Unit 2

Main concepts in consumer behaviour, and Motivators

The purpose of consumer behaviour models is to attempt to give a simplified

version of the relationship of the various factors that influence consumer
behaviour. Various models have been developed to describe consumer behaviour
with the intention of trying to control the behaviour patterns. The models, however,
fall short of these objectives and at best give the reader an appreciation of
interactive factors that influence behaviour patterns. It is only possible to review
some of the general consumer behaviour models here. One of the earliest models of
consumer behaviour was proposed by Andreason (1965). This model is shown in
Figure 3.1. The model recognizes the importance of information in the consumer
decision-making process. It also emphasizes the importance of consumer attitudes
although it fails to consider attitudes in relation to repeat purchase behaviour.
 A second model, which concentrates on the buying decision for a new product
was proposed by Nicosia (1966). This model is shown in Figure 3.2. The model
concentrates on the organization’s attempts to communicate with the consumer,
and the consumers’ predisposition to act in a certain way. These two features
are referred to as Field One. The second stage involves the consumer in a search
evaluation process which is influenced by attitudes. This stage is referred to as
Field Two. The actual purchase process is referred to as Field Three, and the
post- purchase feedback process is referred to as Field Four. This model was
criticized by commentators because it was not empirically tested (Zaltman, Pinson
and Angelman, 1973), and because many of the vari ables were not defined (Lunn,
1974).
The most frequently quoted of all consumer behaviour models is the Howard–
Sheth model of buyer behaviour which was developed in 1969. This model is
shown in Figure 3.3. This model is important because it highlights the
importance of inputs to the consumer buying process and suggests ways in
which the consumer orders these inputs before making a final decision.
The Howard–Sheth model does have limitations, and does not explain all buyer
behaviour. However, it was a comprehensive theory of
41
buyer behaviour that was developed as a result of empirical research (Horton, 1984).
More recent research on consumer behaviour has concentrated on the exchange
processes and has attempted to look at the marketer’s perspective on the process. One
example of such an approach is shown in Figure 3.4. This model was developed by
Solomon (1996). He also suggested that consumer behaviour involves many different
actors. The purchaser and user of a product might not be the same person. People may
also act as influences on the buying processes. Organizations can also be involved in
the buying process. One example of an organization which may make purchase
decisions is the family.
The models considered so far are useful in academic research. Foxall and Goldsmith
(1994) suggested that these models mean little in the absence of a general
understanding of how consumers act. They suggest that consumer behaviour is a
sequence of problem-solving stages, as follows:
• the development and perception of a want or need
• pre-purchase planning and decision-making
• the purchase act itself
• post-purchase behaviour, which may lead to repeat buying,
repeat sales and disposition of the product after consumption.

