression of a given line violates the proposed expression of
exuberance.
structure, object, or space, it should be used only with studied intent.
Every line evident in the form or planes has its own connotation. This
must be in keeping with the intended nature of the space.
Definition of Volumes
Asian cultures have long understood that to have significant spaces you
must have definitive enclosure and that the size, shape, and character of
the enclosure determine the quality of the space. Openness, void, and
Volumes may be contrived to impart specific pre-
determined emotional and intellectual impacts. mere expanse are not enough; they may be only emptiness.
Functions of vertical enclosure. Induced human Outdoor volumes may be of infinite scope, limited only by the horizon,
responses vary with the type and degree of or they may be as finite as the space between two cedar fronds. In shap-
enclosure.
ing outdoor volumes the designer is not as limited as in architectural or
engineering construction by materials, forms, or sizes. One may employ
Where flows are light, absorption by lawn, Exterior space may be as loosely defined as by sand, the open sky, and
planting, or mulches may be sufficient.
the foliage of quaking aspen. Or an outdoor space may be tightly con-
trolled by terrazzo mosaic pavement, polished marble walls, carved
mahogany panels, tinted glass, ceramic murals in rich patterns, and gaily
colored canopies of fabric. All exterior volumes, controlled or free, are
formed of three volumetric elements: the base plane, the overhead plane,
and the vertical space dividers.
Drives, walks, and bicycle paths are often used
as drainageways.
The Base Plane
The base plane is closely related to the arrangement of use areas, for it is
on this volumetric floor that we are most concerned with use. What we
If flows are to be heavy, the paving is made see when we look at a project plan is what will be laid out on the base
concave in section. plane. It will establish not only the kinds of use but also the plan rela-
tionship of each use to all others.
The base plane surface is often the natural surface of the earth. With its
topsoil strata, ranging from thin to deep, its soil moisture and fertility,
and its cover of plants, this plane is veritably the base of all life. The wise
planner will never disturb or modify the natural ground surface without
reason. Any modifications made will be those that implement the pro-
posed use while protecting the quality of the project site.
Or better, where width permits, the paving is The general composition of the earth plane is mineral, ranging in hard-
crowned with drainage to a swale or gutter at
ness from granite, limestone, and shale to the clays, loam, and sand. The
the side.
supporting strength and stability of the soil strata depend not only on
the nature of each but also on its angle of inclination, the presence of
water, and its relation to the other strata and the surface. Appearances
are deceptive; deceptions are often disastrous. When the degree of sup-
port and stability are of consequence, the soil types and load-bearing
capacities are to be determined by test pits or core borings.
Soils and the moisture and frost they retain are powerful eroders and
corroders. From the structural point of view, extreme care must be taken
In recreation courts, as elsewhere, the drainage in the selection of materials that are placed on or make contact with the
planes are related to the overall design.
earth. In considering outdoor spaces, we associate with the ground plane
The Base Plane such natural construction materials as rock, gravel, and sand and such
constructed materials as brick, concrete, asphalt, and ceramic tile. These
seem compatible. Most other materials, including untreated wood or
uncoated metals, are subject to rapid decay or rust.
It is on the base plane that we establish our trafficways. They are best
aligned in compliance with the earth’s natural conformation. To violate
the land is to incur expensive cuts and fills and require costly drainage
structures. Moreover, on the disturbed surface areas a tight-knit cover
must be reestablished for the sake of appearance and to preclude devastat-
ing erosion. The most stable and beautiful drives and highways of the
world are those that follow the ridges and valley floors and rise or fall
across the side slopes where the cross gradient is most suitable. Perhaps
such drives are pleasant because they are basically lines of dynamic force
flowing in harmony with the natural forms and forces of the earth. Our
friend Plato, if we could question him on this point, would nod in sage
agreement.
Every object existing on the base plane has plan significance. If the
object is to be preserved, its relation to other elements of the plan must
be thoughtfully considered. If the object is to be moved, the ease and
means of moving warrant study. If the object is to be modified, the
degree and type of modification must be analyzed.
The base plane, in a world governed by the law of gravity, gets the most
use and wear. It requires the most care and maintenance. The planner
must recognize, as does the caretaker, that all materials and textures
applied to this plane should be selected with concern for their perma-
nence and appearance during all phases of their projected use.
THE BASE PLANE MAY BE LEVEL, WARPED, In natural sites or naturalized embankments,
RAMPED, STEPPED, OR TERRACED. steps need not be of uniform size, shape,
height, or depth.
Geometric drainage
grids can be incorpo-
rated in irregular paving
In flights of six or more risers a handrail is
shapes. recommended.
EDSA/Len Kaufman
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
space we need consider but a few of its unlimited qualities. In color, light
may be pearly, milky, amber, cobalt, lemony, aqueous, inky, sulfurous, or
silvery. In intensity, it may range from pale, soft, or limpid to brilliant,
blazing, dazzling, or blinding. Light has motion—as in shooting, pierc-
ing, quivering, dancing, scintillating, creeping, flooding, or streaming
light. It has distinctive character—as in dappled, splotched, or mottled
light; subdued, harsh, or glaring light; searching, glinting, shadowy,
gleaming, or glowing light. Light has mood—as in gloomy, haunting, or
mysterious light; cozy, inviting, or exciting light; relaxing, refreshing, or
cheering light. These are but a few of its qualities and effects that have
design application.
The Verticals
The vertical elements are the space dividers, screens baffles, and back-
drops. Of the three volumetric planes, the vertical is the most apparent
and the easiest to control. It also has the most important function in the
creation of outdoor spaces. The verticals contain and articulate the use
areas and may tightly control and enclose them, as with masonry walls,
or more loosely define them, as with vegetation.
By plan manipulation, the vertical elements may extend and expand the
Site volumes: degrees of vertical enclosure. use areas to apparent infinity, by screening out the near or obtrusive fea-
tures of the landscape and by revealing such receding or expansive fea-
tures as the distant view, the horizon, or the limitless spaciousness of the
open sky.
We are only now beginning to realize again the advantages of private liv-
ing and working areas that are screened from the public view and
focused upon the enclosed court or garden. In Egypt, Pompeii, Spain,
Enclosure by dispersed plan elements. Japan, and all mature cultures, such walled residences, palace courts, and
Qualities of Enclosure
Again, vertical enclosure may be as rugged as the rocky face of a cliff or
a wall of piled-up fieldstone. It may be as sophisticated as a panel of
Receiver (shadow plane) Decorative surface
etched glass—or light as a tracery of blossom or foliage. The range of
form and materials is limitless. But whether the enclosure is massive
or delicate, crude or refined, the essential business is to suit the enclo-
sure to the use of the space or the use of the space to the predetermined
Sun
Wind enclosure.
Sound
Air pollution
Stand
In general, it may be stated that when interest is to be directed to an
object within a given area, the elements of containment must focus
attention inward. When interest is to be directed outward to object or
view, the enclosure is pierced or opened to accentuate and frame that
which is to hold our attention.
Seat
Elements within a Space
Vertical planes provide not only containment, screen, and backdrop but
often become the dominant spatial feature as well. Other vertical ele-
ments may include furniture set about on the base plane, a specimen
magnolia of striking branching habits and flower, a cool jet of rising and
falling water, or a children’s slide or climbing structure of welded metal
tubing. Such freestanding objects assume a sculptural quality. In scale
and form they must satisfy the hollowness of the volume, enrich it, and
pick up and accentuate its character. The shape and color of freestand-
ing objects may counterplay with the shape and color of the space, may
Safety barrier
be visually apparent against the backdrop. If the object is to dominate,
the backdrop plane is subdued to serve as a foil. If the spatial plane is to
dominate, as in a mural or a building facade, the standing object is
placed or designed to heighten the visual impact.
When an object is placed within a space, the object and enclosure may
be perceived as an entity, but often more important is the expanding,
Enclosure for privacy (wall height determined contracting, evolving relationship of the spaces between the two. As an
by function) example, the roundness or squareness of an object may best be accentu-
Vertical definition.
ated by placing it off center in a variformed volume to develop dynamic
spatial relationships between it and the enclosing planes.
Vertical boards The external spaces may be designed to serve as foreground or setting, as
an anteroom, or as an external building compartment. The function of
the building may even be concentrated in the exterior space and the
Chestnut, cypress, or cedar poles on frame
building itself be incidental. Such structures may serve primarily as spa-
tial enclosers, dividers, and backdrops.
Fences.
Concentration of interest
While providing a theme for this public space, this water feature is a vertical
reference.
Precise control of form, materials, light, In the treatment of sizable areas, we have discovered an intriguing plan-
acoustics, temperature. ning phenomenon that has many useful applications. We have found
that a freestanding vertical element or panel brought near a small use
area within the larger space may have such a strong visual relationship to
the user that it imparts its own scale. A great plaza, for example, may be
overwhelming to a person who enters or wanders through. If, say, a small
bench were to be placed within the space, the volume by contrast would
seem even more overpowering. A person seated on the bench would
Elimination of distractions.
sense only the relationship to the total plaza. If, however, near the bench,
we were to place a honey locust tree, a stone fountain, or a decorative
screen, our intimidated friend would first sense being seated under the
tree, beside the fountain, or near the screen and only incidentally would
sense the dimensions of the greater volume. One would relate oneself to
the scale of the introduced objects.
Emotional implications of varying spatial Within a large space, many such human reference points may be placed,
volumes. and, indeed, these must be furnished if pleasure is intended. (We recog-
nize, of course, that historically the primary objective of many great
public spaces has been to humble and sometimes even humiliate the
crowds that mill about within them.) When awe, wonder, or humility is
to be instilled by spatial impact, the human reference points are removed
or distorted. When comfort and assurance are desirable, a human scale
No spatial variety—static. Variety—dynamic. must be made evident. Generally, the steps, doorways, or windows of
adjacent buildings suffice to establish a sense of scale; if not, such human
reference points are to be otherwise provided.
One of the most pleasant of visual treats, on the other hand, is to have
the eye come comfortably to rest upon an object or plane so placed that
it falls into pleasing perspective and focus. If, moreover, in the thing
observed the viewer discovers subtle and fitting relationships to the
space, the use, and the user, the pleasure is intensified. Such relation-
ships may sometimes be accidental, but more often they must be con-
sciously planned.
Like the overhead, the verticals may serve an important function in cast-
ing shadows to wash across a paving, dapple a wall, dance, creep, flicker,
tremble, stretch, blank out a space in dim coolness, or incise a bold
architectural pattern onto a receiving plane.
Plant Materials
Much of the earth’s land surface, as it were, is subdivided into variformed
volumes by trees—freestanding, in rows, in clumps, or in masses. Often,
proposed use areas may be sited to take advantage of spaces already tree-
enframed. Again, partial tree or shrub enclosure may be supplemented by
additional planting or by grading and construction. In such cases the
native growth provides the ideal transition from development to the nat-
Effective Enclosure
It must be remembered that the vertical space enframers are not usually
seen alone from within the volume but in the round as well. They,
together with the spaces they enclose, become in total a unified land-
scape element to be related to all other landscape features.
An Axiom
Lack of effective enclosure is the key to most unsatisfactory spaces or
places. We cannot stress too strongly the need for the proper type and
degree of vertical definition. All good site development is marked by the
organization of vertical (and overhead) planes to provide both optimum
enclosure and optimum revealment.
By such means, it can be seen, we must synthesize not only the microland-
scape but the extensional landscape as well.
Motion
Experience is rarely static; almost always, motion is involved in the per-
son or in the thing experienced. A structure is seldom seen from a fixed
point of view or in direct elevation but usually by people on the move.
Its three-dimensional form and modeling are therefore often as impor-
Bill Tatham, SWA Group
tant as its facade. The plan pattern of a site is also usually realized from
289
an infinite number of viewing points by people moving through it. The
more fluid the circulation pattern, the more points of view and, there-
fore, the more interest and enjoyment in viewing.
“The figure of Mercury is less than life-size. The steps leading up to the
fountain are broad and low rather than high and forbidding. The water
play is subdued to a splash and burble rather than a rush. The architect
gives us also a concept with which we are familiar, not a terrible war god
but one of the more kindly gods, Mercury, who speeds and flashes about
on winged feet. We, who know the legends, want to walk closer to this
figure. Here in this lofty dome of light and space is held out to us that
which makes us want to come near, makes us feel pleased and relaxed.
Golden Bough Landscape Architecture
“And so the architect has piqued our curiosity, impressed us, and hum-
bled us. He has pleased us. Now he wants to get us moving out into the
exhibit rooms. How is this accomplished? You will notice that he starts
a centrifugal movement with a dominant spiral theme. The lines of the
figure of Mercury are spiral in diagram. The subject of the sculpture,
appropriately, is ‘flight.’ Motion is further suggested by the movement of
the water as it ripples toward the fountain brim. All lines move outward.
Above us, even the carved eagles on the architrave seem ready to soar
away. Even the coffers of the tremendous dome sweep in a great spiral
pattern. By sound, motion, and induced ideas, by strong urging of archi-
tectural form and line, we are compelled to outward motion.”
Dispersing Passing
Looping
In-circling
Congregating
Rounding
Diverging
Returning
Ascending
Homing
Level Converging
With friction
Sinking
Massive
Obscure
Dilution
Concentration
Line of approach. Abstract variables in line of approach to a given point, area, or space.
Circulation 291
speed, the motion may range from the creeping-crawling to the whizzing-
whistling. The nature of induced motion may be soothing, startling,
shocking, baffling, confusing, exploratory, logical, sequential, progressive,
hieratic, linear, wavelike, flowing, branching, diverging, converging, tim-
orous, forceful, expanding, contracting, and so on, ad infinitum.
Impelling Factors
The observant planner soon learns that one is impelled to motion hori-
zontally, vertically, downward—when it gives ease and pleasure of motion
and satisfaction in alignment. Our sense of sight, hearing, taste, touch,
and smell are often compelling factors in the subconscious plotting of
our courses and the determination of our actions. Physical comfort is a
powerful factor, too.
We tend to move:
Motion Directors
The spectacular We are directed or guided by:
Repose Inducers
We are induced to repose by:
The superlative
The restful when weary
Conditions of comfort, Opportunity for concentration
enjoyment, or rest Restriction of movement
Opportunity for privacy Inability to proceed
Opportunity for fuller apprecia- Imposed indecision
tion of view, object, or detail Functions related to rest and
Pleasant arrangement of forms repose
The appealing
and space Attainment of optimum position
The subtle
Horizontal Motion
We are affected by horizontal motion in the following ways:
Circulation 293
Downward Motion or Decline
We are affected by downward motion in the following ways:
Circulation 295
Our senses of sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell are often compelling
factors in the subconscious plotting of our courses and the determina-
tion of our actions. Physical comfort is a powerful factor, too.
Distance as Friction
In moving about by any means, distance is considered an obstacle to be
overcome, area that must be traversed, and space that must be bridged,
with energy expended. When speed and economy are factors, it is incum-
bent upon the planner to select or devise a route that is as direct as prac-
ticable and that provides a minimum of deterrent to smooth and rapid
travel.
Such a route would be of suitable grade and alignment. The speed and
volume of traffic would be accommodated. Traffic of various types and
velocities would be classified and separated. All obstacles would be
removed. Grade crossings would be eliminated. Safety would be assured
in all ways possible. All objects and elements along the route would facil-
itate and express a freedom of movement because such trafficways must
not only be direct and free but must also suggest efficiency.
In one of the Summer Palace groups near the Jade Fountain to the west
of Beijing, there once existed a walled enclosure known as the Court of
the Concubine. Here, many years ago, lived the favorite concubine of
Marion Brenner Photography/Lutsko Associates
Spaces of passage.
Circulation 297
one of the imperial princes. At one end of the courtyard stood her hand-
some residence of lacquered wood, tile, soft mats, and woven screens,
and at the other end a light, airy pavilion, where she and her maids
whiled away the summer afternoons. By legend, she had been brought
from the open plains of Szechuan (Sichuan) Province, and she longed for
its lakes, woods, meadows, and far mountains and for the wide spaces
and the freedoms she had known there. And here, in the Summer Palace,
this confining courtyard had now become her world.
The prince and his planners, wishing to please her, set out to create,
within the limits of this space, an expansive paradise of freedom and
delight. From her residence, to give the illusion of distance, the walls of
the courtyard were stepped both inward and down to increase the appar-
ent distance to the facing pavilion. Furthermore, to reduce the effect of
rigid enclosure, the far plantings extended on either side of, and beyond,
the lines of the converging walls. Even the size of the paving slabs was
reduced from near to far. Moving outward, all textures changed imper-
ceptibly from the rough to the refined, and colors varied from the warm
scarlets, reds, oranges, and yellows to the soft, cool, muted greens and
lavenders and evanescent grays. Trees and plants in the foreground were
bold in outline and foliage; those near the fragile pavilion were dwarfed
and delicate. Water in the near fountain gurgled and splashed, while in
the far ponds it lay mirrorlike and still. By such manipulations of per-
spective alone, the views from the concubine’s quarters were made to
seem expansive and the pavilion remote.
As the mistress left the terrace of her residence to move out in the court-
yard, she passed through a pungently aromatic clump of twisted junipers
to come upon a curiously contorted “mountain stone” that rose serenely
from a bed of moss. On the stone wall behind it was incised a pattern of
stylized cloud forms with the poetic inscription “Above the plains of
Szechuan the clouds rest lightly on the lofty mountain peaks.” Here,
10 steps from her terrace yet hidden from view, she could be, in her
thoughts, again among her mountains.
Just beyond, and angling temptingly out of sight, was a wall of emerald
tile with an embossed tile dragon that seemed to writhe in splendid fury
toward an open gateway. Inside the gate was a low stone bin spilling over
with blooming peonies that laced the sunlit space with their pastel colors
and delicious spicy fragrance. The sound of trickling water was meant to
lead her eye to a cool and shadowy recess where a teakwood bench was
placed near the light spray of a waterfall. From overhead, the branches of
weeping willow cascaded down until the tips dipped into the water,
where gold and silver fantails drifted languidly among the floating wil-
low leaves. A meandering line of stepping-stones led across the pond to
disappear into the tracery of a bamboo grove where swaying finches
trilled and filled the light air with soft and tremulous melody. The thin
pathway led out beyond to a ferny opening beside the farthermost lobe
of the pool, which here lay deep and silent. At its edge, a carved soap-
From the raised pavilion platform, looking back, a surprising new vista
met the eye. For, by forced perspective, the residence seemed startlingly
near. The path that led from it was ingeniously concealed, and another
route of return invited one to new garden features and spaces.
Conditioned Perception
Experience has taught us that what a thing is, is often of less importance
than how we relate to it. The tree unseen or unremembered for us does
not exist. The tree on the distant hilltop may be for the moment only an
object that marks our path. As we approach, we see it to be a pear tree
with many pleasant connotations. Coming close, we may be tempted to
pick its fruit. Or perhaps in the noontime heat of an August day we may
welcome the chance to lie in its shade, hang a child’s swing from one of
the lower branches, or spread a picnic at its base. In every case the tree is
the same, but our impression of it changes with our sensed relationship.
This being so, it would seem that should we place a tree or any other
object in a space, we must consider not only the relationship of the object
to the space but also the relationship of the object to all who will use the
space. We must program the user’s perception of the object by a sequence
of planned relationships that will reveal its most appealing qualities.
We plan, then, not a single experience alone but rather a series of condi-
tioned experiences that will heighten the interacting pleasurable impact
of each. The Chinese epicure would understand this procedure, for to
him or her the well-conceived banquet is a balanced succession of sen-
sory delights. The thin, bland shark-fin soup, the brittle wafer of salt sea-
weed, the glutinous pungency of jellied egg, mealy water chestnuts with
Circulation 299
almond bits, the sweet astringent bite of crab-apple preserves, light,
fluffy fried rice, steaming sweet-sour fish in persimmon sauce, bitter tea,
crisp vegetables braised in light peanut oil, tender chewy bits of mush-
room and meat, soft noodles in broth with pigeon eggs, the rich custard
of ripe durian, mouth-cleansing tea, the cool acidulous mango and more
tea, and finally the lightest and driest of wines. Each such meal is
designed as an artistically balanced sequence of gustatory, tactile, visual,
and intellectual experiences. Should we be satisfied with less artistry in
planning the places and spaces of our living environment?
Sequence
Sequence, in terms of planning, may be defined as a succession of percep-
tions having continuity. Sequences have no meaning except as we expe-
rience them. Conversely, all experience is sequential.
In nature, sequences are casual and free. Sometimes, but not always, they
are progressive. Such a progression may be one of ascent, as in the expe-
Barry W. Starke, EDA
Development of cadence Sometimes the sequences of nature are revealed with no more order than
in the haphazard impressions of an adult or a child wandering lackadaisi-
cally through the landscape, along a lonely stretch of seashore, or among
the shallow pools of a tidal flat.
It can be seen that all planned spaces are experienced by a progressive order
of perceptions or events. It can also be appreciated that such sequences are
subject to design control. A well-conceived plan determines not only the
nature of climaxes but also their timing, their intensity, and the transi-
Sequence of alternation tions by which they are evolved.
