BS 

ISO 11929‑4:2022

BSI Standards Publication

Determination of the characteristic limits (decision

threshold, detection limit and limits of the
coverage interval) for measurements of ionizing
radiation — Fundamentals and application

Part 4: Guidelines to applications

BS ISO 11929‑4:2022 BRITISH STANDARD

National foreword
This British Standard is the UK implementation of ISO 11929‑4:2022. It
supersedes BS ISO 11929‑4:2020, which is withdrawn.
The UK participation in its preparation was entrusted to Technical
Committee NCE/2, Radiation protection and measurement.
A list of organizations represented on this committee can be obtained on
request to its committee manager.
Contractual and legal considerations
This publication has been prepared in good faith, however no
representation, warranty, assurance or undertaking (express or
implied) is or will be made, and no responsibility or liability is or will be
accepted by BSI in relation to the adequacy, accuracy, completeness or
reasonableness of this publication. All and any such responsibility and
liability is expressly disclaimed to the full extent permitted by the law.
This publication is provided as is, and is to be used at the
recipient’s own risk.
The recipient is advised to consider seeking professional guidance with
respect to its use of this publication.
This publication is not intended to constitute a contract. Users are
responsible for its correct application.
© The British Standards Institution 2022
Published by BSI Standards Limited 2022
ISBN 978 0 539 20954 9
ICS 17.240
Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from
legal obligations.
This British Standard was published under the authority of the
Standards Policy and Strategy Committee on 31 August 2022.

Amendments/corrigenda issued since publication

Date Text affected
 BS ISO 11929‑4:2022
INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 11929-4

Third edition
2022-07

Determination of the characteristic

limits (decision threshold, detection
limit and limits of the coverage
interval) for measurements of ionizing
radiation — Fundamentals and
application —
Part 4:
Guidelines to applications
Détermination des limites caractéristiques (seuil de décision, limite
de détection et limites de l'intervalle élargi) pour le mesurage des
rayonnements ionisants — Principes fondamentaux et applications —
Partie 4: Lignes directrices relatives aux applications

Reference number
ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

© ISO 2022
BS ISO 11929‑4:2022
ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

COPYRIGHT PROTECTED DOCUMENT

© ISO 2022
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, or required in the context of its implementation, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or utilized otherwise in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or posting on
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Published in Switzerland

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 BS ISO 11929‑4:2022
ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

Contents Page

Foreword.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................vii
Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................................................................viii
1 Scope.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1
2 Normative references...................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
3 Terms and definitions..................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
4 Quantities and symbols................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
5 Summary of this document........................................................................................................................................................................ 5
5.1 Procedures according to ISO 11929 (all parts)........................................................................................................... 5
5.2 Survey on the examples................................................................................................................................................................... 5
5.3 General stipulations............................................................................................................................................................................ 8
6 Counting measurements with small or moderate uncertainties...................................................................... 9
6.1 Definition of the task and general aspects..................................................................................................................... 9
6.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty.......................................................................................................... 9
6.3 Available information, input data, and specifications.......................................................................................... 9
6.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 10
6.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 10
6.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 10
6.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 10
6.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 10
6.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 11
6.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 11
6.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 11
6.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 11
6.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 13
7 Counting measurement with small count numbers..................................................................................................... 14
7.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 14
7.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 14
7.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 14
7.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 15
7.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 15
7.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 15
7.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 16
7.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 16
7.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 16
7.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 17
7.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 17
7.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 17
7.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 18
7.7 An alternative example of a measurement with small count numbers............................................. 19
7.7.1 General...................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
7.7.2 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 20
7.7.3 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 20
7.7.4 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 20
7.7.5 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 20
7.7.6 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 21
7.7.7 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 21
7.7.8 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 21
7.8 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 22
7.9 Assessment of the alternative example and explanations............................................................................ 23
8 Counting measurements with large uncertainties in the numerator of the
calibration factor............................................................................................................................................................................................... 23

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8.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 23

8.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 24
8.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 24
8.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 25
8.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 25
8.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 25
8.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 25
8.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 25
8.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 26
8.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 26
8.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 26
8.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 26
8.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 28
9 Counting measurements with large uncertainties in the denominator of the
calibration factor............................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
9.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 28
9.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 29
9.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 29
9.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 30
9.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 30
9.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 30
9.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 31
9.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 31
9.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 31
9.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 31
9.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 32
9.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 32
9.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 33
10 Counting measurements with shielding of the background...............................................................................34
10.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 34
10.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 34
10.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 34
10.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 35
10.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 35
10.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 35
10.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 35
10.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 35
10.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 36
10.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 36
10.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 36
10.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 36
10.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 38
11 Counting clearance measurement.................................................................................................................................................. 38
11.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 38
11.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 39
11.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 39
11.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 40
11.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 40
11.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 40
11.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 40
11.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 41
11.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 41
11.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 41
11.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 42
11.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 42
11.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 43

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12 Gamma-spectrometry of Uranium-235 with interference by Radium-226........................................ 44

12.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 44
12.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 45
12.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 46
12.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 47
12.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 47
12.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 47
12.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 48
12.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 49
12.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 49
12.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 49
12.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 50
12.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 50
12.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 51
13 Black box measurements.......................................................................................................................................................................... 52
13.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 52
13.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 52
13.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 53
13.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 53
13.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 53
13.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 54
13.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 54
13.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 54
13.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 55
13.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 55
13.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 55
13.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 56
13.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 57
14 Counting measurements with unknown random influence of sample treatment...................... 57
14.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 57
14.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 58
14.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 58
14.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 59
14.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 59
14.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 59
14.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 60
14.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 60
14.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 61
14.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 61
14.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 61
14.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 61
14.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 63
15 Counting measurement with known influence of sample treatment.......................................................63
15.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 63
15.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 64
15.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 65
15.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 66
15.4.1 Determination of the relative uncertainty of the sample treatment................................. 66
15.4.2 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 66
15.4.3 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 66
15.4.4 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 67
15.4.5 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 67
15.4.6 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 68
15.4.7 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 68
15.4.8 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 68
15.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2...................................... 68
15.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 70

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16 Dose measurement using an active personal dosemeter....................................................................................... 70

16.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 70
16.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 70
16.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 71
16.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1........... 71
16.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 71
16.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 72
16.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 72
16.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 72
16.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 73
16.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 73
16.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty......................................................74
16.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2.......................................74
16.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 75
17 Dose rate measurement using a neutron area monitor........................................................................................... 76
17.1 Definition of the task and general aspects.................................................................................................................. 76
17.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty....................................................................................................... 77
17.3 Available information, input data, and specifications....................................................................................... 78
17.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits............................................................................ 80
17.4.1 Background effect........................................................................................................................................................... 80
17.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty............................................................. 80
17.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value............................................... 80
17.4.4 Decision threshold.......................................................................................................................................................... 81
17.4.5 Detection limit.................................................................................................................................................................... 82
17.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals................................................................................................................................... 82
17.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty..................................................... 83
17.5 Documentation of the results.................................................................................................................................................. 83
17.6 Assessment and explanations................................................................................................................................................. 84
Annex A (informative) Determination of a calibration factor................................................................................................85
Annex B (informative) Calculations according to ISO 11929-2.............................................................................................90
Bibliography.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 93

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Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International
organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.
ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1. In particular the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO documents should be noted. This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www.iso.org/directives).
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights. Details of
any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the Introduction and/or
on the ISO list of patent declarations received (see www.iso.org/patents).
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
For an explanation on the voluntary nature of standards, the meaning of ISO specific terms and
expressions related to conformity assessment, as well as information about ISO's adherence to the
World Trade Organization (WTO) principles in the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) see the following
URL: www.iso.org/iso/foreword.html.
This document was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 85, Nuclear energy, nuclear technologies,
and radiological protection, Subcommittee SC 2, Radiological protection.
This third edition of ISO 11929-4 cancels and replaces the second edition (ISO 11929-4:2020), of which
it constitutes a minor revision.
The main changes are as follows:
— Editorial changes were done in text and formulae
A list of all parts of ISO 11929 can be found on the ISO website.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards body. A
complete listing of these bodies can be found at www.iso.org/members.html.

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Introduction
Measurement uncertainties and characteristic values, i.e. characteristic limits such as the decision
threshold, the detection limit and limits of the coverage interval for measurements as well as the best
estimate and its associated standard measurement uncertainty, are of importance in metrology, in
general, and for radiological protection, in particular. The quantification of the uncertainty associated
with a measurement result provides a basis for the trust an individual can have in a measurement
result.
NOTE 1 Conformity with regulatory limits, constraints or reference values can only be demonstrated taking
into account and quantifying all sources of uncertainty. Characteristic limits provide – in the end – the basis for
deciding accepting results under uncertainty.

ISO 11929 (all parts) provides characteristic values of a non-negative measurand of ionizing radiation.
It is applicable for a wide range of measuring methods extending beyond measurements of ionizing
radiation.
The limits to be provided according to ISO 11929 (all parts) for specified probabilities of wrong decisions
allow detection possibilities to be assessed for a measurand and for the physical effect quantified by
this measurand as follows:
— the “decision threshold” allows a decision to be made on whether or not the physical effect quantified
by the measurand is present;
— the “detection limit” indicates the smallest true quantity value of the measurand that can still be
detected with the applied measurement procedure; this gives and allows for a decision on whether
or not the measurement procedure satisfies the requirements and is therefore suitable for the
intended measurement purpose;
— the “limits of the coverage interval” enclose, in the case of the physical effect recognized as present,
a coverage interval containing the true quantity value of the measurand with a specified probability.
Hereinafter, the limits mentioned are jointly called “characteristic limits”.
NOTE 2 According to ISO/IEC Guide 99 updated by JCGM 200:2012, the term “coverage interval” is used
here instead of “confidence interval” in order to distinguish the wording of Bayesian terminology from that of
conventional statistics.

All the characteristic values are based on Bayesian statistics and on the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3 as well as
on the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1 and ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.2. As explained in detail in
ISO 11929-2, the characteristic values are mathematically defined by means of moments and quantiles
of probability distributions of the possible measurand values.
Since measurement uncertainty plays an important role in all parts of ISO  11929, the evaluation of
measurements and the treatment of measurement uncertainties are carried out by means of the general
procedures according to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3 and to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also
References [21] to [25]. This enables the strict separation of the evaluation of the measurements,
on the one hand, and the provision and calculation of the characteristic values, on the other hand.
ISO 11929 (all parts) makes use of a theory of uncertainty in measurement[26] to [28] based on Bayesian
statistics (e.g. References [29] to [36]) in order to allow taking into account also those uncertainties
that cannot be derived from repeated or counting measurements. The latter uncertainties cannot be
handled by frequentist statistics.
Because of developments in metrology concerning measurement uncertainty, laid down in the
ISO/IEC  Guide  98-3, ISO  11929:2010 was drawn up on the basis of ISO/IEC  Guide  98-3, but using
Bayesian statistics and the Bayesian theory of measurement uncertainty. This theory provides a
Bayesian foundation for the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3. Moreover, ISO 11929:2010 was based on the definitions
of the characteristic values[21], the standard proposal[22], and the introducing article[23]. It unified
and replaced all earlier parts of ISO 11929 and was applicable not only to a large variety of particular
measurements of ionizing radiation but also, in analogy, to other measurement procedures. Some

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explanatory material about the basics of ISO 11929 (all parts), in general, and its application in has been
published elsewhere[42][43].
Since the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1 has been published, the Monte Carlo method has been
used to deal comprehensively with a more general treatment of measurement uncertainty in complex
measurement evaluations. This development provided an incentive for writing a corresponding
Monte Carlo supplement[24] to ISO  11929:2010. The revised ISO 11929 (all parts) is also essentially
founded on Bayesian statistics and can serve as a bridge between documents ISO  11929:2010 and
the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1. Moreover, more general definitions of the characteristic values
(ISO 11929-2) and the Monte Carlo computation of the characteristic values make it possible to go a step
beyond the present state of standardization laid down in ISO 11929:2010 since probability distributions
rather than uncertainties can be propagated. It is thus more comprehensive and extending the range of
applications.
The revised ISO  11929 (all parts), moreover, is more explicit on the calculation of the characteristic
values. Reference [25] gives a survey on the basis of the revision. Further, in ISO 11929-3, it gives
detailed advice how to calculate characteristic values in the case of multivariate measurements using
unfolding methods. For such measurements, the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.2 provides the basis of
the uncertainty evaluation.
Formulae are provided for the calculation of the characteristic values of an ionizing radiation measurand
via the “standard measurement uncertainty” of the measurand (hereinafter “standard uncertainty”)
derived according to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3 as well as via probability density functions (PDFs) of the
measurand derived on the basis of the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1. The standard uncertainties
or probability density functions take into account the uncertainties of the actual measurement as well
as those of sample treatment, calibration of the measuring system and other influences. The latter
uncertainties are assumed to be known from previous investigations.

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 BS ISO 11929‑4:2022
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

Determination of the characteristic limits (decision

threshold, detection limit and limits of the coverage
interval) for measurements of ionizing radiation —
Fundamentals and application —
Part 4:
Guidelines to applications

1 Scope
This document specifies a procedure, in the field of ionizing radiation metrology, for the calculation of
the “decision threshold”, the “detection limit” and the “limits of the coverage interval” for a non‑negative
ionizing radiation measurand when counting measurements with preselection of time or counts are
carried out. The measurand results from a gross count rate and a background count rate as well as from
further quantities on the basis of a model of the evaluation. In particular, the measurand can be the net
count rate as the difference of the gross count rate and the background count rate, or the net activity of
a sample. It can also be influenced by calibration of the measuring system, by sample treatment and by
other factors.
ISO 11929 has been divided into four parts covering elementary applications in ISO 11929-1, advanced
applications on the basis of the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1 in ISO 11929-2, applications to
unfolding methods in ISO 11929-3, and guidance to the application in ISO 11929-4.
ISO 11929-1 covers basic applications of counting measurements frequently used in the field of ionizing
radiation metrology. It is restricted to applications for which the uncertainties can be evaluated on the
basis of the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3 (JCGM 2008). In ISO 11929-1:2019, Annex A the special case of repeated
counting measurements with random influences and in ISO  11929-1:2019, Annex  B, measurements
with linear analogous ratemeters are covered.
ISO 11929-2 extends ISO  11929-1 to the evaluation of measurement uncertainties according to the
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1. ISO 11929-2 also presents some explanatory notes regarding general
aspects of counting measurements and Bayesian statistics in measurements.
ISO 11929-3 deals with the evaluation of measurements using unfolding methods and counting
spectrometric multi-channel measurements if evaluated by unfolding methods, in particular, alpha- and
gamma-spectrometric measurements. Further, it provides some advice how to deal with correlations
and covariances.
ISO 11929-4 gives guidance to the application of ISO 11929 (all parts), summarizing shortly the general
procedure and then presenting a wide range of numerical examples. The examples cover elementary
applications according to ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2.

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BS ISO 11929‑4:2022
ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

The ISO 11929 (all parts) also applies analogously to other measurements of any kind if a similar model
of the evaluation is involved. Further practical examples can be found in other International Standards,
for example, see References [1 to 20].
NOTE A code system, named UncertRadio, is available allowing for calculations according to ISO  11929-1
to ISO 11929-3. UncertRadio[40][41] can be downloaded for free from https://​w ww​.thuenen​.de/​en/​f i/​f ields​-of​
-activity/​marine​-environment/​coordination​-centre​-of​-radioactivity/​uncertradio/​. The download contains a
setup installation file that copies all files and folders into a folder specified by the user. After installation one
has to add information to the PATH of Windows as indicated by a pop‑up window during installation. English
language can be chosen and extensive “help” information is available. Another tool is the package ‘metRology’[44]
which is available for programming in R. It contains the two R functions ‘uncert’ and ‘uncertMC’ which perform
the GUM-conform uncertainty propagation, either analytically or by the Monte Carlo method, respectively.
Covariances/correlations of input quantities are included. Applying these two functions within iterations for
decision threshold and the detection limit calculations simplifies the programming effort significantly. It is also
possible to implement this document in a spreadsheet containing a Monte Carlo add-in or into other commercial
mathematics software.

2 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content
constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document including any amendments applies.
ISO 3534-1, Statistics — Vocabulary and symbols — Part 1: General statistical terms and terms used in
probability
ISO  11929-1, Determination of the characteristic limits (decision threshold, detection limit and limits of
the coverage interval) for measurements of ionizing radiation — Fundamentals and application — Part 1:
Elementary applications
ISO  11929-2, Determination of the characteristic limits (decision threshold, detection limit and limits of
the coverage interval) for measurements of ionizing radiation — Fundamentals and application — Part 2:
Advanced applications
ISO 80000-1, Quantities and units — Part 1: General
ISO 80000-10, Quantities and units — Part 10: Atomic and nuclear physics
ISO/IEC  Guide  98-3, Uncertainty of measurement — Part 3: Guide to the expression of uncertainty in
measurement (GUM:​1995)
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1, Evaluation of measurement data — Supplement 1 to the “Guide to the
expression of uncertainty in measurement” — a Propagation of distributions using a Monte Carlo method,
JCGM 101:2008
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.2, Evaluation of measurement data — Supplement 2 to the “Guide to the
expression of uncertainty in measurement” — Extension to any number of output quantities, JCGM 102:2011
ISO/IEC  Guide  99, International vocabulary of metrology — Basic and general concepts and associated
terms (VIM)
IEC/TR  62461, Radiation protection instrumentation — Determination of uncertainty in measurement,
Ed. 2.0, IEC 23.1.2015

3 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO  80000-1, ISO  80000-10,
ISO/IEC  Guide  98-3, ISO/IEC  Guide  98-3:2008/Suppl.1, ISO/IEC  Guide  98-3:2008/Suppl.2,
ISO/IEC Guide 99, ISO 3534-1, ISO 11929-1, and ISO 11929-2 apply.

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ISO and IEC maintain terminological databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform available at https://​w ww​.iso​.org/​obp
— IEC Electropedia available at https://​w ww​.electropedia​.org/​

4 Quantities and symbols

The quantities and symbols below are used throughout this document. Additional quantities and
symbols are listed – if necessary – in the respective examples.

m number of input quantities, also used for the mass of the test sample

nM number of Monte Carlo trials performed

Xi input quantity ( i = 1 ,..., m )

Y measurand, quantity of interest

G model of evaluation connecting the input quantities with the measurand: Y = G( X1 ,..., Xm )

xi measured value of the input quantity Xi , estimate of the true value xi of Xi
xi possible or assumed true values of the input quantity Xi
u( xi ) standard uncertainty of the input quantity Xi associated with the estimate Xi
∆xi width of the region of the possible values of the input quantity Xi
urel ( w ) relative standard uncertainty of a quantity W associated with the estimate w
y possible or assumed true values of the measurand; if the physical effect of interest is
not present, then y = 0 otherwise, y > 0

y determined value of the measurand Y, estimate of the measurand, primary measure-

ment result of the measurand
yj values y from different measurements ( j = 0,1,2, ...)
u( y ) standard uncertainty of the measurand associated with the primary measurement
result y
u( y ) standard uncertainty of an estimator of the measurand Y as a function of an assumed
true value y of the measurand
ŷ best estimate of the measurand
u( ˆ)
y standard uncertainty of the measurand associated with the best estimate ŷ
y* decision threshold of the measurand

y# detection limit of the measurand

yr guideline value of the measurand

y , y  lower and upper limit of the symmetric coverage interval, respectively, of the measurand

y< , y > lower and upper limit of the shortest coverage interval, respectively, of the measurand

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f ( y y ) posterior probability density function (PDF) for a true value y given the estimate y
taking NOT into account the condition that the measurand Y is non-negative
f ( y y ,Y ≥ 0 ) posterior probability density function (PDF) for a true value y given the estimate y
taking into account the condition that the measurand Y is non-negative
f ( y y = 0 ) predictive probability density function (PDF) to obtain a measured value y if a true
value  y = 0 of the measurand Y is assumed

f ( y y = y# ) predictive probability density function (PDF) to obtain a measured value y if a true

value  y = y# of the measurand Y equal to the detection limit y# is assumed
Ga( r ;n ,1 / t ) Gamma distribution as the probability density function (PDF) of the true value r of
a count rate R given n counts obtained during a counting time t; see ISO 11929-2:2019,
Annex A, for details.
N( x ; x , u( x )) Normal or Gaussian distribution as the probability density function (PDF) of the true
value x of a quantity X given an estimate x with its associated standard uncertainty 
u( x )

R( x ; xL , xU ) Rectangular distribution as the probability density function (PDF) of the true value
x of a quantity X given the lower and upper limits xL and xU

T( x ;a , b ) Triangular distribution as the probability density function (PDF) of the true value x
of a quantity X being the sum of two quantities, A and B being assigned rectangular
probability distributions with the lower and upper limits aL and bL respectively aU
and bL and with a = aL + bL and b = aU + bU .

