Somali Studies (1) Qaalib
Somali Studies (1) Qaalib
Somali Studies (1) Qaalib
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A PRELUDE: BASIC SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS -
Social Groups
A social group consists of two or more people who interact
with one another and who recognize themselves as a distinct
social unit. The definition is simple enough, but it has significant
implications. Frequent interaction leads people to share values and
beliefs. This similarity and the interaction cause them to identify
with one another. Identification and attachment, in turn, stimulate
more frequent and intense interaction. Each group maintains
solidarity with all other groups and other types of social systems.
Groups are among the most stable and enduring social units. They
are important both to their members and to the society at large.
Through encouraging regular and predictable behavior, groups
form the foundation upon which society rests. Thus, a family, a
village, a political party, a trade union is all social groups. These, it
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should be noted, are different from social classes, status quo or
crowds, which not only lack structure, but whose members are less
aware or even unaware of the existence of the group. These have
been called quasi-groups or groupings. Nevertheless, the
distinction between social groups and quasi-groups is fluid and
variable since quasi-groups very often give rise to social groups, as
for example, social classes give rise to political parties.
Values
The term ‘value’ has a meaning in sociology that is both to and yet
distinct from the meaning assigned to it in everyday speech
sociological usage. Values are group conceptions of the relative
desirability of things. Sometimes ‘value’ means ‘price’. But the
sociological concept of value is far broader than price; neither of
the objects being compared can be assigned to price.
• Values
The idea of deeply held convictions is more illustrative of the
sociological concept of value than is the concept of price. In
addition, there are four other aspects of the sociological concept of
value. They are: (1) values exist at different levels of generality or
abstraction; (2) values tend to be hierarchically arranged; (3)
values are explicit and implicit in varying degrees; and (4) values
often are in conflict with one another.
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Culture
The concept of culture was rigorously defined by E.B. Taylor in
1860s. According to him culture is the sum total of ideas, beliefs,
values, material cultural equipments and non-material aspects
which man makes as a member of society. Taylor’s theme that
culture is a result of human collectivity has been accepted by most
anthropologists. Tylarian idea can be discerned in a modern
definition of culture – culture is the man made part of
environment (M.J. Herskovits).
From this, it follows that culture and society are separable only at
the analytical level: at the actual existential level, they can be
understood as the two sides of the same coin. Culture, on one hand,
is an outcome of society and, on the other hand, society is able to
survive and perpetuate itself because of the existence of culture.
Culture is an ally of man in the sense that it enhances man’s
adaptability to nature. It is because of the adaptive value of
culture that Herskovits states that culture is a screen between
man and nature. Culture is an instrument by which man exploits
the environment and shapes it accordingly. Oxford Advanced
Learners’ Dictionary defines culture: as customs and beliefs,
art, way of life and social organization of a particular country
or group.
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Social Norms
Social norms grow out of social value and both serve to
differentiate human social behavior from that of other species. The
significance of learning in behavior varies from species to species
and is closely linked to processes of communication. Only human
beings are capable of elaborate symbolic communication and of
structuring their behavior in terms of abstract preferences that we
call values. Norms are the means through which values are
expressed in behavior.
Norms generally are the rules and regulations that groups live
by. Or perhaps because the words, rules and regulations, call to
mind some kind of formal listing, we might refer to norms as the
standards of behavior of a group. For while some of the
appropriate standards of behavior in most societies are written
down, many of them are not that formal. Many are learned,
informally, in inter action with other people and are passed ‘that
way’ from generation to generation.
The term ‘norms’, covers an exceedingly wide range of behavior.
So that the whole range of that behavior may be included.
Sociologists have offered the following definition. Social norms
are rules developed by a group of people that specify how
people must, should, may, should not, and must not behave in
various situations.
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Some norms are defined by individual and societies as crucial to
the society. For example, all members of the group are required to
wear clothing and to bury their dead. Such ‘musts’, are often
labeled ‘mores’, a term coined by the American sociologist
William Graham Sumner.
Many social norms are concerned with ‘should’, that is, there is
some pressure on the individual to conform but there is some
leeway permitted also. The ‘should behaviors’ are what Sumner
called, “folk ways”, that is conventional ways of doing things that
are not defined as crucial to the survival of the individual or the
society. The ‘should behaviors’ in our own society include the
prescriptions that people’s clothes should be clean.
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Some norms cover almost every conceivable situation, and they
vary from standards where almost complete conformity is
demanded to those where there is great freedom of choices. Norms
also vary in the kinds of sanctions that are attached to violation of
the norms.
Conflict
Conflict is goal-oriented, just as cooperation and competition are,
but there is a difference. In conflict, one seeks deliberately to
harm/and or destroy one’s antagonists. The rules of competition
always include restrictions upon the injury that may be done to a
foe. But in conflict these rules break down, one seeks to win at any
cost. In talking about conflict, the notion of a continuum or scale is
again useful. It is useful in at least two ways: in differentiating
conflict from competition; and in differentiating personal form
group and organizational conflict. If we have the data with which
to do it, all rival situations probably could be ranged along a
continuum defined at one end by pure competition and at the other
end by pure conflict.
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Prejudice and Discrimination
Prejudice and discrimination have been prevalent throughout
human history. Prejudice has to do with the inflexible and
irrational attitudes and opinions held by members of one group
about another, while discrimination refers to behaviors directed
against another group. Being prejudiced usually means having
preconceived believes about groups of people or cultural
practices. Prejudices can either be positive or negative—both
forms are usually preconceived and difficult to alter. The negative
form of prejudice can lead to discrimination, although it is
possible to be prejudiced and not act upon the attitudes. Those who
practice discrimination do so to protect opportunities for
themselves by denying access to those whom they believe do not
deserve the same treatment as everyone else. For example, the
prejudice that a certain tribe is small in number may lead to the
discrimination of denying its members equal access to power.