Planned sequential development of a If a sequence is marked with a rhythmic recurrence of one or more spa-
predetermined experience. tial qualities—size, shape, color, lighting, or texture—a cadence soon
Circulation 301
becomes evident. Depending upon its nature, intensity, and rate of inci-
dence, such a cadence has a slight to very considerable emotional impact
upon the moving observer. Sometimes the effect is desirable, sometimes
disastrous. Suffice it to note that, in the planning of any spaces through
which people are to move on foot or by vehicle, an understanding of
both spatial modulation and space cadence is essential.
In the same community, let us say, another church has been sited to
front on a quiet residential parkway. On Sunday mornings, as the fami-
lies make their way to church by car or along the pleasant approach
walks, the church is seen set back, framed by trees, and serenely inviting.
Driveways, entrance loop, and the parking areas are easily reached and
adequate. Connecting walks lead to a wide and spacious court, from
which the entrance doors open. Here, pausing before entry, one is pre-
pared by form, by symbol, by the very quality of the space, for the ser-
vices inside. Here, after the service, families and friends can meet and visit
in appropriate surroundings. The approaching, attending, and leaving of
this church are all planned as conducive, meaningful aspects of worship.
Pedestrian Movement
The characteristics of pedestrian traffic can best be understood by compar-
ing them with those of a stream or river. Foot traffic, like flowing water, fol-
lows a course of least resistance. It tends toward the shortest distance, point
to point. It has a pressure of momentum. It has force. It erodes. Swift
movement requires a straight, smooth channel with increased width at the
curves. If not provided, such a channel will be forced. Just as in the swift
river jutting points are worn away, rock ledges are undercut, and the oxbow
is “strung,” so does the force of pedestrian traffic grind away at impinging
or constricting forms or leap the channel to shape a new and freer course.
Just as a canal establishes the route, rate, and maximum volume of its
boating traffic, so constructed walks can fix the path and control the
movement of pedestrians. Again, as with the meandering stream on a
level plain, the course of such traffic may be governed by unpredictable
variables. Sometimes, in campus planning particularly, where lines of
pedestrian force are so difficult to predetermine, only the major walks
are constructed with the buildings, and the crosswalks or meandering
pathways are laid down later along those unconscious and natural lines
of movement worn thin in the campus turf.
Circulation 303
Stream—rapid, concentrated flow; deep, smooth
channel
Traffic—swift movement in volume; emphasis on
The planner of an exhibition attempts to velocity and freedom from friction: annoyance with
foresee people’s behavior and predict where they obstacle or divertisement
will hurry, stop, look, or drift on. His aim is to
control the flow and arrest it where he wants; Stream—negative current; flat, Stream—erosion of force and pressure; mass of
but controlling the flow does not mean that soft bank water concentrated at edge; high, undercut bank
people are to be moved along predestinate Traffic—little activity, little Traffic—orientation toward bank; sweeping
grooves like trams or shuffled around hurdles interest; traffic oriented to interest, pressure, excitement
like sheep. Ideally the planner is aiming to opposite bank visually and
direct people’s movement in such a way that by force of momentum Stream—rough channel produces turbulence, rush,
they see what there is to see with ease and in and tumble
their own time. He must also ensure that the Traffic—friction, danger, excitement, high interest
public does not get lost, tired, or bored with Stream—blending of currents
the whole affair. Traffic—merging of traffic ways
James Gardner and Caroline Heller Stream—meandering, slow, the marsh,
the oxbow
Traffic—little motion or interest in motion;
interest, rather; in things and detail
Casual foot traffic, like a quiet stream, takes a meandering course. Traf-
fic that is passive by nature or preference is found where quiet water on
a river would be found, in the lagoon or island-studded backwash and
Things Seen
Since walking is still the most frequent means of locomotion, most places
and spaces are seen by the circulating pedestrian and from eye level. As we
have learned, the line of movement may be fixed, or it may be undirected
and free, allowing a number of alternative routes and a variety of viewing
experiences. Slow movement engenders interest in detail. When we are in
a hurry, we tolerate few delays, but if moving leisurely, we welcome deflec-
tion and distraction. We have little interest in motion and take pleasure
instead in things seen or experienced.
Texture Traffic
Natural granite, rough sandstone The hobnailed boot
Packed earth, the field, the forest The hiking shoe, the moccasin
duff
Snow The ski, the snowshoe
Ice The skate, the crampon
Sand The clog, the sandal, bare feet
Turf The spiked or crepe-soled shoe,
the cleated football boot
Bituminous paving The tennis sneaker
Flagstone The loafer
Cut stone, concrete brick The business shoe
Polished marble The dancing pump
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Landscape Architect M. Paul Friedberg and Partners
Circulation 307
speeds will be segregated and given separate and specially planned routes.
Marginal intrusions will be eliminated. Innovative safety controls and
There will be in the future no roads or devices will be planned with and built into the highways. High-speed
tracks which must be crossed at grade. transcontinental motorways will weave through the open country
Transportation and transit lines will be
depressed or buried as free-flowing tubes— between our towns and cities rather than threading them center to center.
or lifted up above the earth that the goods Our residential, commercial, and industrial districts will be planned off to
or traffic they carry may glide along swiftly, the side, protected and entered by widely spaced, free-flowing parkways or
safely, almost without friction. designated truckways. Multimodal systems of movement will be devised
to interconnect polarized city centers and new satellite communities.
In the Landscape
The contemporary highway with its adjunct approaches and structures
is not only the most dominant feature of our landscape, it is also the
most salient factor in our land and community planning. Once estab-
lished in any landscape, a roadway becomes a potent feature and imme-
In the new landscape for living, all motor and pedestrian traffic will be
segregated. Our living and working areas will be readily approached and
serviced by the automobile, but they will be oriented to, and interspersed
with, attractive, refreshing pedestrian spaces unpenetrated by roadways.
Walking will again be a pleasure when it is freed from the sound, sight,
fumes, and danger of rushing traffic and when it leads us through places
and spaces designed for walking and congregating. And our motorways,
designed solely and specifically for free vehicular movement and riding
pleasure, will seem a dream on wheels.
The Roadway
Every roadway, be it a rural drive or an urban expressway, is a unique
work of design and will have its own regional and functional character-
istics. In planning trafficways of any type or magnitude, however, the
following principles will pertain.
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respond to the topographical forms and vegetative growth and fit
into the landscape.
Accommodate the traffic. The eventual carrying capacity is based on
the best possible projection of development within the service area
of the roadway corridor. If the full facility is not to be constructed
initially, the right-of-way should be adequate for all future needs.
Preserve the natural systems and scenic superlatives. A first requisite in
this regard is a right-of-way of ample and variable width. It will
allow for all foreseeable lanes, shoulders, side slopes, and drainage-
ways without crowding. It will expand in places to include such
natural landscape features as streams, ponds, groves, and rock out-
crops. It will also provide buffering to screen unsightly uses and to
Even within urban areas the legally prescribed
right-of-way should be widened to include
protect and enframe desirable views.
and preserve such natural features as ponds, Provide the optimum cross section. Lane widths and their number
streams, ravines, or groves of trees, as will depend upon projected traffic types and volumes. When traf-
“furnishings” to the freeway. fic volumes are high, the topography is rough, and if existing con-
ditions and land values permit, it is usually desirable to plan for
separated roadways. Earthwork and construction costs can often
thus be reduced to more than recoup the additional land taking.
The advantages include the reduction of the roadway scale, the
elimination of headlight glare, the reduction of side-slope height
and width, and a more natural landscape fit.
Adjust the horizontal curvature. Major high-speed roads are designed
with radius curves and interconnecting spirals. Lesser roads are
often designed with tangents connected by radius curves at their
points of intersection. Minor roads and woodland trails usually
just feel their way along the land and between the trees and other
obstacles without benefit of geometry. The important point is
that in every case the planned centerline is to be field-staked and
In considering alternate highway locations,
adjusted to avoid unforeseen obstructions and problem areas and
weight should be given to that one which pro-
vides the best scenic attributes. Here alignment to take full advantage of the topographical setting and views.
A has a visually pleasant path. Alignment B Adjust the vertical profiles concurrently. The best vertical alignment
does not. rolls with the contours to require a minimum of clearing, grading,
and erosion control. It must provide clear sighting of oncoming
vehicles and points of roadway entry from the sides. It must also
ensure the positive drainage of the roadbed and the adjacent
swales or gutters. The degree of rise or fall is an important safety
factor in inclement weather.
Design for stability. A well-built road like a well-built structure starts
with a solid foundation. In the construction of any roadway it is
essential that the base be stable and well drained and that the suc-
cessive courses laid thereon be interlocked and well compacted.
The total section, including slab or wearing course, is designed as
Arterial: six-lane divided. Six-lane divided
a unit to best withstand the local climate and support the antici-
arterials carry massive volumes of high-speed pated loadings.
traffic. They interconnect and provide access to Provide a suitable driving surface. In texture, the surface will give
the large metropolitan communities and districts. grip under adverse weather conditions. In color it will be at once
While pedestrian walks are not compatible,
minitransit and reserved bus lanes may share heat-reflective, easy on the eyes, and differentiated from the hues
the right-of-way. of the road-edge soils and materials to give visual definition. On
Circulation 311
In locating a project on any site, the line of approach will influence or
dictate not only the position of the structural elements but will probably
The psychology of arrival is more important also determine the relationships of the site use areas as well. Assuming
than you think. If it is not obvious where to that an approach drive is to be developed between an existing circulation
park, if there is no room to park when you drive or street and a proposed building, let us consider the design require-
get there, if you stumble into the back door
looking for the front entrance, or if the ments. All else being equal, it should:
entrance is badly lighted, you will have
subjected your guests to a series of annoyances Announce itself at the passing roadway. The driveway entrance is best
which will linger long in their subconscious.
No matter how warm your hearth or how located where it wants to be. This is at the point of the most logi-
beautiful your view, the overall effect will be cal penetration or highest visual interest along the fronting prop-
dimmed by these first irritations. erty line. The driveway should be well identified by street number
Thomas D. Church or appropriate entrance sign. It should be considered in relation-
ship to adjacent driveway entrances and nearby landscape features.
It will invite one in with recessive forms, as in a cove or harbor.
In plan layout and site treatment, it will set the theme for all that
lies ahead. Often it will introduce at the gateway the materials
Lack of interest—monotony
and architectural theme that will be used throughout the site
development.
Provide safe access and egress. The driveway entrance is set at a
point which will ensure safe sighting distance up and down the
passing street or roadway. It is not to be located just below a steep
crest or around a sharp curve. Abrupt turning movements are
Outward thrust—repulsion avoided, and, where possible, a glide-in entry with a generous
turning radius is planned. On larger projects a deceleration lane is
often provided if traffic volumes are heavy. A right-angle roadway
entrance connection is best for two-way sighting.
Develop a pleasant transition. We design an attractive space and
theme sequence from driveway throat to building entrance to
parking court and return. The drive width may vary, swelling at
the drive entry, at the curves, and at the forecourt, always sug-
Inward pull—attraction
gesting traffic flow.
We devise a transition from the character of the highway to the
The pull of the harbor. The successful drive character of the project and structure, be it a residence, an apart-
approach and forecourt will suggest a receptive ment tower, a business office, a shopping mall, or a school. We
cove. Usually the most attractive point on the
cove periphery will be the entrance door or
move from the scale of the passing road to the scale of the build-
gate. ing entrance court, from high velocity to repose. At one instant,
for example, a person may be whisking along the trafficway at
whistling speed; two minutes later the same person may be stand-
ing contemplatively at the building entrance. Between the two
conditions are telling changes in mental attitude that must some-
Most residential streets (forced to comply
with rigid subdivision standards) are grossly
how be agreeably resolved. By the design of the driveway, the vis-
oversized and by their width destroy the itor must be prepared for the experience of arrival.
livability so much to be desired. Be logical. The approach should present the driver with a mini-
Increased street width means increased mum number of decisions. It is to be remembered that traffic
speed, hazard, cost, and disruption.
On-street parking is a principal cause of tends to the right but also to the easier fork and to the easier
traffic-related accidents. grade. The pathway should be obvious but restrained. This is to
say that it must read clearly to the driver while intruding as little
as possible on the natural landscape.
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Approach from the right. Since in the United States a car moves in the
right lane of traffic, we have developed taxicab and private car con-
ditioning that tells us, as we near a destination, to chart a course that
will bring the right side of the vehicle toward the building entrance.
This right-curb approach is valid mainly because of two-way streets,
which make pulling to the left curb inconvenient, illegal, or dan-
gerous and usually all three. Where possible, plan a one-way loop.
One-way traffic at a building entrance is always preferable. It is
safer. There is also a psychological advantage, for a driver with right
wheels to the curb feels superior and, for some reason, very clever.
Accommodate the left-hand approach where necessary. On some sites
an approach from the left is the only way possible. If this is planned,
we try to arrange sufficient depth to permit the driver to swing
past the entrance and circle back to achieve the favored position.
If, however, the drive must perforce lead in from the left, we do
what we can to make this feasible by making the point of discharge
obvious, by providing a landing platform opposite the building
entrance, or by planning for discharge within a paved forecourt.
Consider the climatic conditions. The approach court and building
entry are planned for all conditions of weather, darkness, and light.
Visitors are to be protected from storm winds, rain, and glaring
sun. Since paving is hot in the summer and cold in the winter, the
building is not to be planned as an island in a sea of paving. We
avoid the long walk or the long view across paving toward the
building entrance.
Avoid the need for backing. The backing of vehicles near entrance-
ways, especially in areas where children may be congregated or
playing, is to be scrupulously avoided.
Complete Streets
In the mid-twentieth century, the focus of highway and street design in
the United States was on moving automobiles and commercial motor-
ized vehicles from one place to another as quickly as possible. The
unwritten code for other forms of transportation using streets and high-
ways, such as pedestrians and bicycles, was “User beware—use at your
own risk.” Many localities around the country even gave automobiles,
rather than pedestrians, the right-of-way at intersections.
Street, highway, and transportation design had long fallen under the
purview of bureaucrats who were resistant to change, so progress in this
area was slow. However, with renewed interest in more livable commu-
nities and movements such as New Urbanism, Smart Growth, and
Traditional Neighborhood Development, public opinion has brought
about some change in the attitudes of the transportation and engineer-
ing community. Today the design of streets to be used by multiple forms
of transport, including motorized vehicles, bicyclists, and pedestrians, in
a safe, aesthetically pleasing way is known as complete streets.
Beginning in the early 1970s, many state and local governments enacted
laws and regulations that require or encourage complete-street policies.
Such policies are also now encouraged by the U.S. Department of Trans-
portation.
Parking Compounds
Parking compounds provide an essential link between vehicular circu-
lation ways, approach drives, and their termini. They are designed for
the safe and efficient storage of cars. When space and site conditions
permit, they are usually located beyond the building entrance as one
approaches by car. Sometimes, however, they may serve in themselves as
Provide off-street parking. Single and clustered
buildings are benefited by the provision of the approach court to one or more buildings. Whatever the planned
internal parking courts. function, it is to be accommodated and clearly expressed.
Circulation 315
Dirtworks, PC
Consider the handicapped
Reserve stalls of extra width, with depressed
curb, near the destination.
Test all plan possibilities. The siting of parking areas is best achieved
by the study of alternative shapes and flow lines in relation to the
building and topographical features. The most prevalent parking
layouts are easily diagrammed for adaptation and testing.
Approach, pass, and park. Ideally, a driver will approach with the
building to his or her right, discharge the passengers, continue to
the parking space, and return on foot by a pleasant and conven-
ient route to the doorway. Ideally, too, upon departing the driver
would be able to pick up the car and circle back to passengers at
the building entrance.
Screen the parking areas. A direct view from the entrance court into
the parking area is not usually desirable. Except for commercial or
business office projects, a well-placed parking or service compound
is convenient but incidental to and secluded from the building.
Consider multiple use. A parking compound may be located for
shared use by several buildings or activity areas concurrently. Or it
may serve one purpose in daytime and another for evening or off-
peak hours. Parking areas, when not in use for their primary pur-
pose, may also serve other functions such as recreation, assembly,
or temporary storage. Accommodate the vehicle. Since the parking
court is planned for the efficient storage of automobiles, it must be
designed with full understanding of the maneuvering require-
The railroads, ships, and airlines have served their purpose well. Recently,
however, they have experienced increasing problems in their stubborn
insistence, and sometimes forced requirement, that they maintain their
original all-purpose role of moving goods and people concurrently. The
two functions are incompatible. As new forms of conveyance by rail,
water, and air emerge, the carriers will be highly specialized, as will be
their routes, equipment, and terminals. Improved means of transit,
transportation, and distribution will change established concepts of land
use, community, and city and require a whole new planning approach.
Travel by Rail
Passenger travel by rail in its most recent forms is known as rapid transit.
Some types are streamlined versions of the old interurban or commuter
trains. They move on fixed rails on grade, underground, or elevated.
Circulation 317
Some vehicles are equipped with steel wheels, some with wheels that are
coated. All are highly automated and can be computer-controlled. Other
types use linked cars which are suspended from or propelled along a sin-
gle or multiple glideway. All systems have been improved to a point at
which they are light, bright, environmentally sound, and highly efficient.
They can move people in groups from point to point within a region far
more rapidly and at less cost per mile than the passenger car or bus.
Why, then, hasn’t rapid transit been more widely accepted?
First, it does carry many more people to more places each day than is gen-
erally realized. The advanced systems of San Francisco, Toronto, Mon-
treal, and Washington are promising examples, as are the guided systems
of Disneyland and Disney World. Where rapid transit has not succeeded
or has failed to realize its full potential, there are common causes at the
root of the failure. For instance:
The dwellings within the communities served are too widely dispersed.
In the typical single-family-home suburb, it often takes longer to
drive to or be driven to the station than to ride from station to
destination.
The transit connections are not direct. At the downtown end of the
line, the station is often blocks away from the office, shopping, or
cultural centers.
Barry W. Starke, EDA
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Barry W. Starke, EDA
J. Brough Schamp/Wallace Roberts Todd
318 LANDSCAPE
The stations are inadequate. They are often grim. Old railway sta-
tions or other obsolete structures are sometimes converted to the
new use without remodeling or thought for the convenience, com-
fort, or pleasant relaxation of the waiting passengers.
The passing scenery is ugly. Some routes, using the old railroad track-
age or right-of-way, provide the most extensive slumming excur-
sions extant. By established railroad custom, the public must ride
The solution to public transit is the
the same route as the tank cars, flatcars, crated chickens, and bawl-
planning of activity centers to which people ing calves, past the rear doors of the soap factory, junkyard, and
can ride together. slaughterhouse. It is not a good way to attract or hold would-be
commuters.
Travel by Water
When we think of a boat in motion, we think of a smoothly gliding hull,
a curving wake of tumbling water, and dancing light. The course of a
boat, like the water through which it moves, is fluid and undulating.
Having no fixed track or roadway, it curves in wide arcs and must be
Urba-center. A—Multilevel transit terminal.
B—Primary urban activity zone. Terraced
given ample space for maneuvering. Even at rest at its mooring, a boat
pedestrian domain. Movement by elevators, seems mobile. All plan lines relating to boats at rest or in motion should
escalators, and moving walks. C—Supporting suggest this streamlined fluid mobility. In every way possible, smooth
urban activities. Movement by minibus or minirail.
flow should be encouraged and obstructions eliminated. The heavy, the
Decked parking but no surface automobile traffic.
Goods distributed by tubes and beltways from rough, the jagged, the sharp are out of place. They are destructive and
peripheral transport terminals. impeding in fact and disturbing by connotation.
Regional rapid transit. Energy conservation
Being exposed to the elements and the tides, a boat requires for its
(economic necessity) may soon force us to do
what reason so far has not. mooring a sheltered harbor or a protective pier. Harbor and pier pro-
vide such shelter by topography, structure, or a combination of both.
They are points of transition between the water and the land, where the
Circulation 319
mobile and free meet the static. The fact of this meeting might well be
developed and expressed in all plan forms. Indeed, no great stretch of
the imagination is required to understand that any structure related to
water and boatways gains when the full drama of the relationship is
exploited.
A riverside restaurant, if worthy of its site, will orient to the river and its
traffic and display it in all its motion and color. On the landward side, it
will take its form from the features of the land and from the passing walk
or street or highway. On the riverside, it will be shaped to the line of the
river’s flow and to the curve of approaching craft. It is a rewarding expe-
rience to dine in such a waterside restaurant, with its glass-walled dining
room projected and elevated to catch the flowing river view, or at shaded
tables set on a terrace or deck beside the river wall, or at tables spaced out
on the pier beside the bobbing boats and lapping water. In the same way,
with the seaside hotel, the waterfront park, the bridge, the pier, the har-
bor, and the lighthouse, our site plans and structures will express the
land-and-water meeting.
Travel by Air
The view from a plane unfolds a modeled and checkered landscape of
towns, hills, lakes, rivers, valleys, farmland, field, and forest moving slowly
under the wings. We are impressed with the continuity of the landscape.
We sense, perhaps for the first time, that every object in the landscape is
related to the whole. Sight distances are great. Visible areas are enormous.