H( x ) 0 x < 0
Heaviside step function: H ( x ) =  for 
1 x ≥ 0
rg , r0 estimate of the gross count rate and of the background count rate, respectively
rn estimate of the net count rate
ni number of counted pulses obtained from the measurement of the count rate Ri
ng , n0 number of counted pulses of the gross measurement and of the background meas-
urement, respectively
ti measurement duration of the measurement of the count rate Ri
t g , t0 duration of the gross and the background measurement, respectively
ri estimate of the count rate Ri

A activity
a estimate of the activity A

w calibration factor
am activity per unit mass
as activity per unit surface

α, β probability of a false positive and false negative decision, respectively

1−γ probability for the coverage interval of the measurand
qp quantile of a distribution for the probability p

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Φ (x) distribution function of the standard normal distribution

ω ω = Φ [ y / u ( y )] , value of the distribution function of the standard normal distribution
at y / u ( y )

5 Summary of this document

5.1 Procedures according to ISO 11929 (all parts)

ISO 11929-1 standardizes the evaluation of measurements of ionizing radiation for a wide range of
models of evaluation and the calculation of characteristic limits (decision threshold, detection limit and
limits of coverage intervals) on the basis of the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3. However, important exceptions exist
for which the procedures do not provide reliable results and other procedures need to be applied, such
as those described in ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1. Such procedures are dealt with in ISO 11929-2.
Both the aspects of the procedure and the tools to ascertain whether ISO 11929-1 or ISO 11929-2 is
suitable or not for the specific application are described in ISO 11929-1.
It is a characteristic of measurements of ionizing radiation that they have to be performed in the
presence of a radiation background, which has to be subtracted from a gross measurement quantity.
However, the procedures described in this document likewise are applicable to any measurements
where a background or blank contribution has to be subtracted from a gross quantity.

5.2 Survey on the examples

This document gives numerical examples of elementary applications of ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2.
The data in the tables are often given with more digits than are meaningful, so that the calculations can
also be reconsidered and verified with higher accuracy, in particular for testing computer programs
under development.
NOTE 1 The Monte Carlo calculations were performed in this guide with 1 000 000 trials. As a consequence,
the results for the characteristic values remain uncertain in the third significant digit. In addition, the user has
to be aware that the necessary number of trials depends significantly on the model of evaluation and on the PDFs
assigned to the input quantities. In practical applications, a number of 10 000 trials is often sufficient.

A criterion whether ISO 11929-1 or ISO 11929-2 is to be preferred in practice is given in IEC/TR 62461.
It recommends “the results of both methods should be given in order to display their difference. When
the 95 % coverage intervals of the Monte Carlo method and of the analytical method do not deviate by
more than 10 %, then the analytical one may be used for the uncertainty determination in similar cases,
i.e. a similar model function and similar or smaller values of the uncertainty of the input quantities”. See
also ISO 11929-1:2019, 5.3.
The examples, the models, and the data are exemplary and not normative.
In ISO 11929-1, a quite general model is specified as follows:
x6 ⋅ x 8 ⋅⋅⋅
y = ( x1 − x 2 ⋅ x3 − x 4 ) ⋅ = ( x1 − x2 x3 − x 4 ) ⋅ w (1)
x5 ⋅ x7 ⋅⋅⋅
with
x6 ⋅ x 8 ⋅⋅⋅
w= (2)
x5 ⋅ x7 ⋅⋅⋅
where x1 = rg is the gross count rate and x2 = r0 is the background count rate. The other input
quantities, x i , are calibration, correction or influence quantities, or conversion factors, for instance the
emission or response probability. In particular, x3 is a shielding factor and x 4 an additional background

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correction quantity. If some of the input quantities are not involved, x i = 1 ( i = 3; i > 4) , x 4 = 0 and
u( x i ) = 0 shall be set for them.
NOTE 2 Generally, physical quantities are denoted by uppercase letters and have to be carefully distinguished
from their values, denoted by the corresponding lowercase letters. However, for sake of simplicity no distinction
is made between uppercase letters for quantities and lowercase letters for values throughout this document.
Only lowercase letters are used because the examples deal with values rather than with quantities.

In this document, the simplest form of Formula (1) used for most examples for ease of understanding is:
y = ( x1 − x2 ) ⋅ w = ( rg − r0 ) ⋅ w (3)

This simple model according to Formula (3) of a counting measurement with small or moderate
relative uncertainties below 25 % such as in the majority of laboratory experiments is dealt with in
Clause 6.
Small count numbers provide a particular problem in counting measurements since the information
about the associated count rates is scarce. An example describing the measurement of alpha-particles
with low count numbers according to ISO 11929-2:2019, A.1 is given in Clause 7.
Clause 8 gives an example of a counting measurement with uncertain counting geometry where the
uncertainties of the calibration factor are generally large and where, in consequence, a dominating
uncertainty exists for a quantity in the numerator of the calibration factor of Formula (2).
Clause 9 gives an example of a counting measurement in form of a wipe test where the uncertainties
are generally large and where, in particular, a dominating uncertainty exists for a quantity in the
denominator of the calibration factor of Formula (2).
Clause 10 is an example where large uncertainties occur due to shielding of the background as in
the case of measurements with a portal monitor.
Clause 11 exemplifies also the general model according to Formula (1) by dealing with the clearance
measurement of bulk samples of concrete with a special counting device and with consideration of
natural radioactivity in the background.
Clause 12 exemplifies the general model according to Formula (1) by dealing with the γ-spectrometry
of 235U with an interference from 226Ra.
Clause 13 deals with the case of measurements of ambient dose rates with a measuring device of
unknown functionality and algorithm, i.e. a so-called black box measurement according to A.4
of ISO 11929-1 where no technical details about the measuring procedure are known and only readings
of a device are available.
The particular cases of counting measurements with unknown random influences from the sample
treatment according to ISO 11929-1:2019, A.2 are dealt with in Clause 14.
The case of counting measurements with known random influences from the sample treatment
according to of ISO 11929-1:2019, A.3 is dealt with in Clause 15.
The examples in Clause 16 and Clause 17 demonstrate the applicability of ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2
to non-counting measurements. The case of an active personal dosemeter is treated according
ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2 in Clause 16. The particlular feature of this example is that the standard
uncertainty associated with the gross quantity is constant, thereby allowing to calculate the standard
uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value of the measurand.
The case of a dose rate measurement using a neutron area monitor treated according to ISO 11929-1
and ISO 11929-2 is dealt with in Clause 17. In this example it is known that the measurement is a
counting measurement. However, the actual gross and background count numbers are unknown. In
spite of that, the standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value of the measurand can be
calculated using a general feature of the relative uncertainty of the gross indication.

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A simple example of the calculation of the calibration factor w is given in Annex A.

The examples are generic and are not intended to standardize measurement procedures for the
respective applications. They shall only serve as explanations for the application of  ISO  11929-1
and ISO 11929-2.
Calculations are performed according to ISO  11929-1 and ISO 11929-2 for each example in order to
allow the reader to judge the appropriateness of both methods. In all examples, the probabilistically
symmetric coverage intervals as well as the shortest coverage intervals are calculated. The limits of the
coverage intervals and the best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty are also calculated
in cases where the primary measurement result is below the decision threshold, in spite of the fact
that ISO 11929 (all parts) requires only to calculate the coverage intervals if the primary measurement
result exceeds the decision threshold.
Small y/u( y)-values, i.e. large relative uncertainties of the primary measurement result, can be due to
small count numbers (example in Clause 7) or to large relative uncertainties of the calibration factor. The
latter ones can be due to relatively large uncertainty of a component in the numerator of the calibration
factor (example in Clause 8) or due to such a component in the denominator of the calibration factor
(example in Clause 9).
A general assessment regarding the relevance of the choice of the coverage interval in the case of
small  y/u( y)-values given the decision threshold is not possible. Therefore, all characteristic limits,
i.e. the decision threshold, the detection limit and the limits of the probabilistically symmetric and the
shortest coverage interval, are calculated in this document for each example in order to allow discussing
and judging about the relevance of the different coverage intervals given the actual data.
In models of evaluation with x3 = 1, u(x3) = 0 and x4 = 0, u(x4) = 0, the decision threshold does not depend
on the uncertainty of the calibration factor. The decision threshold depends on the uncertainties
of x3 and x4 in case of x3 ≠ 1 or x4 > 0. The example of a portal monitor is one of the cases where the
decision threshold depends on the uncertainty of the shielding factor. Also, the example for the general
model (gamma-spectrometry of 235U with interference by 226Ra) is such a case as well as the example
regarding the clearance measurement with consideration of natural radioactivity.
From the didactic point of view one has to distinguish four cases that often lead to misunderstandings
and, therefore, need clarification.

This case is characterized by y ∗ < y and y # < yr . A primary result above the decision threshold was
obtained. One decides to conclude that an effect of the sample was recognized. The detection limit is
lower than the guideline value. One concludes that the measurement method is suitable for the
measurement purpose.
See Clauses 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, and 17 for examples.
A frequent misunderstanding results from comparison of the primary measurement result with the
detection limit. Such a comparison is not according to the stipulations of ISO 11929 (all parts). The only
characteristic limit to be compared with the primary measurement result is the decision threshold, not
the detection limit. If the primary measurement result exceeds the decision threshold one decides to
conclude that an effect of the sample was recognized.
This decision to be made does not depend on whether the primary measurement result is below or
above the detection limit. The only purpose of the detection limit is to characterize the quality of the
measurement procedure by comparison with a guideline value. If the detection limit is lower than the
guideline value, one concludes that the measurement method is suitable for the measurement purpose.

This case is characterized by y < y ∗ and y # < yr . A result below the decision threshold was obtained.
One decides to conclude that no effect of the sample was recognized, though it might be present. The
detection limit is lower than the guideline value. One concludes that the measurement method is
suitable for the measurement purpose.

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See Clause 7 for an example.

NOTE 3 Also in case that the primary measurement result is smaller than the decision threshold all
characteristic values are calculated and presented in the examples.

This case is characterized by y ∗ < y and yr < y # . A result above the decision threshold was obtained.
One decides to conclude that an effect of the sample was recognized. However, the detection limit is
higher than the guideline value. Consequently, the measurement method is not suitable for the
measurement purpose in principle.

Nevertheless, y > y ∗ is a primary measurement result with its associated standard uncertainty, which
needs no justification regarding to the suitability of the procedure.
See Clause 14 for an example.

This case is characterized by y < y ∗ and yr < y # . A primary result below the decision threshold was
obtained. One decides to conclude that no effect of the sample was recognized. The detection limit is
higher than the guideline value. One concludes that the measurement method is not suitable for the
measurement purpose and does not satisfy the measurement purpose. In total, the procedure is not
suitable and the measurement was not successful.
There is no example of such a pathological case in this document.

NOTE 4 In this document, the guideline value, yr , in comparison with the detection limit, y# , simply serves
to demonstrate the decision whether or not the measuring procedure is suitable for the measurement purpose.
This document does not provide stipulations whether or not a measurement result, y , conforms to requirement
from legal or other sources. Such assessments are beyond the scope of this document. An application of
ISO 11929-1 to such conformity assessments can be found elsewhere[45].

5.3 General stipulations

The measurand and the characteristic values are calculated according to ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2.
First, the model of evaluation is given; then the input data as well as their PDFs are specified. The
evaluation of the measurement and the calculation of the characteristic limits according ISO 11929-1
are presented in detail. The standard uncertainties are calculated according to the mathematical
formalism of the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3.
The Monte Carlo calculations according to ISO 11929-2 were performed with the code UncertRadio[40]
[41]. The results of both evaluations (according to ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2) are summarized. Finally,
a comparison of the results obtained by application of ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2 is given together
with a documentation of the results and an assessment of the measurement.
For the purpose of comparison, both the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval and the shortest
coverage interval are calculated. In a real case the regulator or customer has to decide which coverage
interval has to be calculated.
Unless otherwise stated the following stipulations are valid throughout this document.
— The probabilities α and β for the calculation of the decision threshold and the detection limit are
chosen α = β = 5 %. A coverage probability 1 – γ = 95 % is assumed for the coverage interval.
— The standard uncertainties of the durations of the measurements are neglected.
— The nuclear data used in the examples are in Reference [38].
— Before the measurement of a sample the background effect has to be measured. It is assumed that
the background effect as well as the calibration factor and its standard uncertainty were determined
by independent experiments. The standard uncertainty associated with the calibration factor is
evaluated by applying the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3. See Annex A for an example of the determination of a
calibration factor.

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6 Counting measurements with small or moderate uncertainties

6.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

The activity of a radionuclide in a sample is investigated by a counting measurement. This is a simplified
example according to the general model of ISO 11929-1.
The comparison between the primary measurement result and the decision threshold provides
information on whether or not an activity of the sample is observed. If the primary measurement result
is larger than the decision threshold, it is concluded that an activity of the sample has been observed.
A guideline value ar = 3 Bq is to be compared with the detection limit. If the detection limit is smaller
than the guide value, it is concluded that the measuring method is suitable for the measurement
purpose.

6.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The measurand is the activity in the sample. The primary result a of the measurement as an estimate of
the true quantity value of the measurand is calculated by the model of evaluation using preselection of
the counting times:

 ng n0 
a= −  · w = ( rg − r0 ) · w = rn · w (4)
t 
 g t0 
The standard uncertainty u ( a ) associated with the primary result a is calculated by:

 ng n 
u2 ( a ) = rn2 ⋅ u2 ( w ) + w 2 ⋅ u2 ( rn ) = w 2 ⋅  + 0  + a2 ⋅ urel
2
( w ) (5)
 t2 t2 
 g 0 

6.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 1. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 1.

Table 1 — Input quantities and data

Quantity Symbol xi u( xi ) PDF Unit
Number of counts of the gross ng 21 670 — — 1
measurement
Count time of the gross meas- tg 1 200 — — s
urement
Number of counts of the back- n0 73 150 — — 1
ground effect
Count time of the background t0 12 000 — — s
effect
Calibration factor w 4,1 0,6 N( w ;w , u( w )) Bq s
Intermediate values
Gross count rate rg 18,06 0,123 Ga( rg ;ng ,1 / tg ) s-1
Count rate of the background r0 6,10 0,022 5 Ga( r0 ;n0 ,1 / t0 ) s-1
effect

The PDFs of the calibration factor and of the count rates were chosen according to the
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also ISO 11929-2:2019, 6.3 for a detailed description.

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6.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

6.4.1 Background effect

The background effect of the sample has been measured. The number of the counted pulses is
n0 = 73 150 . This gives a count rate of
n0
r0 = = 6 , 096 s −1 (6)
t0
The standard uncertainty of the count rate is given by:

n0
u ( r0 ) = = 0 , 022 5 s −1 (7)
t 02

6.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

The activity of the sample is calculated by using the Formula (4). This relation depends on the calibration
factor w, which needs to be evaluated first, as well as its standard uncertainty u ( w ) .
w = 4 , 1 Bq ⋅ s , u ( w ) = 0 , 6 Bq ⋅ s , urel ( w ) = 0 , 146 (8)

The activity a of the sample is given by

 ng 
a = rn ⋅ w =  − r0  ⋅ w = 49 , 05 Bq (9)
t 
 g 
with the standard uncertainty

 ng n 
u ( a ) = rn2 ⋅ u2 ( w ) + w 2 ⋅  + 0  = 7 , 20 Bq (10)
 t2 t2 
 g 0 

6.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty u ( a ) as a function of the true value a is needed to calculate the decision
 n 
threshold and the detection limit. For a true value a = rn w =  rg − 0  w of the measurand, one expects
 t0 
a n
a gross count rate rg = + 0 and with Formula (5) one obtains
w t0
 a n n 
u 2 ( a ) = rn2 · u2 ( w ) + w 2 · u2 ( rn ) = w 2 ⋅  + 0 + 0  + a 2 · urel
2
( w ) (11)
 t g w t g t0 t 2 
 0 

6.4.4 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the activity is calculated by:

 n n 
a∗ = k1−α ⋅ u ( 0) = k1−α · w 2 ⋅  0 + 0  = 0 , 504 Bq (12)
 t g t0 t 2 
 0 

The measurement result a exceeds the decision threshold a * .

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6.4.5 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The detection limit is calculated by iteration, which leads to

( )
a# = a∗ + k1− β ⋅u a#

 a# (13)
∗ #2 n0 n0 
= a + k1− β ⋅ a ⋅ urel
2
( w ) + w 2 ⋅ 
+ +  = 1 , 08 Bq
2 
 t g w t g t0 t0 
Since α = β , k1−α = k1− β = k . The detection limit can also be calculated by the explicit Formula (14):

2 ⋅ a * + ( k 2 ⋅ w )/ t g
# ∗
( )
a = a + k1− β ⋅u a# =
1 − k 2 ⋅ urel
2
(w )
= 1 , 08 Bq (14)

The guideline value ar exceeds the detection limit a# .

6.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated since the
measurement result a exceeds the decision threshold a∗ . With ω = Φ [ a / u( a )] = 1 , 00 and γ = 0 , 05 one
obtains the probabilities by p = ω ⋅ (1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 975 and q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the quantiles
k p and kq are equal to 1,960. Then the lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric
coverage interval are given by:

a = a − k p ⋅ u ( a ) = 34 , 94 Bq and a = a + kq ⋅u ( a ) = 63 , 15 Bq (15)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated according to
Formula (16). With ω = Φ [ a / u( a )] = 1 , 00 , one obtains p = [1 + ω ⋅ (1 − γ )]/ 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the
quantile k p is equal to 1,960. With this, the limits of the shortest coverage interval are

a < = a − k p ⋅ u( a ) = 34 , 94 Bq and a> = a + kp ⋅u( a ) = 63 , 15 Bq (16)

6.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate â of the activity of the sample and its associated standard uncertainty u ( â ) are
given by:

aˆ = a +
{
u ( a ) · exp − a2 2u2 (a)
 }
 = 49, 05 Bq (17)
ω 2π
and its associated standard uncertainty

u ( aˆ) = u2 ( a ) − ( aˆ − a ) ⋅ aˆ = 7, 20 Bq (18)

6.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2

The available information is a = {ng , t g , n0 , t 0 , w , u( w )} ; see 6.3 and Table 1. The results and
characteristic limits are summarized in Table 2.

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Applying ISO 11929-2 the marginal posterior for the true value of the measurand taking into account
that the measurand is non-negative is given by:
f A ( a a ) =
+∞
(19)
C ⋅ H( a ) ⋅ ∫ Ga(rg ;ng ,1 / t g )⋅ Ga(r0 ;n0 ,1 / t0 )⋅ N[w ;w , u(w )]⋅δ a − (rg − r0 )· w  drg dr0 dw
−∞
Analogous formulae are valid for the marginal posteriors of the other examples in this document if
the PDFs under the integrals are replaced by those indicated in the tables in the clauses “Available
information, input data, and specifications.” Therefore, the respective posteriors are not repeated for
each example.
The integral is solved using Monte Carlo methods using the code UncertRadio[40]. Annex  B gives an
exemplary description of the procedure following ISO  11929-2. The best estimate and its associated
standard uncertainty are calculated as the mean and the square root of the variance of the PDF according
to Formula (19); the limits of the coverage intervals are calculated as suitable quantiles of this PDF.
The PDFs required for the calculation of the primary measurement result and its associated standard
uncertainty as well as for the decision threshold and the detection limit are also given in Annex B.
The PDFs obtained by the Monte Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 1.