Much of marketing activity, they suggested, concentrates on adapting product

offerings to particular circumstances of target segment needs
and wants. It is also common to stimulate an already existing want through
advertising and sales promotion, rather than creating wants.
The definitions and models which have been presented so far have been from general
marketing theory. Tourism is, by its very nature, a service rather than a product which
may have a considerable effect on consumer behaviour. Services have been defined by
Kotler and Armstrong (2004) as: ‘Any activity or benefit that one party can offer to
another that is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of
anything. Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product’.
The intangible nature of the service offering has a considerable effect on the consumer
during the decision-making process involved with purchase. This, coupled with the
high-spend aspect of tourism, means that tourism for the consumer is a high-risk
decision-making process. Therefore the consumer will be highly interested and
involved in the purchase decision. This was recognized by Seaton (1994):
They involve committing large sums of money to something which cannot
be seen or evaluated before purchase. The opportunity cost of a failed holiday is
irreversible. If a holiday goes wrong that is it for another year. Most people do
not have the additional vacation time or money to make good the holiday that
went wrong.
There is a philosophical question as to whether service marketing is
substantially different to product marketing (Horner and Swarbrooke, 1996). It is
clear, however, that tourism products have many distinctive features which mean
that consumer behaviour will be fundamentally different. To cope with these
differences, academics have developed definitions and models of consumer behaviour,
specifically for tourism. These range from the more general definitions to more
detailed models.
Middleton and Clark (2001) presented an adapted model of consumer
behaviour for tourism which was termed the stimulus – response model of buyer
behaviour. The model is based on four interactive components, with the central
component identified as ‘buyer characteristics and decision process’.
The model separates out motivators and determinants in the consumer buying
behaviour and also emphasises the important effects that an organization can have on
the consumer buying process by the use of communication channels.
Other models which attempt to explain consumer buying behaviour in tourism
have been advanced. Wahab, Crampton and Rothfield (1976) suggested a linear
model of the decision-making process in tourism.
Mathieson and Wall (1982) suggested a linear five-stage model of travel buying
behaviour, Gilbert (1991) suggested a model for consumer decision-making in
tourism, which suggests that there are two levels of factors which have an effect on
the consumer.
The first level of influences is close to the person and include psychological
influences such as perception and learning. The second level of influences includes
those which have been developed during the socialization process and include
reference groups and family influences.
All these models that have been adapted for tourism offer some insights into
the consumer behaviour process involved during the purchase and post-purchase
decision stages.
Motivators
Introduction
A wide range of factors motivate consumers to buy tourism products. We examine the
motivators which encourage tourists to make particular purchase decisions. We begin
by outlining the range of motivators that are thought to influence tourists and then
discuss how motivators vary between different types of tourism product and different
groups of people.
The number and range of motivators
Motivating factors in tourism can be split into two groups:

• those which motivate a person to take a holiday

• those which motivate a person to take a particular
holiday to a specific destination at a particular time.
There are many potential motivators that could relate to either or both of these
factors. Furthermore, there are a number of potential ‘variations on a theme’ for each
individual motivator, and myriad ways in which they can be combined. No widely
recognized way exists of categorizing the main motivating factors in tourism.
However, some of the major ones are outlined in Figure 4.1. However, there are other
ways of classifying motivators in tourism and the wider field of leisure. We now go
on to outline some of these.
The Leisure Motivation Scale
In 1983, Beard and Raghob developed a model called the Leisure Motivation Scale, which
sought to clarify motivators into four types, based on the work of Maslow. The four types
were:
(a) The intellectual component, which assesses the extent to
which individuals are motivated to engage in leisure
activities which involve . . . mental activities such as
learning, exploring, discovery, thought or imagery.
(b) The social component which assesses the extent to which
individuals engage in leisure activities for social reasons.
This component includes two basic needs . . . the need
for friendship and inter-personal relationships, while the
second is the need for the esteem of others.
(c) The competence-mastery component which assesses the
extent to which individuals engage in leisure activities
in order to achieve, master, challenge, and compete. The
activities are usually physical in nature.
(d) The stimulus-avoidance component which assesses the
desire to escape and get away from over-stimulating life
situations. It is the need for some individuals to avoid
social contact, to seek solitude and calm conditions; and
for others it is to seek to rest and to unwind themselves.

We have to recognize, first, that the motivators which make people wish to take a holiday
are not universally present. Some people appear to have little or no desire to take a holiday,
for whatever reason.

Motivators and the individual tourist

Every tourist is different, and so are the factors which motivate them. The main factors
which determine individual tourists’ motivations are probably:

1 Their personality, in other words, are they:

(a) gregarious or a loner?
(b) adventurous or cautious?
(c) confident or timid?
2 Their lifestyle which provides the context for their purchase
decision. The motivations are likely to be different for people
who are very concerned with being fashionable, or are preoccupied
with their health, or live alone and want to make new friends, or
enjoy partying.
3 Their past experience as a tourist and particular types of holiday,
both positive and negative.
4 Their past life, for motivations such as most notably nostalgia, are a
direct result of people’s life to date. This may include where they
took their honeymoon or military battles they have taken part in.
5 Their perceptions of their own strengths and weaknesses whether
these relate to their wealth or their skills.
6 How they wish to be viewed by other people.