Objects, to be seen, must be simple, bold, and contrasting in colors or
textures. They are most often read from the air by their shadows. All
essential plan forms or objects requiring recognition from the air, and
especially at the airports and their approaches, must be so emphasized.
An airport should rightly be planned as a port. Here again, in this air har-
bor the land meets an opposite. This meeting and all induced transitions
are to be analyzed and expressed. All current or foreseeable requirements
and characteristics of planes, at rest or in flight, are to be accommo-
dated. Further, the joint use of airfields by cargo and passenger planes
with their varying speeds, needs, and capabilities will no longer be toler-
able. Transport planes will be related to industrial and distribution cen-
ters. Passenger planes and ports will be linked to centers of population
and urban activity. From the surrounding towns and cities new exclusive
or classified approach roads will be necessary, as will a system of strategi-
cally placed air taxi stations. In this light, we can consider an airport pri-
Circulation 321
marily in terms of a continuing and ultimate experience of travel in
which passengers can arrive by car, park, check baggage, and enplane (or,
conversely, arrive by plane, pick up baggage, and leave by car, limousine,
or tramway) in one swift, pleasant, uninterrupted swoop. There are, of
course, many other considerations in the planning of an airport.
Airports require large areas of flat topography or land that can be readily
modified to give long, level runways. Because such areas are often of neces-
sity remote, the tendency of airports is to bring to the spot as many port
facilities as possible. Hotels, theaters, conference rooms, libraries, and even
recreation, amusement, and shopping centers have been planned into
the airports as revenue producers. In the interest of increased efficiency,
all extraneous uses must be limited in the future.
High-speed monorail.
Circulation 323
© D.A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Cable cars traverse steep slopes and rugged terrain.
Integrated Systems
It might be thought that the proliferating assortment of people conveyers
would lead to utter chaos in their weaving in and out, up and down, and
Circulation 325
14
STRUCTURES
Common Denominators
It can be observed that, with few exceptions, at the time of their build-
ing, notable structures:
Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
327
Purpose
We have proposed that the adage, “Form follows function,” is valid only
when it is understood that the term function transcends the delimiting
connotation of “utilitarian.” The term function in the context of expres-
We contemporaries proceed in blithe sive design is comprehensive and includes such considerations as tradi-
disregard of the truths and lessons of tional values, ethics, aesthetic quality, feasibility, acceptability, and fitness.
history. If we, proud spirits that we are must
learn our truth firsthand, there need be no Only if all such requisites are satisfied can it be said of a structure or
problem, for we are surrounded by examples form that it truly fulfills its intended function or purpose.
of the good and the bad and need only
develop a discerning eye to distinguish art
from error. Culture
The culture of a community or nation is an evolving state of being or
A building is a thing in itself. It has a right to communal mind-set. It implies, sometimes overkindly, a certain level of
be there, as it is, and together with nature, a civilization. As such, it is at any given time the manifestation of a peo-
compensation of contrasts.
Marcel Breuer
ple’s beliefs and aspirations—those ideas or things that are acceptable
and those that are not. This cultural litmus test is by custom applied not
only to dress, foods, and works of music, literature, and art—but per-
Architecture subtly and eloquently inserts itself haps most particularly to buildings and other structures.
into the site, absorbing its power to move us
and in return offering to it the symphonic
elements of human geometry. Cultural approbation allows for obvious improvement and some innova-
Le Corbusier tion—but rejects vociferously, and sometimes violently, that which seems
out of place or offensive. This being so, it would follow that the architect,
engineer, or landscape architect in the planning stage might well take
pains to ensure, insofar as possible, public approval and acceptance.
Locality
Masterful structures are an expression of place. They respond to and grow
out of their site. They accentuate its positive qualities. At best, the design of
structures is a highly developed exercise in creative synergy. Sensitive design
reflects, distills, and often makes more dramatic the indigenous landscape
character. It utilizes every favorable aspect of the topography. It is aware of
and braces for the directional winds and storm. It opens out to the breeze
and favorable views. It traces the orbit of the sun. It designs into and com-
poses with the adjacent built environment. The mark of a well-conceived
structure is that it enhances, rather than degrades, its site and surroundings.
Technology
Architecture, engineering, and landscape architecture are at the same
time an art and a science. The art has to do mainly with visual qualities—
craftsmanship, composition, and the appearance of things. Science entails
the organization of structural and mechanical systems and the satisfac-
tion of human needs, all in accordance with the timeless laws and princi-
ples of nature.
Environs
What have these advances contributed to the betterment of our environ-
ment? Not much that is evident. Not yet at least. We can get around
This rage for isolating everything is truly a
modern sickness. faster, build higher, and communicate with the speed of light. But many
Camillo Sitte would hold that the net results of our building in this age of mechanical
marvels has been to trash and grievously pollute not only our immediate
living environment, but the greater continental land masses, the depths
of the seas that surround them, and the atmosphere as well. Clearly, our
technical and structural capabilities have outstripped our ability to envi-
sion and realize a world in which structures are conceived and built in
full awareness of nature’s forms and forces—and in harmony with the
living Earth. A critical change of course is the challenge of our times.
Composition
Composition of structures. When a structure is to We physical planners like to think of ourselves as masters of space orga-
be related to a given area or space, both the nization, yet in truth we are often baffled by the simplest problems of
shape and the character of the area or space
will be affected by the positioning of the spatial arrangement and structural composition. What, for instance, are
structure. the design considerations in relating a building to its surrounding sea of
Structures 329
We need desperately to relearn the art of space or to its fronting approaches, or two buildings facing each other
disposing of buildings to create different kinds across an intervening mall, or a group of structures to each other and the
of space: the quiet, enclosed, isolated, shaded
space; the hustling, bustling space pungent spaces they enclose? Let us start from the beginning.
with vitality; the paved, dignified, vast,
sumptuous, even awe-inspiring space; the
mysterious space, the transition space which Buildings and Spaces
defines, separates and yet joins juxtaposed
spaces of contrasting character. If we were to place a building on a ground plane, for instance, how much
We need sequences of space which arouse space should we allow around it? First, we will want to see it well from
one’s curiosity, give a sense of anticipation, its approaches. The spaces about it should not only be large enough or
which beckon and impel us to rush forward to small enough but also of the right shape and spatial quality to compose
find that releasing space which dominates,
which climaxes and acts as a magnet, and with the structure and best display it. We want to be sure that enough
gives direction. room is allowed to accommodate all the building’s exterior functions,
Paul Rudolph including approaches, parking and service areas, courts, patios, terraces,
recreation areas, or gardens. Such spaces are volumetric expressions of
the site-structure diagram. We want to be certain that the structure and
its surrounding spaces are in toto a complete and balanced composition.
Just as all buildings have purpose, so should the open spaces that they
define or enclose. Such spaces must be clearly related to the character,
mass, and purpose of the structures.
Composition of structures. Often the form of the Often the form of a building itself is not as important as the nature of
structures themselves is not as important as that
of the spaces they enclose. A single structure is the exterior space or spaces that it creates. The portrait painter knows
perceived as an object in space. Two or more that the outline of a figure or the profile of a head is sometimes second-
structures are perceived not alone as objects but ary to the shape of the spaces created between figure or head and the sur-
also as related objects, and they gain or lose
rounding pictorial enframement; it is the relationship of the figure to
much of their significance in the relationship.
the surrounding shapes that gives the figure its essential meaning. So it
is with buildings. Our buildings are to be spaced out in the landscape in
such a way as to permit full and meaningful integration with other
structures and spaces and with the landscape itself.
Groups of Structures
When two or more buildings are related, the buildings, together with
the interrelated spaces, become an architectural entity. In such a situa-
tion, each structure, aside from its primary function has many second-
ary functions in relation to the assemblage.
The buildings are arranged to shape and define exterior volumes in the
best way possible. They may be placed:
As enclosing elements
As screening elements
As backdrop elements
To dominate the landscape
To organize the landscape
To command the landscape
To embrace the landscape
To enframe the landscape
Spatial penetration of structure. To create a new and controlled landscape
Structures 331
ings and interrelated spaces to be of supremely satisfying harmony and
balance; each solid has its void, each building has its satisfying measure
of space, and each interior function has its exterior extension, genera-
tion, or resolution of the function.
In each instance, the most telling dynamic tensions are sought out or
arranged to give maximum meaning to all opposing elements and the total
scheme. Though repose through equilibrium must be the end result, it
is the relationship of the plan elements through which repose is achieved
that is of utmost interest. It is the contrived opposition of elements, the
studied interplay of tensions, and the sensed resolution of these tensions
that, when fully comprehended, are most keenly enjoyed.
In this light, Steen Rasmussen, in his book Towns and Buildings, has
made a revealing graphic comparison of two imperial parks, that of King
Louis XIV at Versailles and the Sea Palace Gardens in Beijing. Both were
completed in the early 1700s, both made use of huge artificial bodies of
water, and both were immense; but there the similarity ends. A close
study of these two diametrically opposed planning approaches, illus-
trated here, will lead one to a fuller understanding of the philosophy of
both occidental and oriental planning in this period of history.
Many Renaissance squares, parks, and palaces are little more than dull
geometry seen in the round. One clear, strong voice crying out against
such puerile design was that of Camillo Sitte, a Viennese architect whose
writings on city building first appeared in 1889 and whose ideas are still
valid and compelling today. It was Sitte who pointed out that pre-
Renaissance people used their public spaces and that these spaces and
the buildings around them were planned together to satisfy the use. There
were market squares, religious squares, ducal squares, civic squares, and
others of many varieties; and each, from inception through the numer-
ous changes of time, maintained its own distinctive quality. These public
places were never symmetrical, nor were they entered by wide, axial streets
that would have destroyed their essential attribute of enclosure. Rather,
1
Versailles Park. From Painting with Starch by Walter Beck (Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1956).
Structures 333
they were asymmetrical; they were entered by narrow, winding ways.
Each building or object within the space was planned to and for the space
and the streams of pedestrian traffic that would converge and merge there.
The centers of such spaces were left open; the monuments, fountains, and
sculpture that were so much a part of them were placed on islands in the
traffic pattern, off building corners, against blank walls, and beside the
entryways, each positioned with infinite care in relation to surfaces,
masses, and space. Seldom were such objects set on axis with the approach
to a building or its entrance, for it was felt that they would detract from
the full appreciation of the architecture. Conversely, it was felt that the
axis of a building was seldom a proper background for a work of art.
Rules of Composition
Down through the centuries, much thought has been given to the estab-
lishment of fixed formulas or rules that might govern building propor-
The location of the equestrian statue of tions, or the relationship of one building to another, or the relationship
Gattamelata by Donatello in front of Saint of a building to its surrounding volumetric enclosure.
Anthony of Padua is most instructive. First we
may be astonished at its great variance from
our rigid modern system, but it is quickly and
There have long been those who believe that mathematics is the all-
strikingly seen that the monument in this place pervading basis of our world of matter, growth, and order. To them, it has
produces a majestic effect. Finally we become followed naturally that order, beauty, and even truth are functions of math-
convinced that removed to the center of the ematical law and proportion. The golden rectangle, for example, has long
square its effect would be greatly diminished.
We cease to wonder at its orientation and been a favorite of mathematicians, perhaps because of the fact that if a unit
other locational advantages once this principle square is subtracted from each ever-diminishing rectangle, a golden rec-
becomes familiar. tangle each time remains. This “ideal” rectilinear shape (whose sides have
The ancient Egyptians understood this a ratio of 1:1.618, or roughly 3:5) has appeared again and again, in plan
principle, for as Gattamelata and the little
stand beside the entrance to the Cathedral of and in elevation, in the structures and formed spaces of the western world.
Padua, the obelisks and the statues of the
Pharaohs are aligned beside the temple doors. Miloutine Borissavlievitch, in his absorbing work, The Golden Number,
There is the entire secret that we refuse to
decipher today.
has explored its application to architectural composition. He proposes
Camillo Sitte that although the golden rectangle considered by itself is, both philosoph-
ically and aesthetically, the most beautiful among all horizontal rectangles,
“when considered as a part of a whole, it is neither more beautiful nor
unattractive than any other rectangle. Because a whole is ruled by the laws
of harmony, by the ratios between the parts and not by a single part con-
sidered by itself.” He notes that “Order is indeed the greatest and most
general of esthetic laws,” and then suggests that there are only two laws of
architectural harmony: the law of the same and the law of the similar.2
2
Though Borissavlievitch is speaking here only of proportions, it is to be noted that the
laws of the same and the similar apply as well to materials, colors, textures, and symbols.
Ravenna
Salzburg
Verona
Nuremberg
Modena
Strasbourg
Verona Cologne
Perugia
Geneva
Gattamelata
Lucca
Amiens Padua
Borissavlievitch notes that “whilst the Law of the Same represents unity
(or harmony) in uniformity, the Law of the Similar represents unity in
variety.” He wisely notes also that “an artist will create beautiful works
only in obeying unconsciously one of these two laws. Whilst we create,
we do not think about them, and we follow only our imagination and
our artistic feeling. But when our sketch is made, we look at it and
examine it as if we were its first spectator and not its creator, and if it is
successful we shall know, because of our knowledge of these laws why it
is successful; if it is not, we shall know the reason of the failure.”
Structures 335
planning. He noted that starting with units 1 and 2, if each new digit is
made the sum of the previous two, there results a progression of 1, 2, 3,
5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so forth, which, translated into plan forms and
rhythms, is visually pleasing. It was later discovered that the progression
approximates the growth sequence of plants and other organisms; this,
of course, added to its interest and confirmed in the minds of designers
the notion that this progression is “natural” and “organic.”
Marcus Vitruvius, a Roman architect and scholar who lived in the first
century before Christ, set out to formulate a system of proportion that
he could apply to his plans and structures. In his search he undertook an
exhaustive study of the architecture and planning of ancient Greece. In
Leonardo da Vinci the course of his work he produced a book setting forth his findings and
expounding his theories on the anthropomorphic module, a unit of mea-
surement based on the proportions of the human body. This was to have
a profound effect on the thinking and planning of the Renaissance.
Leonardo da Vinci, the creative giant of his time, analyzed and tabulated
his own system of mean proportions of the component parts of the
human figure in relation to its total height and then derived a table of
classic proportions and ratios from which he developed for each project
a suitable modular system. As architect-engineer-sculptor-painter, he
translated his findings into all his works and through them demon-
strated to posterity his conviction that, to achieve order and beautiful
proportion in any work, the major masses or lines and the smallest detail
must have a consistent mathematical relationship.
The conviction that architecture is a science and that each part of a build-
ing has to be integrated into one and the same system of mathematical
Vitruvian Man: A study by Leonardo da Vinci ratios may be called the basic axiom of Renaissance architects. Today, we
from one of his notebooks illustrating his physical planners are still searching for the modular system most appli-
principle, “The span of the man’s outstanding cable to our contemporary work. One of the distinguishing marks of
arms is equal to his height.”
Japanese planning and architecture is a fundamental order, or mathe-
matical relationship, of the elements. This stems, at least in part; from
the use of the tatami, or woven grass mat (approximately 3 by 6 feet), as
a standardized unit of measurement. Traditionally, a modular grid sys-
tem based upon this unit has been the foundation of most building
plans and surrounding spaces. By this system, a room is a given number
of mats in length and width, and a building plan is so many mats in area.
In their planning, the Japanese make use also of the 12-foot dimension,
The Vitruvian figure inscribed in a circle and which is divisible by 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6.
square became a symbol of the mathematical
sympathy between macrocosm and microcosm.
Rudolph Wittkower
If a unit such as a closet or a case requires less than the full module, it is
not distorted to fill the module; rather, it is set free within the module
and composed within the modular framework. The fact that an object is
smaller or larger than the module is not concealed but is artistically
revealed and elucidated. This approach would seem to be clearly superior
to our American modular systems by which components are designed
As with structural forms and objects, nature has much to teach us, as
well, in the plan layout of our homes and cities. We have yet to see an
axial anthill or a symmetrical plan arrangement of a beaver colony. The
creatures of the wild have learned to fit their habitations to the natural
land conformation, to established patterns of water flow, to the force and
direction of the winds, and to the orbit of the sun. Should not we be as
responsive?
Composition of structures. The number of polar Yet we have all seen towers with expanses of metal and heat-absorbing
relationships increases arithmetically with the glass focused into the rays of the sun. We are all too familiar with broad
addition of each unit to a complex of structures.
Since each new unit modifies the composition,
avenues aligned to receive, unchecked, the full blast of prevailing winter
its relationship to all other units is a matter of winds. We recall groupings of campus buildings which have completely
design and planning concern. destroyed the natural character of the hills and ravines upon which they
have been imposed. We know of checkerboard communities laid out in
utter disdain of contours, watercourses, or wooded slopes, or geology,
storm, or view.
Structures 337
If there be a lesson, it is this: Architecture by formula and site planning by
sterile geometry are equally doomed to failure.
A factory and its receiving and shipping yards are designed to and with
the railroad. A roadside restaurant is planned as one with the highway in
terms of landscape character, sight distances, approaches, resolution of
momentums, and composition of spaces and forms.
Some buildings are static. They stand aloof and are complete in them-
selves. Such structures are no doubt valid when the intended architectural
expression is that of detachment, grandeur, the austere, or the monumen-
tal. They require that their setting and site development be in keeping.
Various compositional arrangements of A defined outdoor volume is a well of space. Its very hollowness is its
apartment structures. essential quality. Without the corresponding void, a solid has no mean-
Structures 339
Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
City of Vancouver
Belt Collins
ing. Is it not then quite evident that the size, shape, and quality of the
negative space will have a powerful retroactive effect upon the adjacent
positive masses? Each structure requires for its fullest expression a satis-
fying balance of mass and void. The same void may not only satisfy two
or more solids and relate them to each other, it may also relate them as a
group to some further structures or spaces beyond.
The defined space, open to the sky, has the obvious advantages of flood-
ing sunlight, shadow patterns, airiness, sky color, and the beauty of mov-
ing clouds. It has disadvantages, too, but we need only plan to minimize
The defined open space is normally developed for some use. It may
extend the function of a structure, as the motor court extends the
entrance hall or as the dining court extends the dining room or kitchen.
It may serve a separate function in itself, as does a recreation court in a
dormitory grouping or a military parade ground flanked by barracks.
But whether or not it is directly related to its structure in use, it must be
(1) Sanded ground, (2) moss, (3) stone, (4) earth in character. Such spaces, be they patios, courts, or public squares,
wall, (5) tile pavement, (6) ornamental gate, become so dominant and focal in most architectural groupings that the
and (7) veranda. very essence of the adjacent structures is distilled and captured there.
Habitations
What does a dwelling want to be? Shelter? Family activity center? Base
of operations? All three, no doubt, and each of these functions is to be
expressed and facilitated. But in its fullest sense a habitation is much
Structures 341
more. It is our human fix on the planet Earth, our earthly abode. Once
accepted, this simple philosophic concept has far-reaching implications.
In the planning of their homes and gardens, Asians not only adapt them
with great artistry to the natural landscape but also consciously root
them in nature. Constructed of materials derived from the earth (with
varying degrees of tooling and refinement), these homes and gardens are
humanized extensions of earth form and structure and are fully attuned
to the natural processes. Like the nest of the bird or the beaver’s lodge,
they are nature particularized.
Dwelling-Nature Relationships
It is proposed that each human habitation is best conceived as an inte-
gral component of the natural site and landscape environs. The extent to
which this can be accomplished is a measure of the dwelling’s success
and the occupant’s sense of fitness and well-being.
Explore and analyze the site. Just as the bird or the animal scouts
the territory for the optimum situation, just as the farmer surveys
the holding and lays out fields and buildings to conform to the lay
of the land, just so must the planner of each home and garden
Tom Lamb, Lamb Studio
Shelter
The contemporary home, like all before it, is first of all a refuge from the
storm. With the advent of sophisticated heating devices, climate controls,
diversified construction materials, and ingenious structural systems, the
concept of shelter had been brought to a new high level of refinement.
But architecturally this basic function of shelter is to be served and given
clear expression.
Structures 343
Protection
This implies safety from all forms of danger, not only from the elements
but from fire, flood, and intruders as well. Although the nature of poten-
tial threats has changed through the centuries, our instincts have not.
Safety must be implicit.
Today, an ever-present hazard is that of the moving vehicle with its back-
ings and turnings. It does not belong within our living areas and should
not be admitted. The automobile should be stabled within its own ser-
Primitive. Shelter is main consideration. vice area or compound.
Utility
Each dwelling should be a lucid statement of the various purposes to be
served. Not only is each use to be accommodated, it is to be conveniently
related to all others. And what are these uses? They are those of food
Greco-Roman. Protection and privacy are preparation, dining, entertaining, sleeping, and (perhaps) child rearing.
of prime value. These uses are supplemented by the library, correspondence corner,
workshop, laundry . . . and supported by storage spaces, mechanical
equipment, and waste disposal systems. Often, much of the home enter-
tainment and relaxation takes place on the balcony, lawn, or terrace. The
outdoor spaces also provide healthful exercise and satisfy our agricultural
yearnings. Even the pot of chives or the parsley bed has its important
symbolic meaning.