Table 2 — Results and characteristic values

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result a Bq 49,05 49,05
Standard uncertainty associated u( a ) Bq 7,20 7,19
with the primary result
Relative standard uncertainty as- urel ( a ) 1 0,147 0,147
sociated with the primary result
Decision threshold a* Bq 0,504 0,510

Detection limit a# Bq 1,08 1,05

Best estimate â Bq 49,05 49,05

Standard uncertainty associated u( aˆ) Bq 7,20 7,19
with the best estimate
Relative uncertainty associated urel ( aˆ) 1 0,147 0,147
with the best estimate
Lower limit of the probabilistical- a Bq 34,94 34,98
ly symmetric coverage interval
Upper limit of the probabilistical- a Bq 63,15 63,17
ly symmetric coverage interval
Lower limit of the shortest cover- a< Bq 34,94 34,94
age interval
Upper limit of the shortest cover- a> Bq 63,15 63,13
age interval

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NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 1 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

6.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result a = 49 , 05 Bq exceeds the decision threshold a * = 0 , 504 Bq . It is

decided to conclude that an effect from the sample was recognized.

— The detection limit a# = 1 , 08 Bq is below the guideline values ar = 3 Bq . It is decided to conclude

that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are a = 34 , 94 Bq
and  a = 63 , 15 Bq .

— The lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated as a < = 34 , 94 Bq and 
a > = 63 , 15 Bq .
— The best estimate is aˆ = 49, 05 Bq with an associated standard uncertainty u( aˆ) = 7, 20 Bq .
Because the model of evaluation is linear and the relative uncertainty of the primary measurement
result is small, the results obtained by application of ISO 11929-2 are practically identical with those

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obtained by ISO 11929-1:2019, Table 2. The ISO/IEC Guide 98-3, approximations assuming normal PDFs
and using a Taylor expansion truncated after the linear term, hold.
The probabilistically symmetric coverage interval is equal to the shortest coverage interval. The best
estimate and its associated standard uncertainty equal the primary measurement result and its
associated standard uncertainty. According to Formula (B.3) in ISO 11929-2:2019, Annex B, this holds
of for all results of measurements with y / u( y ) ≥ 4 , i.e. for measurement procedures with relative
uncertainties urel ( y ) ≤ 0 , 25 .
For larger relative uncertainties of the primary measurement result deviations between the limits of
the two coverage intervals and between the primary measurement result and the best estimate and
their respective standard uncertainties occur. This can be due to small count numbers (see Clause 7) or
due to large uncertainties of the calibration factor. With respect to uncertainties of the calibration factor
according to Formula (2), one has to distinguish whether they result from quantities in the numerator
or the denominator of Formula (2). These cases are dealt with in Clause 9 and Clause 10, respectively.
A further origin of large uncertainties can be due to those of the shielding factor; see Clause 11 for an
example.

7 Counting measurement with small count numbers

7.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

This is an example for the application of ISO 11929-2:2019, Annex A. The activity of a radionuclide in a
sample is investigated by a counting measurement in which only very low count numbers are obtained
as  e.g. in some applications of counting of α-particles. Small count numbers provide a particular
problem in counting measurements since the approximation of the PDFs of the count rates by Gaussian
distributions does no longer hold.
The comparison between the primary measurement result and the decision threshold provides
information on whether or not an activity of the sample is observed. If the primary measurement result
is larger than the decision threshold, it is concluded that an activity of the sample has been observed.
A guideline value ar = 0 , 1 Bq is to be compared with the detection limit. If the detection limit is smaller
than the guideline value, it is concluded that the measuring method is suitable for the measurement
purpose.

7.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The measurand is the activity in the sample. The primary result a of the measurement as an estimate
of the true quantity value of the measurand is calculated by the model of evaluation:

 ng n0 
a= −  · w = ( rg − r0 ) · w = rn · w (20)
t t 0 
 g

The associated standard uncertainty is calculated by:

 ng n 
u2 ( a ) = w 2 ⋅ u2 ( rn ) + rn2 ⋅ u2 ( w ) = w 2 ⋅  + 0  + a2 ⋅ urel
2
( w ) (21)
t 
 g t0 
2 2

7.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 3. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 3.

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Table 3 — Input quantities and data

Quantity Symbol xi u ( xi ) PDF Unit
Number of counts of the gross — —
ng 6 1
measurement
Count time of the gross meas- — —
tg 1 200 s
urement
Number of counts of the back- — —
n0 3 1
ground effect
Count time of the background — —
t0 1 200 s
effect
Calibration factor w 4,1 0,6 N( w ;w , u( w )) Bq s
Intermediate values
Gross count rate rg 5,00E-3 2,04E-3 Ga( rg ;ng ,1 / tg ) s-1
Count rate of the background
r0 2,50E-3 1,44E-3 Ga( r0 ;n0 ,1 / t0 ) s-1
effect

The PDFs of the calibration factor and of the count rates were chosen according to the
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also of ISO 11929-2:2019, 6.3 for a detailed description.

7.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

7.4.1 Background effect

The background effect of the sample has been measured. The number of the counted pulses is n0 = 3 .
This gives a count rate of
n0
r0 = = 0 , 00250 s −1 (22)
t0
The standard uncertainty of the count rate is given by:

n0
u ( r0 ) = = 0 , 001 44 s −1 (23)
t 02

7.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

The activity of the sample is calculated by using the Formula (20). This relation depends on the
calibration factor w, which needs to be evaluated first, as well as its standard uncertainty u(w).

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The calibration factor is given by:

w = 4 ,1 Bq ⋅ s with u ( w ) = 0 , 6 Bq ⋅ s and urel ( w ) = 0 , 146 (24)

The activity a of the sample is given by:

 ng 
a = rn ⋅ w =  − r0  ⋅ w = 0 , 0103 Bq (25)
t 
 g 
with the standard uncertainty

 ng n 
u ( a ) = rn2 ⋅ u2 ( w ) + w 2 ⋅  + 0  = 0 , 010 4 Bq (26)
 t2 t2 
 g 0 
and
urel ( a ) = u( a )/ a = 1 , 01 (27)

7.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty u ( a ) as a function of the true value a is needed to calculate the decision
threshold and the detection limit. For a true value a = rn ⋅ w of the measurand, one expects a gross count
a n
rate rg = + 0 and with Formula (21) one obtains
w t0
 a n n 
u 2 ( a ) = rn2 · u2 ( w ) + w 2 · u2 ( rn ) = w 2 ⋅  + 0 + 0  + a 2 · urel
2
( w ) (28)
 t g w t g t0 t 2 
 0 

7.4.4 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the activity is calculated by:

 n n 
a∗ = k1−α u ( 0) = k1−α · w 2 ⋅  0 + 0  = 0 , 013 8 Bq (29)
 t g t0 t 2 
 0 
The measurement result a is below the decision threshold a∗ .

7.4.5 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The detection limit is calculated by iteration, which leads to

2  a# n n 
a# = a∗ + k1− β ⋅ a# ⋅ urel
2
( w ) + w 2 ⋅  + 0 + 0  = 0 , 039 Bq (30)

 t g w t g t0 t0
2

Since α = β , k1−α = k1− β = k . The detection limit can also be calculated by the explicit Formula (31):

2 ⋅ a * + ( k 2 ⋅ w )/ t g
( )
a# = a∗ + k1− β ⋅u a# =
1 − k 2 ⋅ urel
2
(w )
= 0 , 039 Bq (31)

The guideline value ar exceeds the detection limit a# .

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7.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated
exemplarily though the measurement result a is below the decision threshold a∗ . With
ω =Φ ( a / u( a )) = 0 , 837 and γ =0 , 05 one obtains the probabilities p = ω ⋅ (1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 816 and
q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 979 , and hence the quantiles k p and kq are equal to 0,908 and 2,034, respectively.
Then the lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are given by:

a = a − k p ⋅ u ( a ) = 0 , 000 854 Bq and a = a + kq ⋅u ( a ) =0 , 0313 Bq (32)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated. With
ω =Φ ( a / u( a )) = 0 , 837 , one obtains p = (1 + ω ⋅(1 − γ ))/ 2 = 0 , 897 and hence the quantile k p is equal
to 1,27. With this, the limits of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (33) are

a < = −0 , 002 91 Bq and a> = a + kp ⋅u( a ) = 0 , 023 4 Bq (33)

Since the lower limit of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (33) is negative, one has to
proceed according to Formula (34) and obtains with q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ = 0 , 958 the quantile kq = 1 , 728

a < = 0 Bq and a > = a + kq ⋅ u( a ) = 0 , 028 2 Bq (34)

7.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate â of the activity of the sample is given by:

aˆ = a +
( (
u ( a ) · exp − a2 2u2 (a) )) = 0, 013 3 Bq (35)
ω 2π
with its associated standard uncertainty u ( â )

u ( aˆ) = u2 ( a ) − ( aˆ − a ) ⋅ aˆ = 0, 008 20 Bq (36)

7.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2

The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 4 and the PDFs obtained by the Monte
Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 2.

Table 4 — Result and characteristic values

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result a Bq 1,03E-2 1,02E-2
Standard uncertainty associated with u( a ) Bq 1,04E-2 1,05E-2
the primary result
Relative standard uncertainty associ- urel ( a ) 1 1,01 1,03
ated with the primary result
Decision threshold a* Bq 1,38E-2 1,38E-2
Detection limit a# Bq 3,90E-2 3,58E-2

Best estimate â Bq 1,33E-2 1,29E-2

Standard uncertainty associated with u( aˆ) Bq 8,20E-3 8,75E-3
the best estimate

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Table 4 (continued)
Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Relative uncertainty associated with urel ( aˆ) 1 0,62 0,68
the best estimate
Lower limit of the probabilistically a Bq 8,54E-4 8,24E-4
symmetric coverage interval
Upper limit of the probabilistically a Bq 3,13E-2 3,38E-2
symmetric coverage interval
Lower limit of the shortest coverage a< Bq 0 0
interval
Upper limit of the shortest coverage a> Bq 2,82E-2 2,93E-2
interval

NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 2 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

7.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result a = 0 , 0103 Bq is below the decision threshold a * = 0 , 013 8 Bq . It
is decided to conclude that no effect of the sample was recognized. In spite of that all characteristic
values were calculated and documented in this example.

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— The detection limit a# = 0 , 039 Bq is below the guideline value ar = 0 , 1 Bq . It is decided to conclude
that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are a = 0 , 000 854 Bq
and a = 0 , 0313 Bq .

— The lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated as a < = 0 Bq and 
a > = 0 , 028 2 Bq .
— The best estimate is aˆ = 0, 013 3 Bq with an associated standard uncertainty u( aˆ) = 0, 008 2 Bq .
There are just minor differences between the results obtained by applying ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2,
which are due to the deviation between the Gaussian distributions and the actual posterior distributions
calculated according to ISO 11929-2; see Figure 2.
If large relative uncertainties of the primary result are due to the uncertainties of the count rates, this
does not affect the existence of the detection limit calculated according to ISO  11929-1. Also in this
extreme case of low count numbers, the application of ISO 11929-1 is justified.

7.7 An alternative example of a measurement with small count numbers

7.7.1 General

The data of an alternative example are given in Table 5. The input data differ from the example of Table 3
just with respect of the count numbers, which are now n0 = 1 and ng = 4 .

Table 5 — Input quantities and data

Quantity symbol xi u ( xi ) PDF Unit
Number of counts of the gross — —
ng 4 1
measurement
Count time of the gross measure- — —
tg 1 200 s
ment
Number of counts of the back- — —
n0 1 1
ground effect
Count time of the background — —
t0 1 200 s
effect
Calibration factor w 4,1 0,6 N( w ;w , u2 ( w )) s Bq
Intermediate values
Gross count rate rg 3,33E-3 1,67E-3 Ga( rg ;ng ,1 / tg ) s-1
Count rate of the background
r0 8,33E-4 8,33E-4 Ga( r0 ;n0 ,1 / t0 ) s-1
effect

NOTE This case with just one background count is regarded as a limiting case. In any reasonable single-
channel counting measurement it is expected that at least one count is obtained in both, the gross and the
background measurement. The case of a single-channel counting measurement with zero background counts is
considered as a pathological case where the measurement or even the measurement method is insufficient.

The PDFs of the calibration factor and of the count rates were chosen according to the
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also of ISO 11929-2:2019, 6.3 for a detailed description.

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7.7.2 Background effect

The background effect of the sample has been measured. The number of the counted pulses is n0 = 1 .
This gives a count rate of
n0
r0 = = 0 , 000 833 s −1 (37)
t0
The standard uncertainty of the count rate is given by:

n0
u ( r0 ) = = 0 , 000 833 s −1 (38)
t 02

7.7.3 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

The activity of the sample is calculated by using the Formula (20). This relation depends on the
calibration factor w, which needs to be evaluated first, as well as its standard uncertainty u(w).
The calibration factor is given by:
w = 4 , 1 Bq ⋅ s with u ( w ) = 0 , 6 Bq ⋅ s and urel ( w ) = 0 , 146 (39)

The activity a of the sample is given by:

 ng 
a = rn ⋅ w =  − r0  ⋅ w = 0 , 0103 Bq (40)
t 
 g 
with the standard uncertainty

 ng n 
u ( a ) = rn2 ⋅ u2 ( w ) + w 2 ⋅  + 0  = 0 , 007 79 Bq (41)
 t2 t2 
 g 0 
and
urel ( a ) = u( a )/ a = 0 , 756 (42)

7.7.4 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty u ( a ) as a function of the true value a is needed to calculate the decision
threshold and the detection limit. For a true value a = rn ⋅ w of the measurand one expects a gross count
a n
rate rg = + 0 and with Formula (21) one obtains
w t0
 a n n 
u 2 ( a ) = rn2 · u2 ( w ) + w 2 · u2 ( rn ) = a 2 · urel
2
( w ) + w 2 ⋅  + 0 + 0  (43)
2 
 t g w t g t0 t0 

7.7.5 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the activity is calculated by:

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 n n 
a∗ = k1−α u ( 0) = k1−α · w 2 ⋅  0 + 0  = 0 , 007 95 Bq (44)
 t g t0 t 2 
 0 

The measurement result a is above the decision threshold a∗ .

7.7.6 Detection limit

For β  = 5 %, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised normal distribution is
1,645. The detection limit is calculated by iteration, which leads to

2  a# n n 
a# = a∗ + k1− β ⋅ a# ⋅ urel
2
( w ) + w 2 ⋅  + 0 + 0  = 0 , 026 7 Bq (45)

 t g w t g t0 t0
2

Since α = β , k1−α = k1− β = k . The detection limit can also be calculated by the explicit Formula (46):

2 ⋅ a * + ( k 2 ⋅ w )/ t g
( )
a# = a∗ + k1− β ⋅u a# =
1 − k 2 ⋅ urel
2
(w )
= 0 , 026 7 Bq (46)

The guideline value ar exceeds the detection limit a# .

7.7.7 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated since the
measurement result a exceeds the decision threshold a∗ . With ω = Φ [ a / u( a )] = 0 , 907 and γ = 0 , 05 one
obtains the probabilities by p = ω ⋅ (1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 884 and q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 977 , and hence the quantiles
k p and kq are equal to 1,20 and 2,00, respectively. Then the lower and upper limits of the probabilistically
symmetric coverage interval are given by:

a = a − k p ⋅ u ( a ) = 0 , 000 970 Bq and a = a + kq ⋅u ( a ) = 0 , 025 8 Bq (47)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated. With 
ω = Φ [ a / u( a )] = 0 , 907 , one obtains p = [1 + ω ⋅ (1 − γ )]/ 2 = 0 , 931 , and hence the quantile k p is equal
to 1,48. With this the limits of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (48) were

a < = a − k p ⋅ u ( a ) = −0 , 001 24 Bq and a > = a + k p ⋅u ( a ) = 0 , 021 8 kBq (48)

Since the lower limit of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (48) is negative, one has to
proceed according to Formula (49) and obtains with q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ = 0 , 955 the quantile kq = 1 , 692

a < = 0 Bq and a > = a + kq ⋅ u( a ) = 0 , 023 4 Bq (49)

7.7.8 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate â of the activity of the sample is given by:

aˆ = a +
{
u ( a ) · exp − a2 2u2 (a)
 }
 = 0, 011 7 Bq (50)
ω 2π

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with its associated standard uncertainty u ( â )

u ( aˆ) = u2 ( a ) − ( aˆ − a ) ⋅ aˆ = 0, 006 62 Bq (51)

7.8 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2

The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 6 and the PDFs obtained by the Monte
Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 3.

Table 6 — Results and characteristic limits

Results symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result a Bq 1,03E-2 1,02E-2
Standard uncertainty associated with the
u( a ) Bq 7,79E-3 7,86E-3
primary result
Relative standard uncertainty associated
urel ( a ) 1 0,756 0,771
with the primary result
Decision threshold a* Bq 7,95E-3 7,91E-3

Detection limit a# Bq 2,67E-2 2,30E-2

Best estimate â Bq 1,17E-2 1,12E-2
Standard uncertainty associated with the
u( â ) Bq 6,62E-3 7,20E-3
best estimate
Relative uncertainty associated with the
urel ( â ) 1 0,566 0,643
best estimate
Lower limit of the probabilistically sym-
a Bq 9,70E-4 1,06E-3
metric coverage interval
Upper limit of the probabilistically symmet-
a Bq 2,58E-2 2,86E-2
ric coverage interval
Lower limit of the shortest coverage inter-
a< Bq 0 0
val
Upper limit of the shortest coverage inter-
a> Bq 2,34E-2 2,47E-2
val

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NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 3 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

7.9 Assessment of the alternative example and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result a = 0 , 0103 Bq exceeds the decision threshold a * = 0 , 007 95 Bq .
It is decided to conclude that an effect of the sample was recognized.

— The detection limit a# = 0 , 026 7 Bq is below the guideline values ar =0 , 1 Bq . It is decided to

conclude that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are a =0 , 000 97 Bq
and a = 0 , 026 Bq .

— The lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated as a< =0 Bq and 
a> =0 , 023 Bq .
— The best estimate is aˆ = 0, 011 7 Bq with an associated standard uncertainty u( â ) = 0, 006 6 Bq .
There are just minor differences between the results obtained by applying ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2,
which are due to the deviation between the Gaussian distributions and the actual posterior distributions
calculated according to ISO 11929-2; see Figure 3.
If large relative uncertainties of the primary result are due to the uncertainties of the count rates, this
does not affect the existence of the detection limit calculated according to ISO  11929-1. Also in this
extreme case of low count numbers the application of ISO 11929-1 is justified.

8 Counting measurements with large uncertainties in the numerator of the

calibration factor

8.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

The measurand is the activity of a sample with an uncertain counting geometry. Consequently the
calibration factor has large uncertainties. This is a simplified example according to the general model
of ISO 11929-1.
This measurement is an example for a case where the uncertainty of one of the input quantities is
dominating.

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The comparison between the primary measurement result and the decision threshold provides
information on whether or not an activity of the sample is observed. If the primary measurement result
is larger than the decision threshold, it is concluded that an activity has been observed.
A guideline value ar = 10 Bq is to be compared with the detection limit. If the detection limit is smaller
than the guide value, it is concluded that the measuring method is suitable for the measurement
purpose.

8.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The measurand is the activity in the sample. The primary result a of the measurement as an estimate
of the true quantity value of the measurand is calculated by the model of evaluation:

 ng n0 
a = ( rg − r0 ) · w = rn · w =  −  · w (52)
t t 0 
 g

The associated standard uncertainty is calculated by:

 ng n 
u2 ( a ) = w 2 ⋅ u2 ( rn ) + rn2 ⋅ u2 ( w ) = w 2 ⋅  + 0  + a2 ⋅ urel
2
( w ) (53)
t 
 g t0 
2 2

8.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 7. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 7.

Table 7 — Input quantities and data

Quantity Symbol xi u ( xi ) PDF Unit
Number of counts of the gross
ng 21 670 — — 1
measurement
Count time of the gross measure-
tg 1 200 — — s
ment
Number of counts of the back-
n0 73 150 — — 1
ground effect
Count time of the background
t0 12 000 — — s
effect
Calibration factor w 11,5 4,907 5 R( w ;3 , 20 ) s Bq
Intermediate values
Gross count rate rg 18,06 0,123 Ga( rg ;ng ,1 / tg ) s-1
Count rate of the background
r0 6,096 0,022 5 Ga( r0 ;n0 ,1 / t0 ) s-1
effect

The PDFs of the calibration factor and of the count rates were chosen according to the
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also ISO 11929-2:2019, 6.3 for a detailed description. It is assumed
in this example that the calibration is badly defined and that only the limits of a range of calibration
factors (3  s·Bq to 20  s·Bq) are known. This leads to assuming a rectangular PDF for the calibration
factor and a large relative standard uncertainty of the calibration factor of urel ( w ) = 0 , 43 .