We must also recognize that motivators change over time for each individual in response to
changes in their personal circumstances. These circumstances might include:

• having a child, or meeting a new partner

• an increase or reduction in income
• worsening health
• changing expectations or experiences as a tourist.

Multiple motivations
No tourist is likely to be influenced by just one motivator. They are more likely to be
affected by a number of motivators at any one time.
Office workers staring out of their office windows in suburban London today may be
motivated by a desire to take any holiday, anywhere to escape the monotony of their daily
working life. However, they may have a number of other motivators that would influence
the type of holiday they would like to take. They may, for example:

• want to escape a wet spell at home, and enjoy some sun and get a
suntan
• desire a chance to take some physical exercise as a contrast to their
sedentary lifestyle and to improve their health
• wish to pursue a hobby, whether it be surfing or eating Italian food
• want to widen their circle of friends or find a new partner
• wish see a particular church or museum
• want to relax.

Most people’s holidays represent a compromise between their multiple motivators. Either
one motivation becomes dominant or a holiday is purchased which ensures all of the
motivators can be at least partly satisfied.

Shared motivators
We rarely take holidays alone, but who we take them with has an influence over the factors
which influence our decisions.
Imagine a woman who is married and the mother or two young children, a member of a
women’s football team and a churchgoer. Her motivations may be different depending on
which group she is intending to holiday with. If she is taking a trip with her children, then
meeting their needs and keeping them happy may be her main motivation. On the other
hand, she and her husband may be taking a trip on their own, to celebrate their wedding
anniversary, in which case, romance may be the main motivator. When she takes a trip to
play football with her team, it may be seen as escapism or a chance to indulge her passion
for playing football. Finally, with her fellow churchgoers, she may be seeking spiritual
fulfilment from a trip.
It is rare for every member of a holiday party to share exactly the same motivators.
Differences in this respect undoubtedly account for much of the stressful side of holiday-
making.
Many trips represent a compromise among those in a group which is travelling together,
whereby:
the views of a dominant member may prevail
•
each member will go their own way for at least part of the time
•
the group will stay together but each member will be allowed to
•
choose what they will all do on one or two days.
Expressed and real motivators
We do not always express our true motivations because we:

• do not feel they will be seen by others as being acceptable. It can be

difficulty to admit that you are only going on holiday to party. It is
far easier to talk about a more general desire to relax, unwind and
‘have a good time’
• may not always recognize our motivations for they may be
subconscious or unconscious
• may recognize that they are apparently conflicting. For example, we
may want to relax by dancing and partying all night!
• can be aware of contradictions between our motivating factors and
our actual behaviour. We may claim to want to improve our French
when we go to France and meet French people. Then, because of
our circumstances, and budget, and perhaps fear, we book a stay in
an English-owned villa, in a village in the Dordogne where there
seem to be few French people and everyone speaks English! This
could be the result of an unfortunate chain of events or the outcome
of the triumph of a subconscious motivator not to be humiliated in
public, on holiday, because of our current lack of ability to speak
French.

Motivators and different market segments

Not only are motivators different for each individual tourist but per- haps they also vary
between different market segments. For example, the tourism industry seems convinced that
segments are based on de- mographic criteria. They seem to assume that:
• young people want to party, relax, and make lots of new friends
• elderly people have a preference for sedate activities like bowls and
bingo, and to be almost obsessed by nostalgia
• parents are preoccupied with the need to keep their children happy.
They are also thought to want to escape from their parental
responsibilities from time to time to spend time together.
There has been some research to test the motivating factors for different demographic
groups. In 1996, Kaynak et al. published a study of Irish travellers’ perceptions of salient
attributes that led to their travel preferences of major foreign holiday destinations. This
study found significant differences between tourists of different ages, sexes, educational
attainment, income and marital status. Young people preferred vacations which gave
opportunities for activity-based holidays, while older travellers sought restful destinations
with sightsee- ing opportunities. The more highly educated respondents showed a
preference for destinations which offered opportunities for nature- based or cultural
activities. On the other hand, those people with a lower level of educational attainment
stressed the importance of a va- cation where they could try new and unfamiliar activities
that were very different from their everyday life. Those on lower incomes saw their holiday
as a chance to get away from the monotony of everyday life, and indulge in activities that
built up their self-confidence. Higher-income earners wanted an intellectually stimulating
holiday with excitement, and the chance to increase their knowledge of the destination area.