Utility connotes “a place for everything, and everything in its place,” all
Renaissance. Each structure is an idealized
working well together. While a home is far more than a machine for liv-
object in space. ing, it must function efficiently.
Amenity
It is not enough that a dwelling works well. It must also be attractive and
pleasant. It must satisfy the human bent for display and our love of beau-
tiful objects. Beauty is not, however, to be confused with decoration,
ornamentation, or the elaborate. True beauty is most often discerned in
that which is utterly simple and unpretentious—a well-formed clay pot,
a simple carpet of blended wools, handsomely fitted and finished wood,
cut slate, handcrafted silver—always just the right form, material, and
finish to serve the specific purpose, always the understatement, for less is
Oriental. Nature is revered, privacy is demanded;
structures are related to lot and total landscape.
truly more.
Evolution of a way of life. In considering dwellings and display, mention should be made of the
tokonoma of the traditional Japanese home. Constructed of natural
materials of elegant simplicity, the tokonoma is a place reserved for the
sharing of beautiful objects. These objets d’art are selected from storage
cabinets or gathered from the garden or site and brought out, a few at
most at one time, to mark the season or a special occasion. They may
include hangings, paintings, a bowl, sculpture, or a vase or tray to receive
a floral arrangement. Our Western homes and gardens and their displays
could well be distinguished by such artistry and restraint.
Privacy
In a world of hustle and hassle, we all need, sometimes desperately, a
Spring rides no horses place of quiet retreat. It need not be large—a space in the home or gar-
Down the hill den set apart from normal activities where one can share the enjoyment
But comes on foot
A goosegirl still of reading, music, or conversation or turn for quiet introspection. It is
And all the loveliest very human to feel the need for one’s own private space.
Things there be
Come simply,
So, it seems to me. A Sense of Spaciousness
Edna St. Vincent Millay
Just as we feel the need to retreat, we feel also upon occasion the need for
expansive freedom. With dwelling and neighborhoods becoming more
and more constricted, such spaciousness inside property limits is almost
a rarity. But we can learn from those cultures in which people have lived
for centuries in forced compression that space can be “borrowed.”
Structures 345
within the walled garden or court the ultimate spaciousness can be expe-
rienced by the featured viewing of the sky and clouds and the evening
The earth is our home and the ways of constellations. It is no happenstance that in crowded Japan a favorite
nature our paths to understanding. spot on the garden terrace is that reserved for the viewing of the moon.
Nature Appreciation
Deeply ingrained in all of us is an instinctive feeling for the outdoors—
for soil, stone, water, and the living things of the earth. We need to be
near them, to observe and to touch them. We need to maintain a close
relationship with nature, to dwell amid natural features and surround-
ings, and to bring nature into our homes and into our lives.
It has been theorized that, ideally, each home and garden should be con-
ceived as the universe in microcosm. If this idea seems abstruse, let it
pass. Perhaps in time, upon further reflection, you may find it to have
deep meaning.
Residential Components
Existing Site Features
Often a residential site is selected because of some outstanding attribute.
Future American-trend home. Total use of site as
living space. Privacy regained. Indoor-outdoor
It may be a venerable oak or an aspen grove. It may be a spring, a pond,
integration. Natural elements introduced. or a ledge of rock. It may be an outstanding view. All too often those
Compact home-garden units grouped amid things most admired when the site was acquired are ignored or lost in
open park and recreation areas which preserve construction. It only makes sense that such distinctive features be pre-
natural-landscape features.
served and dramatized in the homestead planning.
The Dwelling
The dwelling itself is a structural framework for living the good, full life.
In some cases, the good life may be confined to the walled enclosure of
a residence standing proud, aloof, and self-contained. Other homes may
open outward, serving as a multifaceted viewing box and staging base for
a host of outdoor activities.
Structures 347
Outdoor activity areas can be:
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Decks may be stepped.
Bordering the patio or terrace may be the game court or lawn, cultivated
garden, or natural vegetation. The cultivated garden may be no more
than a scattering of selected shrubs, clumps of iris, a swath of crocus and
narcissus, a bed of lilies, or patch of native grasses. It may consist of a
specimen evergreen or a flowering crab apple in a planter with an edging
of myrtle or ivy. It could be no more than a square of tulips within an
area of paving or a raised bed of peonies surrounded by gravel mulch. A
Decks may be interconnected
tubbed fig tree. A cactus garden. Or an extensive outlay of well-tended
by bridges or steps. borders and beds.
The service court border is a convenient location for the kitchen garden
and for the entryway to a possible greenhouse, potting shed, or vegetable
garden. Here, if there are screen walls, arbor, or fencing, is an opportune
place for the growing of flowering vines or grapes or such espaliered
fruits as oranges, lemons, pears, figs, peaches, or apples.
The deletion of one or more modular units Service courts often double as a paved recreation area, with net-post sock-
provides space for post and bench settings,
ets, line markings, and perhaps a basketball backstop. At one side there
pools, plant bins, plants, etc.
may be a gated entry to the children’s play space, with swings and play
equipment—overseen, if possible, from the adjacent kitchen windows.
Supplementary Structures
As noted, many site-related spaces can be planned into the dwelling or
attached thereto by extension. Again, a garage, guesthouse, or studio
may be detached and designed as an architectural counterpoint. So, too,
with the smaller workshop or toolshed. Supplementary structures may
be intentionally varied in character—more related to the site than to the
domicile, and suited particularly to the intended use. Such might be
Belt Collins
Modular paving units vary widely in size and
type.
Barry W. Starke, EDA
Structures 349
poolside dressing rooms or an overlook shelter. Sometimes, living quar-
ters are incorporated in a recreation structure such as a weekend ski
lodge or a boathouse with its related slips and dock.
Furnishings
No homestead is complete without its outdoor equipment and furnish-
ings. A well-organized storage wall or shed complete with maintenance
machinery and tools is a must.
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Variations on a Theme
When in our planning we ignore the natural processes or violate the
land, we must live with the distressing consequences. When, however,
we truly design our structures and living spaces in response to the forces,
forms, and features of the host landscape, the lives of the occupants will
be infused with a sense of well-being and pleasure.
The accompanying photographic examples have been selected to illus-
trate the means by which homes and gardens may be planned together,
in harmony with their site and landscape environs—and responsive to
the needs and desires of the users.
Structures 351
15
LANDSCAPE
PLANTING
W hen the settlers beached their rough landing boats on our eastern
shores, they brought with them the carefully tended seeds, roots,
and cuttings of our first gardens. Our gardens now stretch from sea to
sea. For most Americans, the love of plants and gardening is inherent.
Purpose
Many involved in land planning think of plants as no more than horticul-
tural adjuncts to be arranged around construction projects which are oth-
erwise complete. Nothing could be further from the truth. Vegetation and
existing ground cover are in fact one of the primary considerations in the
selection and planning of most properties. To a large extent they establish
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
353
the site character. They hold the soils, modify the climate, provide wind-
break and screen, and often define the conformation of use areas.
Plants in the landscape are either those existing in their natural habitat
or those which have been introduced. Since established plants by the
very fact of their existence have proved themselves to be suited to the
site, it would seem logical to preserve them, at least until the need for
their removal has been thoughtfully determined. Persons who have had
occasion to replace vegetation, often carelessly destroyed, know the
problems and costs involved.
When, however, new plantings are prescribed, they are to be given care-
ful consideration, for a single inappropriate plant can alter or destroy the
visual quality of a landscape or disrupt its ecological balance.
Process
Each and every plant installed should serve a predetermined purpose. It
is to be selected as the best of the available alternatives to suit the specific
growing conditions and the precise design requirements, for planting
design of excellence is a blending of science and art.
Windscreen.
Base Map
For overall landscape planting, as for a residential site, school ground, or
hospital, a base plan at the scale of 1 inch to 10 feet, 20 feet, or 30 feet
is recommended, with 1 inch to 40 feet as a maximum. For detailed or
limited areas, as for a flower bed or kitchen garden, a scale of 1 inch to
1 or 2 feet may be more workable. The plan should bear the owner’s
name and address, graphic scale, date, and a fairly accurate north point.
It should also show building outlines, fenestrations, and any such topo-
Overhead space definition and canopy. graphical features as walls, fences, lampposts, driveways, walks, or other
paved areas, and existing plants to remain.
Plant Selection
With a print of the base map in hand, one is ready for plant listing and
allocation. As a start, it is suggested that the first plan be a rough study,
Enframement.
with notes, diagrams, and a tentative listing of plant types desired. Even
in this first trial listing one should have in mind the characteristics of
each plant considered—its shape, height, spread, foliage, color and tex-
ture, season of bloom and fruiting, and so forth. Essential, too, is a gen-
eral knowledge of its cultural requirements, including its hardiness,
preferred soil type, acidity range, and moisture content; its tolerance for
Backdrop. sun, shade, and exposure; or its need for protection.
Installation
With or without a planting concept in mind, if the initial installation is
to be sizable it is usually wise to call upon the services of an experienced
professional gardener or landscape architect for a detailed layout. There
Shade. are then several courses of action. The owner may do the planting at his
or her leisure, or it may be installed in one or more phases by a gardener
or selected landscape contractor. If the installation is to be let out to bid,
as in sizable operations, a complete set of plans, details, specifications,
and bidding documents will be needed.
Preserve the existing vegetation. Streets, buildings, and areas of use are to
be fitted amid the natural growth insofar as practicable. The landscape
continuity and scenic quality will thus be assured; the cost of site instal-
Scale induction.
lation and maintenance will be reduced; and the structures, paved sur-
faces, and lawns will be richer by contrast.
Select each plant to serve its intended function. Experienced designers first
prepare a rough conceptual planting diagram to aid in making detailed
plant selections. The diagram is usually in the form of an overlay to the
site construction drawings. On it are sketched out, area by area, the out-
lines, arrows, and notes to describe what the planting is to achieve, as for
example:
The more complete the conceptual diagram and notes, the easier the
plant selection, and the better the final results.
Use canopy trees to unify the site. They are the most visible. They provide
the dominant neighborhood character and identity. They provide sun
filter and shade and soften architectural lines. They provide the spatial
roof or ceiling.
Treat vines as nets and draperies. Various types can be planted to stabilize
slopes and dunes, to cool exposed walls, or to provide a cascade of foliage
and blossoms over walls and fences.
Install ground covers on the base plane to retain soils and soil moisture, define
paths and use areas, and provide turf where required. They are the car-
pets of the ground plane.
In all extensive tree plantings, select a theme tree, from three to five support-
ing secondary trees, and a limited palette of supplementary species for special
conditions and effects. This procedure helps to assure a planting of sim-
plicity and strength.
Choose as the dominant theme tree a type that is indigenous, moderately fast-
growing, and able to thrive with little care. These are planted in groups,
swaths, and groves to provide the grand arboreal framework and overall
site organization.
Exotic species are to be limited to areas of high refinement. They are best
used only in those situations in which they may receive intensive care
Avoid regular spacing—or the placement of
and will not detract from the natural scene.
more than two trees in a line. Distances depend
upon tree types and whether free-standing
specimen or an inter-laced canopy is desired. Use trees to sheathe the trafficways. An effective design approach is to
plant the arterial roads or circulation drives with random groupings of
trees selected from the secondary list. Local streets, loop drives, and cul-
NEW PLANTING INSTALLATIONS de-sacs are transitioned in, but each is given its own particular character
with supplementary trees (and other plants) best suited to the use, the
topography, and the architecture.
Background. Shadow.
Barry W. Starke, EDA
Texture. Form.
© D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
The geometric spacing of canopy trees creates
spacious architectural rooms. This is more
appropriate in level, geometric courtyards of
civic-monumental character.
Keep the sight lines clear at roadway intersections. Avoid the use of shrubs
and low-branching trees within the sighting zones.
Close or compress the plantings where the ground forms or structures impinge.
This sequential opening and closing and increasing or decreasing the
height, density, and width of the planting along any route of movement
give added richness and power to the landscape.
Expand the roadside plantings. Where space is limited, the initial land-
Create a harbor-like entrance portal to each scape plantings and often site construction may occur outside the right-
neighborhood. of-way. A landscape or planting easement may be required.
Provide shade and interest along the paths and bikeways. If made attrac-
tive, they will be used.
Plants combined with mounding can hide
parking and service areas. Conceal parking, storage, and other service areas. Trees, hedges, or looser
shrubs may be used alone or in combination with mounding, walls, or
fencing to provide visual control.
Combine planting with earth shaping to create Use plants as space definers. They are admirably suited to enclose, sub-
landscape interest. divide, and otherwise articulate the various functional spaces of the site
Plants are well used to accentuate land forms A similar listing is made for shrubs, vines, and ground covers. Together they should
and intensify landscape power. constitute a compatible family of plants expressive of the site character desired.
and the passageways that connect them. They convert use areas into use
spaces. By their associative nature and their color, texture, and form,
they can endow each space with qualities appropriate to the use or uses
intended.
Plants used for backdrop, screening, shade, or space definition are gen-
erally selected for strength, cleanliness of form, richness of texture, and
subtlety of color. Plants to be featured are selected for their sculptural
In mass plantings emphasize the points with
dominant plants and make the bay recede.
qualities and for ornamental twigging, budding, foliage, flowers, and
fruit.
Advances
Within the past few years landscape planting at all levels has undergone
a remarkable change. This is a direct reflection of several cultural transi-
tions such as:
Strengthen the building closures and trafficway • A general change in the American lifestyle from the ostentatious to
modes with trees of more structural character. the casual, from the formal to the informal
All of these trends have led to a reduction in the size of lawn and garden
areas. One appealing result has been the expanding practice of container
gardening. Instead of cultivated garden beds, the trend is now toward
planted containers—ceramic pots, either free standing or in window
boxes, raised stone bins, planters, or hanging baskets.
• They require less time, effort, and expense for installation and upkeep.
• Far less irrigation is needed.
• The floral display can be placed at strategic accent points (e.g.,
patios, entrances, or pathway intersections).
• Many floral or foliage containers can be taken indoors for table or
window display and appreciation.
Mayer/Reed
Miller Company
Container plantings.
Once-barren city streets, now tree-lined, have come alive with plants
and floral color. There may be fewer plants than in the traditional pub-
lic gardens, but they are placed where they count.
With less area and time for gardening, the once-familiar vegetable plot
in urban areas is now nearly a thing of the past. For one thing, it is hard
to surpass or equal the quality of commercially grown vegetables so
temptingly displayed in our markets. Also, it is usually hard for the
homeowner to find space to plant even a row of lettuce. Containers
planted with parsley, thyme, and other herbs are welcome attributes
beside the kitchen door.
Our lawn areas are also shrinking. Not only has their maintenance
become an extravagance and a chore—the use of our diminishing sup-
ply of freshwater for irrigation has come into question. Even when the
use of treated wastewater for irrigation has been made mandatory, it is
predicted that in time the broad sweeps of lawn (an American phenom-
enon) will become a rarity.
There are three favored alternatives to the mowed lawn. The first is
paving or more construction—which is reasonable only if it serves a good
Native, or indigenous, plants are those purpose. The second is the so-called Xeriscape treatment—using plants
growing naturally on the site and that require little if any irrigation. Such plants, ranging from cacti to a
historically characteristic of the region.
wide selection of tough perennials or ornamental grasses, may be supple-
Naturalized plants are those introduced mented with mulches of gravel, shells, chips, or bark to create remarkably
accidentally or by intent that have attractive compositions. A third alternative to the mowed lawn is the pre-
accommodated themselves to the growing served natural setting, with or without minor modification. In suburban
conditions and become part of the local
scene. or rural settings with thriving natural growth this is often much to be
preferred. It is relatively maintenance-free, and it is less expensive to
Exotic plants are those foreign to the natural establish. It “belongs” to the site and is obviously compatible. It provides
site and locality.
refreshing coolness in summer and a welcome windbreak in winter.
In all these ways and more will the landscape plantings of the future differ.
Green roofs.
Bioswales are used in areas where water is moving across the surface of a
site after being collected from, say, a parking lot to a bioretention area or
stormwater management pond. The plants in the swale physically slow
the flow of the water, which causes sediments to settle out as plant roots
absorb pollutants.
Bioretention areas are generally basins that receive and hold runoff. They
are designed to hold and slowly release runoff into the groundwater
while filtering it in the process. Here, the landscape plantings serve as fil-
ters, absorb pollutants, and enhance wildlife habitat.
Rain gardens perform the same function as bioretention areas, but they
generally operate on a smaller scale.
Rain garden.
1
A system of architectural and design instruction that held almost complete sway over
American schools from the beginning of the century to the early 1940s.
Christo and Jeanne-Claude. The Gates, Central Park,
New York City, 1979–2005. Photo: Wolfgang Volz.
Copyright Christo and Jeanne-Claude 2005.
367
A fervor almost religious in quality seemed to sweep the school. As if
cleansing the temple of idols, Dean Hudnut ordered the Hall of Casts
cleared of every vestige of the once sacred columns and pediment. The
egg-and-dart frieze was carted away. The holy Corinthian capital was rel-
egated to the cobwebs and mold of the basement. We half expected some
sign of God’s wrath. But the wrath did not come, and the enlightenment
continued. The stodgy Hall of Casts became an exciting exhibit hall.
We soon came to realize that new forms in themselves weren’t the answer.
A form, we decided wisely, is not the essence of the plan; it is rather the
shell or body that takes its shape and substance from the plan function.
The nautilus shell, for instance, is, in the abstract, a form of great beauty,
but its true intrinsic meaning can be comprehended only in terms of the
living nautilus. To adapt the lyric lines of this chambered mollusk to a
schematic plan parti came to seem to us as false as the recently highly
respectable and generally touted practice of adapting the plan diagram
of say, the Villa Medici of Florence to a Long Island country club.
We determined that it was not borrowed forms we must seek, but a cre-
ative planning philosophy. From such a philosophy, we reasoned, our
plan forms would evolve spontaneously. The quest for a new philosophy
is no mean quest. It proved as arduous as had been that for new and
more meaningful forms. My particular path of endeavor led in a search
through history for timeless planning principles. I would sift out the
common denominators of all great landscape planning. At last, I felt
sure, I was on the right track.
Like good Christians who, in their day-by-day living are confronted with
a moral problem and wonder, “What would Christ do if he were here?”
I often find myself wondering at some obscure crossroads of planning
theory, “What would Repton say to that?” or “Kublai Khan, old master,
what would you do with this one?”
But back to our landscape classes and our student revolution. Sure that
we had found a better way, we broke with the axis. According to Japan-
ese mythology, when the sacred golden phoenix dies, a young phoenix
rises full-blown from its ashes. We had killed the golden phoenix, with
some attending ceremony, and confidently expected its young to rise,
strong-winged, from the carnage. We had never checked the mytholog-
ical timing. But we found that, in our own instance, the happening was
not immediate.
Like the old lama of Kipling’s Kim, I set out once again to wander in
search of fundamentals, this time with a fellow student.2 Our journey
2
Lester A. Collins, later chairman of Harvard’s department of landscape architecture.
Perspective 369
took us through Japan, Korea, China, Burma, Bali, and India and up into
Tibet. From harbor to palace to pagoda we explored, always attempting
to reduce to planning basics the marvelous things we saw.
This consuming search for the central theme of all great planning was
like that of the old lama in his search for truth. Always we felt its presence
to some degree, but it was never clearly revealed. What were these plan-
ners really seeking to accomplish? How did they define their task? How
did they go about it? Finally, wiser, humbled, but still unsatisfied, we
returned to America to establish our small offices and be about our work.
Insights
Years later, one warm and bright October afternoon I was leaning com-
fortably in the smooth crotch of a fallen chestnut tree, hunting gray and
fox squirrels, the timeless sport of the dreamer. My outpost commanded
a lazy sunlit hollow of white oak and hemlock. The motionless air was
soft and lightly fragrant with hay fern. Close by, beyond a clump of dog-
wood still purple with foliage and laced with scarlet seed pips, I could
hear the squirrels searching for acorns in the dry, fallen leaves. An old
familiar tingling went through me, a sense of supreme well-being and an
indefinable something more.
I half recalled that the same sensation had swept through me years ago,
when I first looked across the city of Peking, one dusky evening from the
Drum Tower at the North Gate. In Japan it had come again in the gar-
dens of the Katsura Detached Palace, overlooking the quiet water of its
pine-clouded pond. And again I recalled this same sensation when I had
moved along the wooden-slatted promenade above the courtyard garden
of Ryoanji, with its beautifully spaced stone composition in a panel of
raked gravel simulating the sea.
Now what could it be, I wondered, that was common to these far-off
places and the woodlot where I sat? And all at once it came to me!
The soul-stirring secret of Ryoanji lay not in its plan composition but in
what one experienced there. The idyllic charm of the Silver Pavilion was
sensed without consciousness of contrived plan forms or shapes. The
pleasurable impact of the place lay solely in the responses it evoked. The
most exhilarating impacts of magnificent Peking came often in those
places where no plan layout was evident.