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8.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

8.4.1 Background effect

The count rate of the background effect of the sample measurement has been measured. The number of
counted pulses is ng = 73150 . This gives a background count rate of
n0
r0 = = 6 , 096 s −1 (54)
t0
Its standard uncertainty associated with the background count rate is given by:

n0
u ( r0 ) = = 0 , 0225 s −1 (55)
t 02

8.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

The activity is calculated from Formula (52). This formula depends on the calibration factor, the input
quantities of which and their associated standard uncertainties were determined independently. This
yielded a calibration factor of
w =11,5Bq ⋅ s (56)

with the associated standard uncertainty

u( w ) = 4 , 907 5 Bq ⋅ s (57)

The primary result of the measurement is given by:

a = ( ng / t g − n0 / t 0 ) ⋅ w = 137 , 6 Bq (58)

This yields the standard uncertainty associated with the activity

2
 ng n   ng n 
u( a ) = w 2 ⋅  + 0 + − 0  ⋅ u2 ( w ) = 58 , 7 Bq
q (59)
 t2 t2   t t 
 g 0   g 0 
8.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty u( a ) as a function of the true value a of the measurand is needed to calculate
the decision threshold and the detection limit. For a true value a = ( rg − r0 ) ⋅ w one expects
n g = t g ⋅ ( a w + r0 ) . This yields with Formula (53)

u2 ( a ) = w2 ⋅(( a w + r0 ) tg + r0 t0 )+ a2 ⋅urel

2 ( w ) (60)

8.4.4 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the activity is calculated by:

a * = k1−α ⋅ u( 0 ) = k1−α ⋅ w 2 ⋅ ( r0 t g + r0 t 0 ) = 1 , 41 Bq (61)

The measured primary result a exceeds the decision threshold a * .

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8.4.5 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The detection limit is calculated by iteration, which leads to

a# = a * + k1− β ⋅ w 2 ⋅ (( a# w + r0 ) t g + r0 t 0 ) + a#2urel
2
( w ) = 5 , 63 Bq (62)

Since α = β , k1−α = k1− β = k , the detection limit can also be calculated by the explicit Formula (63):

2 ⋅ a * + ( k 2 ⋅ w )/ t g
( )
a# = a∗ + k1− β ⋅u a# =
1 − k 2 ⋅ urel
2
(w )
= 5 , 63 Bq (63)

The guideline value as,r exceeds the detection limit a# .

8.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated since the
measurement result a exceeds the decision threshold a* . With ω =Φ [ a / u( a )] = 0 , 990 and γ =0 , 05 one
obtains the probabilities by p = ω ⋅(1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 966 and q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the quantiles
k p and kq are equal to 1,821 and 1,964, respectively. Then the lower and upper limits of the
probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are given by:

a = a − k p ⋅ u ( a ) = 30 , 66 Bq and a = a + kq ⋅u ( a ) = 252 , 91 Bq (64)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated. With
ω = Φ [ a / u( a )] = 0 , 990 , one obtains p = [1 + ω ⋅ (1 − γ )]/ 2 = 0 , 970 , and hence the quantile kp is equal
to 1,887. With this, the limits of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (65) were:

a < = a − k p ⋅ u ( a ) = 26 , 73 Bq and a > = a + k p ⋅u ( a ) = 248 , 41 Bq (65)

8.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate â of the activity of the sample is given by:

aˆ = a +
{
u ( a ) ⋅ exp − a2 2u2 ( a ) 
 }
 = 139, 09 Bq (66)
ω 2π
with its associated standard uncertainty u( aˆ)

u ( aˆ) = u2 ( a ) − ( aˆ − a ) aˆ = 56, 89 Bq (67)

8.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2
The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 8 and the PDFs obtained by the Monte
Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 4.

Table 8 — Result and characteristic values

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result a Bq 138 137

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Table 8 (continued)
Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Standard uncertainty associated with the prima-
u( a ) Bq 59 59
ry result
Relative standard uncertainty associated with
urel ( a ) 1 0,428 0,431
the primary result
Decision threshold a* Bq 1,41 1,56

Detection limit a# Bq 5,63 4,87

Best estimate â Bq 139 138
Standard uncertainty associated with the best
u( aˆ) Bq 57 59
estimate
Relative uncertainty associated with the best
urel ( aˆ) 1 0,410 0,428
estimate
Lower limit of the probabilistically symmetric
a Bq 31 41
coverage interval
Upper limit of the probabilistically symmetric
a Bq 253 234
coverage interval
Lower limit of the shortest coverage interval a< Bq 27 40

Upper limit of the shortest coverage interval a> Bq 248 233

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NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 4 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

8.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result a = 138 Bq exceeds the decision threshold a * = 1 , 41 Bq . It is

decided to conclude that an effect of the sample was recognized.

— The detection limit a# = 5 , 63 Bq is below the guideline values ar =10 Bq . It is decided to conclude
that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are  a = 30 , 7 Bq
and a = 253 Bq .

— The lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated as a < = 26 , 7 Bq and 
a > = 248 Bq .
— The best estimate is â = 139 Bq with an associated standard uncertainty u( aˆ) = 57 Bq .
The results obtained by applying ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2 differ with regard to the detection limits
and the limits of the coverage intervals. This is due to the deviation between the Gaussian distributions
and the actual posterior distributions calculated according to ISO 11929-2 (see Figure 4). The
rectangular PDF of the calibration factor is responsible for the differences. The differences between
the best estimates and their associated standard uncertainties are small because the central estimates
of the rectangular distribution of the calibration factor is identical to that of the normal distribution
applied in ISO 11929-1.
Considering the differences in the limits of the coverage intervals, the application of ISO 11929-2 is to
be preferred if there are large and dominating uncertainties in the numerator of the calibration factor.

9 Counting measurements with large uncertainties in the denominator of the

calibration factor

9.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

This example deals with a wipe test. The measurand is the activity per unit surface. This is a generic
example of an indirect measurement of a surface contamination using a wipe test. It does not change
any stipulations laid down in ISO  7503 (all parts) regarding measurement and evaluation of surface
contamination. This is a simplified example according to the general model of ISO 11929-1.

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It is assumed that an area s of a surface has been wiped with a wiping efficiency ew . The wipe, i.e. the
sample, is measured by an unspecified detector with the counting efficiency eD . For simplicity it is
assumed that the surface emission rate measured is equal to the count rate caused by the surface
related activity as . This measurement is an example for a case where the uncertainty of one of the
input quantities is dominating.
The comparison between the primary measurement result and the decision threshold provides
information on whether or not an activity of the sample is observed. If the primary measurement result
is larger than the decision threshold, it is concluded that an activity of the sample has been observed.

A guideline value as,r = 0 , 5 Bq ⋅ cm −2 is to be compared with the detection limit. If the detection limit is
smaller than the guide value, it is concluded that the measuring method is suitable for the measurement
purpose.

9.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The measurand is the surface related activity in the sample. The primary result as of the measurement
as an estimate of the true quantity value of the measurand is calculated by the model of evaluation:
ng / t g − n0 / t 0 rg − r0
as = = ( ng / t g − n0 / t 0 ) ⋅ w = (68)
eD ⋅ s ⋅ ew eD ⋅ s ⋅ e w
The calibration factor is calculated by:
1
w= (69)
eD ⋅ s ⋅ e w
The relative standard uncertainty of the calibration factor urel ( w ) = u( w )/ w is calculated by:

urel ( w ) = ur2el ( eD ) + ur2el ( s ) + ur2el ( ew ) (70)

9.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

The efficiency of the detector eD and its associated standard uncertainty u( eD ) were independently
determined to be eD = 0 , 30  s-1·Bq-1 and u( eD ) = 0 , 015 5  s-1·Bq-1.

The area wiped was chosen as s = 100 cm2 and its associated relative standard uncertainty was set to
urel ( s ) = 10 % by expert guess.
For the wiping efficiency ew past experience was that it randomly varied in the interval ew ∈[0 , 06 ; 0 , 62]
with an average ew = 0 , 34 and an associated standard uncertainty u( ew ) = 0 , 162 derived from a
rectangular PDF.
The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 9. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 9.

Table 9 — Input quantities and data

Quantity Symbol xi u ( xi ) PDF Unit
Number of counts of the gross measure-
ng 2 591 — — 1
ment
Count time of the gross measurement tg 360 — — s
Number of counts of the background
n0 41 782   — 1
effect

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Table 9 (continued)
Quantity Symbol xi u ( xi ) PDF Unit
Count time of the background effect t0 7 200 — — s
Efficiency of the detector eD 0,30 0,015 5 N( eD ;eD , u( eD )) Bq-1 s-1
Wiping efficiency eW 0,34 0,162 R( ew ;0 , 06 , 0 , 62) 1
Wiped area s 100 10 N( s ; s , u( s )) cm2
Intermediate values
Gross count rate rg 7,20 0,141 Ga( rg ;ng ,1 / tg ) s-1
Count rate of the background effect r0 5,80 0,028 4 Ga( r0 ;n0 ,1 / t0 ) s-1

The PDFs of the efficiency of the detector, the wiping efficiency, the wiped area, and of the count rates
were chosen according to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also ISO  11929-2:2019, 6.3 for a
detailed description. It is assumed in this example that for the wiping efficiency only the limits of a
range (0,06 to 0,62) are known from experience. This leads to assuming a rectangular PDF for the
wiping efficiency and a large relative standard uncertainty of the wiping efficiency of urel ( ew ) = 0 , 48 .
The particular point of this example compared to that in Clause 8 is that now the quantity with a large
uncertainty is in the denominator.

9.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

9.4.1 Background effect

The count rate of the background effect is

n0
r0 = = 5 , 80 s −1 (71)
t0
Its associated standard uncertainty is given by:

r0
u ( r0 ) = = 0 , 028 4 s −1 (72)
t0

9.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

With a calibration factor

1
w= = 0 , 098 0 s ⋅ Bq ⋅ cm-2 (73)
eD ⋅ s ⋅ e w
and its standard uncertainty

u( w ) = w ⋅urel ( w ) = w ⋅ urel
2 ( e )+ u2 ( s )+ u2 ( e ) = 0 , 048 s Bq ⋅cm-2 (74)
D rel rel w

the primary result of the measurement is given by:

as = ( ng / t g − n0 / t 0 ) ⋅ w = 0 , 137 Bq ⋅ cm −2 (75)

This yields the standard uncertainty

u( aS ) = w 2 ⋅ ( rg / t g + r0 / t 0 ) + ( rg − r0 )2 ⋅ u2 ( w ) = 0 , 068 3 Bq ⋅ cm-2 (76)

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9.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty u( as ) as a function of the true value aS of the measurand is needed to
calculate the decision threshold and the detection limit. For a true value as = ( rg − r0 ) ⋅ w one expects
n g = t g ⋅ ( aS w + r0 ) . This yields with Formula (76)

u 2 ( as ) = w 2 ⋅ (( as w + r0 ) t g + r0 t 0 ) + as2urel

2
( w ) (77)

9.4.4 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the activity is calculated by:

as* = k1−α ⋅ u( 0 ) = k1−α ⋅ w 2 ⋅ ( r0 t g + r0 t 0 ) = 0 , 021 0 Bq ⋅ cm −2 (78)

The measured primary result as exceeds the decision threshold as* .

9.4.5 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1−β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The detection limit is calculated by iteration, which leads to

as# = as* + k1− β ⋅ w 2 ⋅[( as# w + r0 ) t g + r0 t 0 ] + as#2 ⋅ urel

2
( w ) = 0 , 121 Bq ⋅ cm −2 (79)

Since α = β , k1−α = k1− β = k , the detection limit can also be calculated by the explicit Formula (80):

2 ⋅ aS* + ( k 2 ⋅ w )/ t g
( )
aS# = aS* + k1− β ⋅u aS# =
1−k 2
⋅ urel
2
(w )
= 0 , 121 Bq ⋅ cm-2 (80)

The guideline value as,r exceeds the detection limit as# .

9.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated since the
measurement result as exceeds the decision threshold as* . With ω =Φ [ as / u( as )] = 0 , 977 and γ =0 , 05
one obtains the probabilities by p = ω ⋅(1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 953 and q = 1 −ω ⋅γ / 2 = 0 , 976 , and hence the quantiles
kp and kq are equal to 1,674 and 1,970, respectively. Then the lower and upper limits of the
probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are given by:

as = as − kp ⋅u ( as ) = 0 , 022 4 Bq ⋅cm−2 and as = as + kq ⋅u ( as ) = 0 , 271 Bq ⋅ cm −2 (81)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated. With
ω = Φ [ as / u( as )] = 0 , 977 , one obtains p = [1 + ω ⋅ (1 − γ )]/ 2 = 0 , 964 , and hence the quantile k p is equal
to 1,802. With this, the limits of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (82) are

as< = as − k p ⋅ u ( as ) = 0 , 0136 Bq ⋅ cm −2 and as> = as + k p ⋅u ( as ) = 0 , 260 Bq (82)

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ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

9.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate âs of the activity of the sample is given by:

aˆs = as +
{  }
u ( as ) ⋅ exp − as2 2u2 ( as ) 
 = 0, 140 Bq ⋅ cm−2 (83)
ω 2π
with its associated standard uncertainty u( aˆs )

u ( aˆs ) = u2 ( as ) − ( aˆs − as ) aˆ s = 0, 064 3 Bq ⋅ cm−2 (84)

9.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2
The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 10 and the PDFs obtained by the
Monte Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 5.

Table 10 — Result and characteristic values

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result as Bq cm-2 0,137 0,196
Standard uncertainty associated with the prima- u( as ) Bq cm-2 0,068 0,150
ry result
Relative standard uncertainty associated with urel ( as ) 1 0,50 0,77
the primary result
Decision threshold as* Bq cm-2 0,021 0,035
Detection limit as# Bq cm-2 0,121 0,099
Best estimate âs Bq cm-2 0,140 0,196
Standard uncertainty associated with the best u( aˆs ) Bq cm-2 0,064 0,150
estimate
Relative uncertainty associated with the best urel ( aˆs ) 1 0,46 0,77
estimate
Lower limit of the probabilistically symmetric as Bq cm-2 0,022 0,068
coverage interval
Upper limit of the probabilistically symmetric as Bq cm-2 0,271 0,640
coverage interval
Lower limit of the shortest coverage interval as< Bq cm-2 0,014 0,054
Upper limit of the shortest coverage interval as> Bq cm-2 0,260 0,538

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NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 5 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

9.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result as = 0 , 137 Bq ⋅ cm −2 exceeds the decision threshold

−2
as* = 0 , 021 Bq ⋅ cm . It is decided to conclude that a contamination of the surface was recognized.

— The detection limit as# = 0 , 121 Bq ⋅ cm −2 is below the guideline values as,r = 0 , 5 Bq ⋅ cm −2 . It is decided
to conclude that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are as = 0 , 022 Bq ⋅ cm −2
and as = 0 , 271 Bq ⋅ cm −2 .

— The lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated as  as< = 0 , 014 Bq ⋅ cm −2
and as> = 0 , 260 Bq ⋅ cm −2 .

— The best estimate is aˆs = 0, 140 Bq ⋅ cm−2 with an associated standard uncertainty
u( aˆs ) = 0, 064 Bq ⋅ cm−2 .
The results obtained by applying ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2 differ strongly with regard numerical
values (Table 10) and the PDFs (Figure 5). This effect is mainly due to the rectangular PDF in the
denominator. Considering these differences, the application of ISO 11929-2 is to be preferred if there
are large and dominating uncertainties in the denominator of the calibration factor.

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ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

10 Counting measurements with shielding of the background

10.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

This example deals with a measurement using a portal monitor by which trucks are investigated for
radioactive materials. No calibration in terms of activity is made. Rather, the net count rate is used as
an indicator whether or not radioactivity is in the truck load. A recognized count rate is simply taken as
an alarm indicating that further detailed inspection is necessary. This is a simplified example according
to the general model of ISO 11929-1.
Since the background is measured independently without a truck in the portal monitor, a measurement
of the gross effect has to take into account that a truck shields the background. The shielding factor is
assumed from experience to lie between 0,1 and 0,7. A rectangular PDF is assumed for the shielding
factor.

A guideline value rn,r = 10 s −1 is assumed, just for completeness of the example.

10.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The measurand is the net count rate observed. The primary result rn of the measurement as an estimate
of the true quantity value of the measurand is calculated by the model of evaluation:
rn = ng / t g − s ⋅ n0 / t 0 = rg − s ⋅ r0 (85)

The standard uncertainty u( rn ) associated with the primary measurement result rn is calculated by:

u2 ( rn ) = u2 ( rg ) + s 2 ⋅ u2 ( r0 ) + r02 ⋅ u2 ( s ) = ng / t g2 + s 2 ⋅ n0 / t 02 + ( n0 / t 0 )2 ⋅u2 ( s ) (86)

10.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

It is assumed that the shielding factor was determined in independent measurements and its associated
standard uncertainty was evaluated by applying the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3.
The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 11. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 11.
The standard uncertainties of the durations of the measurements are neglected.

Table 11 — Input quantities and data

Quantity Symbol xi u ( xi ) PDF Unit
Number of counts of the gross
ng 2 900 — — 1
measurement
Count time of the gross measure-
tg 180 — — s
ment
Number of counts of the back-
n0 25 000 — — 1
ground effect
Count time of the background
t0 1 800 — — s
effect
Shielding factor s 0,400 0,173 21 R( s ;0 ,1 , 0 ,7 ) 1
Intermediate values
Gross count rate rg 16,11 0,299 Ga( rg ;ng ,1 / tg ) s-1
Count rate of the background
r0 13,89 0,087 8 Ga( r0 ;n0 ,1 / t0 ) s-1
effect

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The PDFs of the shielding factor and of the count rates were chosen according to the
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also ISO 11929-2:2019, 6.3 for a detailed description. It is assumed
in this example that for the shielding factor only the limits of a range of shielding factors (0,1 to 0,7) are
known. This leads to assuming a rectangular PDF for the calibration factor and a large relative standard
uncertainty of the calibration factor of urel ( w ) = 0 , 43 .

10.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

10.4.1 Background effect

The count rate of the background effect is

n0
r0 = = 13 , 89 s −1 (87)
t0
and its associated standard uncertainty is given by:

r0
u ( r0 ) = = 0 , 087 8 s −1 (88)
t0

10.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

Since there is no calibration of the detector with respect to an activity, the measurand is the net count
rate. The primary result of the measurement is given by:

rn = ng / t g − s ⋅ n0 / t 0 = 10 , 56 s −1 (89)

and its standard uncertainty by:

u( rn ) = rg / t g + s 2 ⋅ r0 / t 0 + r02 ⋅ u2 ( s ) = 2 , 424 s-1 (90)

10.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty u( rn ) as a function of the true value rn of the measurand is needed to
calculate the decision threshold and the detection limit. For a true value rn = rg − s ⋅ r0 one expects
n g = t g ⋅ ( rn + s ⋅ r0 ) . This yields with Formula (86)

u 2 ( rn ) = ( rn + s ⋅ r0 ) t g + s 2 ⋅ r0 / t 0 + r02 ⋅ u2 ( s ) (91)

10.4.4 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the net count rate is calculated by:

 1 s 
rn* = k1−α ⋅ u( 0 ) = k1−α ⋅ s ⋅ r0 ⋅  +  + r02 ⋅ u2 ( s ) = 3 , 97 s-1 (92)
t 
 g t0 
The measured primary result rn exceeds the decision threshold rn* .

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ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

10.4.5 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The detection limit is calculated by iteration, which leads to

rn# + s ⋅r0 r0
rn# = rn* + k1−β ⋅ + s2 ⋅ + r02 ⋅u2 ( s ) = 7 , 95 s-1 (93)
tg t0

The guideline value rn,r exceeds the detection limit rn# .