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Islam prohibits discriminations, oppression, prejudices or
exploitation and other humiliating behavior meted out to innocent
persons or to society at large: Elmi Afyare & Dr. Barise)’s 2006
Article.
Solutions to prejudice –
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To date, solutions to prejudice that emphasize change at the
individual level have not been successful. In contrast,
research sadly shows that even unprejudiced people can,
under specific conditions of war or economic competition,
become highly prejudiced against their perceived enemies.
Changes in the law have helped to alter prejudiced attitudes.
Without changes in the law, women might never have been
allowed to vote, attend graduate schools, or own property.
And racial integration of public facilities in America might
never have occurred. Still, laws do not necessarily change
people’s attitudes. In some cases, new laws can increase
antagonism toward minority groups.
Finally, cooperative learning or learning that involves
collaborative interactions between students, while surely of
positive value to students, does not assure reduction of
hostility between conflicting groups. Cooperation is usually
too limited and too brief to surmount all the influences in a
person’s life.
To conclude, most single efforts to eliminate prejudice are
too simplistic to deal with such a complex phenomenon.
Researchers, then, have focused on more holistic methods of
reducing ethnocentrism and cultural conflicts. They have
noted that certain conditions must be met before race
relations will ever improve:
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• A desire to become better acquainted.
• A desire to cooperate.
• Equal economic standing and social status.
• Equal support from society.
Sociologists speculate that one reason prejudice is still around is the fact
that these conditions rarely coincide.
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I
THE SOMALIS :
a) a nomad pastoralist,
b) an egalitarian,
c) individualist
d) prone to violence
e) brave
f) having stamina to stand for all odds
g) generous.
h) patrilineal
The Somali urban society live almost the same way that many other
similar societies live elsewhere. It is not, therefore, a model of the
Somali traditional life style. The nomadic Somali people’s way of life
and their nomadic values is the correct Somali model. The latter lived in
a rural environment as pastoralists and/or cultivators.
Most nations in the world are composed of more than one ethnicity.
Some consist of many ethnic groups, while others consist of only few.
The Somalis might be fortunately an exception as they all belong to only
one single ethnicity, despite some earlier affiliations. The Somalis are all
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Sunni Muslims and share the same language and culture, which is the
envy of many other nations, especially in Africa.
The Somali people were one nation, but without a central authority
before their division into five main groups, together with their lands, by
four foreign colonial powers during the second part of the 19 th century,
C.E.
In any conflict among Somali groups there were about twelve (12)
categories of people to be spared by the opposite sides among
conflicting groups. They were known as ‘Biri Ma Geydo’, literally
meaning immune from the harm of iron weaponry, but practically meant
immune from killing or any other harm, etc., by the adversaries in a
conflict. They included the following:
2.Problem Resolutions:
3.Both, or all sides, as the case might be, should commit themselves to
accept the verdict of the Ergo, to be fulfilled by a ‘Xidhe’ (guarantor)
from the loosing side.
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4.Members of the Ergo should be composed of elders traditionally
renowned for their integrity, impartiality and expertise in problem
resolution. They would not include anyone known as:
a) trouble maker;
b) partial;
c) involved in similar conflict(s);
d) having offensive tongue, etc.
5.Each member of the Ergo should have immense capacity for tolerance
and patience against all odds. A Somali adage owns that an Ergo must
be much more tolerant than:
c) a pole of dry wood for sun heat - (kurtun qorrax uga adkaysan badan;
a) let us talk means let us reach an agreement – (an wada hadalno waa an
heshiino);
b) God forgive us for our ignorance, but not for partiality – (Ilaahow
aqoon darro ha noo cadaabin, eexna ha nooga tegin);
d) for justice all are Moslems – (Gar waa loo wada Islam).
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9. The losing side would normally offer an apology to his opponent and
would also ask forgiveness of the Ergo and the society at large.
A few Tips on the Somali Nomadic Life Style and Marital Status:
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Tiro Guud Tiro Yar
Lo’ “ “
Fardo Xayn “
Dameero “ “
Fardo
Dameer
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Lo’ “ Oslan
Ido “ “
Marriages:
In the past a Somali girl was decided for about her marriage by her
guardian(s) and she seldom had a say in her own destiny. The
situation has since totally changed in the case of the urban society,
and also to a much extent among the rural society as well. Now, a
suitor must at first be assured of a girl’s prior consent before his
side would approach her guardian(s). Her family would then ask
her to confirm her consent. A virgin girl’s silence to any such
question is accepted by the Islamic Share’a as an undisputed
confirmation, while a woman who had married before must clarify
her position.
Representatives of the two sides (all male) then formally meet later
in the girl’s family home and the couple is engaged. In most cases,
the legal contract of the marriage (Meher) is also performed at the
same time, at the request of bridegroom’s side.
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The bridegroom’s side then presents a gift (Gabaati) in cash to the
members of the brides’ side present at the ceremony. This gift is
customarily for the relatives of the bride, but excluding her
immediate family members.
Subject to some exceptions, about a third of the amount of the
‘Gabaati’ is usually returned to the companions of the bridegroom
- Emphasis.
Thereafter, with few exceptions, the bride remains at her family’s home
until the wedding ceremony is performed. However, the bridegroom
decides whether he makes his own arrangements and takes his fiancé
with him away from her family or he wants his in-laws to prepare and
arrange the wedding ceremony at their home. In the latter case, the
bridegroom contributes to the expenses. In the meantime, the couple
once engaged are free to meet and go out together - Emphasis.