What must count, then, is not primarily the designed shape, spaces, and
Architecture is again in transition. This time forms. What counts is the experience! The fact of this discovery was for
in a knee-jerk reaction to the bombastic
excesses of later postmodernism to a time of me, in a flash, the key to understanding Le Corbusier’s power as a plan-
searching introspection. A turning from ning theorist. For his ideas, often expressed in a few scrawled lines, dealt
buildings conceived principally as design not so much with masses or form as with experience creation. Such plan-
objects to simpler, less pretentious, and ning is not adapted from the crystal. It is crystalline. It is not adapted
more humane structures. From those
designed to dominate their sites to those from the organism. It is truly organic. To me, this simple revelation was
fitted compatibly to ground forms, drainage like staring up a shaft of sunlight into the blinding incandescence of
patterns, vegetation, and the arc of the pure truth.
sun. From showpiece mechanisms to
environment-friendly, indoor-outdoor
habitations conducive to living the good, With time, this lesson of insight (perception and deduction) becomes
full life. increasingly clear. One plans not places, or spaces, or things; one plans
experiences—first, the defined use or experience, then the empathetic
design of those forms and qualities conceived to achieve the desired
Perspective 371
results. The places, spaces, or objects are shaped with the utmost direct-
ness to best serve and express the function, to best yield the experience
planned.
In landscape planning the trend veered abruptly away from the formal-
ism of the European Renaissance—to one of respect for topographical
form and features. Hillocks, ravines, and wooded slopes were left intact
to be admired—as were rock outcroppings, springs, streams, dunes, and
tidal estuaries. It seemed a near return to Olmstedian times, with echoes
of Thoreau. One could hear Aldo Leopold calling.
It may well be time for another revolt, this time with an environmental
thrust and an ecological spin. A time when once again “form follows
function,” but in which the context of “function” is expanded to include
the accommodation of all human needs and aspirations.
Viva la revolution!
Perspective 373
Tom Fox, SWA Group
A garden, perhaps the highest, most difficult art form, is best conceived
as a series of planned relationships of human to human, human to struc-
ture, and human to some facet or facets of nature, such as the lichen-
encrusted tree bole of an ancient ginkgo tree, a sprightly sun-flecked
magnolia clump, a trickle of water, a foaming cascade, a pool, a collec-
tion of rare tree peonies, or a New Hampshire upland meadow view.
The design approach then is not essentially a search for form, not prima-
rily an application of principles. The true design approach stems from
the realization that a plan has meaning only to people for whom it is
planned, and only to the degree to which it brings facility, accommoda-
tion, and delight to their senses. It is a creation of optimum relationships
resulting in a total experience.
Unplanned experience.
In the final analysis, in even the most highly developed areas or details
one can never plan or control the transient nuances, the happy acci-
For to live, wholly to live, is the manifest
consummation of existence. dents, the minute variables of anything experienced; for most things
Louis H. Sullivan sensed are unpredictable and often hold their very interest and value in
this quality of unpredictability. In watching, for instance, an open fire,
one senses the licking flame, the glowing coal, the evanescent ash, the
Perspective 375
spewing gas, the writhing smoke, the soft splutterings, the sharp crackle,
and the dancing lights and shadows. One cannot control these innumer-
able perceptions that, in their composite, produce the total experience.
One can only, for a given circumstance or for a given function, plan a
pattern of harmonious relationships, the optimum framework, the max-
imum opportunity.
Fitness implies the use of the right material, the right shape, the right
size, and the right volumetric enframement. Convenience implies facil-
ity of movement, lack of friction, comfort, safety, and reward. Order
implies a logical sequence and a rational arrangement of the parts.
All planning of and within the landscape should seek the optimum rela-
tionship between people and their living environment and thus, per se,
the creation of a paradise on earth. Doubtless this will never be fully
accomplished. Humans are, sadly, too human. Moreover, because the
very nature of nature is change, such planning would be continuing,
without possible completion, without end. And so it must be. But we
may learn from history that the completion is not the ultimate goal. The
goal for all physical planners is an enlightened planning approach. Again,
for instruction on this point, we may turn to the wisdom of the East.
Because of the dynamic nature of their philosophies, the Zen and Taoist
conceptions of perfection lay more stress upon the process through which
perfection is sought than upon perfection itself. The Zen and Taoist art
of life lies in a constant and studied readjustment to nature and one’s
surroundings, the art of self-realization, the art of “being in the world.”
It is believed that the lifetime goal and work of the landscape architect is
to help bring people, the things they build, their communities, their
cities—and thus their lives—into harmony with the living Earth.
John O. Simonds
January 1, 2005
H. Landshoff
Nautilus.
Perspective 377
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Retrospective
John Ormsbee Simonds 1913–2005
Kitty Bartell
B orn in Jamestown, North Dakota, in 1913, John Simonds was the
fourth of five sons of a circuit-riding minister, the Reverend Guy Wal-
lace Simon, and his wife, Marguerite Ormsbee Simon. Recalling the
words he heard at his father’s knee, John learned the principle that would
guide him throughout his life: “Son, the most important thing in life is to
leave the world a better place because you have traveled through it.” Years
later, John would reflect, “In trying, I’ve come to believe that no other
profession affords a better opportunity than landscape architecture.”
In 1920, at age seven, John moved with his family to Lansing, Michigan.
On graduation from high school, urged by the owner of a nursery for
whom he had worked during the summers, John enrolled in Michigan
State University to study landscape architecture. In his junior year he
learned, from a missionary friend, of the possibility of temporary work
with the British North Borneo Timber Company. Fascinated from child-
hood by stories of the “wild men” of Borneo, John made a bold, almost
unheard-of step for a young man of only 20 years. Taking leave from his
studies, he traveled by steamer on a solo trip around the world. The jour-
ney would turn out to be a career-defining experience and confirmation
that travel should be a cornerstone of a landscape architect’s education.
With a bus ticket to Seattle, a third-class passage on the Dollar Line, and
$200, he headed for Borneo. The route of the voyage included brief
stops in Shanghai, Tokyo, and Yokohama. He would write in his journal,
November 12, 1933: “Japan is a garden! Beautiful! I must come back.”
In Borneo, “work” would have required of him a three-year contract.
However, he decided to remain there until his money ran out. Through
a chance meeting with a young native man, John was virtually adopted
by the family and experienced the life of Borneo, not the life of the
British planters. He titled his unpublished memoir of those months
“Headhunters and Cannibals I Have Known.”
After six months, money gone, he reluctantly headed for home, this
time as a common seaman on the Dollar Line. A kindly bosun helped
him to jump ship in Italy, where he acquired a bicycle and pedaled his
way from Naples to Florence. He enjoyed the people, the scenery, the art
and sculpture, and the wine but was not overly impressed by the classi-
379
cal architecture. He arrived in New York in September in time for his
final year at school.
He knew well that he wanted and needed more study, and application to
the Harvard Graduate School of Design brought a scholarship that
made it possible. Thus it was that he joined Garrett Eckbo, Dan Kiley,
and James Rose in the class of ’39, often dubbed the class of “modernist
rebels.” It was a time when the old paradigms of the profession no longer
answered the needs at hand. In 1991, John amusingly recalled the
period in a letter to Stuart Dawson:
These were the deep Depression years. If ever there was a flock of
poor little lambs who had lost their way, it was we, our friend Gar-
rett Eckbo among us. (The coming of apostles Haag, Halprin,
and Saint Hideo had been foretold by the constellations—but
they had yet to make their appearance.) As students of landscape
architecture, we had strayed off the glittering Beaux Arts avenue
and the imperious Renaissance axis. We were lost in the thorny
underbrush somewhere between Haffner Woods, Walden Pond,
and the Bauhaus.
380 Retrospective
of World War II in Europe. They returned home by the way they had
come.
Faced with the decision of making his start in the practice of his profes-
sion, John recalled a conversation with Harvard Dean Hudnut. When
the dean had asked him where he might be considering “setting up
shop,” John had told him that he had a possible residential job or two in
Pittsburgh, where his elder brother lived, but he really liked the Pacific
Northwest. The dean’s advice: “John, in the Pacific Northwest, God will
be your competition; in Pittsburgh you are needed.” So off to Pittsburgh
it was, where his younger brother, Philip, who had completed engineer-
ing studies at Harvard, joined him to form the firm of Simonds and
Simonds (later to become The Environmental Planning and Design
Partnership.) As with many landscape architects of the day, the early
focus was on military housing, which was soon replaced by larger
municipal projects and revitalization. As the firm grew, John and Philip
together, convinced of the benefits of travel, gave each of the key staff
members one month off each year expressly for that purpose.
In 1942 John met his bride-to-be, Marjorie Todd. Filled with fond
memories, Marj recalled the circumstances of their meeting: “We had a
mutual friend, Paul Johnston, who kept saying, ‘John, you’ve got to
meet Marj Todd’ and ‘Marj, you’ve got to meet J. O. Simonds.’ One
Sunday afternoon I thought I had a date with Paul, who drove up in his
convertible. Another girl was in the front seat and John in the back. The
rest is history.” They married the next spring and went on to raise four
children, sharing life together for 63 years. In Marj’s words: “For all
those years, he taught me design and I taught him music and how to
dance. John was a devoted father and family man and never neglected
his family for his work.”
During the next 20 years, John’s work and influence would expand rap-
idly with projects ranging from the Chicago Botanical Garden (one of
John’s favorite designs) to major new communities and new towns in
Florida. Concerned with the degradation of the environment by insensi-
tive and poorly planned growth, John became a pioneer in conservation-
oriented communities, creating places for human habitats that were
indeed compatible with the environment. He led the early way in creat-
ing multidisciplinary teams to solve the complex problems of bringing
people and the land together while protecting and enhancing resources.
In 1965, John was commissioned by the legislature of the Common-
wealth of Virginia to lead a multidisciplinary team in the creation of a
statewide environmental protection plan and to draft legislation to
implement the plan. Virginia’s Common Wealth, as the plan is titled, was
cutting-edge environmental planning of its day and is still in use.
Although John was not an avant-garde designer and form was not
his focus, the need for good-quality design was firmly implanted in
Retrospective 381
his philosophy and methodology. John believed “form must take its
shape from the planned experience, rather than the experience from
the preconceived form. . . . The living, pulsing, vital experience, if
conceived as a diagram of harmonious relationships, will develop its
own expressive forms. And the forms evolved will be as organic as the
shell of the nautilus; and perhaps, if the plan is successful, they may
be as beautiful.”
In view of all his other activities, John was a remarkably prolific writer.
His writing talents extended not only to landscape architecture, but he
wrote extensively about his travels and his time in the Civilian Conser-
vation Corps, about humor, and he even plied his hand successfully to
children’s books. His professional publications, including the classic text
Landscape Architecture, have shaped generations of landscape architects.
Marj Simonds said John wrote Landscape Architecture because “he felt
compelled to get the word out about the comprehensive profession of
landscape architecture.” She recalled that while spending summers on
Lake Charlevoix in Michigan, John would set aside several hours a day,
drive to a remote wooded spot on the lake, and write. Landscape Archi-
tecture was first published in 1961, and many believe it was his crown-
ing professional achievement.
John was a man of great presence but also one of the most unpreten-
tious, selfless, and self-effacing people one could ever meet. He always
had great respect for his peers and treated them with admiration and the
utmost courtesy, even though he might not agree with their view or
direction. In a letter to Landscape Architecture magazine following the
death of his former classmate Dan Kiley in 2004, John wrote:
John loved children and loved to help shape their lives and futures. He was
a mentor and teacher of people of all ages, including not just landscape
382 Retrospective
architects, but people from all walks of life. John taught site planning at
Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh for over 12 years and was the
mentor of scores of landscape architects, architects, and planners through-
out his career.
It was enough to realize what the profession and the ASLA have
become. To be so honored for my dedication to the drive is more
than could be imagined. You must know the glow of such an
honor.
Retrospective 383
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Project Credits
Position on page is indicated as follows: T = top; B = bottom; M = middle; L = left; R = right.
Page and
Position Project Location Landscape Architect/Designer
12 Banyan Tree Bintan Resort Bintan Island, Indonesia Belt Collins
17 South San Francisco Bay Salt Pond San Francisco, California AECOM
Restoration
24 Traditions, a Festival Marketplace Budaghers, New Mexico Design Workshop
25 Casa Morada Islamorada, Florida Raymond Jungles, FASLA
26 Anchorage Museum Common Anchorage, Alaska Charles Anderson, Atelier, PS
27 Pennsylvania Residence St. Davids, Pennsylvania Stephen Stimson Associates, Landscape
Architects, Inc.
28 Miami Beach Botanical Garden Miami Beach, Florida Raymond Jungles, FASLA
29 The Gateway to the McDowell Sonoran Scottsdale, Arizona Phil Weddle, AIA, Weddle Gilmore Architects
Preserve and Christopher Brown, FASLA, JJR|Floor
30 TR Fiesta Americana Grand Los Cabos Resort Los Cabos, Baja California, Mexico EDSA
30 TL Park Avenue Redevelopment South Lake Tahoe, California Design Workshop
31 Jamison Square Portland, Oregon PWP Landscape Architecture
32 Tanner Fountain, Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts PWP Landscape Architecture
34 Village of Woodbridge Irvine, California SWA Group
34 ML Gap Headquarters, Embarcadero Building San Francisco, California OLIN
34 MR Stanford University Stanford, California SWA Group
34 BL Folk Art Park Atlanta, Georgia Robinson Fisher Associates
34 BR Creekfront Denver, Colorado Wenk Associates, Inc.
35 ALL Civic Plaza Reno, Nevada PWP Landscape Architecture
41 T Montage Resort and Spa Laguna Beach, California Burton Landscape Architecture Studio
42 B Tianjin Qiaoyuan Wetland Park Tianjin, China Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
43 Surry County Waterfront Access Study Surry County, Virginia Earth Design Associates, Inc.
48 Glenlyon Foreshore Wetland Burnaby, British Columbia Phillips Faarevaag Smallenberg
49 Rio Grande Botanic Gardens Albuquerque, New Mexico Design Workshop
51 The Red Ribbon Park Qinhuangdao, Hebei Province, China Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
52 Buffalo Bayou Promenade Houston, Texas SWA Group
53 R Holon Park Holon, Israel M. Paul Friedberg
54 TL Star River Panyu (Guangzhou), China Belt Collins
54 TR The Rain Garden, Oregon Convention Silverton, Oregon Mayer/Reed
Center Expansion
54 ML Star River Panyu (Guangzhou), China Belt Collins
54 MR North Shore Riverfront Park Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania AECOM
54 BL Water Culture Square in Dujiang Yan, Sichuan Province, China Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
Sichuan Province
55 Maymont Japanese Garden Richmond, Virginia Earth Design Associates, Inc.
56–57 Private Residence Grand Tetons; Jackson, Wyoming Design Workshop
58 The Gateway to the McDowell Sonoran Scottsdale, Arizona Christopher Brown, FASLA, JJR|Floor and Phil
Preserve Weddle, AIA, Weddle Gilmore Architects
65 River Islands San Joaquin Valley, Lathrop,
California SWA Group
66 Menomonee River Valley Industrial Center Milwaukee, Wisconsin Wenk Associates
and Community Park
68 Les Jardins de l’Imaginaire Terrasson-Lavilledieu, France Kathryn Gustafson, Jennifer Guthrie and
Shannon Nichol, Gustafson Guthrie
Nichol Ltd.
385
Page and
Position Project Location Landscape Architect/Designer
69 Deck Overlook, Compton Park Alexandria, Louisiana Moore Planning Group, LLC
70 T Landscape Restoration Plan for Menomonee Menomonee Valley Landscapes of Place
Valley Phase II
70 B Woodland Home Sherborn, Massachusetts Stephen Stimson Associates, Landscape
Architects, Inc.
73 ALL The Regeneration/ Yongsan Park Seoul, Korea United LAB
74–75 Clark County Wetlands Las Vegas, Nevada Design Workshop
76 TR Private Residence Aspen, Colorado Design Workshop
76 BL Buttercup Meadow, Crosby Arboretum Picayune, Mississippi Andropogon Associates, Ltd.
80 Santa Barbara Botanical Garden Santa Barbara, California Dr. Frederic Clements
83 BL Southport Broadwater Parklands Gold Coast, Australia AECOM
84 Daybreak Community South Jordan, Utah Design Workshop
84 TL Gary Comer Youth Center Chicago, Illinois Hoerr Schaudt
84 BL Shengyang Jianzhu University Campus Shengyang, China Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
85 Atlanta City of the Future Atlanta, Georgia AECOM, and Praxis3 Architecture
86–87 Private Residence Aspen, Colorado Design Workshop
88 Tupelo Farm Albemarle County, Virginia Nelson Byrd Woltz Landscape Architects
91 Private Residence Aspen, Colorado Design Workshop
93 George “Doc” Cavalliere Park Scottsdale, Arizona Christopher Brown, FASLA, JJR|Floor
95 TL Ashley Farm Delaplane, Virginia Earth Design Associates, Inc.
95 BR Haven Meadows North Haven, New York Hollander Design
98 Extending the Legacy: Planning America’s Washington, DC Pierre Charles L’Enfant, Original Design,
Capital for the 21st Century National Capital Planning Commission,
AECOM
105 R Campus Plan, University of California, Berkeley, California Sasaki Associates, Inc.
Berkeley
107 Forest Park and Central Section of Olympic Beijing, China Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
Park, Beijing City
121 Pinecote Pavilion, Crosby Arboretum Picayune, Mississippi Andropogon Associates, Ltd./Fay Jones,
Architect
123 Salginatobel Bridge Schiers, Switzerland Robert Maillart, Architect
124 Fallingwater Bear Run, Pennsylvania Frank Lloyd Wright, Architect
125 L Overtown Pedestrian Mall Miama, Florida Wallace Roberts Todd, LLC
125 R Campus Green, University of Cincinnati Cincinnati, Ohio Hargreaves Associates
127 T Hither Lane East Hampton, New York Reed Hilderbrand
127 B Rancho Viejo Santa Fe, New Mexico Design Workshop
130–131 Little Nell Aspen, Colorado Design Workshop
133 Growth Planning for Beijing Beijing, China Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
134 Baldwin Hills Mia Lehrer + Associates
136 The Qian’an Sanlihe Greenway Qian’an Hebei Province, China Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
139 Cedar Lake Park Minneapolis, Minnesota Jones & Jones Architects & Landscape
Architects, Ltd., Richard Haag Associates,
Affiliated Designers, Master Plan Phase;
Darrel Morrison, FASLA, Sub-Consultant,
native plant design, master plan phase; Kestrel
Landscape Architects, post-construction
prairie grassland establishment
142–143 Shady Canyon Irvine, California SWA Group
149 The Woodlands Athens, Georgia Robinson Fisher Associates
151 Refugio Valley Community Park Hercules, California SWA Group
152 Pelican Bay Cluster Development Collier County, Florida EPD
153 Shady Canyon Irvine, California SWA Group
154 Villages of West Palm Beach West Palm Beach, Florida EPD
155 ALL Villages of West Palm Beach West Palm Beach, Florida EPD
156 Villages of West Palm Beach West Palm Beach, Florida EPD
157 Villages of West Palm Beach West Palm Beach, Florida EPD
160 TL Arbolera de Vida Redevelopment Albuquerque, New Mexico Design Workshop
160 BL Seibert Circle Vail, Colorado Design Workshop
391
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New York, 1984. Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1990. Va., 1990.
Little, Charles E.: Challenge of the Land: Open MacKaye, Benton: The New Exploration: A Phi-
Space Preservation, Pergamon Press, New York, Robinette, Gary O.: Water Conservation in Land-
losophy of Regional Planning, University of Illi- scape Design and Management, Van Nostrand
1969. nois Press, Urbana, Ill., 1962. Reinhold, New York, 1984.
Moore, Colleen Grogan: PUD’s In Practice, Mertes, James D., and James R. Hall: Park,
Urban Land Institute, Washington, D.C., Van Sweden, James: Gardening With Water, Ran-
Recreation Open Space, and Greenway Guide- dom House, New York, 1995.
1985. lines, National Park and Recreation Associa-
Smart, Eric: Making Infill Projects Work, Urban tion in cooperation with the American Walker, Peter, William Johnson, and Partners:
Land Institute and Lincoln Institute of Land Academy for Park and Recreation Administra- Art and Nature, Process Architecture Co.,
Policy, Washington, D.C., 1985. tion, Washington, D.C., 1996. Tokyo, 1994.
Terrene Institute (and U.S. EPA): Local Ordi- Simonds, John Ormsbee: Garden Cities 21: Zion, Robert: Landscape Architecture, Process
nances: A User’s Guide, Terrene Institute, Creating a Livable Urban Environment, Architecture Co., Tokyo, 1994.
Washington, D.C., 1995. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994.
Whyte, William H.: Cluster Development, Ameri- Spirn, Anne Whiston: The Granite Garden,
can Conservation Association, New York, 1964. Urban Nature and Human Design, Basic Other Publications:
Books, New York, 1984.
(Bookstore catalogs available)
Spreiregen, Paul D.: Urban Design: The Architec-
4. Urban and Regional ture of Town and Cities, McGraw-Hill, New American Institute of Architects
Form York, 1965. 1735 New York Avenue, N.W.
