PHOTOGRAMMETRY

CED, UET LAHORE

 PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• PHOTOGRAMMTRY:
• Photogrammetry may be defined as the science, art, and
technology of obtaining reliable information from
photographs.
• It encompasses two major areas of specialization: metrical
and interpretative. The first area is of principal interest to
those involved in surveying (geomatics), since it is applied in
determining spatial information including distances,
elevations, areas, volumes, cross sections, and data for
compiling topographic maps from measurements made on
photographs.
• Aerial photographs (exposed from aircraft) are normally used,
although in certain special applications, terrestrial photos
(taken from Earth-based cameras) are employed.
• PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• Interpretative photogrammetry involves recognizing objects
from their photographic images and judging their significance.
Critical factors considered in identifying objects are the
shapes, sizes, patterns, shadows, tones, and textures of their
images.
• Apart from cameras, other sensing and imaging devices such
as multispectral scanners, thermal scanners, radiometers, and
side-looking airborne radar are used, which aid greatly in
interpretation, the term, remote sensing, is now generally
applied to the interpretative area of photogrammetry.
• PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements
from photographs, especially for recovering the exact
positions of surface points.
• USES OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• Photography dates back to 1839, and the first attempt to use
photogrammetry in preparing a topographic map occurred a
year later. Photogrammetry is now the principal method
employed in topographic mapping and compiling other forms
of spatial data.

Paris by Nadar, circa 1859

• USES OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• U.S. Geological Survey uses the procedure almost exclusively
in compiling its maps. Cameras and other photogrammetric
instruments and techniques have improved continually, so
that spatial data collected by photogrammetry today meets
very high accuracy standards. Other advantages of this
method are:
• (1) speed of collecting spatial data in an area
• (2) relatively low cost
• (3) ease of obtaining topographic details, especially in
inaccessible areas
• (4) reduced likelihood of omitting details in spatial data
collection.
• USES OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• Photogrammetry presently has many applications in surveying
and engineering. For example:
• It is used in land surveying to compute coordinates of section
corners, boundary corners, or points of evidence that help
locate these corners.
• Photogrammetry is used to map shorelines in hydrographic
surveying, to determine precise ground coordinates of points
in control surveying and to develop maps and cross sections
for route and engineering surveys.
• Photogrammetry is playing an increasingly important role in
developing the necessary data for modern Land and
Geographic Information systems.
AERIAL CAMERAS

• Aerial cameras must be capable of exposing a large number of

photographs in rapid succession while moving in an aircraft at
high speed; so a short cycling time, fast lens, efficient shutter,
and large-capacity magazine or digital storage are required.
• TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
• Vertical Photographs
Aerial photographs taken with the camera axis aimed
vertically downward or as nearly vertical as possible are
classified as vertical.
• TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
• Oblique Photographs
Photographs made with the camera axis intentionally inclined
at an angle between the horizontal and vertical are classified
as oblique.
• Oblique photographs
are further classified as high
if the horizon shows on the
picture and low if it does not.

Low oblique photograph

High oblique photograph
• TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
• SCALE OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH

• THERE ARE THREE MAIN WAYS OF DETERMINING SCALE OF A

PHOTOGRAPH
• (1) BY USING CAMERS’S FOCAL LENGTH AND FLYING HEIGHT
OF THE AIRPLANE
• (2) BY USING A MAP OF THE SAME AREA
• (3) BY USING LENGTH OF ANY KNOWN
LINE/BOUNDARY/LANDMARK OF THE SAME AREA
• SCALE OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH USING CAMERA FOCAL
LENGTH AND FLYING HEIGHT
• Scale is ordinarily interpreted as the ratio of a distance on a map to
that same length on the ground.
• The scale of a vertical photograph is the ratio of a photo distance to
the corresponding ground distance. Since a photograph is a
perspective view, scale varies from point to point with variations in
terrain elevation.
• photo scale increases at higher elevations and decreases at lower
ones.
• The scale S at any point whose elevation above datum is h may be
expressed as

where S is the scale at any point on a vertical photo, f is the camera

focal length, H the flying height above datum, and h the elevation of
the point.
• SCALE OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH USING CAMERA FOCAL
LENGTH AND FLYING HEIGHT
• SCALE OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH USING CAMERA FOCAL
LENGTH AND FLYING HEIGHT
• Use of an average photographic scale is frequently desirable,
but must be accepted with caution as an approximation. For
any vertical photographs taken of terrain whose average
elevation above datum is havg, the average scale is
• EXAMPLE
• SCALE OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH USING MAP
• The scale of a photograph can be determined if a map is
available of the same area.
• This method does not require the focal length and flying
height to be known.
• It is necessary only to measure the photographic distance
between two well-defined points also identifiable on the
map.
• Photo scale is then calculated from the equation:

• When using this equation, the distances must be in the same

units, and the answer is the scale at the average elevation of
the two points used.
SCALE OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH USING MAP