Gaaf
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Yarad
Dhibaat
‘Dhibaat’ means some valuable property of any kind (big or small) that
is gifted to the bride by her family, especially when she is leaving their
home upon her marriage, but also on some other occasions - Emphasis.
Meher
This is the amount of dowry decreed in the marriage legal contract that
the husband owes to his spouse, either in cash or in kind, but usually its
value is based upon a number of camels as the most valued commodity
for prestige sake. The price of the ‘Meher’ though it is mutually agreed
upon, is always proposed by the bride’s side. It can be paid anything, but
must be paid on demand, upon a divorce or upon the husband’s death.
However, not only Somali women never ask to be paid their dowry
during their marriage, but they are even reluctant to be paid. They prefer
their husbands to be indebted to them and in some cases as an insurance
against divorce. Meher also means the legalization of the marriage.
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Other Forms of Marriages:
Elopement
This is where a girl goes away with her suitor and they get married
outside the bride’s family home. It normally happens on three
occasions: (1) when the suitor is rejected or is likely to be rejected by the
girl’s family; (2) when the girl has unmarried senior sister(s); and (3)
when the suitor is economically unable to meet the expenses involved in
a formal marriage.
Xigseesan
Dumaal
Godob-reeb
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Heeran
This is a phasing out culture and now it hardly exists. Unmarried girls
used to leave their families and migrated to other localities in search of
marriages – Emphasis.
In the old days Somalis seldom marry their relatives, or even from
own clans, in order to enlarge relations even between distant
different Somali groups. These days the opposite is the case and real
cousins marry together.
Among the Somalis there has been an ongoing campaign for almost
nearly last fifty years against that practice. The campaigners include
educated females, as well as medical doctors of both genders, all of them
able to articulate the healthy hazards and other harmful effects of that
practice. Yet, there has been no success so far. And ironically, the
practice has no any visible defenders, but there are strongly unbeatably
hidden protectors. These hidden protectors of the practice are none other
than the mothers of the young girls to be rescued from the agony of the
horrible practice. Hence the status quo remains unchanged. The
circumcision is practiced on girls both in the rural as well as in the urban
life - Emphasis.
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II.
Above kingdom existed some thousands of years before the C.E. It was
situated along the west coast of the Gulf of Aden from the Gulf of
Tajoura to Ras Assayr (Guardafui) and its Horn of African hinterland.
th
Another possibly late 20 century explorer, James Henry Breasted,
professor of university in Chicago, USA, reported findings in Dair El-
Bahri in the Nile valley, that ancient Egyptians since 3,700 – 3,600 BC
called the present Somalia as the country of Pont. He added that
Egyptians were the earliest known voyagers through the Red Sea on
their way to Pont. Breasted further reported findings that the 5 th
Pharaoh, Sahore, had sent explores to Pont in 3,567 BC.
Breasted also further reported findings that the last known Egyptian
expedition to Pont was led by an explorer named Henu and reached their
destination by land through the desert during the reign of King Remsis
III of the 19th Dynasty in 1,400 BC.
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Breasted also added that the last expeditions’ provision was only water
in goat skin containers (Somali: qarbad) and dried bread during that
long marching ordeal - Emphasis.
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Sea ports of inscriptions of trade expedition on their way to the land of
Pont (part of present day Somalia) to procure myrrh for King
Mentuhotep of the XIth Dynasty who reigned during 2133 – 2118 BC.
The people of the Kingdom of Pont during that epoch might have had
included ancestors of all those groups who later lived in that specific
geographical area and in the neighbouring areas, the Afar, Oromo and
Saho, besides the Somali.
III.
Islam spread among the Somalis during its earliest stages although there
has been no recorded evidence of the exact time frame or even a
stretched period of time when it actually reached the Somali people.
However, the most credible theory is that possibly at the advent of Islam
in the beginning of 7th century C.E. when groups of the earliest Muslims
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immigrated to Abyssinia, escaping from persecution by pagan Arabs,
about 615 C.E., some of them must have had passed through Zaila and
stopped over there for longer periods, thus coming into contacts with
many Somalis, and Islam might have had thus reached the latter even
before the Muslims’ migration (24 September 622 C.E.) to Madina and
the beginning of the Hijra calendar. And there after Islam further spread
among the all Somalis.
The above theory lends support to the fact that nearby Harar becoming a
centre of Islamic studies and culture at an early stage of the Islamic
civilization.
In any case, Islam already started among the Somalis during early stages
of the first century of the Islamic calendar- Source: Bildhaan, An
International Journal of Somali Studies, Volume 13, 2013/110.
The Somalis had already practiced Islam by the turn of 8th century C.E.
And unlike many other nations, there is no evidence that any preachers
were ever sent by the early Islamic states to propagate Islam among the
Somalis.
However, in or about the 11th -12th century C.E. the celebrated Muslim
character Sheikh Yusuf Al-Kownayn and few other Islamic scholars
arrived in Somali soil. Sheikh Yusuf helped and simplified the reading
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and spelling of Arabic in which the Holy Quran is written for the non-
Arabic speaking Somalis. According to historians, Sheikh Yusuf was the
first to establish Islamic religion teaching cells (dugsis) among the
Somalis at Dhoqr, later renamed as Aw-Barkhadle, a village 40-km east
of Hargeisa, where the Sheikh is buried and his shrine is revered and
visited annually by many Somalis.
The people crowded around the two characters. Bu’ur Ba’ayr challenged
the Sheikh’s spiritual prowess to create a tunnel at the bottom of a
nearby hill and to go through it and come out alive. The Sheikh would
not want to respond to a magic’s whims and turned it to Bu’ur Ba’ayr to
do it himself. Then a crack occurred in the hill in the shape of a tunnel,
and when Bu’ur Ba’ayr was in the middle of the tunnel the Sheikh
invoked God’s name and the banks of the tunnel instantly collapsed,
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burying Bu’ur Ba’ayr then and there, never to be heard of or seen again
– Emphasis.