Whittick, Arnold (ed.): Encyclopedia of Urban Washington, DC 20006
Urban and regional patterns and form Planning, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974. American Planning Association
receive attention in these references on land Whyte, William H., Jr.: Rediscovering the Center 122 S. Michigan Ave.
use, transportation, recreation, and resource City, Doubleday, New York, 1990. Suite 1600
planning. Chicago, IL 60603
American Society of Landscape Architects
Arendt, Randall: Rural By Design: Maintaining
Small Town Character, Planners’ Press,
5. Site Planning 4401 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20008
Chicago, 1994. Among the many excellent source books
Community Builders Handbook Series
Bacon, Edmund N.: Design of Cities, rev. ed., on site and landscape planning and
Urban Land Institute
Viking Press, New York, 1974. design, the following provide a working 625 Indiana Avenue, N.W.
Breen, Ann, and Dick Rigby: The New Water- introduction. Washington, DC 20004-2930
front: A Worldwide Urban Success Story, Process Architecture Publications
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996. Brown, Karen M., and Curtis Charles: Computers
in the Professional Practice of Design, McGraw- Process Architecture Publishing Co., Ltd.
Calthorpe, Peter: The Next American Metropolis: Hill, New York, 1995. 1-47-2-418 Sasazuka,
Ecology, Community, and the American Dream, Shibuya-Ku
Princeton Architectural Press, New York, Church, Thomas D., et al.: Gardens Are for Peo- Tokyo, Japan
1993. ple, 3d ed., University of California Press,
Berkeley, Calif., 1995. Sierra Club Books
Collins, Richard C., Elizabeth B. Waters, and A. 2034 Fillmore St.
Bruce Dotson: America’s Downtowns: Growth, Collins, Lester A.: Innisfree, An American Garden, San Francisco, CA 94115
Politics and Preservation, Preservation Press, Sagapress/Harry Abrams, New York, 1994.
Sunset Magazine: Sunset Gardening and Outdoor
The National Trust for Historic Preservation, Crowe, Sylvia: Garden Design, Antique Collec- Books publish an enduring series of excellent
Washington, D.C., 1990. tors Club, Wappingers Falls, N.Y., 1994. paperback publications relating particularly to
Harr, Charles M.: Land Use Planning: A Case- Dattner, Richard: Civil Architecture: The New residential landscape design.
book on the Use, Misuse, and Reuse of Urban Public Infrastructure, McGraw-Hill, New York, Lane Publishing Company
Land, Little, Brown, Boston, 1976. 1994. Menlo Park, CA 94025
394 Bibliography
Index
Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations; page numbers in boldface refer to pull-quote authors.
Abbot’s Garden of Nikko (Japan), 265 Amusement park design, 269– 270 Automobiles (Cont.):
Acid rain, 138 Animals. See also Wildlife in rural site design, 238
Activity centers: biosphere as home to, 13 traffic flow planning for, 307, 309–311,
at airports, 322 climate change impact on, 36, 37 310, 311
entrance plantings for, 359 environment needed by, 3 Axis:
in planned communities, 150, 176 in food chain, 77 asymmetric, 108
plans developed for, 174 human dominion over, 2 characteristics of, 95–98
public transit for, 319, 325 invasive species of, 82–83 design function of, 94, 99, 99–100,
in regional plans, 188 Anthropomorphic module, 336 100, 101, 333, 368
in urban revitalization plans, 171–172, Approaches: examples of, 95, 96, 98
206 to airports, 321
Adams, Henry, 198 to buildings, 330
Afforestation, 84 design of, 302–303, 311–314, 312–314 Back-to-the-city movement, 207
Agriculture. See also Farmland landscape plantings at, 359, 359 Bacon, Edmund N., 181
advent of, 20, 81 parking and, 315, 316 Balance, as design principle, 104–106, 332
expansion of, 47 for planned communities, 159, 184 Balconies:
impact of, 81–82 at Rockefeller Center, 261 for sloped sites, 240
irrigation for, 11, 40, 43, 44–45 Aquifer replenishment, 46, 76, 77 for urban residences, 199
land planning for, 61 Arc de Triomphe (Paris, France), 96, 96 Base map:
land restoration for, 45 Ardrey, Robert, 14 for landscape planting, 354
pollution from, 138 Aristotle, 6, 196, 235 in site planning, 225
rectilinear survey of fields in, 63 Arlington National Cemetery, 270 Base plane:
urban, 84, 84 Asia. See also China; Japan articulated by vertical plane, 284, 285, 286
Air pollution: approaches designed in, 302–303 characteristics of, 272–275, 272–275
control of, 169 cities in, 196 coloration of, 268
as global warming factor, 36, 36, 37 nature-based design in, 342, 344 of exterior volumes, 272
health effects of, 138 spatial design in, 271, 332 functions of, 275
urban forestry and, 85 Assessments (land), 138 pedestrian traffic on, 305, 306
Airplanes: Asymmetry, 104–110, 333–334, 369 plantings to define, 355, 357, 361
freight versus passenger, 317, 321 Atlanta Station (Atlanta, GA), 66 in site space design, 259, 260, 260
travel via, 321–322 Atmosphere (Earth), 37 Bauer, Catherine, 214
Airports: Atomic power: Bauhaus, 367, 372
amenities at, 322 civic action against, 134 Beauty:
transport at, 323 control of, 3 versus decoration, 344
Alaska Purchase, 62 waste from, 138 experience of, 376
Alaska Statehood Act of 1958, 62 Attiret, Jean Denis, 108, 110 form/function in, 267, 268
Alberti, Leon Battista, 267 Automobiles: harmony and, 113, 114
Allegheny Conference of Western cultural focus on, 180, 314 human need for, 5, 120
Pennsylvania, 135 driveways/approaches for, 311–314 mathematical basis of, 334
Altitude, 33, 33 as hazard, 344 of natural forms, 337
American Conservation Foundation, 135 land planning impacted by, 207–208, symmetry and, 101, 103
American Society of Landscape Architects 308–309 in urban design, 186
(ASLA), 383 parking for (see Parking) wabi quality in, 236–237
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), in planned communities, 146, 149, 149 Beaux Arts system, 367, 367n
208 proliferation of, 148, 307 Beck, Walter, 332, 333n
395
Bedroom communities, 161 Building materials: Champs-Élysée (Paris, France), 96, 96–97
Beijing (Peking), China, 99–100, 108, in Asian architecture, 342 Checkerboard plans, 250, 250
109, 371 for highway structures, 311 Chicago Botanic Garden, 117, 381
Bel Geddes, Norman, 307, 309 in integrated design, 256 Ch’ien-lung (emperor of China), 108
Belluschi, Pietro, 97 for pedestrian paths, 305 China, 6, 9, 99–100, 108, 109, 116, 371.
Bench mark (topographic), 67, 68 in rural site design, 238 See also specific locations and sites
Benét, Stephen Vincent, 4 in spatial design, 271–272 Church, Thomas D., 312, 346
Bergmann, Karen, 275 technology in, 329 Churchill, Henry S., 181, 198
Berry, Wendell, 180 in urban site design, 236 Circulation patterns. See also Roadways;
Bigger, Frederick, 307 for vertical enclosures, 279 Traffic; Transportation
Bikeways: Building orientation: for air travel, 321–322
in community planning, 151, 159, 161 landscape character and, 117 for automobiles, 307–317
on complete streets, 315 microclimate and, 31–32, 33, 33, 35 for bicycles (see Bikeways)
along greenways, 172 street frontage and, 145, 148, 159, 174, to connect structures, 338, 339
in integrated design, 253 176 design importance of, 289–290
location of, 313 Building site. See Site impelled motion in, 290–295
in neighborhood plans, 182 Buildings. See also Structures landscape planting and, 355, 355, 357,
plantings along, 358, 360 as sculptural elements, 281 358, 358, 359, 360
as safety measure, 138, 139 solitary versus grouped, 339 multimodal transport and, 323–325
on site analysis map, 224 Built environment: for pedestrians, 303–306 (see also
use of, 324 design elements for, 120–129 Walkways)
Bioengineering, 79 suitability of site/surroundings, for railways, 317–319
Biology, 12 120–121, 180 route design in, 296
Bioretention, 252, 365 Burbank, Luther, 79 sequence in, 299–303
Biosphere: Burchard, John Ely, 96 space modulation in, 296–299
components of, 13 Bus trains, 323 for water travel, 319–321
overconsumption and, 21 Buses, 323–324 Cities:
plant function in, 80 asymmetric plans in, 108–109
Bioswales, 252, 365 axial plans in, 96–98
Blue Ridge Parkway (VA), 267 Cable cars, 324, 324 components of, 198–207
Blueways, in regional plans, 190, 190–191 Campuses, walkways on, 303 contemporary planning for, 196–198
Boat travel, 319–321 Canals: defined, 184
A Book of Tea (Okakura), 90 cities along, 321 design of, 208–210
Borissavlievitch, Miloutine, 334, 334n, repurposing of, 50 experience of, 375
335 traffic in, 303 forestry in, 85
Botanical gardens, 80, 80, 117, 201, 381 in transportation network, 58 gardening in, 84, 236, 237
Botany, 12–13, 78–79 Canopy trees, 356, 357, 358 land use issues and, 170
Bowie, Henry P., 228 Carbohydrate production, 77 microclimate in, 85, 234, 235
Braun, Ernest, 13n Carbon dioxide, atmospheric, 36, 77, 138, open space in, 172
Breuer, Marcel, 328, 367 363 placement of, 117
Bridge design, 51–52, 122–123, 123, 311 Carnegie Mellon University, 383 population density of, 143–144
British North Borneo (Sabah), 17 Carrying capacity: regional planning for, 184–186, 188
Bronowski, Jacob, 108, 229 of land, 64, 132, 191, 192 relationship with surroundings,
Brownfields, 66 of roadways, 310 179–180
Brundtland Commission (UN), 18 Cars. See Automobiles revitalization of, 139, 171, 171
Buckshot plans, 250, 250 Carson, Rachel, 8 site development for, 234–237
Buffers: Cascades: spatial design of, 260
in community planning, 159 foliage, 357 traffic in, 187, 207–208
vegetation as, 77 water, 53, 53, 55, 241 vitality of, 195–196, 211
Building codes: Casey Trees, 85 along waterfronts, 321
in comprehensive plan, 221 Cavagnaro, David E., 13n Civic action:
disabilities and, 208 Cemetery design, 270, 270–271 antinuclear demonstration as, 134
enforcement of, 176–177 Central business district (CBD), 185, city beautification as, 209
as site analysis data, 224 198–201, 201, 208, 210 in environmental planning, 192
urban, 185 Central Park (New York City), 199, 281 function of, 135
396 Index
Civic action (Cont.): Computer (Cont.): Crosby Arboretum (Picayune, MS), 121
proposed antiwar, 140–141 in structural design, 329 Cross-pollination, 79
in urban planning, 184 visualization produced by, 232 Crowe, Sylvia, 181
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), 139, Computer-Aided Design (CAD), 233, 331 Crystalline form, 103
380, 382 Conceptual plan: Cul-de-sacs, 146, 182, 313, 358
Civilization, dawn of, 19–20, 81, 133 as collaborative, 226, 226 Cullen, Gordon, 275
Clark, Kenneth, 3 example, 228 Culverts, 311
Clawson, Marion, 62 function of, 233 Cyclones, 139
Clay, Grady, 115 for landscape planting, 356
Climate: process for, 227
defined, 23 site-structure diagram in, 226–227, 227 Dams, 51
as design factor, 139, 238, 342–343 three-dimensional translation of, 259 Dawson, Stuart, 380
elements of, 23–24 Conference facilities, 161 Decks:
human responses to, 24, 25 Conservancies, 167. See also Preserves residential, 348–350
microclimate, 34 Conservation: for sloped sites, 240
social imprint of, 26 credo for, 132 Decomposition process, 11
vegetation effect on, 77, 360 defined, 61 Deduction, defined, 2
Climate change, 36–37, 138, 167, as environmental issue, 141 Deer, as invasive species, 83
363 green roofs in, 363 Deforestation, 136, 137, 144
Climatic regions, 25–29 jurisdictions for, 60 Deserts, 137
Cluster housing, 180–181 in PCD community planning, 152, 153 Design. See also Planning
Cold climatic region, 25, 26, 33 regional planning for, 188 asymmetry in, 104–110, 333–334
Collins, Lester A., 369n, 380 of water, 48, 190 axis in, 94–100, 108
Color: Conservation easements, 135, 135–136 climate change as factor in, 36–37
contrasts in, 123 Consumption, excessive, 21. See also for climatic region, 25–29
of roadways, 310 Sustainability conditioned perception in, 299–300
in spatial design, 268–269, 271 Container gardening, 362, 362 cyclical nature of, 373, 373
Colorado River, 45 Contours: defined, 214
Community. See also Planned communities mapping of, 67, 67–68, 68, 70, 70 for disadvantaged, 139
culture of, 328 roadways following, 273, 313 dynamic tension in, 332
evolving forms of, 144 site design based on, 238–241, 342 end result of, 376
as human necessity, 143 Cool-temperate climatic region, 25, 27 form and function in, 267, 328, 337,
social activities in, 161 Cooling: 344, 367, 373
urban spaces for, 186, 236 controlling, 33–35 microclimatic factors in, 30–35
Community gardens, 84, 84 evaporative, 32, 32, 35, 77, 137, 235 in nature, 9
Commuting: natural versus mechanical, 33 objectives of, 6
electric cart for, 324 plantings used in, 357, 363 symmetry in, 100–104
via rapid transit, 317 Corbusier, Le, 123, 328, 371, 372 as three-dimensional, 259, 333
suburban development and, 207 Corridor spaces, 195–196, 197, 268 Design review board, 162
Compass and chain survey, 70 Counties, in regional planning, 189 Developers, in planning, 174–175
Complete streets, 315, 314–315 Court of the Concubine (Beijing, China), Development. See also Planned unit
Composition: 297–299 development (PUD)
buildings/spaces in, 329–330 Court of the Lions, the Alhambra (Spain), in community planning, 152–153
for groups of structures, 330–334 101, 101 ecological balance and, 15
rules for, 334–337 Courtyards: growth management and, 164–169, 172
Comprehensive land planning: privacy afforded by, 236, 237, 243, 278 of hill form, 116
approach to, 228–229 in site plan integration, 250 lawn irrigation and, 45
conceptual plan in, 226–227 space allowed for, 330 overall impact of, 80–81
example, 220 as street frontage alternative, 144, 145, planning for, 59, 133
function of, 220–222 180 pollution from, 138
impact assessment in, 229–231 structurally defined, 341 of reclaimed sites, 66, 202
site analysis in, 222–225, 226 in urban design plans, 260 in regional planning, 188–189
Computer: Cowan, Stuart, 4, 7, 11 along rivers, 320–321
for plan documentation, 225 Croplands, irrigation of, 11, 40. See also suburban, 144
as planning tool, 231–233 Agriculture transfer of rights to, 158
Index 397
Development (Cont.): Earthquakes, 139–140 Environment (Cont.):
unrestrained, 5, 5, 8, 58, 166, 170, 175 Easements: care for, 353
water management and, 46, 46, 47, 49 conservation, 135, 135–136, 152 dynamic nature of, 6
Development guideline manual, 163 for landscape plantings, 359, 360 ecology as study of, 13
Disabilities, accommodating, 208, 296, in survey specification, 71 human relationship to, 376
315 for utility line placement, 146 interdependence of life forms in, 14
Disease, climate effects on, 24 Eastern versus Western philosophies: organic growth in, 107
Disneyland, 318 on approach to planning, 376 Environmental impact assessment:
Disney World, 318 on beauty, 17 checklist for, 230
Distance, as design factor, 296, 305–306 on composition, 333 in comprehensive plan, 229–231
DNA: on nature, 17 in regional plan, 191
bioengineering of, 79 Eckbo, Garrett, 180, 215, 260, 380, 382 Environmental Impact Statement (EIS),
human programming by, 20 Ecology: 229, 231
Documents: as basis of life, 13–15 Environmental issues, 132. See also
for community development plans, 163 damage to, 82, 83 Pollution
for comprehensive site plans, 225 in landscape architecture practice, 13 civic action to confront, 135
Drainage: landscape plantings in, 354 climate as, 139
as design consideration, 252, 274 principles of, 61 in community planning, 162, 163, 166
natural, preserving, 342 around water bodies, 50 conservation as, 141
along roadways, 310 water resource management in, 45 conservation easements as, 135–136
as site selection factor, 40 Economy: freshwater depletion as, 136–137
Driveway: climate effects on, 24 growth management in, 133, 167,
as accessway, 308 as planning factor, 220 168–169
for city site, 235 unity of rural and urban, 180 natural disasters as, 139–140, 140
entrance to (see Approaches) urban revitalization and, 172 regional planning and, 133–134, 186,
opening on trafficway, 145, 174 Egypt, 278 188
Drought, 44, 48 Eiseley, Loren, 41 safety as, 138–139
Dubos, René, 5 Elder, Henry, 373 in site analysis, 224
Dudok, Willem, 263 Electric carts, 324 soil loss as, 137–138
Dwellings. See also Residences Elevations: in structural design, 329
cultural design changes in, 180 in design for level sites, 242 transfer of development rights in, 158
functions of, 341, 347 in surveying, 67, 68, 70, 71 war as, 140–141
ideal features of, 343–346, 344 Emergency vehicle access, 317 Environmental Planning and Design
locations of, 143 Eminent domain, 202 Partnership, 381
nature integrated with, 342–343 Employment: Environmentalists, 153
in reclaimed developments, 202 in inner cities, 202, 203 Erosion:
water resources as consideration location of, 161, 200, 206 as growth management issue, 167
for, 45 sedentary nature of, 147 rectilinear land survey and, 64
Dynamic repose, 332 Energy: as regional planning issue, 190
in community planning, 145, 146, 166 as spatial design consideration, 272
consumption of, 33, 35, 364 topsoil loss from, 60, 60–61, 137,
Earth: hydroelectric, 51 137–138
atmospheric composition of, 37 from sun (radiant), 24 vegetative protection against, 45,
biomass of, 61, 77 Enframement: 75–76, 77, 77, 311, 357
carbon dioxide enveloping, 138 clarity of form and, 283 Escalators, 322, 323
climatic regions of, 25–29 of highway views, 310 Europe:
ecology of, 13–15 via landscape plantings, 354, 357, 359 cities in, 196, 246
habitations on, 342 as outward-directed, 280 climate change addressed by, 37
human relationship to, 2, 132, 168, 377 privacy and, 278 Renaissance landscape design in,
oxygen production on, 12, 77, 85 from structures, 341 109–110
place in the universe, 15 in unified landscape view, 89, 89–90, Evaporative cooling (evapotranspiration),
relationship with sun, 24 92, 92, 286, 330 32, 32, 35, 77, 137, 235
surface variations on, 67 Entrances. See Approaches Evolution:
vegetative covering on, 75 Environment. See also Built environment of plant life, 80
Earth plane. See Base plane aquatic, 42, 78 timeline for (earth and human), 19–20
398 Index
Excavation: Forests (Cont.): Geometric design (Cont.):
geology and, 10, 342 national, 110 versus experienced design, 374
ill effects of, 176 preserves for, 117, 191, 207 for level sites, 241
in landscape design, 65, 243 in regional plans, 188 purposeful application of, 249, 338
reclaiming land from, 151 restoration of, 137 revolt against, 368, 372
regulation of, 138 site design in, 244 in symmetrical plans, 103–104
for suburban sewer lines, 146 Forms: three-dimensional consideration of, 333
for water bodies, 54 design innovations and, 368 for tree planting, 357, 358, 359
waterscaping after, 49–50, 50 function and, 267, 328, 337, 344, 367, Georgetown (Washington, DC), 203
Exotic plants, 358, 363 373 Giedion, Siegfried, 121
Experiences, planned, 371–372, 373–377, motion impelled by, 290–294, 290–295 Global warming:
374, 375 natural, 115–116, 337–338, 342, 342 factors in, 21
Exploded plans, 250, 250 spatial, 267–268 implications of, 36–37
Exterior space design, 271–272 Fountains, 53, 54, 55 Globalization:
France, Raoul, 15 consequences of, 82
Franklin, Benjamin, 8 cultural evolution in, 168
Fairchild, David, 79 Freshwater: Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 105
Fallingwater (Bear Run, PA), 124, 125 availability of, 342 Golden Gate National Recreation Area,
Family, as social unit, 180 depletion of, 42, 43, 44, 48, 136–137, 167
Farmland: 362, 363 Golden rectangle, 334
in growth management plan, 165, 166, global portion of, 39, 40, 40 Golden Triangle (Pittsburgh, PA), 304
169 replenishing, 159 The Golden Number (Borissavlievitch), 334