10.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated since the
measurement result rn exceeds the decision threshold rn* . With ω = Φ [ rn / u( rn )] = 1 , 000 and γ = 0 , 05
one obtains the probabilities by p = ω ⋅ (1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 975 and q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the
quantiles k p and kq are both equal to 1,96. Then the lower and upper limits of the probabilistically
symmetric coverage interval are given by:

rn = rn − kp ⋅u ( rn ) = 5 , 80 s-1 and rn = rn + kq ⋅u ( rn ) = 15 , 31 s-1 (94)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated. With
ω = Φ [ rn / u( rn )] = 1 , 00 , one obtains p = [1 + ω ⋅ (1 − γ )]/ 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the quantile k p is equal to
1,96. With this the limits of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (95) are

rn< = rn − k p ⋅ u ( rn ) = 5 , 80 s-1 and rn> = rn + k p ⋅u ( rn ) = 15 , 31 s-1 (95)

10.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate r̂n of the net count rate of the sample is given by:

rˆn = rn +
{
u ( rn ) ⋅ exp − rn2 2u2 ( rn ) 
 }
 = 10, 56 s−1 (96)
ω 2π
with its associated standard uncertainty u(ˆ
rn )

u ( rˆn ) = u2 ( rn ) − ( rˆn − rn ) rˆn = 2, 42 s−1 (97)

10.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2
The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 12 and the PDFs obtained by the
Monte Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 6.

Table 12 — Results and characteristic limits

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result rn s-1 10,56 10,56
Standard uncertainty associated with the primary
u( rn ) s-1 2,42 2,43
result
Relative standard uncertainty associated with the
urel ( rn ) 1 0,23 0,23
primary result
Decision threshold rn* s-1 3,97 3,75

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Table 12 (continued)
Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Detection limit rn# s-1 7,95 7,51

Best estimate r̂n s-1 10,56 10,56

Standard uncertainty associated with the best
u(ˆ
rn ) s-1 2,42 2,43
estimate
Relative uncertainty associated with the best esti-
urel (ˆ
rn ) 1 0,23 0,23
mate
Lower limit of the probabilistically symmetric cov-
erage interval rn s-1 5,80 6,53

Upper limit of the probabilistically symmetric cov-

erage interval rn s-1 15,3 14,57

Lower limit of the shortest coverage interval rn< s-1 5,80 6,54
Upper limit of the shortest coverage interval rn> s-1 15,3 14,58

NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 6 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

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10.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result rn = 10 , 56 s −1 exceeds the decision threshold rn* = 3 , 97 s −1 . It is

decided to conclude that an effect from the sample was recognized.

— The detection limit rn# = 7 , 95 s −1 is below the guideline values rn,r = 10 s −1 . It is decided to conclude
that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are rn = 5 , 8 s-1 and 
rn = 15 , 3 s-1 .

— The lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated as rn< = 5 , 8 s-1 and 
rn> = 15 , 3 s-1 .

— The best estimate is rˆn = 10, 6 s-1 with an associated standard uncertainty u(ˆ
rn ) = 2, 4 s-1 .
The results obtained by applying ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2 exhibit differences up to 10 %. This is due
to the deviation between the Gaussian distributions and the actual posterior distributions calculated
according to ISO 11929-2; see Figure 6. The differences are mainly due to the lack of knowledge about
the shielding factor and its associated rectangular PDF.
The coverage intervals calculated with ISO 11929-2 are smaller than those based on ISO 11929-1. The
differences between the best estimates and their associated standard uncertainties are small because
the central estimates of the rectangular distribution of the shielding factor is identical to that of the
normal distribution applied in ISO 11929-1.
Considering the differences in the limits of the coverage intervals, the application of ISO 11929-2 is to
be preferred if there are large and dominating uncertainties in the numerator of the shielding factor.

11 Counting clearance measurement

11.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

This example deals with a measurement using a large waste monitor for clearance measurements. It is
assumed that the monitor is calibrated with 60Co and the results are 60Co-equivalents. Furthermore, it
is assumed that the different count rates of the individual detectors are combined into a sum channel.
The monitor counts the gamma-radiation emerging from 300  kg concrete located in a 200‑l‑waste-
drum. Such a monitor is typically calibrated for different waste packages and different filling heights
with several categories of net masses of the waste (parameters of efficiency calibration).
The example discussed is dealing with one specific calibration and is simplified by using only the sum
channel and no nuclide vector. The calibration measurements were performed with a certified point
source at 20 different positions in a calibration dummy, which resulted in a representative calibration
assuming a homogeneous activity distribution in the waste. The uncertainty in the calibration should
cover especially the effect of an inhomogeneous distribution of the activity in the waste.
NOTE 1 Because of a lack of international standardization of clearance measurements and because of the wide
variety of respective measurement procedures it is emphasized that this example is informative and neither the
model of evaluation nor the data shall be understood as stipulations. This example just serves to exemplify the
application of the model of ISO 11929 (all parts) and does not anticipate standardization in the field of clearance
measurements.

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NOTE 2 These monitors consist of a lead shielding of at least 5 cm thickness surrounding the waste as a cuboid
and several plastic scintillation detectors (typically 6 to 24 detectors) in the inner volume in front of the shielding.
The detectors and the shielding are built up in a way to cover the material in a so-called 4π-geometry. According
to the large volumes of the detectors, uncertainties due to counting statistics can practically be neglected. Due
to the gross measurement of gamma radiation no nuclide specific information can be obtained; it is a counting
measurement of nuclide equivalents.

NOTE 3 To ensure metrological traceability this leads to the fact, that a lot of efficiency calibrations are
performed (typically 10 to 100) for different combinations of the parameters mentioned above. For practical
reasons a somewhat conservative parameter is chosen to calculate the results (e. g. if there is a calibration for
250 kg and 300 kg and the net mass is 280 kg, the calibration with 300 kg is used).

NOTE 4 In comparison to spectrometric measurements (e.  g. with drum scanners) using HPGe-detectors
the disadvantages of non-nuclide-specific measurements stand in contrast to advantages, in particular, of
significantly shorter measurement duration times and lower measurement uncertainties due to inhomogeneity
of the activity distribution.

A guideline value ar = 30 000 Bq according to the clearance level for unconditional clearance
of 0,1 Bq/g = 30 000 Bq/300 kg is assumed.

11.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The measurand is the activity of the sample. The primary result a of the measurement as an estimate
of the true quantity value of the measurand is calculated by the model of evaluation:

 ng n0 
a= − ⋅ x3 − x 41 + x 42  ⋅ w = ( rg − r0 ⋅ x3 − x 41 + x 42 ) ⋅ w (98)
t 
 g t0 
with

  x3 correction of the background count rate for its variability due to work activities near the
device for clearance measurements,

  x41 correction for natural radionuclides, i.e. 40K and the 226Ra and 232Th decay series, in the
material to be measured. The concrete was characterized in independent measurements for
its natural radioactivity and the resulting contribution x4 to the gross count rate and its
associated standard certainty u( x4 ) were determined.

  x42 correction for shielding of the background by the material to be measured.

Formula (98) is an example for the general model of ISO 11929-1.
The standard uncertainty u( a ) associated with the primary measurement result a is calculated by:

( )
u2 ( a ) = w 2 ⋅ rg t g + x32 ⋅ r0 t 0 + r02 ⋅ x32 ⋅ u2 ( x3 ) + u2 ( x 41 ) + u2 ( x 42 ) + a2 ⋅ urel
2
( w ) (99)

11.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

It is assumed that the calibration factor as well x3 , x 41 and x 42 were determined in independent
measurements and their associated standard uncertainties were evaluated by applying the
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3.
The corrections for the standardized clearance measurement of batches of 300 kg of bulk material were
investigated in independent measurements and their standard uncertainties were evaluated according
to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3.
The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 13. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 13.

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Table 13 — Input quantities and data

Quantity Symbol xi u ( xi ) PDF Unit
Number of counts of the gross meas-
ng 389 589 — — 1
urement
Count time of the gross measurement tg 60 — — s
Number of counts of the background
n0 306 000 — — 1
effect
Count time of the background effect t0 180 — — s
Background correction for changing
x3 1 0,011 5 R( x3 ;0 , 98 ,1 , 02) 1
work activities
Background correction of the natural
x41 2 345 220 N[ x41 ; x41 , u( x41 )] s-1
radioactivity
Shielding correction x42 276 70 N[ x42 ; x42 , u( x42 )] s-1
Calibration factor w 4,58 1,37 4 N[ w ;w , u( w )] s Bq
Intermediate values
Gross count rate rg 6 493 10,40 Ga( rg ;ng ,1 / tg ) s-1
Count rate of the background effect r0 1 700 3,07 Ga( r0 ;n0 ,1 / t0 ) s-1

The PDFs of the calibration factor, of the correction factors, and of the count rates were chosen according
to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also ISO 11929-2:2019, 6.3 for a detailed description.

11.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

11.4.1 Background effect

The count rate of the background effect is

n0
r0 = = 1700 s −1 (100)
t0
Its associated standard uncertainty is given by:

r0
u ( r0 ) = = 3 , 07 s −1 (101)
t0

11.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

The primary result of the measurement is given by:

 ng n0 
a= − ⋅ x3 − x 41 + x 42  ⋅ w = 12 477 Bq (102)
t 
 g t0 
and the associated standard uncertainty by

u( a ) = w 2 ⋅ rg t g + x32 ⋅ r0 t 0 + r02 ⋅ u2 ( x3 ) + u2 ( x 41 ) + u2 ( x 42 ) + a2 ⋅ ure

2
el ( w )
(103)
= 3 891 Bq

11.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty u( a ) as a function of the true value a of the measurand is needed to calculate
the decision threshold and the detection limit.

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 a n 
For a true value a one expects n g =  + 0 ⋅ x3 + x 41 − x 42  ⋅ t g . This yields with Formula (99)
 w t0 
  a n0  
+ ⋅ x3 + x 41 − x 42  / t g + x32 ⋅ r0 t 0 
2  w t
u (a) = w ⋅  
2 
0   + a ⋅ urel ( w ) (104)
2 2
 2 2 
 + r0 ⋅ u ( x3 ) + u ( x 41 ) + u ( x 42 )
2 2

11.4.4 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the activity is calculated by:

a * = k1−α ⋅ u( 0 )

n 
= k1−α ⋅ w ⋅  0 ⋅ x3 + x 41 − x 42  / t g + x32 ⋅ r0 t 0 + r02 ⋅ u2 ( x3 ) + u2 ( x 41 ) + u2 ( x 42 ) (105)
 t0 
= 1747 Bq
The measured primary result exceeds the decision threshold a * .

11.4.5 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The detection limit is calculated by iteration, which leads to

 a # n0  
w 2 ⋅  + ⋅ x3 + x 41 − x 42  / t g + x32 ⋅ r0 t 0 + r02 ⋅ u2 ( x3 ) + u2 ( x 41 ) + u2 ( x 42 )
a = a + k1− β ⋅
# *  w t 0  

+ a #2 ⋅ urel
2
(w )
= 4 618 Bq
(106)

The guideline value ar exceeds the detection limit a# .

11.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated since the
measurement result a exceeds the decision threshold a* . With ω =Φ [ a / u( a )] = 0 , 999 and γ =0 , 05 one
obtains the probabilities by p = ω ⋅(1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 974 and q = 1 −ω ⋅γ / 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the quantiles kp
and kq are equal to 1,95 and 1,96, respectively. Then the lower and upper limits of the probabilistically
symmetric coverage interval are given by:

a = a − k p ⋅ u ( a ) = 4 894 Bq and a = a + kq ⋅u ( a ) = 20104 Bq (107)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated. With 
ω = Φ [ a / u( a )] = 0 , 999 , one obtains p = [1 + ω ⋅ (1 − γ )]/ 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the quantile k p is equal to
1,954. With this the limits of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (108) were

a < = a − k p ⋅ u ( a ) = 4 872 Bq and a > = a + k p ⋅u ( a ) = 20 081 Bq (108)

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11.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate â of the activity of the sample is given by:

aˆ = a +
{  }
u ( a ) ⋅ exp − a2 2u2 ( a ) 
 = 12 486 Bq (109)
ω 2π
with its associated standard uncertainty u( aˆ)

u ( aˆ) = u2 ( a ) − ( aˆ − rn ) aˆ = 3 876 Bq (110)

11.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2

The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 14 and the PDFs obtained by the
Monte Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 7.

Table 14 — Results and characteristic limits

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result a Bq 12 477 12 477
Standard uncertainty associated with the
u( a ) Bq 3 891 3 901
primary result
Relative standard uncertainty associated
urel ( a ) 1 0,31 0,31
with the primary result
Decision threshold a* Bq 1 747 1 819
Detection limit a# Bq 4 618 4 350
Best estimate â Bq 12 486 12 482
Standard uncertainty associated with the
u( aˆ) Bq 3 876 3 895
best estimate
Relative uncertainty associated with the
urel ( aˆ) 1 0,31 0,31
best estimate
Lower limit of the probabilistically sym-
metric coverage interval a Bq 4 894 5 076

Upper limit of the probabilistically symmet-

ric coverage interval a Bq 20 104 20 376

Lower limit of the shortest coverage inter-

val a< Bq 4 872 4 946

Upper limit of the shortest coverage inter-

val a> Bq 20 081 20 231

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NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 7 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

11.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result a = 12 477 Bq exceeds the decision threshold a * = 1747 Bq . It is
decided to conclude that an effect from the sample was recognized.

— The detection limit a# = 4 618 Bq is below the guideline values ar =30 000 Bq . It is decided to
conclude that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are a = 4 894 Bq
and a =20104 Bq .

— The lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated as a < = 4 872 Bq and
a > = 20 081 Bq .
— The best estimate is â = 12 486 Bq with an associated standard uncertainty u( aˆ) = 3 876 Bq .
The results obtained by applying ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2 exhibit differences of less than 10 %.
The differences are due to the deviation between the Gaussian distributions and the actual posterior
distributions calculated according to ISO 11929-2; see Figure 7.
The coverage intervals calculated with ISO 11929-2 differ only slightly from those based on ISO 11929-1.
The differences between the best estimates and their associated standard uncertainties are small
because the central estimates of the rectangular distribution of the calibration factor is identical to that
of the normal distribution applied in ISO 11929-1.

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ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

Considering the differences between the results obtained by ISO  11929-1 and  ISO 11929-2 the
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3 approximation and consequently ISO 11929-1 are sufficient.
NOTE 1 Since this document does not deal with the problem of conformity with requirements, as e.g. with
the clearance level for unconditional clearance, the question whether or not the material measured can be
unconditionally cleared is not answered. For an answer to this question see Reference [45].

NOTE 2 It is necessary to take into account that in the present case favourable boundary conditions with
regard to the mass of the material to be measured and the photon energies (60Co) been selected. By increasing
the mass to several 100 kg or smaller photon energies (e. g. 137Cs) it can be necessary to use an approach as given
in A.3.

12 Gamma-spectrometry of Uranium-235 with interference by Radium-226

12.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

When measuring 235U by γ-spectrometry via the gamma-line at 186 keV there is an interference with
the gamma-line of 226Ra. If radioactive equilibrium between 226Ra and 214Bi can be assumed, the
interference can be corrected for via the gamma-line of 214Bi at 609 keV taking into account the ratios
of the different emission probabilities and detector efficiencies. This is an example according to the
general model of ISO 11929-1.
In addition, it is assumed in this example that there is an impurity of 235U in the detector material,
which was determined by an independent measurement of the background caused by this impurity.
In this example, it is assumed that all measurements were performed with the same count time. In
addition, only the Poisson uncertainties of the counted events are taken into account. For simplicity
it is assumed that the efficiencies at the different γ-energies were measured independently with
suitable reference sources, thus avoiding covariances. A more detailed calculation was performed
in Reference [39].
A soil sample is investigated by gamma-spectrometry for 235U via the  186  keV gamma-line. The
interference of this line with the gamma-line from 226Ra and a contribution to the background by an
impurity 235U in the detector material has to be taken into account. The measurand is the activity
of 235U per unit mass.
It is assessed whether the primary measurement result exceeds the decision threshold and an activity
of 235U per unit mass is recognized in the soil sample.
No guideline value for the activity per unit mass of 235U is given. Therefore, a comparison of the
detection limit with the guideline value is not needed. In spite of that, the detection limit is calculated
for completeness.

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12.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The measurand is activity per unit mass, of 235U in the sample. The primary result of the measurement
as an estimate of the true quantity value of the measurand is calculated by the model of evaluation:

 ng,186 nn,609 eRa ,186 · ε 186 nU,186 nn ,186 ,0  1

am =  − · − − ⋅
 t t eRa ,609 · ε 609 t t  186 U ,186 ⋅ m
ε ⋅ e
(111)
 eRa ,186 · ε 186  1
=  rg,186 − rn,609 · − rU,186 − rn ,186 ,0  ⋅
 eRa ,609 · ε 609  ε 186 ⋅ eU ,186 ⋅ m
In order to avoid a covariance Formula (111) is slightly rearranged and yields the final model of
1 eRa ,186
evaluation with the calibration factor w = and a correction factor k =
eU ,186 ⋅ m eRa ,609 · ε 609
 rg,186 eRa ,186 rU,186 rn ,186 ,0  1
am =  − rn,609 · − − ⋅
 ε 186 eRa ,609 · ε 609 ε 186 ε 186  eU ,186 ⋅ m
(112)
 rg,186 rU,186 rn ,186 ,0 
= − rn,609 · k − −  ⋅w
 ε 186 ε 186 ε 186 
The standard uncertainty u ( am ) of the measurand associated with the estimate am is calculated by:

n 2
 ∂a 
2
∑
u ( am ) =  m  ⋅ u2 ( x i ) (113)
∂x i 
i =1 
which yields

 rg,186 1 rn,609 2 rU,186 1 rn,186,0 1 

 ⋅ + ⋅k + ⋅ + ⋅
t t t t 2 
 ε 2
186 ε 2
186 ε 186  2 2
u ( am ) = w 
2 2
 + am ⋅ urel ( w ) (114)
 u2 ( ε 186 ) 
⋅ ( rg ,186 − rU ,186 − rn ,186 ,0 ) + u2 ( k ) ⋅ rn,2,609 
2
+
 ε 186
2

eRa ,186
The standard uncertainty of the correction factor k = is given by:
eRa ,609 · ε 609
u2 ( k ) = k 2 ⋅ urel
2
( eRa ,186 ) + urel
2
( eRa ,609 ) + urel
2
(ε 609 ) (115)

1
The relative standard uncertainty of the calibration factor w = is given by:
eU ,186 ⋅ m
urel
2
( w ) = urel
2
( eU ,186 ) + urel
2
( m ) (116)

The following symbols are used in this example:

t count time
ng,186 number of gross counts in the peak at 186 keV
nn,609 Number of counts in the net peak of 214Bi at 609 keV
nU,186 number of counts in the background under the peak at 186 keV
nn ,186 ,0 number of net counts in the peak at 186 keV due to activity of the impurity in the detector
rg,186 gross count rate in the 186 keV peak

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rn,609 net count rate in the 609 keV peak

rU,186 background count rate in the 186 keV peak
rn ,186 ,0 net count rate due to the activity of the impurity of the detector in the peak at 186 keV
eRa ,186 emission probability of the 186 keV gamma-rays of 226Ra
eRa ,609 emission probability of the 609 keV gamma-rays of 214Bi
eU ,186 emission probability of 186 keV the gamma-rays of 235U
ε186 detector efficiency at 186 keV
ε609 detector efficiency at 609 keV
k correction factor for the detector efficiencies and the emission probabilities
m mass of the test sample
w calibration factor

12.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 15. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 15.

Table 15 — Input quantities and measurement data

Symbol
Quantity xi u ( xi ) Unit PDF
for xi
Count time t 15 000 — s  
Number of count in the gross ng,186 7 468 — 1  
peak at 186 keV
Number of counts in the net peak nn,609 6 957 — 1  
of 214Bi at 609 keV
Number of counts in the back- nU,186 6 181 — 1  
ground under the peak at 186 keV
Number of counts in the net peak
at 186 keV due to the activity of nn ,186 ,0 207 — 1  
the impurity of the detector
Emission probability of eRa,186 N[ eRa,186 ;eRa,186 , u( eRa,186 )]
0,035 1 0,000 6 1
the 186 keV gamma-line of 226Ra
Detector efficiency at 186 keV ε186 0,800 0,064 1 N[ε186 ;ε186 , u( ε186 )]
Emission probability of eRa,609 N[ eRa,609 ;eRa,609 , u( eRa,609 )]
0,446 0,005 1
the 609 keV gamma-line of 214Bi
Emission probability of eU ,186 N[ eU ,186 ;eU ,186 , u( eU ,186 )]
0,572 0,005 1
the 186 keV gamma-line of 235U
Detector efficiency at 609 keV ε609 0,551 0,033 1 N[ε609 ;ε609 , u( ε609 )]
Mass of the test sample m 0,750 0,038 kg N[ m
 ;m , u( m )]
Intermediate values
Gross count rate in the 186 keV rg,186 Ga( rg ;ng ,1 / tg )
0,498 0,005 76 s-1
peak
Net count rate in the 609 keV rn,609 0,464 0,005 56 s-1  
peak

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Table 15 (continued)
Symbol
Quantity xi u ( xi ) Unit PDF
for xi
Background count rate of rU,186 0,412 0,005 24 s-1 Ga( r ;n ,1 / t )
the 186 keV peak
Count rate in the net peak
at 186 keV due to the activity of rn ,186 ,0 0,013 8 0,000 959 s-1 Ga( r ;n ,1 / t )
the impurity in the detector

The PDFs of the count rates and of the input data, except the given actual numbers of counts, were
chosen according to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also ISO 11929-2:2019, 6.3 for a detailed
description.