The crusaders carried seven such other invasions against the Muslims
and conquered many other important places until 1291 when Salahaddin
Al-Ayuby defeated them and liberated Al-Quddus, after nearly two
centuries of occupation by the crusaders – Source: Abdishakur Mire’s
book mentioned here-below.
Unlike many other African societies, the Somalis fortunately already had
religion and had benefitted from the Islamic civilization when European
powers conquered the continent and began its colonization upon the
pretext of being on a civilizing mission in the late 19th century, C.E. -
Emphasis.
However, later emerged from time to time among the Somalis, a few
non-Sufi Islamic organizations, with a somewhat fragmented political
tendencies and they included the following:
However, the later period of 1950s – 1960s saw the beginning of young
Somalis of non-Sufi Islamic scholars returning from the Arab world,
mainly from Egypt and Saudi Arabia. These scholars were followers of
the Muslim Brotherhood, which was founded in Egypt during April
1928 by a young Sheikh named Hassan Ahmed Abdulrahman Al-Banna,
better known as Hassan Al-Banna ( 1907 – 1949 C.E.), five years after
the decline of the Othmania Kingdom (aka The Ottoman Empire) in
Turkey in March 1923 - Emphasis.
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And there were also contemporary followers of the Salafia (aka Al-
Wahaabia), which was later reactivated in Saudi Arabia during the
beginning of 1900s by Sheikh Mohammad Abdul-Wahab.
Both the Muslim Brotherhood and the Salafia have been opposed to the
Sufia practices of Islam and they share the view that the Sharia should
be the rule of law. But the duo, otherwise, differ in their individual
points of view in governance. The former is strictly opposed to any form
of secularity (the separation of religion and the state). The Salafia
(Wahaabia), on the other hand, tolerates a modified form of governance
by accepting its leading advisory role in religious affairs and
jurisprudence, while the state affairs overall are the domain of the ruler
or the ruling class.
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The Military Junta who seized power through a bloodless coup
d’etat on 21 October 1969, at the beginning accommodated the
Islamic educated groups. The Junta’s first appointed Minister of
Justice was Sheikh Abdulqani Ahmed, an Islamic scholar, and
many such other Islamic scholars were also appointed as judges
during his tenure as Minister of Justice – Emphasis.
However, that accommodation hardly survived for little more than
a year. The Junta, upon its 2nd anniversary of seizing power, on 21
October 1971 announced the adoption of Scientific Socialism as
the system of socio-politico-economic development and
governance in Somalia. The Islamic scholars seriously viewed that
decision as an act of anti Islamic policy. Confrontation became
obviously inevitable between the two groups and the latter were
soon targeted by the Junta as an anti revolutionary lot. However,
the culmination of that confrontation was the enactment of the
infamous Family Law in early January 1975, which violated some
verses of the Holy Quran, and the later execution of ten Islamic
religious leaders who openly opposed that law. Six other religious
personalities were also convicted to life imprisonment and
seventeen others up to twenty years jail sentences.
From then onwards many other Islamic scholars including Sheikh
Abdulqani who had already been dismissed from his cabinet post
and Sheikh Mohamed Mo’allim Hassan were detained for long
periods without trial. Many other such Islamic scholars left the
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country or went underground and continued preaching Islamic
principles in order to forestall the implementation of that law and
by extension to defeat the Junta regime itself.
When the Islamic scholars were rounded up during 1975-76 those
detained also included the leaders of an already founded
underground Islamic Organization in Mogadishu, Al-Ahli Al-
Islam. The acting leadership of Al-Ahli then fell on a young
disciple, Hussein Ali Haji (see Abdishakur Mire Adam’s book
mentioned above, p.58). Hussein lived in the Waberi quarter, but
operated in the Hamar-Weyne area, 3-4km away from his home,
under cover of being a street vendor, where the heads of cells of
four zones into which the capital city was divided for the Islamic
underground activities would meet him almost daily. Women were
also reported playing a crucial role in those underground Islamic
activities.
Al-Ahli Al-Islam urged many of its young members to join the
armed forces and the security service in order to penetrate the inner
circles of the Junta regime and quite a few succeeded doing so.
The detained clerics were released in the wake of a failed military
attempted coup d’etat in April 1978. Then many other Islamic
scholars also returned to the country and intensified their religious
activities until the regime fell in January 1991. However, unlike
subsequent armed opposition groups, the Islamic scholars never
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allied themselves with the Somalis’ traditional enemy, Ethiopia,
against the Somali state.
Later, a conflict surfaced among the members of Al-Ahli Al-Islam
in 1978. There emerged two groups that became known as the
Takfiir and Tasliim within the organization. The former advocated
the belief that the leaders of the Junta regime and their
collaborators had become apostates and were no longer Muslims,
while the latter held that they were sinners, but they might not be
non-Muslims.
At long last Al-Ahli Al-Islam split in that same year into Al-Islah
Al-Islami of the Horn of Africa, which had been dreamed of by
some of its new members for some time, and was founded on 11
July 1978 in Riyad, Saudi Arabia; and Jama’a Al-Islamiya that was
also established in 1978 in Maka Al-Mukarrama, Saudi Arabia.
However, despite their split, the Islamic organizations had never
resigned their commitment to the eventual establishment of an
Islamic state in Somalia.
Al-Islah is an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood, while Jama’a
Al-Islamiya was a follower of the Salafia organization. Sheikh
Mohamed Mo’allim was, after his release from detention in 1982,
offered the leadership of the latter organization, Jama’a Al-Islamia.