loss of, 82, 82, 138 Friends of Urban Forests, 85 Goshorn, Warner S., 61
preservation of, 207 Government agencies/bodies:
regional planning for, 188 in community planning, 152, 153, 163
taxation of, 170 Gallion, Arthur B., 198 complete streets promoted by, 315
transfer of development rights to, 158 Gardens. See also specific gardens developers working with, 174
Fault lines, 11 botanical, 80, 80, 117, 201, 381 eminent domain exercised by, 202
Fibonacci, Leonardo, 335–336 community, 84, 84 land use planning by, 132, 133–136, 167
Field observation (site analysis), 221, 224 container, 362, 362 map/survey information from, 73
Finger plans, 250, 250 experience of, 374 preserves established by, 83–84
Fish: Japanese, 265, 341 in regional planning, 186, 189,
contamination of, 138 for privacy, 278 191–193
in food chain, 77 rain, 252, 365, 365 urban forestry under, 85
habitat for, 40–41, 78 residential, 348 visual resource management by, 110
Fitch, James, 277 rooftop, 199, 347 Grade:
Flattid bug, 14 space allowed for, 330 of building site, 238–244
Flexibility zoning, 158, 183 in United States, 362 design solutions to, 305, 305
Flooding: for urban sites, 236, 237 at intersections, 149, 208, 311
as design consideration, 33, 53, water features in, 350, 351 along rivers, 321
139–140, 140, 343 Gardner, James, 304 Grading:
as hazard, 11, 44 Gas Works Park (Seattle, WA), 66 geological factors in, 342
increased incidence of, 37 Genetic code, 20 regulation of, 138
management of, 46, 159, 169, 190 Geographic Information Systems (GIS), for roadway construction, 310
as site analysis data, 11, 44 64, 73 Graham, Robert, 382
Florida wetlands, 40 Geologic time: Graham, Wade, 48
Folger, Timothy, 8 climate change throughout, 36 Grand Canyon (AZ), 267
Food chain, 77, 77 eras in, 18–19 Gravity:
Forestry, urban, 85, 173 Geology: design base plane and, 273
Forests: as climate element, 23–24 as water flow design factor, 40
depletion of, 136 in habitation design, 342 Great Lakes, 138
development potential of, 170 in landscape architecture practice, 10–11 Greece:
establishment of, 84 Geomancy, 9 ancient, architecture in, 336, 344
in growth management plan, 165, 167, Geometric design: desertification of, 137
169 in contemporary urban plans, 196–197 Green infrastructure, 85
Index 399
Green roofs, 252, 363–365, 364 Herbicides, 138 Indoor-outdoor living, 346, 346–351,
Greenhouse gases, 36 Hilberseimer, Ludwig K., 186, 307 347–351
Greenways: Hills, modification of, 116, 117, 188 Industrial Revolution:
in neighborhood plans, 182 Historic landmarks, 162, 162, 167, 189 land planning and, 207
in planned communities, 145 Homeowners’ associations, 163 sustainability and, 21, 36
in regional plans, 190, 190–191 Homestead Act of 1862, 62 timeframe for, 19, 20
in urban areas, 172 Homo erectus, 19, 20 Industrial sites, 66
Gropius, Walter, 367, 372 Homo sapiens, 1, 19, 20. See also Inner city, 201–202, 203, 244
Ground covers, 357, 357 Humankind Innisfree Garden (Millbrook, NY),
Ground plane. See Base plane Horticulture, 80. See also Landscape 332–333
Groundwater: planting; Plants Insulation:
bioretention and, 365 Hot-dry climatic region, 25, 29, earth as, 33
determining presence of, 342 30–31, 33 from green roofs, 364
recharging, 252 Hotels, 161, 199 Integrated plan, 246, 246, 343
Growth management: Housing. See also Dwellings; Residences; Intersections (traffic):
defined, 165, 170 Structures design of, 304, 304, 308
guideline plan for, 164–165 in central business districts, 201 landscaping at, 358–359
problems in, 164, 164 in inner-city areas, 201, 202, 203 on-grade, 138, 149, 208, 311
project review in, 165 types of, 203–204 three-way, 159
public services in, 165–169, 174 Howard, Ebenezer, 193 turbulence of, 303–304, 307
Gulf Stream, 8, 23 Hubbard, Henry V., 106 Invasive species, 82–83
Gutkind, E. A., 17 Hudnut, Joseph, 367, 368, 381 Irrigation:
Human physiology: agricultural, 11, 40
climate effects on, 24 as design consideration, 55
Habitations. See Dwellings; Residences; symmetry in, 101 minimizing, 48, 362
Structures Humankind: water depletion and, 43, 44–45, 136,
Habitats: affinity for water, 39, 41–42, 51 363
in biosphere, 13 on American continents, 75 Israel, 137
for fish/wildlife, 1, 40–41, 78, 190, animal nature of, 1, 3, 20
337, 342, 365 cities designed for, 210–211
human, 2–6, 36 effect on climate, 36 Jacobs, Jane, 199
land as, 61–62 evolution of, 19–20, 78 Japan. See also specific locations and sites
suburban development and, 144 intelligence of, 2, 6 aesthetic sensibility in, 228–229, 236
vegetation and, 76 land ownership by, 61–62 enclosed spaces in, 278
Harbors, 170, 319–320 life span of, 20, 21 form order in, 336–337
Harmony: privacy needs of, 279, 345 housing design in, 204
in aesthetics, 267 relationship with nature, 3–9, 15–17, land preservation in, 117
architectural, 335 20, 60, 346, 374, 376 landscape planning in, 218–219
in built environment, 121, 121–122, responses to climate, 24, 25 moon viewing in, 346
351 Humidity: nature-design integration in, 250–251
in Chinese philosophy, 6, 9 as design factor, 139 spatial design in, 265
as human pursuit, 5 reducing, 33 tokonoma in homes of, 344–345
between humans and nature, 4, Humus, 77 Johnson, Lyndon, 382
16, 60 Hunter-gatherers, 20, 78 Johnson, William J., 232
in landscape character, 112–114 Hurricanes, 37, 139 Johnston, Paul, 381
of site and design, 233, 245–246 Huxley, Julian, 133 Johnstone, B. Kenneth, 225
symmetry and, 102 Hybridization of plants, 79
violation of, 125 Hydrologic cycle, 11
Harris, Walter D., 144 Hydrology, 11 Karnak Temple (Egypt), 331
Harvard Graduate School of Design, Katsura Palace (Kyoto, Japan), 331,
367–368, 380, 382 371
Hatshepsut (Queen of Egypt), 369 Ice: Kepes, Gyorgy, 106
Hazardous materials, 224 as global portion of water, 39, 40 Kiley, Dan, 380, 382
Heating, natural versus mechanical, 33 polar, 24, 44 Kipling, Rudyard, 4, 371
Heller, Caroline, 304 Impoundments (water), 51 Kublai Khan, 99, 210n, 369
400 Index
Kudzu, as invasive species, 83, 83 Landscape architects: Level sites, design for, 241–244,
Kyoto, Japan, 9, 331, 341, 371, 371 aesthetics of, 372 242–244
in collaborative planning, 226, 226 Li, H. H., 6n
goal of, 377 Light exposure:
Lake George (Michigan), 115 knowledge needed by, 10–13 as design consideration, 32, 32, 139
Lakes: site familiarity of, 223 in overhead plane, 276–277
cities adjacent to, 321 Landscape architecture: Lighting:
as landscape features, 51 American approach to, 220, 246 design for, 253–254, 254
as water table recharge, 252 defined, 372 in planned communities, 160
Land. See also Topography evolution of, 368–373 residential exterior, 350
“banking” of, 188, 190 function of, 252 Line of approach, 312
carrying capacity of, 64, 132, 191, 192 Japanese approach to, 218–219 Line of sight:
human impact on, 57–60, 81–82 sustainability in, 18 at traffic intersections, 359, 359
minimizing impact on, 252 Landscape Architecture book (Simonds), 382 visual balance and, 105, 106, 106
preserves for, 83–84, 117 Landscape Architecture magazine, 160, 382 Linear plans, 250
as resource, 60–62, 66, 141 Landscape art, 372 Linnaeus, 79, 79n
rights to, 62–63, 64, 131, 158 Landscape character: Living Water (Braun and Cavagnaro), 13n
Land grants, 62 of building complexes, 339 London, England, 205
Land management, 64–65, 132–136 controlling changes in, 246 Long-range planning, 133–134
Land ownership: defined, 112 Los Angeles, CA, 140
establishing, 61–63 geometric design imposed on, 104, 249 Louis XIV (king of France), 94
responsibilities of, 65 land use and, 120 Louisiana Purchase, 62
in scatteration problem, 175 of level sites, 243 Louvre (Paris, France), 97
transferring, 64, 138 preservation of, 127, 189, 343 Low-impact design (LID):
Land surveys: qualities in, 112–114 application of, 252, 253
computer access to, 231 in rural site design, 238 landscape planting in, 363–365
methods for, 70 scenic value in, 110
original U.S., 63, 63–64 trees and, 357, 358
in site analysis, 217, 223 Landscape planting: Maillart, Robert, 122, 123, 123, 125
specification for, 70–71 cultural influences on, 361–363 Maintenance:
Land use: guidelines for, 355–361 of base plane materials, 273
in community planning, 163, 166 installation of, 355 as design consideration, 256–257
evolving pattern of, 170 in low-impact design, 363–365 for planned communities, 162
planning for, 133–136, 138, 171, 179, process of, 354–355 Maps:
207 purpose of, 353–354, 354–355 axial plan for Washington, DC, 98, 98
in regional planning, 188 Landscape type, 114 base, for planning, 225
Land-use codes, 252 Landslides, 224 contour, 69
Land value: Lao-tzu, 263, 369 satellite, 73
appreciation of, 174–175 Laser transit (surveying), 64, 70 for site research/analysis, 215, 223,
versus open space preservation, 210 Latin America: 224–225
taxation and, 138, 170, 172 cities in, 196 Strata of England & Wales, 10
zoning and, 176 land ownership in, 63 topographic, 72
Landscape: Law of fitness, 337 from USGS, 72, 215
aerial view of, 321 Law of the same, 335 Mathematics, design role of, 334–336
control of, 250 Law of the similar, 335 Mayan culture, 44
in harmony with nature, 9, 15, 345 Lawns: McHarg, Ian L., 186
modification of, 114–119, 128–129 (see edging for, 256 McPhee, John, 18, 60
also Built environment) function of, 346–347 Mendelsohn, Eric, 109
natural forms in, 115–116, 273, 311 irrigation of, 11, 45, 48, 136 Metes and bounds, 70
preserving integrity of, 135–136, 328 size of, 362, 363 Metro government, 133, 134, 192–193
spatial design within, 286 Leakey, L. S. B., 14 Michigan State Department of Parks, 118
structures in, 330, 331, 337–339, 351 Learning Through Landscapes Trust, 160 Microclimatology:
symmetry in, 101, 102 Léger, Fernand, 107 defined, 30
U.S. management of, 83 Lenôtre, André, 369 as design factor, 30–35, 30–35, 343
visual (see Visual landscape) Leopold, Aldo, 46, 64, 311, 372 plantings and, 360
Index 401
Microclimatology (Cont.): Nature: Order (Cont.):
in site analysis, 224 in aesthetics, 372 human need for, 5
urban, 85, 234, 235 coloration in, 268–269 mathematical, 334
water as factor in, 40 efficiency of processes in, 15 as spatial quality, 270
Military installations, 250 habitation integrated with, 342–343 symmetry and, 103
Millay, Edna St. Vincent, 345 human relationship with, 3–9, 15–17, in urban design, 186, 210–211
Mineral reserves: 20, 60, 346, 374, 376 Organic growth, 107
conservation of, 167 in Japanese design, 250–251 Organic planning, 107–108, 108
as site analysis data, 225 preservation efforts for, 83–84 Ornamental planting, 355, 357
Ming dynasty (China), 116 in rural design, 237 Outer city, 206
Minibuses, 323 symmetry/asymmetry in, 101, 103, Overhead plane:
Mixed-use communities, 150 104, 106, 108 characteristics of, 275–277, 276–277
Mobile home parks, 176 in urban design, 211, 235, 236 coloration of, 268–269
Models (topographic), 70, 70 Nature preserves. See Preserves of exterior volumes, 272
Modular systems, 336–337 Nautilus, 368, 376, 377 implications of, 266
Moholy-Nagy, László, 108, 263 Neighborhoods: planting to define, 354
Monorails, 323, 323 character of, 204–205, 236, 357 in site space design, 260, 260
Mont-Saint-Michel (France), 120 entrance plantings for, 359, 359 Overlooks, 51
Montreal, Quebec, 318 mixed-use, 203, 205 Overpasses, 311
Motels, 161 planning for, 181–182, 183, 184, 188 Oxygen production:
Motion: Neutra, Richard J., 5, 266 on Earth, 12, 77
impelled by form, 290–294, 290–295 New Orleans, LA, 140 in urban areas, 85
perception and, 289–290 New Urbanism, 315
Muir, John, 46 New York City, 37, 195, 197, 199, 202
Mulch, 363 Newton, Norman T., 6, 107 Parking. See also Driveway
Mumford, Lewis, 158, 181, 185, 186, 198 Noise abatement: at activity centers, 325
Murphy, W. Tayloe, 44 at airports, 321 in central business districts, 199, 200, 201
Museum of Modern Art (New York City), for city sites, 235 for disabled persons, 208, 316, 317
261 along trafficways, 358 off-street, 315–317, 315–317
North American climatic regions, 25 on-street, 312
Nuclear power. See Atomic power in planned communities, 149
National Gallery (Washington, DC), 290 Nutrient yield, 61 plantings to shield, 360
National parks: residential, 348
bridges in, 123 space allowed for, 330
landscape design in, 250 Occult balance, 106 Parks:
in regional plans, 191 Ocean currents, 24 in growth management plan, 169
Native plants: Ognibene, Peter J., 58 land acquired for, 151
defined, 363 Okakura, Kakuzo, 90, 247 national, 123, 191, 250
preserving, 355, 355–356 Olmsted, Frederick Law, 199, 372, 380 in neighborhood plans, 182
along roadways, 311 On the Laws of Japanese Painting (Bowie), 228 in regional plans, 189
in site landscape, 256, 354 Open space: schools adjacent to, 150, 160
Natural resources: in cities, 209–210 structure design for, 311
in community planning, 158, 166 components of, 172–174, 173 in urban areas, 172, 209–210
exploitation of, 131 in growth management plan, 165, 168 Patios, 53, 180, 199, 330, 347–348
in growth management, 167 in landscape planting, 359 Pavement:
land as, 60–62 negative, in structural design, 331, 340 and harsh urban microclimate, 85, 234,
management of, 83, 110–111, 132 in New York City, 199 235
in regional planning, 189 in planned communities, 150–152, versus lawn, 363
renewable, 20, 21 151, 153, 159 modular systems, 349
water as, 39–43, 60, 159 in regional plans, 189, 190 water runoff and, 49, 252
Natural Resources Conservation structurally defined, 339–341, 340 PCD (preserve, conserve, develop)
Service, 73 Order: planning, 152, 152–157, 224
Natural sciences, 10–13 as aesthetic quality, 334–335 Pedestrian traffic. See also Walkways
Natural systems, defined, 61 in Chinese philosophy, 9 automobile impact on, 309
Naturalized plants, 363 experience of, 376 in cities, 198, 201
402 Index
Pedestrian traffic (Cont.): Planning (Cont.): Pollution (Cont.):
planning for, 145, 146, 149, 149, 253, growth management in, 164–169 effects on ecologic balance, 14
303–306, 303–306, 314 highways as factor in, 308 as global warming factor, 36, 36, 37
Peking. See Beijing, China integrated, 246, 246, 343 of land, 66
Pelican Bay, FL, 152 landscape character in, 114–119 laws governing, 65
People. See Humankind long-range, 152, 166, 189 from light, 254
Perception: nature as element in, 4–5, 8, 9 population density and, 144
conditioned, 299–300 objective of, 6 water management and, 46, 365
defined, 2 organic, 107–108, 108 Pompeii, Italy, 278
design control of, 289 phased, 161, 174 Pools, as landscape features, 53, 55
experience and, 375–376 philosophical approach to, 376 Population growth:
Pericles, 369 for productivity, 61, 138 community planning and, 166
Permeable paving, 252 property boundaries and, 179 impact on land, 58
Pesticides, 138 regional (see Regional planning) regional, 133
Phillips, Patricia C., 196 for site development, 59 through time, 20–21, 133
Photogrammetry, 64, 64, 70 ten-step process for, 220 urban, 85, 143–144, 365
Photography, site information via, 215 as two-dimensional, 259, 333 water management and, 11
Photosynthesis, 61, 77, 77 U.S. philosophy for, 131–132, 368 Postmodernism, 371, 372
Piazza San Marco (Venice, Italy), 246 water proximity as factor in, 46–47 Precipitation:
Pittsburgh Point (PA), 170 for waterscaping, 49–55 as climate element, 23
Pittsburgh Technology Center (Pittsburgh, zoning as component in, 175–177 as design consideration, 343
PA), 66 Planning attitude, 228–229 management of, 146
Pix, 283, 284, 293 Plants. See also Landscape planting; retention of, 48, 76, 77, 137, 190, 252
Place de la Concorde (Paris, France), 96–97 Vegetation Preserves:
Plane table survey, 70 beneficial effects of, 77–78 forest, 117, 191
Planes, in site space design, 260, 260, container-grown, 362, 362 land, 83–84, 117
272–287 cultivation of, 79–81 nature, 162
Planned communities: identification of, 78, 78–79, 80 regional planning for, 188
activity centers in, 150, 176 in integrated design, 255, 255–256 for wildlife, 190
criteria for, 148, 158–165 invasive species of, 82–83, 83 President’s Task Force on Resources and
efficiency in, 145–147 native, 256, 311, 354–356, 363 the Environment, 382
examples of, 146, 152, 153 nonnative, in suburban developments, 144 Privacy considerations:
experience of, 374 photosynthesis by, 61, 77, 77 in dwellings, 345
health benefits of, 147 rooftop (see Green roofs) enclosure and, 278–279, 280
in inner cities, 202 selecting for landscape plan, 354–355, on level sites, 243
open space in, 150–152, 151, 153, 159 356, 361 in urban site design, 237
PCD approach to, 152–157 in urban site design, 236 Program development, 213–214
recreation in, 151, 161 in vertical plane, 277, 286 Progressions:
regional approach to, 182, 182–184, 188 Plato, 267, 273 mathematical, 336
traffic management in, 148–149, 149 Point of view: in nature, 300–301, 301
utility lines in, 146 aerial, 321 of vistas, 93–94
Planned unit development (PUD), fixed versus moving, 289–290 Property boundaries:
148–149, 150, 151, 158, 176, 182 Polar ice, 24, 39, 40, 44 on base map, 225
Planning. See also Comprehensive land Political institutions: in design expression, 234
planning; Planned communities climate effects on, 24 establishing, 63
aesthetic considerations in, 110, 111 in regional planning, 191 land use planning and, 179
for agricultural production, 84 Political jurisdictions: on site analysis map, 224
for built environment, 120–129 conservation by, 60 survey of, 64, 70
climate as factor in, 23 land ownership and, 62 in survey specification, 71
climate change as factor in, 36–37 Pollination, 14 Property titles, 63, 71
developers’ role in, 174–175 Pollution. See also Air pollution; Noise Property values:
empathetic understanding required for, abatement; Water pollution along complete streets, 315
229 abatement of, 138, 343 overdevelopment and, 144
essential components of, 2 of cities, 170 regional planning and, 191
fully informed, 213–214 from development, 82 urban, 211
Index 403
Proportion, in composition, 335–336 Regional planning (Cont.): Rivers:
Public domain: commercial centers in, 161 bank erosion on, 50
greenways in, 172 for communities, 182–184 depletion of, 136
water bodies in, 41, 49 criteria for, 191 development along, 320–321
Public services: environmental, 133 for drainage, 252
as growth management component, farmland preservation and, 138 restoration of, 136–137
165–169, 174 function of, 133–134, 186, 188 Roadways. See also Approaches;
in regional plan, 189, 190, 191 governance in, 192–193 Circulation patterns; Intersections;
urban sprawl and, 172, 187 growth management in, 167 Streets
Public spaces: multimodal transportation in, 325 controlled-access, 138, 159, 174, 183,
form suiting function of, 261, 333–334 for neighborhoods, 181–182 189, 325
structurally defined, 341 PCD approach in, 152–157 as design axes, 94
vertical reference points in, 283 rapid transit in, 319 on design base plane, 273
rationale for, 179–180 development around, 5, 5, 81–82, 144
urban revitalization and, 172 flow of, 307–308
Quality of life, 144, 147–148 Regional planning commission, 192 in growth management plan, 165
Renaissance: landscape character and, 117, 253
formalism of, 372 linear path of, 63, 250, 307
Radburn, NJ, 146 geometric design in, 333, 336–337 in neighborhood plans, 182
Rai, Sanyō, 9 integrated planning in, 246 as planned experiences, 373–374
Railways: major/minor axis used in, 368 plantings along, 358, 358, 359
in developing landscape, 170 structure design in, 344 in regional plans, 189
freight versus passenger, 317, 319 symmetrical design in, 109–110 on site analysis map, 224