Motivators and gender

One aspect of demographics which the tourism industry seems to believe determines personal
motivators, is gender. Different products such as golf trips or shopping trips seem to be based
solely on a desire to match the perceived motivators of men and women respectively.
However, when one looks at a range of personal motivators, there is some evidence to suggest
that there is, in fact, relatively little difference between the sexes.
Research quoted by Ryan (1995) noted that in fourteen motivators there were significant
differences in the weighting given to them by men and women in three cases. Women
placed rather more value on trying to use a holiday to:
• avoid daily hustle and bustle
• relax physically
• relax emotionally.

National and cultural differences

As yet, relatively little research appears to have been done on national and cultural
differences in relation to motivators. This is rather surprising at a time when more and more
tourism organizations are seeking to sell their products to people in other countries.
We know that in some instances there are great similarities between groups of countries in
terms of motivators. People in northern European countries and the northern states of the
USA are often motivated by the desire to develop a suntan. However, in hot countries such
as India and Saudi Arabia, the intention is to take trips to the cooler hilly areas to escape the
intense heat at lower altitudes.
Some motivators are universal, such as nostalgia and romance, and the desire to see sights,
although actual behaviour will be influenced by the nationality and culture of the tourist.
Many people around the world seek some form of spiritual fulfilment. However, the desire
for such fulfilment and the wish to embark on a pilgrimage to gain it is more common
generally among Muslims than Christians.

Motivators and different types of tourism product

Marketers clearly try to link the products they develop to the factors which motivate their
target markets. Conventional wisdom certainly seems to indicate a belief that some
motivators are closely associated with different types of tourism product. This is perhaps
best illustrated in the visitor attractions sector. Figure 4.2 suggests some possible links
between motivators and different types of visitor attraction.
We can see that there are some different motivators for different types of products, but there
are also common ones such as status. Most of us are interested in status, but its meaning
varies from one type of attraction to another. It is also important to recognize that the
motivators listed in Figure 4.2 are highly generalized. They ignore the fact that attractions
serve many markets which each have their own different motivators. Young people at a
theme park may want excitement for themselves, but grandparents may go there with their
grandchildren to please the children. Families may search out the gentler rides, while
parents may want the nostalgic pleasure of revisiting a park they visited as children.

Motivators and the timing of purchase decisions

Motivators can also vary depending on when the decision to purchase a holiday is made. A
last-minute booking may reflect a desire to obtain
a discounted bargain or a wish to surprise a partner, or be a response to stress at work.
Alternatively, a vacation booked many months in advance may be a result of a desire to:

• visit a famous annual event where early booking is essential to se-

cure accommodation and flights
• enjoy the pleasure of looking forward in anticipation to the holiday.

Conclusions
It appears that the issue of motivation is highly complex and depends on a range of factors,
including:

• the personality and lifestyle of the potential tourists

• their past experiences
• who they are planning to take a vacation with
• their demographic characteristics
• how far in advance they book their trip.
It will become clear that there are great similarities between motivators and determinants.
There is a thin line, a grey area, between our desires and the factors that determine our
actual behaviour.