He declined, but remained its unofficial spiritual leader until his
death.
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An earlier Islamic organization had already existed in the North,
Wahda Al-Shabaab Al-Islamiya, which was founded in Hargeisa
on 6 June 1969. It later became allied with Al-Ahli Al-Islam,
whereby the activist members of the former living in Mogadishu
would be affiliated with Al-Ahli Al-Islam and vice versa.
Jama’a Al-Tabliiq
The above is one of the International Islamic Movements. It was
founded in 1926 C.E. in the former Indian sub-continent (now
Bangladash, India and Pakistan) by Mowlana Sheikh Ilyas Al-
Kandahlawi (1303 – 1364 Hijriya (1872 – 1933) C.E. He learned
Islamic education in his childhood in his local home town, and
later joined an Islamic school in Delhi.
Al-Tabliiq leaders are by and large disciples of the Hanafi School,
but the Movement operates in all Muslim countries practicing any
of the four Islamic schools, and reached Somalia in1976.
The Movement’s main mission is the preaching of Islamic
principles through the following objectives among others:
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IV
a. Geographical proximity;
b. Islamic religion;
c. Trade;
d. Early Arab migration;
e. Inter-(cross) marriages.
The towns of early Arab settlements were Zaila, Harar, Berbera, Mait,
Bosaso, and Hafun, all along the Gulf of Aden excepting Harar in the
distant hinterland and Hafun which lies along the Indian Ocean northern
coast, which the Arabs called: “ Berri al-ajam ( non-Arab land). And
also Hamar, Gendershe, Merka and Brava along the Indian Ocean coast,
which the Arabs also called, “ Benadir” or bahr al-aznji( the sea of the
black people).
Most of the above mentioned towns seem to have had existed before the
C.E. according to the Greek voyager, Hipolus, in his book, the Eritrean
sea, in 47 C.E.
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Later generations of the inhabitants of Zaila, Harar, Hamar and Brava
over time became Arabised and developed a declannised cultural
identities as Zeili’is, Hararis, Hamaris and Bravanese( Barawaani).
First Arab voyager, Al-Yaqubi, (890 -893 C.E) called present day
Hamar as Muqdas (Sacred city) in his book, Al-Buldaan (The countries).
Subsequent Arab voyagers, Ibn Haykal, 977 C.E., Al-Yaqud, ( 1212 -
1224 C.E.), author of Al-Mujma ( the collection); Al-Idrisi 1254 C.E.,
and Al-Sa’id, all of them corroborated or did not contradict Al-Yaqubi.
Muqadas later transformed into Mugdishu as the Somalis call it. The
Italians called it MOGADISCIO, and the British Military
Administration (BMA) after the 2nd world war named it as Mogadishu,
which is still used in all English writings.
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administer justice who also sometimes acted as the ruler, being the sole
authority in the city.
1328 C.E. – Abyssinia emperor, Amda Sayoun (r. 1314 -1344) jailed
Haq al-din I, Sultan of Ifat, when the latter refused to pay tribute.
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prosperity under the Fakhru-addin dynasty rule up to the 15th century
C.E.
1331 C.E. – Ibn Battuta gives full descriptions of Zayla and Moqadishu
– Emphasis.
1333 C.E. – Haq al-din II becomes the new Sultan of Ifat and declares
jihad against Abyssinia and fights until he was killed in action.
Sa’ad Al-Din (1386 -1415) succeeded Haq al-din II, and was
assassinated in the island opposite the Zayla town, which bears his
name.
1471 C.E. – Lada’I Uthman, amir of Awdal, renews the jihad against
Abyssinia and defeats two successive Abyssinian military expeditions in
1473 -74.
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Since the Somali script was unwritten before 1972, Arabic had been an
essentially useful tool of written communication among the Somalis and
also for contacts with the Arab world for several centuries, especially in
the private sector and in teaching the Quran.
A great deal of the Arabic vocabulary has over time become practically
Somalised. And when the Somali script was being written in 1970s
many Arabic words were included and taken for anything that had no
original Somali names.
These ties and bonds of friendship that had developed through the ages,
which bound the Arabs and Somalis together, would always continue to
exist, with or without Somalia joining the Arab League.
Arabism means the Arabic language and culture, but neither colour nor
race. Hence, the deep rooted affinities that bind together Arabs and
Somalis is underlined by the acceptance of the latter as the only unique
member of the Arab League without having the two qualifying
ingredients of the Arabic language and Arab culture for membership into
that Organization.
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the then Somali authorities were reluctant about an immediate
Arabisation, fearing that it might impede development of the then
nascent Somali script, which was hardly over a year old when Somalia
joined the Arab League in February 1974.
In any case, the unmitigated failure on the part of the Somalis is that
after nearly fifty years of Somali membership of the Arab League, there
is no one single Arabic language News Paper in the whole country. On
the contrary, some non-Arab, much less Arab League member country
publishes Arabic language News Paper(s) four to five days a week.
51
V
1505 – The Turks established presence over Zaila and Harar, but did not
settle.
1506 - Portuguese forces pillaged and burnt Barava town, but suffered
about forty of their men killed and about another sixty wounded by
thousands of Somali spears men before their withdrawal. A great
number of Somalis were also killed and wounded by Portuguese fire
power, which the Somalis did not have.
1516 –Lope Suarez’s Portuguese forces attacked and burnt Zaila, but
suffered great loses and abandoned another planned attack on Berbera
until two years later.
The Portuguese forces joined and fought on the Abyssinian side. Imam
Ahmed Guray dies of Portuguese fire on 22 Feb. 1543 forces retreated,
but not until after he had captured and the Portuguese force’s
commander, Christopher Da Gama, and 200 men of his force (Source:
War Correspodent, Sihab ad-Din Ahmad Abd al-Qader bin Salem bin
Uthman – Emphasis.