impact of, 82 Renewable resources, 20, 21 spatial design of, 259–260, 308–311
as people movers, 323 Repton, Humphry, 369 in survey specification, 71
rapid-transit (see Rapid transit) Reservoirs, 51, 136 in transportation network, 58, 159
right-of-way for, 62 Residences. See also Dwellings unrestrained development and, 133,
stations, 319, 319 in central business districts, 201 170, 188
in transportation network, 58 exterior furnishings for, 350, 350–351, in urban plans, 172, 173, 185, 186,
Rain gardens, 252, 365, 365 351 188, 195–196, 201, 206
Rapid transit: functions of, 347 in visual resource management, 110
in community planning, 159, 160 for indoor-outdoor living, 347–349, water proximity of, 46, 47
function of, 317–319, 319 347–350 Rockefeller Center (New York City), 261
in regional planning, 185, 189 inward/outward progression of, 245 Rome, Italy, 195, 197
in urban revitalization plans, 172, 206 lawns with, 346–347 Rooftops:
Rasmussen, Steen, 333 in planned communities, 145, 150, gardens on, 199, 347
Read, Herbert, 262 160, 160 green, 252, 363–365, 364
Recreation: in self-sufficient neighborhoods, 180–181 restaurants on, 199
as growth management issue, 167 street-facing, 144, 148, 159 utilizing, 200
in planned communities, 151, 161 supplementary structures for, 349, Rose, James, 380, 382
regional planning for, 188, 189, 191 349–350 Rudolph, Paul, 330
water as resource for, 41, 41, 46, 51 survey specification for, 70–71 Runoff:
Recycling, 166 Retaining walls, 311 in blueways, 190
Red Rocks Amphitheatre (Denver, CO), Rhetoric (Aristotle), 196 as design consideration, 252
116 Ribbon plans, 250, 250 erosion from, 77
Redevelopment, 202, 203, 210 Right-of-way: managing, 40, 45, 46, 53, 363, 365
Reed, Henry H., Jr., 97 landscape plantings and, 359, 360 pollution from, 138
Reference files. See Documents for railways, 62 on sloped sites, 241
Reforestation, 137 residences facing, 148 urban mitigation of, 85
Region, plantings by (chart), 360 for roadways, 307, 310, 310, 314 Rural areas:
Regional planning: in survey specification, 71 landscape design in, 128
acceptance of, 207 for urban ring roads, 201 natural settings preserved in, 363
approaches to, 191–192 utility lines in, 146 site design for, 237, 237–238, 238
for cities, 184–186, 187 Ritual, function of, 9 versus urban areas, 180
404 Index
Rural areas (Cont.): Scatteration (Cont.): Shorelines:
U.S. preference for, 196 tax yield and, 133 design treatments for, 52–53
Ryōanji garden (Kyoto, Japan), 341, 371, zoning and, 176 migration of, 51
371 Scenic value: protection of, 50
accentuating, 343 Shrubbery:
in conservation plan, 132 in landscape plan, 357, 357
Saarinen, Eliel, 103, 191, 331, 374 as growth management issue, 167 line of sight and, 359, 359
Sabah (British North Borneo), 17 in regional plan, 188, 189 Sierra Club, 135
Safety issues: resource management and, 110–111 Signage:
in bioengineering, 79 in roadway design, 310, 310 design of, 255, 255
on building site, 224 as site analysis data, 224 at driveways, 312
for disabled people, 208, 296 of water bodies, 41, 41–42 in planned communities, 160
for dwellings, 344 Schools: for roadways, 311
environmental, 138, 147, 231 adjacent to parks, 150, 160 standardized, 208
in existing communities, 147 in community plans, 184 Siltation, 46, 77, 190
lighting and, 253–254 exploded site plans for, 250 Silver Pavilion (Kyoto, Japan), 371
natural disasters and, 140 in neighborhood plans, 182 Simon, Guy Wallace, 379
in planned communities, 145, 147–148 Screens: Simon, Marguerite Ormsbee, 379
public services and, 165, 191 shrubbery as, 357, 357, 358 Simonds, Dylan Todd, 207
in transportation, 138–139, 149, 159, in spatial design, 279, 279 Simonds, John Ormsbee, 379, 379–383
184, 296, 302, 307–308, 314–315 Sea level rise, 36, 37 Simonds, John Todd, 2
in urban areas, 170, 171, 199, 201, 235 Sea Palace gardens (Beijing), 333, 333 Simonds, Marjorie Todd, 379, 381, 382
Saltwater: Seasons, as design consideration, 32, 32, Simonds, Philip, 381
global portion of, 40, 40 35, 139 Site:
intrusion into freshwater bodies, 44, 136 Sections (contour maps), 69, 69 analysis of, 216–220, 222–225, 342
San Andreas fault, 140 Seneca, 3 character of, 354
San Francisco, CA, 140, 318 Sequence: in comprehensive plan, 220–225
Santa Barbara Botanic Garden (CA), 80 climax in, 301 conceptual plan for, 226–231, 233
Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy perception of, 299–300 design development for, 233–244
(CA), 189 planning of, 300–303, 300–303 extensional aspects of, 217, 217, 245
Santayana, George, 105, 107 Sert, José Luis, 196, 331 multiple viewing points for, 289–290
Saprophytes, 11 Service courts, 330, 348–349 program development for, 213–214
Sasaki, Hideo, 248 Setbacks: protecting quality of, 272
Satellite communities: as site analysis data, 224 reclaimed, 66, 202
public services for, 190, 202 in survey specification, 71 residential, 346–351
roadways interconnecting, 183, 189, for urban residences, 199 selection of (see Site selection)
206, 308 Severud, Fred M., 9 ten-step planning process for, 220
Satellite maps, 73 Sewers: trees as framework for, 357
Satellite plans, 245–246, 250, 250 in property specification, 71 Site analysis:
Scale: for storm runoff, 146, 252 approach to, 217–220
for base maps, 354 suburban development and, 144 function of, 216–217, 226
for contour maps, 67–68 Shade: guidelines for, 222–225
on level sites, 243, 244 as design element, 33, 34 Site analysis map, 223, 224–225
planting to define, 355 in landscape planting, 355, 357, 358 Site design. See also Site-structure plan
as project design factor, 234, 234 Shelter, as basic concept, 343, 344 expression of, 233–234
of public spaces, 281 Shigemori, Kanto, 345 water as consideration in, 50–55
vertical plane and, 283, 284 Shinjuku Gardens (Japan), 265 Site selection:
Scatteration: Ships: climatic factors in, 25–29
in conservation plan, 132 freight versus passenger, 317 for dams/impoundments, 51
defined, 172 travel via, 319–321 environmental factors in, 141
development of, 169–170 Shopping: microclimatic factors in, 30, 31
drawbacks of, 161 in downtowns, 199, 200 in planning process, 23, 214–216
lack of planning and, 191 in planned communities, 160, 161, 184 water proximity in, 40–43, 45–47
reversal of, 166, 175, 189, 207 satellite malls for, 190 Site spaces, as volumes, 259–260
Index 405
Site-structure plan: Spatial design (Cont.): Streetscape:
composition of, 330, 339 responses to, 261, 261–263, 262, 264, Japanese-style, 236
development of, 245–246 267, 297, 301–302, 371–372 utility lines and, 146
evaluation of, 247 sequences in, 299–303, 300–303 Structures:
unity of, 247–251, 248 size in, 265, 265–267 composition of, 329–333, 329–337,
Site systems: transitions in, 296–299, 297 335–337
building materials, 256 volumes in, 259–260 groups of, 330–333, 338
defined, 251 Spengler, Oswald, 13, 267 in landscape, 337–339, 339, 342, 351,
drainage, 252 Stabilization: 356
lighting, 253–254 of roadways, 310 open space defined by, 339–341
movement, 253 of sloped sites, 239, 239–241, 357 postmodern, 372
operations/maintenance, 256–257 of soil, 45, 146 qualities of, 327–329
plantings, 255–256 Stadia survey, 70 Subdivisions, 145
signage, 255 Stairway design, 274, 304 Subsidence, 224
Sitte, Camillo, 197, 329, 333–334, 334 Stein, Clarence, 146 Suburbs:
Sky: Stewardship: development of, 59, 144–145
defined space open to, 340–341 importance of, 132 evolution of, 207
as overhead plane, 275–276, 277 past record of, 2 inefficiency of, 161
Slopes: Stinkbugs, as invasive species, 83 natural settings preserved in, 363
in building site development, 238–241, Stonehenge (England), 267 rapid transit in, 318
238–241 Storm sewers, 146, 252 sprawl in, 206
protecting with vegetation, 354 Storms: U.S. preference for, 196
along roadways, 310, 311 as climate element, 23, 140 Sullivan, Louis H., 107, 367, 375
Smart Growth, 315 as design consideration, 33, 37 Summer Palace (Beijing, China), 297–298
Soil: Stormwater management (SWM). See also Sun:
as climate element, 24 Runoff; Storm sewers climate affected by, 23, 24
as design base plane, 272 as design consideration, 252 as design element, 31–35, 33, 242, 343
erosion of (see Erosion) landscape planning and, 365 in photosynthesis, 61, 77, 77
for green roofs, 364 laws governing, 65 Surveys. See Land surveys
pollution of, 138 natural versus man-made systems for, Sustainability. See also Green roofs; Low-
protecting with vegetation, 32 40, 49 impact design
stabilizing, 45, 146 Strata of England & Wales (map), 10 defined, 18
study of, 10, 11 Streams: development and, 166
in urban areas, 85 bank erosion on, 50 global warming and, 36
Soil Survey Reports, 73 for drainage, 252 population growth and, 18, 20–21
Spaces: restoration of, 136, 136–137 of regional plan, 191
containment of, 271 in survey specification, 71 Suzhou (Soochow) gardens (China),
enframement of (see Enframement) Street crossing design, 138, 208 331
function of, 373 Street life: Swales. See also Bioswales
occupants of, 265, 266, 267 in central business districts, to manage runoff, 46, 49, 53, 252
organization of, 329–330 199–201 along roadways, 310
qualities of, 263, 263–265 planning for, 208 in survey specification, 71
as related to structures, 330, 339–341 Streets. See also Intersections; Roadways Symmetry, 94, 100–104, 102, 103, 106,
Spaciousness, as need, 345–346 in central business districts, 199 107, 337
Spain, 137, 278 complete, 314–315, 315 Syria, 137
Spatial design. See also Spaces; Structures, cul-de-sacs, 146, 182, 313, 358 Sze, Mai-mai, 9
composition of lights/signs for, 255
abstractions expressed in, 269–271, one-way versus two-way, 314
269–271 in planned communities, 145–146, Tao (The Way), 9, 376
color in, 268–269, 271 146, 149, 149, 159 Tatami (Japanese mat), 336
enclosure in, 271, 271–272, 278, residential, 144, 148, 159, 235, 313, Taxation:
278–280, 286, 287, 297, 357 314 in cities, 207
form in, 267–268 tree plantings along, 358, 358, 362 community governance and, 163
planes in, 260, 260, 272–287 as urban design focus, 260 land use and, 170, 172
plantings in, 360–361, 360–361 width of, 312 land value and, 138
406 Index
Taxation (Cont.): Tornadoes, 11, 37 Ugliness, source of, 114
regional zoning and, 189 Toronto, Ontario, 318 Underpasses, 311
scatteration and, 133, 175 Town houses, 203 United States:
Technology, in structural design, 328–329. Towns and Buildings (Rasmussen), 333 Beaux Arts system in, 367, 367n
See also Computer Traditional Neighborhood Development contemporary dwellings in, 346
Tectonic plates, 11 (TND), 315 gardening initiatives in, 84
Temperature: Traffic. See also Automobiles; Circulation land development in, 58, 59, 170
as climate element, 23, 24, 31, 31, 33 patterns; Roadways land grants in, 62
global increase in, 36 in community planning, 148–149, 149, land preserves in, 117
in urban areas, 85 159 landscape planning approach in, 220,
Temperature control, 32, 32 as design consideration, 253 246, 368
Terraces: efficient routing of, 208 lawns in, 45, 48, 346–347
in site plan integration, 250 flow of, 307, 309–311, 310, 311 lifestyle changes in, 361–362
for sloped sites, 239, 240 in neighborhood plans, 182 national parks in, 123
space for, 330 pedestrian (see Pedestrian traffic) pioneering stage in, 131–132
for urban residences, 199 reduction of, 172 residential patterns in, 59, 144
Thermodynamics, 35. See also Cooling; in regional plans, 188 settlement of, 143
Heating route design for, 296 suburban living in, 207
Thoreau, Henry David, 46, 372 as site analysis data, 224 topsoil loss in, 137, 137
Tidal estuaries, 78 in urban plans, 186, 199, 200, 207–208 urban design in, 260
Time: Transfer of development rights (TDR), vitality of cities in, 195–198
geologic, 18–19, 36 158 water resource management in, 47, 48
human comprehension of, 18–21 Transitions: University of California, Berkeley,
perception of objects in, 289, 300 for driveways, 312 104–105
Tokonoma, 344 indoor-outdoor, 346 Urban agriculture, 84
Topographic survey, 70–71, 223, 224 integrated design of, 251, 296–299, 297 Urban forestry, 85, 173
Topography. See also Land in water travel, 320 Urban planning. See also Cities
airports and, 322 Transportation. See also Automobiles; asymmetry in, 108–109
community planning and, 151, 166 Railways for city segments, 198–207
contours in, 67–68 multimodal, 318, 322–324, 323–325 contemporary approach to, 196–200
defined, 67 by plane, 321–322 human element in, 375
development impact on, 81–82 rapid transit, 159, 160, 172, 185, 189, inspiration from older cities, 196
information gleaned from, 57 206, 317–319 regional approach to, 184–186
land ownership and, 61 route design, 126 Urban revitalization, 171, 171–174, 202,
land survey and, 63–64 safety issues in, 138–139 203, 204, 210
in landscape architecture practice, 10, 65 trucking, 159, 189, 317 Urban sprawl. See also Scatteration
light exposure and, 32 U.S. land allotments for, 62 alternatives to, 172, 190
microclimate and, 31 via water, 40, 319–321, 320 consequences of, 175
minimizing disruption to, 342 Travel accommodations, 161 history of, 169–170
models used in, 70 Trees. See also Forestry lack of regulation and, 177
natural forms in, 115–116 on complete streets, 315, 315 reasons for, 166, 170
regional planning and, 187, 188, 188 in landscape plan, 356, 357, 358, 358, stopping, 132, 174, 199, 206
roadway design and, 310 359, 359 Urbanization. See also Cities
in rural site design, 238, 238 on site analysis map, 224 rate of, 85
sections in, 69 on suburban streets, 146 water table level and, 136
in site selection/analysis, 216, 217, 222 on urban streets, 173, 234, 236 U.S. Department of Transportation, 315
storm sewers and, 146 in vertical plane, 285–286 U.S. Forest Service, 110
USGS maps of, 72, 72 Truck routes: U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) maps, 72,
Topsoil. See also Erosion dedicated, 189 72, 72n, 215, 222, 222
accumulation of, 77 for delivery/parking, 317 U.S. Soil Conservation Service. See
biomass in, 62 through-community, 159 Natural Resources Conservation
geology and, 342 Truth: Service
removal of, 65 mathematical basis of, 334 Utilities:
replenishment of, 176 in plan design, 103 in planned communities, 146, 169
vegetative protection of, 75 Tunnard, Christopher, 16, 122 in site analysis, 224
Index 407
Utilities (Cont.): Villa D’Este (Tivoli, Italy), 249, 249 Water (Cont.):
in survey specification, 71 Vinci, Leonardo da, 336, 336 human affinity for, 39, 41–42, 51
unrestrained development and, 133 Vines, plantings of, 357, 357 interrelated systems of, 43–46
Virginia’s Common Wealth, 381 qualities of, 53
Vista: as resource, 39–43, 60, 136–137, 159,
Van der Ryn, Sim, 4, 7, 11 defined, 91 189
Van Loon, Hendrik, 8 as design element, 92, 92–94, 93, 101, as symbol, 55
Vaux, Calvert, 199 250 travel via, 40, 319–321, 320
Vegetation. See also Landscape planting; Visual landscape design, 87–110 vegetation and, 12, 77
Plants Visual resource management, 110, Water, potable:
biosphere as home to, 13 110–111 availability of, 23
climate problems and, 32–33, 37 Vitruvian man, 336, 336 distribution of, 45, 136
destruction of, 78 Vitruvius, Marcus, 336 as site analysis data, 225
erosion and, 50, 75–76, 77, 77, 137, Volcanoes, 10, 11, 140 Water bodies:
252 Volumes. See also Spaces carrying capacity of, 64
oxygen produced by, 12 as enclosed, 271, 271–272 as design consideration, 32, 50–53
preserving, 40–41, 342, 355, 355–356 functions of, 266, 297 protecting/restoring, 47–48, 342
reestablishment of, 83–84 objects placed in, 280–281, 281 in public domain, 41, 49
along rivers, 321 in site design, 259–260 recreational/scenic value of, 41, 41–42,
along roadways, 311 structure groupings and, 330, 339–341 45–46, 46
as site analysis data, 224, 353 in regional plans, 188
variety of, 76, 76 on site analysis map, 224
water depletion and, 42, 49, 49 Wabi design quality, 236–237, 251 in survey specification, 71
Veri, Albert R., 13, 51 Wagner, Martin, 367 in urban areas, 172
Versailles Palace (France), 94, 333, 333 Waikiki, HI, 185 Water-edge paths, 51, 51, 52
Vertical plane: Walker, Ralph, 184 Water pollution:
to articulate base plane, 284, 285, Walkways. See also Pedestrian traffic control of, 45, 138
286 automobile isolation from, 309, 313 impact of, 44
coloration of, 268 in central business districts, 200 preventing, 46, 53
to control environmental elements, on complete streets, 315, 315 wetland remediation of, 47
284–285 along greenways, 172 Water rights, 43
as dominant spatial feature, 280–281 in planned communities, 149, 149, Water table:
for enclosure, 278, 278–280, 280 160 level of, 45, 49, 136
of exterior volumes, 272, 281 plantings along, 358, 360 management of, 167
eye level and, 283–284, 284 as safety measure, 138 replenishment of, 46, 76, 137
function of, 277–278 on site analysis map, 224 Waterfalls, 55, 241
implications of, 266 War: Waterfronts:
as reference point, 282, 282–283 as environmental disaster, 140 development on, 200, 210, 320,
in site space design, 260, 260 preventing, 141 320–321
structures as, 281–282 Warm-humid climatic region, 25, 28 urban design for, 244
visual control from, 279–280, 280, 281 Washington, DC: Watershed management:
Vetter, Hans, 6 axial plan for, 98, 98 blueways in, 190–191
Victory Gardens, 84 Georgetown homes in, 203 components in, 46–50
Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 270 rapid transit in, 318 importance of, 11, 44
View: Waste management technology, 176 landscape planting in, 354
in asymmetrical design, 106 Wastewater: planning as component in, 167
defined space open to, 341, 345 in community planning, 159 protection in, 84
as design element, 88–91, 88–91, 250 for irrigation, 11, 136, 363 ten axioms for, 45
from drive approach, 313 recycling of, 48 Weather:
in landscape planting, 359 Water. See also Freshwater; Saltwater design influenced by, 25, 238, 343
nature of, 87 conservation of, 48, 190, 363 entrance court design for, 314
along roadways, 310 cycle of, 11 increasing severity of, 36, 37
from sloped sites, 240 as design element, 53–55, 53–55, 241, West Palm Beach, FL, 154–157
suitability of, 88 249 Western philosophies. See Eastern versus
Viewshed, 110 as garden feature, 350, 351 Western philosophies
408 Index
Wetlands: Wildlife (Cont.): Yosemite Falls, 111
constructed, 48 protection of, 84, 167 Yuan Ming Yuan (Garden of Perfect
in Florida, 40 in regional plans, 188 Brightness; Beijing), 108,
loss of, 43 Wilson, E. H., 79 109
protection of, 45, 45, 137, 153, Wilson, Edward O., 21
169 Wind:
reestablishment of, 83, 83–84 as climate element, 23, 34 Zen Buddhism:
for runoff retention, 46 as design element, 32, 33, 34, 34, 343 concept of beauty in, 90
tidal, 43 protection from, 354, 357, 360, 363 concept of perfection in, 476
in wastewater treatment, 46, 47 as site analysis data, 224 Zero lotline homes, 203
White, Stanley, 13, 15, 127 Wittkower, Rudolph, 336 Zevi, Bruno, 277
Whyte, Lancelot Law, 2 World Trade Center Memorial (New York Zoning:
Whyte, William H., Jr., 198 City), 202 in comprehensive plan, 221
Wilderness: Wright, Frank Lloyd, 125, 218 flexibility, 158, 183
preservation of, 45, 82, 84, 207 Wright, Henry, 146 in growth management, 167, 172,
profusion of plant life in, 80 175–177
remaining, 58 land value and, 138
Wildlife: Xeriscaping, 48, 363, 363 landscape character in, 117
in food chain, 77 in regional plan, 189
habitats for, 40–41, 78, 190, 342, as site analysis data, 224
365 York River Preserve (New Kent County, traditional, 191
invasive species of, 82–83 VA), 183 uniformity in, 205–206
Index 409