I. Discussion points and essay questions

1. The purchase of a holiday does not result in the consumer owning any physical
product. Discuss the effect of this on consumer behaviour.
2. Evaluate the reasons for a consumer choosing to buy a composite tourism product
rather than the individual components.
3. The media can have a major influence on consumer choice in tourism. Evaluate the
ways in which a tour operator can use this feature to boost sales.
4. Examine the ways in which an individual’s personality may affect their motivators in
relation to taking a holiday.
5. Discuss those changes involved in suggesting that people with certain demographic
characteristics will be motivated by particular fac- tors.
6. Compare and contrast the likely motivators of people taking a ‘sun, sea, and sand
holiday to a Greek island, with those on an up- market cruise around the Caribbean.
7. What is the purpose of consumer behaviour models?
8. Why is Howard–Sheth model of buyer behaviour is important?

II. True and False

1. The purpose of consumer behaviour models is to attempt to give a simplified version

of the relationship of the various factors that influence consumer behaviour.( )
2. The most frequently quoted of all consumer behaviour models is the Howard–Sheth
model of buyer behaviour which was developed in 1969. ( )
3. Howard–Sheth model of buyer behaviour is important because it highlights the
importance of inputs to the consumer buying process and suggests ways in which the
consumer orders these inputs before making a final decision. ( )
4. The purchaser and user of a product might not be the same person. ( )
5. Foxall and Goldsmith (1994) suggested that these models mean little in the absence of
a general understanding of how consumers act. ( )

III. Fill in the blanks

family Middleton and Organizations motivate influences

Clark (2001)

1. People may also act as ________________on the buying processes.

2. ____________________can also be involved in the buying process.
3. One example of an organization which may make purchase decisions is
the________________.
4. _________________________model is based on four interactive components, with
the central component identified as ‘buyer characteristics and decision process’.
5. A wide range of factors _________________consumers to buy tourism products.
IV. Choose the correct answer
1. The Leisure Motivation Scale was given by
a. Howard –Sheth
b. Beard and Raghob
c. Nicosia
d. Maslow
2. The ________________component, which assesses the extent to which
individuals are motivated to engage in leisure activities which involve . . .
mental activities such as learning, exploring, discovery, thought or imagery.
a. intellectual
b. social
c. competence-mastery
d. stimulus-avoidance
3. The ________________ component which assesses the extent to which
individuals engage in leisure activities for social reasons. This component
includes two basic needs . . . the need for friendship and inter-personal
relationships, while the second is the need for the esteem of others.
a. intellectual
b. social
c. competence-mastery
d. stimulus-avoidance

4. The ___________________________ component which assesses the extent to

which individuals engage in leisure activities in order to achieve, master,
challenge, and compete. The activities are usually physical in nature.
a. intellectual
b. social
c. competence-mastery
d. stimulus-avoidance
5. The _____________________________ component which assesses the desire to
escape and get away from over-stimulating life situations. It is the need for
some individuals to avoid social contact, to seek solitude and calm conditions;
and for others it is to seek to rest and to unwind themselves.
a. intellectual
b. social
c. competence-mastery
d. stimulus-avoidance
 V. Match the following

S. No. Coloumn A Coloumn A

a. highlights the importance of inputs
1 1. Andreason (1965). model to the consumer buying process and
suggests ways in which the
consumer orders these inputs
before making a final decision.
2 2. Nicosia (1966).model b. consumer behaviour involves many
different actors
3 3. Howard–Sheth model of c. stimulus – response model of buyer
buyer behaviour (1969) behaviour
4 4. Solomon (1996) d. concentrates on the buying decision for
a new product
5 5. Middleton and Clark (2001) e.The model recognizes the importance of
information in the consumer decision-
making process.

Exercise

Conduct a small-scale survey to investigate the importance of the high-spend nature of

tourism products on the purchase decision of consumers.

Exercise
Design a small-scale consumer panel which could be used to evaluate the reasons for
consumers choosing a particular tourism product.
Exercise
Design and implement a questionnaire survey of a small number of adults to try to ascertain
the main motivating factors which influence their choice of holiday. Then produce a critical
evaluation of your survey to highlight and account for its weaknesses.