1585-6 – Mogadishu became under Turkish suzerainty, but did not last
long.
53
1840 – The British entered into commercial agreement with the Somali
governor of Zaila and the Sultan of Tajoura.
1840 – Yusuf Ali breaks with the Majerteen Sultanate and settles in
Hobyo, becoming its ruler.
1878 –The Geledi Sultan, Ahmad Yusuf (r. 1848 – 1878) was killed near
Marka and the Geledi forces retreated.
54
VI
Colonization of the Somali people was the worse of its kind, because
there were no other colonized people divided into more than two
colonies.
55
owners without any compensation and allotted to Italian settlers,
mostly in the Lower Shabeelle basin.
d) Ethiopia’s special interests were expansionism and perpetual
colonization as is still the case to date.
IN the South, the country became officially an Italian colony after the
partition of the African continent by European powers in late 19th
century, but not practically under Italian control until 1908,
The Italians forced their way into the country, very unlike the north,
without any prior agreements with the people and the Somalis resisted
bitterly.
56
1886 – Britain and Germany recognized the suzerainty of the Sultan of
Zanzibar over parts of East Africa including some Somali ports.
1888 – Britain and France concluded the fixed boundary between Zaila
and Djibouti as at present.
1897 – Britain betrays her agreements with the Somalis and secretly
cedes further Somali territories to Abyssinia.
1889 – Italy enters into protectorate treaties with the Sultanates of Alula
on 7 April and Hobyo on 3 May. The two Sultanates remained
autonomous under Italian suzerainty for two and half decades until
Fascist party came to power in Italy.
57
1891 – On 24 March Britain and Italy demarcated their mutual colonial
spheres of influence along sides of the Jubba River.
1891 – Britain and Italy demarcate their colonial frontiers in East Africa.
Next day on 10 Feb. a large Italian forces attacked all coastal areas
between Mogadishu and Merka. They massacred the people, not even
sparing pregnant women and children. All surviving men were rounded
up and made forced labour to build a monument for Antonio Cecchi in
Mogadishu.
58
1898 – Sheikh Aways (1846-1907) first established the Qaadirya Dariiqa
in the lower Shablle valley. He was alleged to have been murdered by
the Darawishta for Dariiqas rivalry.
Next day on 10 Feb. a large Italian forces attacked all coastal areas
between Mogadishu and Merka. They massacred the people, not even
sparing pregnant women and children. All surviving men were rounded
up and made forced labour to build a monument for Antonio Cecchi in
Mogadishu.
1908 – After taking nearly twenty years the Italians subdued Somali
resistance in Merka and its environs, and only then attacked and over run
the Geledi Sultanate headquartered in Afgoye.
1910 – All areas east of the Juba River were occupied by Italian forces.
1914 – In the early months Wajid, Hudur and Teyeglow were occupied.
1922 - In October the Fascist party won elections in Italy and within a
year they imported their Fascism into the colonies. The autonomy of the
two Sultanates was abolished in 1923. Hobyo capitulated, but the
northeast strongly resisted for more than two years until October 19,
60
1925. The ruling Boqor did not surrender until 1927 after which Fascist
rule prevailed throughout southern Somaliland - Emphasis.
Besides those, there were few evening classes in some centres for
government employees from which few others also took advantage of it.
Even so, in 1923 onwards the Fascist administration totally prohibited
any education for black people.
1925 – Legacy of the 1914 -1919 First world war, Juba land was ceded
to Italy - Emphasis
1935 -36, Italy invaded and Occupied Ethiopia. And also after capturing
the North (Somaliland) from the British in August 1940, re-united all
61
divided Somali territories under one administration, excepting
DJIBOUTI and the NFD.
Thus, all Somali territories still became jointly under one administration,
the British, excepting Djibouti.
After Italy’s defeat in the second world war, the British Military
Administration (BMA) opened public schools and mass adult classes in
all centres throughout the country, as well as private schools to the
extent that more Southerners knew English than the Northerners at the
time of the re-union in 1960 - EMPHASIS.
In August the Atlantic charter was born, the forerunner of the United
Nations’ charter - Emphasis.
“Article 3: they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of
government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign
rights and self – government restored to those who have been forcibly
deprived of them”.
62
1943 –First schools were established in te North, which hitherto had
been rejected by the local people since Mohamed Abdille Hassan’s
rebellion against Christian proselytizing. Emphasis.
VII
The first Somali political organization, the Somali Youth Club (SYC)
was formed in Mogadishu on 15 May 1943, later renamed Somali Youth
League (SYL) on the former’s 4th anniversary, 15 May 1947.
1945 – The founding of the United Nations and its Charter as basis for
international law and world order.
United Nations.
1946 – The Victor Powers in the 2nd World War (1939 – 1945), Britain,
France, USA and USSR met to discuss the future destiny of the peoples
of the former Italian colonies in Africa, Eritrea, Libya and Somali. The
British then proposed re-unification of all Somali territories as a UN
Trusteeship to be administered by Britain. It was rejected, first by the
other three and secondly later, unfortunately by the pro-independence
Somali Political Party, the SYL The SYL was not against reuniting the
Somalis, because that was the cornerstone of its objectives, but rejected
British rule of all Somali territories. - Emphasis.
1955 – The final hand over by the British of Somali territories that it
had previously ceded secretly to Abyssinia, but had since remained
under its control.
65
1956 – First general elections in the Trust Territory for 60 seats
Legislature were held, but uncontested ten seats were reserved for
minority groups, which were never filled. The contested 50 seats
resulted into SYL majority, followed by formation of Internal Somali
Government and Somalisation of the public services managing positions
and the Police Force.