12.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

12.4.1 Background effect

The background under the peak at 186 keV is nU,186 = 618 1 which yields a count rate of
nU,186
rU,186 = = 0 , 412 s-1 (117)
t
The standard uncertainty of background under the peak at 186 keV is

nU,186
u ( rU,186 ) = = 0 , 00524 s-1 (118)
t 2

12.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

For the calculation of the primary measurement result am, the activity per unit mass of 235U, first the
correction factor k and its associated standard uncertainty u(k) are determined.

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The calibration factor w is calculated by:

1
w= = 2 , 331 Bq ⋅ s-1 ⋅ kg -1 (119)
eU ,186 ⋅ m
with the relative standard uncertainty

urel ( w ) = urel
2
( eU ,186 ) + urel
2
( m ) = 0 , 051 4 (120)

and the standard uncertainty

u ( w ) = urel ( w ) · w = 0 , 120 Bq ⋅ s-1 ⋅ kg -1 (121)

The correction factor k is calculated with the emission probabilities and the detector efficiencies
eRa ,186
k= = 0 , 143 (122)
eRa ,609 · ε 609
and its relative standard uncertainty is

urel ( k ) = u2rel ( eRa ,186 ) + u2rel ( eRa ,609 ) + u2rel ( ε 609 ) = 0 , 0633 (123)

and its standard uncertainty is

u ( k ) = urel ( k ) · k = 0 , 009 0 (124)

With the correction factor k and the calibration factor w the primary measurement result am is

 rg,186 rU,186 rn ,186 ,0 

am =  − rn,609 · k − −  ⋅ w = 0 , 055 4 Bq ⋅ g (125)
-1
 ε 186 ε 186 ε 186 
with the standard uncertainty

 rg,186 1 rn,609 2 rU,186 1 rn,186,0 1 

 ⋅ + ⋅k + ⋅ + ⋅
t t t t 2 
 ε 2
186 ε 2
186 ε 186  2 2
u ( am ) = w 
2
 + am ⋅ urel ( w )
 urel2
( ε 186 )  (126)
⋅ ( rg ,186 − rU ,186 − rn ,186 ,0 ) + u ( k ) ⋅ rn,609 
2
+
2 2

 ε 186
2

= 0 , 030 2 Bq ⋅ g -1
12.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty u( am ) as a function of the true value am of the measurand is needed to
calculate the decision threshold and the detection limit. For a true value am one expects
a
rg ,186 = ε186 ⋅ m + ε186 ⋅rn,609 · k + rU,186 + rn ,186 ,0 .
w

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This yields with Formula (127):

 ε 186 ⋅ a m 1 rn,609 2 rU,186 1 

( + rn,609 ⋅ ε 186 · k + rU,186 + rn ,186 ,0 ) ⋅ + ⋅k + ⋅
w t t 2 
 ε 2
186 ⋅ t ε 186 
u 2 ( a m ) = w 2  
 rn,186,0 1 a 2
    (127)
+ t ⋅ + urel
2
( ε 186 ) ⋅  m + rn,609 · k  + u2 ( k ) ⋅ rn,2 609 
 ε 186
2  w  
+ a m
2
⋅ ur2el ( w )
12.4.4 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the activity is calculated by:

am
*
= k1−α ⋅ u( 0 )

1 rn,609 rU,186 1
( rn,609 ⋅ ε 186 · k + rU,186 + rn ,186 ,0 ) ⋅ +
t
⋅ k2 +
t
⋅
ε 186 ⋅t ε 186
2 2
= k1−α ⋅ w ⋅ (128)
rn,186,0 1
+ ⋅ + urel
2
( ε 186 ) ⋅ r 2 · k 2 + u2 ( k ) ⋅ rn,2 609
t ε 186
2 n,609

= 0 , 0455 Bq ⋅ g -1
The primary measurement result am exceeds the decision threshold am
*
.

12.4.5 Detection limit

For β = 0,05 is k1− β = 1 , 65 and by solving the implicit Formula one obtains the detection limit

am
#
= am
*
+ k1− β ·u( am
#
)

ε 186 ⋅ a# 1
( m
+ rn,609 ⋅ ε 186 · k + rU,186 + rn ,186 ,0 ) ⋅
w ε 186
2
⋅t
rn,609 rU,186 1 rn,186,0 1
= am
*
+ k1− β ⋅ w ⋅ + ⋅ k2 + ⋅ + ⋅ (129)
t t ε 186
2 t ε 186
2

2
 a# 
 a# 2 2
+ u rel ( ε 186 ) ⋅
2 m
+ rn,609 · k  + u2 ( k ) ⋅ rn,2 609 + m ⋅ urel (w )
 w  w2
 
= 0 , 099 2 Bq ⋅ g -1
12.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated since the
measurement result a exceeds the decision threshold a*. With ω = Φ [ am / u( am )] = 0 , 966 7 and γ = 0 , 05
one obtains the probabilities by p = ω ⋅ (1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 9425 and q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 975 8 , and hence the

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quantiles k p and kq are equal to 1,576 and 1,974, respectively. Then the lower and upper limits of the
probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are given by:

am 
= am − k p ⋅ u ( am ) = 0 , 007 79 Bq ⋅ g -1 and am ( )
= am + kq ⋅u am = 0 , 115 Bq ⋅ g -1 (130)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated. With 
ω = Φ [ am / u( am )] = 0 , 966 7 , one obtains p = [1 + ω ⋅ (1 − γ )]/ 2 = 0 , 959 2 , and hence the quantile k p is
equal to 1,741. With this, the limits of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (131) are
< >
am = am − k p ⋅ u ( am ) = 0 , 002 81 Bq ⋅ g -1 and am = am + k p ⋅u ( am ) = 0 , 108 Bq ⋅ g -1 (131)

12.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate âm of the activity of 235U per unit mass of the sample is given by:

aˆm = am +
{  }
u ( am )·exp − am2 / 2u2 ( am ) 
 = 0, 057 7 Bq ⋅ g-1 (132)
ω 2π
with its associated standard uncertainty

u ( aˆm ) = u2 ( am ) − ( aˆm − am ) aˆm = 0, 027 9 Bq ⋅ g-1 (133)

12.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2
The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 16 and the PDFs obtained by the
Monte Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 8.

Table 16 — Result and characteristic values

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result am Bq/g 0,055 4 0,056 4
Standard uncertainty associated with the prima-
u( am ) Bq/g 0,030 2 0,030 8
ry result
Relative standard uncertainty associated with the
urel ( am ) 1 0,545 0,546
primary result
Decision threshold am
* Bq/g 0,045 5 0,047 5
Detection limit am
# Bq/g 0,099 2 0,099 1
Best estimate âm Bq/g 0,057 7 0,058 1
Standard uncertainty associated with the best
u( âm ) Bq/g 0,027 9 0,029 1
estimate
Relative uncertainty associated with the best
urel ( âm ) 1 0,484 0,501
estimate
Lower limit of the probabilistically symmetric 
am Bq/g 0,007 79 0,008 18
coverage interval
Upper limit of the probabilistically symmetric 
am Bq/g 0,115 0,121
coverage interval
Lower limit of the shortest coverage interval < Bq/g 0,002 81 0,002 10
am
Upper limit of the shortest coverage interval > Bq/g 0,108 0,111
am

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NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 8 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

12.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result am = 0 , 055 4 Bq ⋅ g -1 exceeds the decision threshold

∗
am = 0 , 045 5 Bq ⋅ g . It is decided to conclude that an activity per unit mass of 235U was recognized
-1

in the sample.
— Since no guideline value is given the assessment of the measurement procedure is omitted.
— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated as 
am = 0 , 007 8 Bq ⋅ g -1 and am  = 0 , 115 Bq ⋅ g -1 .

— The lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated as  am < = 0 , 002 8 Bq ⋅ g -1
and am > = 0 , 108 Bq ⋅ g -1 .

— The best estimate is calculated as aˆm = 0, 057 7 Bq ⋅ g-1 with an associated standard uncertainty
u ( aˆm ) = 0, 027 9 Bq ⋅ g-1 .

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The model of evaluation is linear, and there are no dominating large uncertainties so that the
application of ISO 11929-1 is justified. In spite of the fact that the relative uncertainty of the primary
estimate exceeds 50 %, many results obtained by application of ISO 11929-2 are practically identical
with those obtained by ISO 11929-1:2019, Table 16. Large differences are seen between the limits of the
probabilistically symmetric and the shortest coverage intervals, the upper limits being more affected
than the lower limits. The ISO/IEC  Guide  98-3 approximations, assuming normal PDFs and using a
Taylor expansion truncated after the linear term, hold.

13 Black box measurements

13.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

Measurements of ambient dose rates with a large volume plastic detector of unknown functionality and
algorithm are taken as an example for so-called black-box measurements (ISO 11929-1:2019, A.4).
Based on repeated measurements of ambient dose rates in an area considered not to be contaminated it
is investigated whether an enhanced dose rate can be seen by repeated measurements in another area
suspected to be potentially contaminated.

A guideline value y r = 50 nSv ⋅ h −1 is assumed for completeness of the example.

13.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The measurand is a net dose rate as a difference between series of measurements of a background
area and of a gross area potentially contaminated. The characteristic limits, the best estimate, and the
associated standard uncertainty are calculated for this measurand.
NOTE Since the physical quantity of the particular dose rate is not specified the symbol y is used.

The model of the evaluation is given by:

y = ( x g − x b ) ⋅ w (134)

ng nb
∑ ∑ x b ,i , and
1 1
with the means of the gross and background measurements, x g = x g ,i and x b =
ng i =1
nb i =1
ng 1/2
 1 
with the standard deviations of the gross and background measurements, sg = 
 ng − 1 i =1 ∑
( x g ,i −x g )2 

 
1/2
 1 nb 
and sb =  ∑
 nb − 1 i =1
( x b ,i −x b )2  , respectively.

According to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1:2008, 6.4.9 the repeated measurements are assumed
to be drawn from a Gaussian distribution with unknown mean and variance. Consequently, the PDF is
the t-distribution t n−1 ( x , s 2 / n ) . The variance of this distribution then yields the standard uncertainties
associated with the means of the gross and background measurements
1/2
 ng − 1  sg  n −1 
1/2
sb
u( x g ) =  ⋅ and u( x b ) =  b ⋅ (135)
 n − 3  ng

 nb − 3  nb
 g 
NOTE Obviously, ng , nb > 3 is required.

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Then the standard uncertainty associated with the primary measurement result y is calculated by:

u2 ( y ) = w 2 ⋅[u2 ( x g ) + u2 ( x b )] + y 2 ⋅ urel
2
( w ) (136)

13.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 17. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 17.

Table 17 — Input data, intermediate values

Quantity Symbol Value PDF
Number of readings related
to the gross and to the back- ng , nb 28, 27  
ground measurements
358, 370, 337, 229, 339, 186, 207, 194, 198,
Gross effect in nSv h-1 xg, i 170, 154, 177, 170, 157, 184, 147, 151, 127, 213, N[ xg ; xg , u( xg )]
192, 138, 170, 134, 135, 123, 153, 124, 146
95, 82, 69, 80, 83, 73, 70, 75, 76, 79, 80, 78, 77,
Background effect in nSv h-1 xb,i 71, 74, 71, 72, 69, 68, 68, 71, 75, 80, 81, 74, 76, N[ xb ; xb , u( xb )]
77
Calibration factor, assumed
to be unity with 30 % rela- w , u( w ) 1; 0,3 N[ w ;w , u( w )]
tive uncertainty

The PDFs of the calibration factor and of the count rates were chosen according to the
ISO/IEC  Guide  98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also ISO  11929-2:2019, 6.3 for a detailed description and
ISO 11929-1:2019, A.4 for the general methodology.

13.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

13.4.1 Background effect

The background effect was obtained by repeated nb readings. The values of the individual readings x b,i
are given in Table 17. One calculates the mean background measurement by
nb
∑ x b ,i = 75,70 nSv ⋅ h−1 (137)
1
xb =
nb i =1
with a standard deviation
1/2
 1 nb 
sb = 
 nb − 1 i =1
∑
( x b ,i −x b )2 

= 5 , 90 nSv ⋅ h −1 (138)

and a standard uncertainty

1/2
 n −1  sb
u( x b ) =  b  ⋅ = 1 , 18 nSv ⋅ h −1 (139)
 nb − 3  nb

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13.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

The gross measurement was obtained by repeated ng readings. The values of the individual readings
x g,i are given in Table 17. One calculates the mean gross effect by
ng

∑ x g ,i = 192, 25 nSv ⋅ h−1 (140)

1
xg =
ng i =1
with a standard deviation
1/2
 1 ng 
sg = 
 ng − 1 i =1 ∑
( x g ,i −x g )2 

= 71 , 72 nSv ⋅ h −1 (141)
 
and a standard uncertainty
1/2
 ng − 1  sg
u( x g ) =  ⋅ = 14 , 09 nSv ⋅ h −1 (142)
 n − 3  ng
 g 
This yield the primary result

y = ( x g − x b ) ⋅ w = 116 , 55 nSv ⋅ h −1 (143)

The standard uncertainty associated with the primary measurement result is given by:

u( y ) = w 2 ⋅[u2 ( x g ) + u2 ( x b )] + y 2 ⋅ urel
2
( w ) = 37 , 71 nSv ⋅ h −1 (144)

13.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value is not explicitly available. Therefore,
the following procedure is applied.
For a true value of the measurand y =0 one expects with ISO 11929-1:2019, Formula (A.24)

 ng −1 nb −1  2
u2 ( y = 0 ) = w2 ⋅  +  ⋅ sb (145)
 ng ⋅( ng −3) nb ⋅( nb −3) 
and the decision threshold

ng −1 nb −1
y* = k1−α ⋅w ⋅ sb ⋅ + (146)
ng ⋅( ng −3) nb ⋅( nb −3)
According to ISO 11929-1:2019, 5.5, the following linear interpolation often suffices, if only u(
 0 ) , one
result, y > 0 , and its associated standard uncertainty, u( y ) , are known

u 2 ( y ) = u 2 ( 0 ) ⋅ (1 − y y ) + u2 ( y ) ⋅ y y (147)

13.4.4 Decision threshold

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The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the dose rate is calculated by:

ng − 1 nb − 1
y * = k1−α ⋅ w ⋅ sb ⋅ + = 2 , 72 nSv ⋅ h −1 (148)
ng ⋅ ( ng − 3) nb ⋅ ( nb − 3)

13.4.5 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The linear interpolation according to Formula (147) leads with the
auxiliary quantity a according to Formula (149)

a = k1−α ⋅ u( 0 ) +
1
2
{( k12−β y ) (u2 ( y ) − u2 (0)} (149)
to the detection limit

y # = a + a2 + ( k12− β − k12−α ) u 2 ( 0 ) = 38 , 39 nSv ⋅ h −1 (150)

The guideline value exceeds the detection limit.

13.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated since the
measurement result y exceeds the decision threshold y * . With ω = Φ [ y / u( y )] = 0 , 999 and γ = 0 , 05
one obtains the probabilities by p = ω ⋅ (1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 974 and q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the
quantiles are k p = 1 , 944 and kq = 1 , 960 . Then the lower and upper limits of the probabilistically
symmetric coverage interval are given by:

y  = y − k p ⋅ u ( y ) = 43 , 25 nSv ⋅ h −1 and y  = y + kq ⋅u ( y ) = 190 , 48 nSv ⋅ h −1 (151)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated. With 
ω = Φ [ y / u( y )] = 0 , 999 0 , one obtains p = [1 + ω ⋅ (1 − γ )]/ 2 = 0 , 974 5 , and hence the quantile kp is
equal to 1,96. With this, the limits of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (152) are

y < = y − k p ⋅ u ( y ) = 42 , 93 nSv ⋅ h −1 and y > = y + k p ⋅u ( y ) = 190 , 16 nSv ⋅ h −1 (152)

13.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate ŷ of the measurand is given by:

ˆy = y +
{
u ( y ) ⋅ exp − y2 2u2 ( y ) 
 }
 = 116, 67 nSv ⋅ h−1 (153)
ω 2π
with its associated standard uncertainty u( ˆ)
y

u ( ˆy ) = u2 ( y ) − ( ˆy − y ) ˆy = 37, 52 nSv ⋅ h−1 (154)

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13.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2

The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 18 and the PDFs obtained by the Monte
Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 9.

Table 18 — Result and characteristic values

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result y nSv h-1 116,55 116,6
Standard uncertainty associated with the primary
u( y) nSv h-1 37,71 37,9
result
Relative standard uncertainty associated with the
urel ( y ) 1 0,323 0,325
primary result
Decision threshold y* nSv h-1 2,72 2,84
Detection limit y# nSv h-1 38,39 32,00
Best estimate ŷ nSv h-1 116,67 116,60
Standard uncertainty associated with the best esti-
u( ˆ)
y nSv h-1 37,52 37,83
mate
Relative uncertainty associated with the best estimate urel ( ˆ)
y 1 0,321 0,324
Lower limit of the probabilistically symmetric cover-
age interval y nSv h-1 43,25 46,54

Upper limit of the probabilistically symmetric cover-

age interval y nSv h-1 190,48 194,98

Lower limit of the shortest coverage interval y< nSv h-1 42,93 43,78
Upper limit of the shortest coverage interval y> nSv h-1 190,16 191,80

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NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 9 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

13.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result y = 116 , 55 nSv ⋅ h-1 exceeds the decision threshold y * = 2 , 72 nSv ⋅ h-1
. It is decided to conclude that a difference between the two investigated areas was recognized.

— The detection limit y # = 38 , 39 nSv ⋅ h-1 is below the guideline values y r = 50 nSv ⋅ h -1 . It is decided to
conclude that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are  y  = 43 , 25 nSv ⋅ h-1
and y  = 190 , 48 nSv ⋅ h-1 . They are equal to those of the shortest coverage interval.

— The best estimate is ˆy = 116, 67 nSv ⋅ h-1 with an associated standard uncertainty u( ˆ)
y = 37, 52 nSv ⋅ h-1
.
The model of evaluation is linear, and there are no dominating large uncertainties so that the application
of ISO 11929-1 is justified. This is a case with moderate relative uncertainties. The results obtained by
application of ISO 11929-2 are practically identical with those obtained by ISO 11929-1:2019, Table 18.
The ISO/IEC Guide 98-3 approximations, assuming normal PDFs and using a Taylor expansion truncated
after the linear term, hold.

14 Counting measurements with unknown random influence of sample treatment

14.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

This is an example for the application of ISO 11929-1:2019, A.2.
A sample of solid material containing a radionuclide is examined by chemical separation of this nuclide
and subsequent counting measurement of its radiation. The measurement is randomly influenced by
sample treatment because of the chemical separation. To determine and reduce the influence, several
samples of the same kind of material and blanks are separately tested. The results for the respective
samples are then averaged and analysed regarding the measurement uncertainty. This is an example
according to the general model of ISO 11929-1:2019, A.2.
After the counting measurements of the gross effect on mg samples to be tested and of the background
effect on m0 blanks are carried out with the preselected measurement durations tg and t0, respectively,
the numbers ng and n0 of the recorded events averaged according to Formulae (157, 158) are available.
This first yields the estimates rg = ng / t g and r0 = n0 / t 0 of the respective mean count rates.

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A guideline value am,r = 0 , 5 Bq ⋅ kg -1 is assumed.