EXAMPLE
• SCALE OF VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH USING KNOWN
DIMENSIONS
• The scale of a photograph can also be computed readily if
lines whose lengths are common knowledge appear in the
photograph.
• With an approximate photographic scale known, rough
determinations of the lengths of lines appearing in the photo
can be made.
• SCALE OF VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH USING KNOWN
DIMENSIONS

• EXAMPLE
• EXAMPLE
• STEREOSCOPIC PARALLAX

• Parallax is defined as the apparent displacement of the

position of an object with respect to a frame of reference
due to a shift in the point of observation.
• For example, a person looking through the view finder of an
aerial camera in an aircraft as it moves forward sees images of
objects moving across the field of view.
• This apparent motion (parallax) is due to the changing
location of the observer.
• By using a frame of reference, it can be seen that parallax
exists for all images appearing on successive photographs due
to forward motion between exposures.
• Points closer to the camera (of higher elevation) will appear to
move faster and have greater parallaxes than lower ones.
• STEREOSCOPIC PARALLAX

• Stereoscopic parallax is caused by taking images of the same

object but from different locations.

• Change in view visible for the same object with change in

vantage point.
• STEREOSCOPIC PARALLAX

• Parallax of a point is a function of its height and consequently

measuring it provides a means of calculating elevations. It is
also possible to compute X and Y ground coordinates from
parallax.
• Movement of an image across the focal plane between
successive exposures takes place in a line parallel with the
direction of flight. Thus to measure parallax, that direction
must first be established.
• For a pair of overlapping photos, this is done by locating
positions of the principal points and corresponding principal
points (that is, principal points transferred to their places in
the overlap area of the other photo).
• STEREOSCOPIC PARALLAX

• A line on each print ruled through these points

defines the direction of flight.
• It also serves as the photographic x-axis for
parallax measurement. The y-axis for making
parallax measurements is drawn perpendicular
to the flight line passing through each photo’s principal point.

• The x coordinate of a point is scaled on each photograph with respect to

the axes so constructed and the parallax of the point is then calculated
from the expression p = x - x1
• Photographic coordinates x and x1 are measured on both the photographs,
the photographic coordinates should be used with their relevant sign and
parallax can be calculated.
• STEREOSCOPIC PARALLAX

• Figure below illustrates

an overlapping pair of
vertical photograph exposed
at equal flight heights H
above datum.

• The distance between

exposure stations L and L1
is called B, the air base
• STEREOSCOPIC PARALLAX
• The superposition of exposure stations L and L1 gives the following
equations:

• (1) (2) (3)

• X and Y are ground coordinates of a point with respect to an origin

vertically beneath the exposure station of the left photograph, with
positive X coinciding with the direction of flight. Positive Y is 90°
counterclockwise to positive X.
• The parallax of the point is p, x and y the photographic coordinates
of a point on the left-hand print, H the flying height above datum, h
the point’s elevation above the same datum, and f the camera lens
focal length.
• These equations are commonly called the parallax equations and
are useful in calculating horizontal lengths of lines and elevations of
points.
• EXAMPLE

• SOLUTION
• FLIGHT PLANNING
• Certain factors, depending generally on the purpose of the
photography, must be specified to guide a flight crew in
executing its mission of taking aerial photographs. Some of
them are:
(1) boundaries of the area to be covered
(2) required scale of the photography
(3) camera focal length and format size
(4) endlap and sidelap.
• Once these elements have been fixed, it is possible to
compute the entire flight plan and prepare a flight map on
which the required flight lines have been delineated.
• FLIGHT PLANNING

• SIDELAP AND ENDLAP

• Vertical photographs for topographic mapping are taken in

strips, which normally run lengthwise over the area to be
covered. The strips or flight lines generally have a sidelap
(overlap of adjacent flight lines) of about 30%. Endlap
(overlap of adjacent photographs in the same flight line) is
usually about 60 +/- 5 %.
• An endlap of 50% or greater is necessary to assure that all
ground points will appear in at least two photographs and
that some will show in three.
• FLIGHT PLANNING

• ENDLAP
• FLIGHT PLANNING

• SIDELAP
• FLIGHT PLANNING

• TYPICAL FLIGHT MAP

• In the most modern systems, the flight planning is done using a

computer and the coordinates of flight lines are calculated. Then
the aircraft is automatically guided by an on-board NAVIGATION
system along the planned flight lines.
• FLIGHT PLANNING

• Information ordinarily calculated in flight planning includes

(1) flying height above mean sea level
(2) distance between exposures
(3) number of photographs per flight line
(4) distance between flight lines
(5) number of flight lines
(6) total number of photographs.

A flight plan is prepared based on these items.