Origin of the name ‘Somalia’ resulted from the AFIS Report to the UN
Trusteeship Council and was also adopted by the UNGA.
66
1960 – On 18 Feb. first elections ever held in Somaliland and SNL/USP
coalition won a resounding victory, obtaining 20 and 12 seats
respectively out of the overall 33 seats.
67
VIII
The above had been a cherished goal by all Somalis even before since
the birth of the United Nations in 1945, but actually the North – South
rash merger in 1960, instead of gradually planned re-union, was forced
by the northern masses over the head of their inexperienced politicians
and that also forced the hands of the southern political leaders.
1st July 1960 was independence of the South. The reunion was
proclaimed on that same day.
For the first six months the union was only political on moral authority,
but lacked legal formality. That loop hole was, however, remedied six
months later when the National Assembly unanimously approved a new
Act of Union, Law No. 5, on 31 January 1961, which was made
retroactively back dated as from July 1, 1960 - Emphasis.
69
Britain held a plebiscite for the Somalis of the NFD, but dishonored the
outcome whereby 89% chose re-union with the Somali Republic.
Somalia enters into military co-operation with the former Soviet Union -
Emphasis.
70
but stubborn France would not burdge from its position until Djibouti’s
independence in 1977 - Emphasis.
71
Likewise, electoral system practiced during the same periods was
Proportional Representation, except Somaliland elections in 1960 before
independence which were based on Plurality.
IX
The military rule era had extremely contrasting impacts on the life of
72
which both the material and labour costs were borne by the general
public. Although schooling was always free, but thee had been shortage
of schools. Not only enough schools were built, but it was also made
compulsory for all school age children in urban centres. Revolutionary
Youth Centres were established to school and care for poor children who
could not afford to meet the standard of ordinary schools in way of
school uniforms, etc. The positive culmination in educational
development was, however, the establishment of the National University
in 1971 and the writing of the Somali language script in 1972.
The Somali National Army was considered one of the best strong armies
in Africa - Emphasis.
An industrial sector was also established and all privately owned banks
and similar institutions like Insurance Companies, etc., were
nationalized, which in turn resulted into a great deal of job creations.
For the first time in nine years since independence, the national budget
was balanced and Italian budgetary aid was diverted to development
projects.
73
Somali diplomacy was tremendously enhanced by the internal positive
development and Somalia became a member of the UN Security Council
Somali diplomacy since independence succeeded for the first to secure a
discussion over the Ogaden in the OAU annual conferences held in
Addis Ababa during April 1973. An 8-member countries’ Committee
was appointed by that Summit to use their good offices and to eventually
report about the dispute between Ethiopia and Somalia – Emphasis.
When the military Junta seized power they promised to restore civilian
rule and return to their barracks after cleaning the mess, but they ruled
the country for more than twenty years and after their popularity waned,
they pitted Somali groups against each other that countered their earlier
positive security measures, and eventually led to the disintegration of the
country and crises up to the present time – Emphasis.
Right from the beginning everything good that was done by the military
regime was at the very expenses of human rights culminating the
abolition of the legal concept of ‘Habeas Corpus’ (from Latin law and
74
means that an arrested person should not be held in prison longer than a
certain period unless a judge in court approves).
The following early attempts, among others, were made to write the
Somali script:
75
1900 – The legendary Sheikh Aweys bin Mohamed Baraawi started
writing the Bravanese dialect the Chi Mini – or Chim Balazi.
1956 – The late Musa Haji Ismail aka Musa Galaal and Goosh
Andrezejwski published a premier in Latin entitled, “Hikmad Somali
(Somali wisdom).
76
Among various script proposals by the many researchers, there were
three competitive scripts: the Arabic for religious preference, the
Osmania, named after its proposer, for its indigenous authorship and
Latin for its technical aspects.
1975 – The Military Junta enacts a new Family Law, which provoked
religious opposition by the Ulima – Emphasis.
77
THE ETHIOPIAN-SOMALI WAR OF 1977-78:
Personnel
160 executed by own side, but excluded 400 Cubans and 100
Both Cubans and Ethiopians admitted that the Somalis were tough and
fought bravely, but lacked co-ordination and proper leadership (sic).
78
Source: Gebru Tareke’s Article (44 pages) 2000 C.E., published in the
International Journal of African Historical studies, Vol. 33, No. 3 (2000)
- Emphasis.
The former Soviet Union (Russians), despite having had trained and
armed Somali forces for nearly a decade and a half (1963 – 1977), and
despite having also had a Treaty of Friendship with the Somali Republic,
nevertheless, they betrayed the latter and militarily supported Ethiopia in
the Ogaden War ( 1977 – 78). That turned about face must have had
been dictated by geopolitical strategic interests of the former Soviet
Union possibly based upon the following scenario:
1978 – In April, the ‘Irro’ led attempted coup d’état was aborted.
80
Col. Abdullahi Yusuf absconded to Ethiopia, the first Somali ever to
seek political sanctuary in Abyssinia since Omar Samatar in 1925, and
formed the SSDF as the first opposition group since the military Junta
came to power.
Harassment was then meted out to the Majertain people by the Military
Junta and their supporters – Emphasis.
81
The authorities had armed some groups, and the arms also passed
to other groups not intended for, and chaos ensued.
In July Dr. Ismail Jumale, a national figure and the founder of the USC
dies, and his death disintegrated the organization, which became badly
divided into three groups, and by extension would also destabilize the
whole country, because the USC had strong presence in the capital –
Emphasis.