14.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The measurand is the specific activity am (activity of the sample divided by the total mass of the
sample) for which the characteristic limits, the best estimate, and the associated standard uncertainty
are calculated.
The model of the evaluation is given by:

 ng n0  rg − r0
am =  − ⋅w = = ( rg − r0 ) ⋅ w (155)
t 
 g t0  m ⋅ κ ⋅ε
where
1
w= (156)
m ⋅ κ ⋅ε

The mean value of the background counts n0 and the square of its standard uncertainty u2 ( n0 ) of the
values n0,i are given by:
m0 m0
1  m0 − 1 
∑ n0 ,i ∑
1 1
n0 = ; u ( n0 ) =
2
n0 + n0 + ( n0 ,i − n0 )2  (157)
m0 m0  m0 − 3 m0 − 3 i =1 
i =1 
The mean value of the gross counts ng and its uncertainty u2 ( ng ) of the values ng ,i are given by:
mg mg
1  mg − 1 
∑ ∑
1 1
ng = ng ,i ; u ( ng ) =
2
ng + ng + ( ng ,i − ng )2  (158)
mg i =1
mg  mg − 3 mg − 3 i =1 
 
NOTE Obviously, m0 , mg > 3 is required.

14.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

The efficiency of the detector κ and its associated standard uncertainty u(κ ) were independently
determined to be κ = 0 , 51  s-1·Bq-1 and u(κ ) = 0 , 02  s-1·Bq-1.
The mass of the sample was determined by a balance to be m = 0 , 1 kg . Its associated relative standard
uncertainty was set to urel ( m ) = 1 % according to the specifications of the balance.
The chemical yield ε was determined by separate experiments, which resulted in an average  ε = 0 , 57
and an associated standard uncertainty u( ε ) = 0 , 04 .
The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 19. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 19.

Table 19 — Input data, intermediate values

Standard
Quantity Symbol Value PDF
uncertainty
Number of samples and blank
mg , m0 5, 5    
samples
1 832; 2 259;
Number of recorded events for the
ng,i 2 138; 2 320;   N[ ng ;ng , u( ng )]
samples (gross effect)
1 649

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Table 19 (continued)
Standard
Quantity Symbol Value PDF
uncertainty
Number of recorded events for the 966; 676; 911;
blanks (background effect)
n0,i
856; 676
  N[ n0 ;n0 , u( n0 )]
Measurement durations tg , t 0 30 000 s   -
Sample mass (general) m with u(m) 0,100 kg 0,001 kg N[ m
 ;m , u( m )]
Detection efficiency κ with u(κ ) 0,510 0,020 s-1 Bq N[κ ;κ , u(κ )]
Chemical yield ε with u( ε ) 0,570 0,040 N[ε ;ε , u( ε )]
Intermediate values
Quantity Symbol Value
Mean values n0 , ng 817,00; 2 039,6
Empirical standard deviations s 0 , sg 288,14; 134,46
Standard uncertainty u( n0 ), u( ng ) 87,88; 185,57

The PDFs of the calibration factor and of the count rates were chosen according to the
ISO/IEC  Guide  98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also ISO 11929-2:2019, 6.3 for a detailed description and
ISO 11929-1:2019, A.2 for the general methodology.

14.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

14.4.1 Background effect

The count rate of the background effect has been measured by repeated mb analyses of blank samples.
The numbers of counted pulses n0,i are given in Table 19. One calculates the mean background count
rate by
n0
r0 = = 0 , 068 0 s −1 (159)
t0
The standard uncertainty associated with the background count rate is given by:

u2 ( n0 )
u ( r0 ) = = 0 , 002 93 s −1 (160)
t 02

14.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

The mass–related activity is calculated from Formula (155). This Formula depends on the calibration
factor, the input quantities of which and their associated standard uncertainties were determined
independently.

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This yields a calibration factor calculated by:

1
w= = 34 , 40 s Bq ⋅ kg −1 (161)
m ⋅ κ ⋅ε
The relative standard uncertainty of the calibration factor urel ( w ) = u( w )/ w is calculated by:

urel ( w ) = urel
2
( m ) + urel
2
( ε ) + urel
2
(κ ) = 0 , 081 0 (162)

which yields

u( w ) = 2 , 79 s Bq ⋅ kg −1 (163)

The primary result am of the measurement is given by:

rg − r0  ng n0 
am = = −  ⋅ w = 1 , 40 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (164)
m ⋅ κ ⋅ε  t g t 0 


The standard uncertainty u( am ) associated with the primary measurement result am is calculated
by:

u( am ) = w 2 ⋅ u2 ( ng ) t g2 + u2 ( n0 ) t 02 ) + am
2
⋅ urel
2
( w )= 0 , 261 Bq ⋅ kg −1 . (165)

14.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value is not explicitly available. Therefore,
the following procedure is applied
For a true value of the measurand y = 0 one expects x g = x b and hence one receives

u2 ( 0 ) = 2 ⋅ w 2 ⋅ u2 ( r0 ) (166)

which allows calculating the decision threshold.

If only u( 0 ) = u( am,0 ) , am,1 > 0 and u( am,1 ) are known, the following linear interpolation can be used

u 2 ( a m ) = u 2 ( 0 ) ⋅ (1 − a m am,1 ) + u2 ( am,1 )⋅a m am,1 (167)

14.4.4 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the activity is then calculated by:

am
*
= k1−α ⋅ u( 0 ) = k1−α ⋅ w ⋅ 2 ⋅ u2 ( n0 ) t 02 = 0 , 234 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (168)

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14.4.5 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The linear interpolation according to Formula (167) and the auxiliary
quantity a according to Formula (169)

a = k1−α ⋅ u( 0 ) +
1
2
{( k12−β ) }
am ,1 ( u2 ( y1 ) − u 2 ( 0 ) (169)

leads to the detection limit

am
#
= a + a2 + ( k12− β − k12−α ) u 2 ( 0 ) = 0 , 546 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (170)

The detection limit exceeds the guideline value.

14.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated since the
measurement result am exceeds the decision threshold am *
. With ω = Φ [ am / u( am )] = 0 , 999 and
γ = 0 , 05 one obtains the probabilities p = ω ⋅ (1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 975 and q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the
quantiles k p and kq are equal to 1,96 and 1,96, respectively. Then, the lower and upper limits of the
probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are given by:

am = am − k p ⋅ u ( am ) = 0 , 890 Bq ⋅ kg −1 and am

= am + kq ⋅u ( am ) = 1 , 91 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (171)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated. With
ω = Φ [ am / u( am )] = 0 , 999 , one obtains p = [1 + ω ⋅ (1 − γ )]/ 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the quantile k p is equal
to 1,96. With this, the limits of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (172) are
<
am = am − k p ⋅ u ( am ) = 0 , 890 Bq ⋅ kg −1 and am
>
= am + k p ⋅u ( am ) = 1 , 91 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (172)

14.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate âm of the activity of the sample is given by:

aˆm = am +
u ( am ) ⋅ exp − am {2u ( am ) 
2  2
 }
 = 1, 40 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (173)
ω 2π
with its associated standard uncertainty u( aˆm )

u ( aˆm ) = u2 ( am ) − ( aˆm − am ) aˆm = 0, 261 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (174)

14.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2

The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 20 and the PDFs obtained by the
Monte Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 10.

Table 20 — Result and characteristic values

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result am Bq·kg−1 1,40 1,411

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Table 20 (continued)
Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Standard uncertainty associated with the primary
u( am ) Bq·kg−1 0,261 0,265
result
Relative standard uncertainty associated with the
urel ( am ) 1 0,186 0,188
primary result
Decision threshold am
* Bq·kg−1 0,234 0,237
Detection limit am
# Bq·kg−1 0,546 0,545
Best estimate âm Bq·kg−1 1,40 1,411
Standard uncertainty associated with the best esti-
u( aˆm ) Bq·kg−1 0,261 0,264
mate
Relative uncertainty associated with the best esti-
urel ( aˆm ) 1 0,186 0,187
mate
Lower limit of the probabilistically symmetric cover- 
am Bq·kg−1 0,890 0,918
age interval
Upper limit of the probabilistically symmetric cover- 
am Bq·kg−1 1,91 1,96
age interval
Lower limit of the shortest coverage interval < Bq·kg−1 0,890 0,902
am
Upper limit of the shortest coverage interval > Bq·kg−1 1,91 1,94
am

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NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 10 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

14.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result am = 1 , 40 Bq ⋅ kg −1 exceeds the decision threshold am

*
= 0 , 23 Bq ⋅ kg -1
. It is decided to conclude that an activity per unit mass of the sample was recognized.

— The detection limit am #

= 0 , 55 Bq ⋅ kg -1 exceeds the guideline value am,r = 0 , 5 Bq ⋅ kg -1 . It is decided to
conclude that the measurement procedure is not suited for the measurement purpose in spite of the
fact that a contribution of the sample was recognized.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are  am = 0 , 89 Bq ⋅ kg -1

and am = 1 , 91 Bq ⋅ kg -1 . These limits are identical with the limits of the shortest coverage interval.

— The best estimate is aˆm = 1, 40 Bq ⋅ kg-1 with an associated standard uncertainty u( âm ) = 0, 26 Bq ⋅ kg-1
.
The model of evaluation is linear, and there are no dominating large uncertainties so that the application
of ISO 11929-1 is justified. This is a case with small or minor relative uncertainties. The results obtained
by application of ISO  11929-2 are practically identical with those obtained by ISO  11929-1:2019,
Table 20. The ISO/IEC Guide 98-3 approximations, which assume normal PDFs and make use of a Taylor
expansion truncated after the linear term, hold.
Note that in spite of the fact that according to the comparison of the detection limit and the guideline
value the measurement procedure is not suited for the measurement purpose, an effect of the sample
has been recognized. The primary measurement result and its associated standard uncertainty can
well be used to calculate limits of coverage intervals and the best estimate and its associated standard
uncertainty.

15 Counting measurement with known influence of sample treatment

15.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

This is an example for the application ISO 11929-1:2019, A.3.
As in the example in Clause 14, a sample of solid material containing a radionuclide is examined by
chemical separation of this nuclide and subsequent counting measurement of its radiation. The
measurement is randomly influenced by sample treatment because of the chemical separation. In this
example, the random influence of sample treatment was derived in form of the relative uncertainty of

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the sample treatment from measurements on reference samples or on other samples. The latter samples
should be similar to the current samples and be measured under similar conditions, in order that
they can be taken as reference samples although they need not be examined specifically for reference
purposes. Since the influence of the sample treatment is now known one measurement, each of a sample
and a blank is sufficient in the actual measurement. This is an example according to the general model
of ISO 11929-1:2019, A.3.
This procedure, appropriate when small random influences are present, is based on the approach

n + u2 n + ϑ 2 ⋅ n 2
u2 ( n ) = = with ϑ = u / n (175)
m m
m
m −1
∑
1
and with the auxiliary quantity u = 2
n+ ( ni − n )2 for any counts of the measurement
m −3 m − 3 i =1
procedure.
The influence parameter ϑ can be calculated from the data of counting measurements of mr reference
samples by

ϑ 2 = ( mr ⋅ u2 ( nr ) − nr ) nr2 or ϑ = ur / nr (176)

If ϑ 2 < 0 results, the approach and the data are not compatible. The number mr of the reference samples
should then be enlarged or ϑ = 0 shall be set. Moreover, ϑ < 0 , 2 should be obtained. Otherwise, one can
proceed according to the example in Clause 14.

A guideline value am,r = 1 Bq ⋅ kg -1 is assumed.

15.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The measurand y is the specific activity am (activity of the sample divided by the total mass of the
sample) for which the characteristic limits, the best estimate, and the associated standard uncertainty
are calculated.
In the case of known influences, the following expressions are valid for the mean gross count rate  rg
and the mean background count rate, r0 .

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The model of the evaluation is given by:

 ng n0  rg − r0
am =  − ⋅w = = ( rg − r0 ) ⋅ w (177)
t 
 g t0  m ⋅ κ ⋅ε
where
1
w= (178)
m ⋅ κ ⋅ε
Then the standard uncertainties of the background and the gross count rate are given by:

u2 ( rg ) = ( ng + ϑ 2 ⋅ ng2 ) t g2 and u2 ( r0 ) = ( n0 + ϑ 2 ⋅ n02 ) t 02 (179)

The relative standard uncertainty of the calibration factor urel ( w ) = u( w )/ w is calculated by:

urel
2
( w ) = urel
2
( m ) + urel
2
( ε ) + urel
2
(κ ) (180)

The standard uncertainty of the measurand is calculated with u2 ( rg ) and u2 ( r0 ) according to

Formula (179) by

u( am ) = w 2 ⋅ u2 ( rg ) + u2 ( r0 ) + am
2
⋅ urel
2
( w ) (181)

15.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

The efficiency of the detector κ and its associated standard uncertainty u(κ ) were independently
determined to be κ = 0 , 51 s-1 ⋅ Bq-1 and u(κ ) = 0 , 02 s-1 ⋅ Bq-1 .
The mass of the sample was determined by a balance to be m = 0 , 1 kg . Its associated relative standard
uncertainty was set to urel ( m ) = 1 % by expert guess.
The chemical yield ε was determined by separate experiments which resulted in ε = 0 , 57 and an
associated standard uncertainty u( ε ) = 0 , 04 .
The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 21. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 21.

Table 21 — Input data, intermediate values

Quantity Symbol Data
Number of samples, blanks and mg , m0, mr 1, 1, 20
reference samples
Number of recorded events for the nr,i 74 349; 67 939; 88 449; 83 321; 66 657; 64 094, 74 348;
reference samples 93 576; 56 402; 66 785; 78 194; 69 221; 63 965; 70 503;
74 220; 97 422; 74 476; 71 784; 68 235; 74 989
Number of recorded events for the ng 2 040
samples (gross effect)
Number of recorded events for the n0 817
blanks (background effect)
Standard
Quantity Symbol Value PDF
uncertainty
measurement durations t g , t 0 , tr 30 000 s —  
Sample mass m with u(m) 0,100 kg 0,001 kg N[ m
 ;m , u( m )]

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Table 21 (continued)
Quantity Symbol Data
Detection efficiency κ with u(κ ) 0,51 s-1 Bq-1 0,02 s-1 Bq-1 N[κ ;κ , u(κ )]
Chemical yield ε with u( ε ) 0,57 0,04 N[ε ;ε , u( ε )]
Intermediate values
Quantity Symbol Value
Mean values nr 73 946,5
Auxiliary quantity ur 10 771,3
Influence parameter ϑ = ur / nr 0,146

The PDFs of the calibration factor and of the count rates were chosen according to the
ISO/IEC  Guide  98-3:2008/Suppl.1; see also ISO  11929-2:2019, 6.3, for a detailed description and
ISO 11929-1:2019, A.3 for the general methodology.

15.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

15.4.1 Determination of the relative uncertainty of the sample treatment

By analysing mr reference samples, the relative uncertainty of the sample treatment was determined
by
ϑ = ur / nr (182)

with the auxiliary quantity, u

m
mr − 1 r
∑
1
ur2 = nr + ( nr ,i − nr )2 (183)
mr − 3 mr − 3 i =1
This yields the relative uncertainty of the sample treatment

m
mr − 1 r
∑
1 1
ϑ= nr + ( nr ,i − nr )2 = 0 , 146 (184)
nr mr − 3 mr − 3 i =1

15.4.2 Background effect

The count rate of the background effect has been measured by an analysis of a blank sample. The
number of counted pulses n0 is given in Table 21. One calculates the background count rate by
n0
r0 = = 0 , 027 2 s −1 (185)
t0
Its standard uncertainty associated with the background count rate is given by:

n0 + ϑ 2 ⋅ n02
u ( r0 ) = = 0 , 004 08 s −1 (186)
t 02

15.4.3 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

The mass–related activity is calculated from Formula (177). This formula depends on the calibration
factor the input quantities of which and their associated standard uncertainties were determined
independently.

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The calibration factor is calculated by:

1
w= = 34 , 40 s Bq ⋅ kg −1 (187)
m ⋅ k ⋅ε
The relative standard uncertainty of the calibration factor urel ( w ) = u( w )/ w is calculated by:

urel ( w ) = urel
2
( m ) + urel
2
( ε ) + urel
2
(κ ) = 0 , 081 0 (188)

which yields

u( w ) = 2 , 79 s Bq ⋅ kg −1 (189)

The primary result am of the measurement is given by:

 ng n0 
am =  −  ⋅ w = 1 , 40 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (190)
t 
 g t0 
The standard uncertainty u( am ) associated with the primary measurement result am is calculated as

u( am ) = w 2 ⋅ ( ng + ϑ 2 ⋅ ng2 ) t g2 + ( n0 + ϑ 2 ⋅ n02 ) t 02 ) + am

2
⋅ urel
2
( w )= 0 , 389 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (191)

15.4.4 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty u( a m ) as a function of the true value a m of the measurand is needed to
calculate the decision threshold and the detection limit.
For an assumed true value of the measurand a m one expects n g = a m w + n0 t 0 and one obtains with
Formula (181) and u2 ( n0 ) and u2 ( ng ) from Formula (179)

2  2
 2n0 ⋅ϑ 2 1   n0 n02 ⋅ϑ 2 n0 + ϑ 2 ⋅ n02 
u( a m ) = a m ϑ + u2
( w ) + a
 ⋅ w  +  + w 2
 + +  (192)
 rel  m  t t g   t0 ⋅ t g t 02 t 02 
 0  

15.4.5 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold of the activity is calculated by:

 n n2 ⋅ϑ 2 n0 + ϑ 2 ⋅ n02 
am
*
= k1−α w 2  0 + 0 +  = 0 , 327 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (193)
 t0 ⋅ t g t 02 t 02 
 
The measured primary result am exceeds the decision threshold am
*
.

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15.4.6 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The detection limit is calculated by:

am
#
= am
*
+

#2  2
 2n0 ⋅ϑ 2 1   n0 n02 ⋅ϑ 2 n0 + ϑ 2 ⋅ n02 
k1− β am ϑ + u2
( w ) + a #
⋅ w  +  + w 2
 + +  (194)
 rel  m  t t g   t0 ⋅ t g t 02 t 02 
 0  
= 0 , 826 Bq ⋅ kg −1
The guideline value am,r exceeds the detection limit am
#
.

15.4.7 Limits of coverage intervals

The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are calculated since the
measurement result am exceeds the decision threshold am * . With ω = Φ [ a / u( a )] = 1 , 00 and
m m
γ = 0 , 05 one obtains the probabilities by p = ω ⋅ (1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 975 and q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence
the quantiles k p and kq are both equal to 1,96. Then, the lower and upper limits of the probabilistically
symmetric coverage interval are given by:

am = am − k p ⋅ u ( am ) = 0 , 641 Bq ⋅ kg −1 and am

= am + kq ⋅u ( am ) = 2 , 165 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (195)

Alternatively, the lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated. With 
ω = Φ [ am / u( am )] = 1 , 00 , one obtains p = [1 + ω ⋅ (1 − γ )]/ 2 = 0 , 975 , and hence the quantile k p is equal
to 1,96. With this, the limits of the shortest coverage interval according to Formula (196) are
<
am = am − k p ⋅ u ( am ) = 0 , 640 Bq ⋅ kg −1 and am
>
= am + k p ⋅u ( am ) = 2 , 16 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (196)

15.4.8 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The best estimate âm of the activity of the sample is given by:

aˆm = am +
{
u ( am ) ⋅ exp − am 2u ( am ) 
2  2
 }
 = 1, 40 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (197)
ω 2π
with its associated standard uncertainty u( aˆs )

u ( aˆm ) = u2 ( am ) − ( aˆm − am ) aˆm = 0, 389 Bq ⋅ kg −1 (198)

15.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2
The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 22 and the PDFs obtained by the
Monte Carlo simulations are presented in Figure 11.

Table 22 — Results and characteristic values

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result am Bq·kg−1 1,40 1,412
Standard uncertainty associated with the prima-
u( am ) Bq·kg−1 0,389 0,393
ry result

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Table 22 (continued)
Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Relative standard uncertainty associated with
urel ( am ) 1 0,277 0,278
the primary result
Decision threshold am
* Bq·kg−1 0,327 0,330
Detection limit am
# Bq·kg−1 0,826 0,823
Best estimate âm Bq·kg−1 1,40 1,41
Standard uncertainty associated with the best
u( aˆm ) Bq·kg−1 0,389 0,393
estimate
Relative uncertainty associated with the best
urel ( aˆm ) 1 0,277 0,278
estimate
Lower limit of the probabilistically symmetric 
am Bq·kg−1 0,641 0,665
coverage interval
Upper limit of the probabilistically symmetric 
am Bq·kg−1 2,17 2,210
coverage interval
Lower limit of the shortest coverage interval < Bq·kg−1 0,640 0,647
am
Upper limit of the shortest coverage interval > Bq·kg−1 2,16 2,190
am

NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations. The blue vertical lines indicate the best
estimate and the limits of the coverage interval (upper panel), the decision threshold (middle panel) and the
decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 11 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red colour

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15.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result am = 1 , 40 Bq ⋅ kg −1 exceeds the decision threshold am

*
= 0 , 33 Bq ⋅ kg -1
. It was decided to conclude that an activity per unit mass of the sample was recognized.