• GROUND CONTROL FOR PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• Almost all phases of photogrammetry depend on ground
control (points of known positions and elevations with
identifiable images on the photograph).
• Ground control can be basic control—traverse, triangulation,
trilateration, monuments already in existence and marked
prior to photography to make them visible on the photos; or it
can be photo control—natural points having images
recognizable on the photographs.
• Ordinarily, photo control points are selected after
photography to ensure their satisfactory location and positive
identification. Premarking points with artificial targets is
sometimes necessary in areas that lack natural objects to
provide definite images.
• ANALYTICAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• Analytical photogrammetry involves the rigorous
mathematical calculation of ground coordinates of points
using computers.
• Input data consists of camera parameters, observed photo
coordinates of the images of all points whose ground
coordinates are to be determined, as well as those of a limited
number of well distributed ground control points; and the
ground coordinates of the control points.
• The photo coordinates are measured with respect to the
coordinate system.
• Analytical photogrammetry generally involves the formation
of large, rather complex, systems of redundant equations,
which are then solved on computer software.
• ANALYTICAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• Accuracies attainable using analytical photogrammetry are
very high and are frequently expressed as a ratio of the flying
height of the photography used. Accuracies within about
1/10,000th to 1/15,000th of the flying height above ground
are routinely obtained in computed X, Y, and Z coordinates.
• Thus, for photos taken from 6,000 ft above ground,
coordinates accurate to within about 0.4 to 0.6 ft can be
expected.
• The data is used to record digital elevation models, compile
topographic maps, and generate other types of spatially
related topographic information from overlapping aerial
photographs.
• The data is also used to prepare city maps, orthographic maps
and control maps very quickly and accurately.
• ORTHOPHOTOS
• Orthophotos are orthographic representations of the terrain
in picture form.
• An orthophoto is an aerial photograph that has been
geometrically corrected or 'ortho-rectified' such that the scale
of the photograph is uniform and utilised in the same manner
as a map. An ortho-photograph can be used to measure true
distances of features within the photograph.
• They are derived from aerial photos in a process called
differential rectification, which removes scale variations and
image displacements due to relief and tilt.
• Thus, the imaged features are shown in their true planimetric
positions.
• ORTHOPHOTOS

• Contemporary orthophoto production is done using softcopy

photogrammetric systems in a procedure called digital image
processing.
• The captured photo is converted to a digital image and consists of a
grid of tiny pixels, each of which is assigned a digital value
corresponding to its gray level, and each having its photo location
given in terms of its row and column within the grid.
• The digital image is input to the system’s computer, which uses
analytical photogrammetry equations to modify each pixel location
according to the tilt in the photograph and the scale at that point.
• Through this process, all pixels are modified to locations they would
have on a truly vertical photo and all are brought to a common
scale. The modified pixels are then printed electronically to produce
an orthophoto.
• ORTHOPHOTOS
• Orthophotos combine the advantages of both aerial photos
and line maps. Like photos, they show features by their actual
images rather than as lines and symbols, thus making them
more easily interpreted and understood.
• Like maps, orthophotos show the features in their true
planimetric positions. Therefore true distances, angles, and
areas can be scaled directly from them.
• ORTHOPHOTOS
• Orthophotomaps (maps produced from orthophotos) are
used for a variety of applications, including planning and
engineering design, cadastral and tax maping, GIS analysis.
• Orthophotos can
generally be prepared
more rapidly and
economically than line or
symbol planimetric maps.
With their many
significant advantages,
orthophotos have
superseded conventional
maps for many uses.
• ORTHOPHOTOS
• An orthophoto is a uniform-scale photograph. It is
a photographic map.
• ORTHOMOSAIC MAPS
• Orthomosaic maps are made up of a series of individual
photos which have been matched up via drone software so
that they form a new composite image, consisting of all the
smaller ones.
• An orthomosaic map is a detailed, accurate photo
representation of an area, created out of many photos that
have been stitched together and geometrically corrected
(“orthorectified”) so that it is as accurate as a map.
• ORTHOMOSAIC MAPS
• Orthomosaic maps have innumerable applications, in
construction, it can help provide detailed updates on the
progress of a construction project, since they allow us to
zoom in and see different parts of infrastructure under
construction, as well as related resources.
• ORTHOMOSAIC MAPS
• PHOTOGRAMMETRY SOFTWARE
• ESRI Drone2Map for ArcGIS
• AutoDesk ReCap photogrammetry Software
• DroneDeploy
• Topographic maps, 2D maps, 3D maps, orthographic
projections, planimetric maps, monitoring project progress,
monitoring natural environmental changes.
• AERIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• Autodesk
RECAP
• SOURCES OF ERROR IN PHOTOGRAMMETRY

• Some sources of error in photogrammetric work are:

1. Measuring instruments not standardized or calibrated.

2. Inaccurate location of principal and corresponding principal
points.
3. Failure to use camera calibration data.
4. Assumption of vertical exposures when photographs are
actually tilted.
5. Presumption of equal flying heights when they were unequal.
6. Incorrect orientation of photographs.