1991 – On 26 Jan. Military rule collapses and Mohamed Siyad flees the
capital. Forces abandoned their positions and government arsenal falls
into public hands.
82
Next day, the USC Mogadishu Wing unilaterally appoints Ali Mahdi as
President of Somalia and he in turn appoints Omar Arteh as Prime
Minister, which was rejected by Gen. Aideed and the then two other
armed opposition movements, the SNM and SPM; and also by many
other non-Hawiye Somali groups.
USC finally splits into Ali Mahdi and Aideed led factions, which
transcended into armed confrontations.
Last UN sponsored meeting in Addis Ababa was aborted and the venue
was shifted to Nairobi by April following year. The Nairobi meeting
also closed inconclusively, but with a declaration to resume it in a
month’s time inside Somalia. The Declaration also called for the
attendance of SNM.
29 April 1994, SNM Chairman, the late Abdurahman Ahmed Ali (Tuur)
denounced the secession of the North and called for a federal system of
governance for all of Somalia, which was welcome by many southern
Somali leaders, despite double standards on the part of some who
preferred continued secession of the north.
During the following few months SNM and other Northern factions held
meetings in Djibouti discussing the former’s proposal, and finally the
latter all affirmed the SNM proposal and by August 1994 al of them
joined Southern factions in Mogadishu.
84
The Somali factions became divided into two political camps of SNA
and SSA coalitions led by Aideed and Ali Mahdi respectively and could
not agree upon the modalities of holding together the meeting envisaged
by the Nairobi Declaration.
In July USC North, Ali Mahdi’s side, shelled and closed the Mogadishu
port, after establishing a makeshift jetty at El-Ma’an 25 km north of the
capital, , with UN input. Aideed did not retaliate and depended on the
Merka port.
85
1996 - In July, the then OAU Summit resolution, held in Yaoundé,
Cameroon, mandated the IGAD member states to explore, collectively
or individually, how to resolve the Somali crisis.
An understanding was reached, but discussions were still going on, and
no sooner than that minimum achievement was announced by the BBC
did Ethiopia hurriedly and impudently invite the above three while they
were still the guests of the eldest African statesman. The Ethiopian
objective was to pre-empt President Moi’s positive initiative and to
86
monopolize Somalia situation for her easy destabilization, under cover
of peace making initiative.
Ethiopia then convened her infamous Sodere Meeting for the factions of
only one of the then two Somali political camps, the SSA, who had no
differences to settle among themselves, during late Nov. 1996 – 27 Feb.
1997.
Ethiopia then campaigned that only Hussein Aideed was absent from her
Sodere process, denying the existence of all the factions of his coalition
partners, and urged the international community to exert pressure to bear
on him to join that process, but in vain, because the international
community had known the exact situation in Somalia and that many
87
other factions besides Hussein Aideed were also absent from that
Ethiopian sponsored Sodere meeting.
The overall peace process in Somalia stalemated once again until the
2000 Arta process sponsored by Djibouti.
88
The outcome of the Arta process was aborted by Ethiopian
destabilization with western support by withholding recognition of the
new transitional Somali government. On the contrary, the western
powers, not only supported and recognized a less credible and much less
viable Ethiopian backed subsequent process, i.e. the (Mbagath (Nairobi)
Kenya, 2002 --2004), but they actually, the western powers financed it.
The latter process also failed because of its foreign manipulation and
lack of support inside Somalia.
However, the Arta process is not dead and will never die despite that
setback, because it galvanized and institutionalized the Somali civil
society from whom emerged the leaders of the Somali governments
since 2012.
Before and after the Arta process, later Islamic Courts’ Union, again
renamed themselves as Islamic Courts Council – Emphasis.
89
UPRISING IN MOGADISHU SUPPORTED THE ISLAMIC
COURTS, and in June the warlords were defeated.
90
5. Lack of co-ordination between the armed opposition groups that
actually toppled the military regime;
6. Main factors that sustained and prolonged the Somali crisis:
a) Warlords’ greed for power and less interest for peace;
b) Ethiopian destabilization;
c) Major Powers disinterest or even some with biased policies.
Somali values;
92
13. SOMALI FREEDOM FIGHTERS
There were thousands of Somali freedom fighters, esp. in the south, who
sacrificed their lives, but whose names were never recorded. However,
the very few, whose roles of heroism become particularly distinguished,
both north and south, included the following:
3. Sultan Ali Issa of Merka; and Sheikh Abdi Abiikar Gafle who was
an agent of the Daraawishta.
93
from Bud-bud was also ambushed by Somali freedom fighters,
killing several including the commander.
8. The two Somalis leading the fierce resistance on 10 Feb. 1907 after
the killing of the newly appointed Merka Itaalian administrator,
Giacoma Trevis, were named as Mohamed Yusuf and Moallim
Mursal.
94
And in the north: Haji Farah Omaar since early 1920s, founders of
NUF: Michael Mariano Ahmed Hassan Ibrahim, Rashid Sultan
Abdullahi and others, Haji Khalif Sheikh Hasan, Ismail Nahar, Sultan
Abdullahi Sultan Deria, Mohamoud Jama Urdoh, Mohamoud Salah
(Shine), Mo’allim Qassim, Mohamoud Ahmed Ali, Yusuf Haji Adan,
Ali Mireh, leaders of SNLlUSP: Mohamed Ibrahim Egal, Ahmed
Kayse Haji Dualeh Abdalla, Garad Ali Gerad Jama and many
others… Emphasis on each.
95
References to Somali Political History Notes:
5.The Scramble for Africa (Somali History 1827-1977) by the late Ambassador
Mohamed Osman Omar
issued 1962.
10.Somali Dispute 1964 by the late John Drysdale. Also Stiocs Without Pillows
19990s by the same author.
96