— The detection limit am

#
= 0 , 83 Bq ⋅ kg -1 is below the guideline value am,r = 1 Bq ⋅ kg -1 . It is decided to
conclude that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are  am = 0 , 64 Bq ⋅ kg -1

and am = 2 , 17 Bq ⋅ kg -1 . These limits are identical to the limits of the shortest coverage interval.

m = 1 , 40 Bq ⋅ kg with an associated standard uncertainty u( âm ) = 0, 39 Bq ⋅ kg

— The best estimate is aÆ -1 -1

.
The model of evaluation is linear, and there are no dominating large uncertainties so that the application
of ISO 11929-1 is justified. This is a case with small or minor relative uncertainties. The results obtained
by application of ISO  11929-2 are practically identical with those obtained by ISO  11929-1:2019,
Table 22. The ISO/IEC Guide 98-3 approximations, assuming normal PDFs and using a Taylor expansion
truncated after the linear term, hold.

16 Dose measurement using an active personal dosemeter

16.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

As an illustration for the application of ISO 11929 (all parts) to others than counting measurements, a
numerical example for the determination of a personal dose equivalent H p (10 ) with an active
dosemeter and the calculation of the characteristic limits is given in this Clause 16.
It is assumed that the dosemeter is used for an entire working day and afterwards the dose is read. It is
further assumed that in the context of the calibration of the dosimetry system the correction and
calibration factors and the background dose rate M b due to the ambient radiation during the exposure
duration t e and their associated standard uncertainties were independently determined.

A guideline value of H p,r (10 ) = 10 µ Sv is assumed in the example.

16.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The model of the evaluation is given by:
N
H p (10 ) = ( M g − M b ⋅ t e ) ⋅ 0 = ( M g − M b ⋅ t e ) ⋅ w (199)
rrel
with

  Hp (10 ) personal dose equivalent in µSv;

  Mg reading of the dosemeter in µSv;

  M b background dose rate during the time of exposure in µSv per hour;

  te time of exposure in h;

  N0 calibration factor measured independently in a reference radiation field;

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  rrel relative response as determined e.g. during type testing;

  N0
w= composite calibration factor;
rrel
  u constant standard uncertainty of Mg .

The standard uncertainty u[ H p (10 )] associated with the personal dose equivalent H p (10 ) is given by:

u2 ( H p (10 )) = u2 ( M g − M b ⋅ t e ) ⋅ w 2 + ( M g − M b ⋅ t e ) 2⋅ u2 ( w )
(200)
= u ( M g ) ⋅ w + u ( M b ) ⋅ t e2 ⋅ w 2 + H p (10 ) 2⋅ urel
2 2 2 2
(w )
with

urel
2
( w ) = urel
2
( N0 ) + urel
2
( rrel ) (201)

16.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 23. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 23.

Table 23 — Input quantities and data for personal dose

Quantity Symbol xi u( xi ) PDF Unit
Rectangular as the display
Reading of the dosemeter Mg 20 0,288 7 has a resolution of 1 digit, µSv
half-width 0,5 digits
Gaussian as the value was de-
Background dose rate M b 0,1 0,016 0 termined by several repeated µSv h-1
measurements
Time of exposure te 8 — — h
Rectangular as the official
verification measurement
Calibration factor N0 1,0 0,115 47 only requires "result shall be 1
within ±20 %",
half-width 0,20
Rectangular as the type ap-
Relative response and cor- proval requirement is "result
rrel 1,0 0,230 94 1
rection factor shall be within ±40 %",
half-width 0,40

With regard to the calculation of the decision threshold and the detection limit, the gross indication
M g is the analogous quantity to the gross count rate x1 in the general model of evaluation given in
ISO 11929-1. However, the actual example is not a counting measurement and demonstrates that the
possible application of ISO 11929 (all parts) extends far beyond counting measurements. The particular
feature of this example is that the gross indication M g has a constant uncertainty u , which allows
calculating the standard uncertainty of the measurand as a function of an assumed true value in 16.4.3.

16.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits according to ISO 11929-1

16.4.1 Background effect

The background dose rate M b is set by assuming an average ambient dose rate of 0,1 µSv per hour. The
standard uncertainty was obtained from a Gaussian distribution, since the value was determined by
several repeated measurements resulting in u( M b ) = 0 , 016 0 µ Sv ⋅ h −1 .

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16.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

With the data of Table 23 the primary result of the personal dose equivalent is calculated to be
N
H p (10 ) = ( M g − M b ⋅ t e ) ⋅ 0 = ( M g − M b ⋅ t e ) ⋅ w = 19 , 20 µSv (202)
rrel
and its associated standard uncertainty

u[ H p (10 )] = u2 ( M g ) ⋅ w 2 + u2 ( M b ) ⋅ t e2 ⋅ w 2 + H p (10 )2 ⋅ urel

2
( w ) = 4 , 97 µSv (203)

16.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

The standard uncertainty u[ H p (10 )] as a function of the true value H p (10 ) of the measurand is needed
to calculate the decision threshold and the detection limit.

This function is available in this example. Since u( M g ) = u = const. , u[ H p (10 )] is given by:

u 2 [ H p (10 )] = u2 ⋅ w 2 + u2 ( M b ) ⋅ t e2 ⋅ w 2 + H p (10 )2 ⋅ urel

2
( w ) (204)

16.4.4 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold is calculated from Formula (204). With the data
from Table 23 the decision threshold is

H p (10 )* = k1−α ⋅ u( 0 ) = k1−α ⋅ w ⋅ u2 + u2 ( M b ) ⋅ t e2 = 0 , 519 µSv (205)

The measurement result H p (10 ) exceeds the decision threshold H p (10 )* and hence a personal dose
equivalent greater than zero has been detected.

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16.4.5 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The detection limit follows from Formula (204) with the decision threshold
as given in Formula (205).

H p (10 ) # = H p (10 ) *+ k1− β ⋅ u[ H p (10 ) = H p (10 ) # ]

(206)
 #2 2
= H p (10 ) + k1− β ⋅ u ⋅ w + u ( M b ) ⋅ t e ⋅ w + H p (10 ) ⋅ urel ( w )
* 2 2 2 2 2

The implicit Formula (206) is solved by iteration. As the initial value for the iteration is selected
2 ⋅ H p* (10 ) ≈ 1 µ Sv . This iteration is almost always convergent; otherwise the measurement procedure
is completely unsuitable. Using the data from Table 23 the detection limit is

H p (10 )# = H p (10 )* + k1− β ⋅ u[ H p (10 ) = H p (10 )# ] = 1 , 27 µ Sv (207)

Since α = β , k1−α = k1− β = k . The detection limit can also be calculated by the explicit Formula (208):

2 ⋅ H p (10 )*
H p (10 )# = = 1,27 µSv (208)
1 − k 2 ⋅ urel
2
(w )
The detection limit is compared with the limit for legal or other requirements. If the detection limit is
smaller than the limit, the method for determining the photon dose is useful in the personal dosimetry.

16.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval, H p (10 ) and H p (10 ) and γ = 0 , 05 of
the personal dose equivalent is calculated for the probability 1 - γ = 0,95 for the obtained value of the
personal dose equivalent H p (10 ) = 19 , 20 µ Sv with the associated standard uncertainty
u[ H p (10 )] = 4 , 97µ Sv . From the standard normal distribution results the parameter

ω = Φ ( H p (10 )/ u( H p (10 ))) = Φ (3 , 85) = 1 , 00 (209)

and with
p = ω ⋅ (1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 975 and q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 975 (210)

and the quantiles of the standardised normal distribution k p = 1,96 and kq = 1,96 , respectively, one
obtains the limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval

H p (10 ) = H p (10 ) − k p ⋅ u[ H p (10 )] = 9 , 47  μSv (211)

and

H p (10 ) = H p (10 ) + kq ⋅ u[ H p (10 )] = 28 , 94  μSv (212)

The limits of the shortest coverage interval, H p< (10 ) and H p> (10 ) , of the personal dose equivalent is
calculated for the probability 1  - γ =  0,95 for the obtained value of the personal dose equivalent
H p (10 ) = 19 , 2 µ Sv with the associated standard uncertainty u[ H p (10 )] = 5 , 0 µ Sv .

With ω = Φ (( H p (10 )/ u( H p (10 ))) = Φ (3 , 85) = 1 , 00 , the limits of the shortest coverage interval are
identical to those of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval.

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16.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The calculation of the best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty can be omitted since
{ }
ω = Φ H p (10 )/ u[ H p (10 )] = Φ (3 , 85) = 1 , 000 . Consequently, the best estimate and its associated
standard uncertainty are equal to the primary measurement result and its associated standard
uncertainty, respectively. The results are given in Table 24 anyway.

16.5 Documentation of the results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2

The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 24 and the PDFs obtained by the
Monte Carlo approach are presented in Figure 12.

Table 24 — Results and characteristic values

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Primary result of the personal dose Hp (10 ) µSv 19,2 20,3
equivalent
Standard uncertainty associated with u[ Hp (10 )] µSv 5,0 5,6
the primary result
Relative standard uncertainty associat- urel [ Hp (10 )] 1 0,26 0,28
ed with the primary result
Decision threshold Hp (10 )* µSv 0,5 0,6

Detection limit Hp (10 )# µSv 1,3 1,2

Best estimate Hˆp (10) µSv 19,2 20,3

Standard uncertainty associated with
u[ Hˆp (10)] µSv 5,0 5,6
the best estimate
Relative uncertainty associated with the
urel [ Hˆp (10)] 1 0,26 0,28
best estimate
Lower limit of the probabilistically sym-
Hp (10 ) µSv 9,5 12,3
metric coverage interval
Upper limit of the probabilistically sym-
Hp (10 ) µSv 28,9 33,1
metric coverage interval
Lower limit of the shortest coverage
Hp< (10 ) µSv 9,5 11,5
interval
Upper limit of the shortest coverage
Hp> (10 ) µSv 28,9 31,4
interval

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NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations according to ISO 11929-1. The blue vertical
lines indicate the best estimate and the limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval (upper panel),
the decision threshold (middle panel) and the decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 12 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red

16.6 Assessment and explanations

Since the results in Table 24 as well as the PDFs in Figure 12 exhibit relatively strong deviations between
the calculations according to ISO 11929-1 and ISO 11929-2, the assessment is therefore based on the
results obtained by ISO 11929-2. One concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result H p (10 ) = 19 , 2 µ Sv exceeds the decision threshold

H p* (10 ) = 0 , 5 µ Sv . It is decided to conclude that a personal dose equivalent greater than zero was
recognized.

— The detection limit H p# (10 ) = 1 , 3 µ Sv is below the guideline values H p,r (10 ) = 10 µ Sv . It is concluded
that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.

— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are H p (10 ) = 9 , 5 µ Sv
and H p (10 ) = 28 , 9 µ Sv .

— The lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are calculated as H p< (10 ) = 9 , 5 µ Sv and
H p> (10 ) = 28 , 9 µ Sv .

— The best estimate is Hˆp (10) = 19, 2 µ Sv with an associated standard uncertainty
u[ Hˆp (10)] = 4, 9 µ Sv .
Because the model of evaluation is not linear, the results obtained by application of ISO 11929-2 differ
from those obtained by ISO 11929-1:2019, Table 23. The GUM approximations, assuming normal PDFs
and using a Taylor expansion truncated after the linear term, is not sufficient (see Figure 12) and the
application of ISO 11929-2 is to be preferred.
There are also differences between the limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval and
those of the shortest coverage interval. The decision, which of the coverage intervals should be used for

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further evaluations, depends on the regulations and is not a matter of this document. The best estimate
and its associated standard uncertainty are equal to the primary measurement result and its associated
standard uncertainty.

17 Dose rate measurement using a neutron area monitor

17.1 Definition of the task and general aspects

As an illustration for the application of ISO 11929 (all parts), a numerical example for the determination
of a neutron ambient dose equivalent rate with a neutron area dosemeter and the calculation of the
characteristic limits is given in this Clause 17.
The measurement task is to determine the net neutron dose rate for a workplace field from a reading
M g determined at the workplace compared to a measurement outside the workplace with the
background reading M b . The background reading M b consists of two components, the intrinsic
background of the neutron monitor M and the indication due to cosmic neutrons, M . The intrinsic
ib CR
background of the monitor was determined in an independent measurement without the presence of
any neutron background radiation for the neutron area dosemeter just before the measurements in the
workplace field, e.g. in a low level underground laboratory. The indication due to cosmic radiation has
to be estimated from the expected dose rate due to cosmic neutron radiation, H * (10 )CR , the calibration
factor of the instrument, NCf , and the correction factor for the indication of the instrument for the field
of cosmic neutrons, K E ,CR .

The model function for the gross indication is M g = M net + M CR + M ib with the indication due to the net
H * (10 )CR
dose rate, M net , the indication due to cosmic radiation, M CR = , and the indication due to
NCf ⋅ K E ,CR
the intrinsic background of the monitor M ib .
The dose rate due to cosmic neutron radiation at the place and time of the measurement varies with the
actual air pressure p and with the solar activity (sa). These two effects are considered with correction
factors, K p for the influence caused by the actual air pressure, and K sa for the influence due to the
actual time of the measurement with a certain solar activity (sa) H * (10 ) = H * (10 )
CR ⋅K ⋅K ) .
0,CR p sa
The dose rate due to cosmic neutron radiation at reference conditions of air pressure (p0) and solar
activity (sa) at the position of the measurement in the workplace is H * (10 )0,CR . In this example, a value
of H * (10 )
0,CR = 11 , 2 nSv ⋅ h-1 ± 1 , 1 nSv ⋅ h-1 is used, which is based on a measurement of the cosmic
neutron component with a Bonner sphere spectrometer for a reference pressure of
p0 = (1 004 , 0 ± 1 , 0 ) hPa at the reference date 2005-08-09 at a position that can be seen as being
representative for the measurement in the workplace. The correction factor due to air pressure is
K p = 1 − c b ⋅ ( p − p0 ) .
The actual measurement in the workplace was performed 2018-11-15. For this date, the cosmic neutron
radiation was higher compared to 2005 and a correction factor K sa has to be used to correct for this
effect: K sa = count rate 2018-11-15/count rate 2005-08-09 .
This correction factor can be determined from the datasets of cosmic neutron monitors, which are
distributed worldwide (http://​w ww01​.nmdb​.eu/​station/​). A station similar in geomagnetic cut off
rigidity to the position of the workplace should be chosen, if possible.
The barometric coefficient c b can be extracted from literature data or is given by the operators of
specific cosmic neutron monitors, respectively.
To calculate the dose rate in the workplace field from the background corrected reading of the monitor
M net , the instrument specific calibration factor NCf in a reference field, e.g. 252Cf and a correction

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factor for the instruments response in the actual workplace field K E ,net have to be considered. From
this, the model equation for the net dose rate follows with the correction factor for the actual neutron
spectrum K E ,net :

H * (10 )net = ( M g − M CR − M ib ) ⋅ NCf ⋅ K E ,net (213)

with

H * (10 )CR
M CR = (214)
NCf ⋅ K E ,CR

H * (10 )CR = H * (10 )0,CR ⋅ K p ⋅ K sa (215)

K p = 1 − c b ⋅ ( p − p0 ) (216)

H * (10 )net
M net = (217)
NCf ⋅ K E ,net

A guideline value of H r* (10 )net = 5 nSv ⋅ h-1 is assumed in the example.

17.2 Model of evaluation and standard uncertainty

The model of evaluation is given by

 H * (10 ) 0,CR ⋅ K p ⋅ K sa 
H * (10 ) net =  M g − − M ib  ⋅ NCf ⋅ K E ,net
 NCf ⋅ K E ,CR  (218)
 
= ( M − M ) ⋅ w
g b
with

H * (10 )0,CR ⋅ K p ⋅ K sa
M b = + M ib (219)
NCf ⋅ K E ,CR
and
w = NCf ⋅ K E ,net (220)

The symbols used in this example are as follows:

H * (10 )net net neutron dose rate

M g gross indication of the dose rate

M CR indication due to cosmic radiation at the time and position of the measurement

H * (10 )CR dose rate due to cosmic radiation at the time and position of the measurement

H * (10 )0,CR dose rate due to cosmic radiation at reference conditions of air pressure ( p0 ) and solar
activity (sa) at the position of the measurement

M ib indication due to the intrinsic background of the monitor

M b total indication of the background of the monitor

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M net indication due to the net dose rate

NCf calibration factor determined in a Cf‑252 reference radiation field
K E ,net correction factor for the actual neutron spectrum
K E ,CR correction factor for M CR for the spectrum of the cosmic radiation
Kp correction factor due to air pressure
K sa correction factor for the solar activity
cb barometric coefficient
p0 reference air pressure
p current air pressure
w composite calibration factor

To facilitate the calculations, first M CR and u( M CR ) are calculated, then w and u( w ), as well as M b
and u( M b ) .

H * (10 )0,CR ⋅ K p ⋅ K sa
M CR = (221)
NCf ⋅ K E ,CR

urel
2
( M CR ) = urel
2
[ H * (10 )0,CR ] + urel
2
( K p ) + urel
2
( K sa ) + urel
2
( NCf ) + urel
2
( K E ,CR ) (222)

w = NCf ⋅ K E ,net (223)

urel
2
( w ) = urel
2
( NCf ) + urel
2
( K E ,net ) (224)

H * (10 )0,CR ⋅ K p ⋅ K sa
M b = + M ib = M CR + M ib (225)
NCf ⋅ K E ,CR

u2 ( M b ) = u2 ( M CR ) + u2 ( M ib ) (226)

After this, the calculations are performed for the model of evaluation in the simple form

H * (10 )net = ( M g − M b ) ⋅ w (227)

with its associated standard uncertainty

u2  H * (10 )net  = u2 ( M g ) + u2 ( M b ) ⋅ w 2 + H * (10 )net 2 ⋅ urel

2
( w ) (228)

17.3 Available information, input data, and specifications

The input data and their associated uncertainties are given in Table 25. The PDFs assigned to the input
data and used in the application of ISO 11929-2 are also given in Table 25.

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Table 25 — Input quantities and data for ambient dose rate

Quantity Symbol xi u(xi) PDF Unit
Gaussian (mean value from
M g several repeated measurements
Gross indication 35,2 1,2 nSv h-1
which yielded 3,4 % coefficient
of variation)
Gaussian (mean value from
Indication due to in- several repeated measurements
M ib 2,5 0,5 nSv h-1
trinsic background which yielded 20 % coefficient
of variation)
Calibration factor for a Gaussian (from calibration with
252Cf reference field NCf 0,985 0,014 1
a reference neutron source)
Correction factor for
M CR for the spectrum K E ,CR 1,81 0,09 Gaussian (from literature) 1
of the cosmic radiation
Dose rate due to
cosmic radiation at
reference conditions
Gaussian (from literature or a
of air pressure p and H * (10 )0,CR 11,2 1,1
previous measurement)
nSv h-1
solar activity “sa” at
the position of meas-
urement
Gaussian. Ratio of indication of
a cosmic neutron monitor at the
Correction factor time of the measurement in the
for the actual solar K sa 1,087 0,016 workplace and indication at the 1
activity reference date for which
 10 )
H( 0,CR was determined
Barometric coefficient cb 0,007 2 0,000 7 Gaussian (from literature) hPa-1
Gaussian. Reference pressure at
Reference air pressure p0 1 004,0 1,0 the date and position for which hPa
 10 ) was determined
H( CR
Pressure during the measure-
ment at the workplace, Gaussian
Current air pressure p 1 020,0 2,0 (from instrument reading, the hPa
uncertainty origins from cali-
bration certificate)
Correction factor for K E ,net 1,15 0,06 Gaussian (from literature) 1
the actual spectrum
Measurand and intermediate values
Indication due to cos-
M CR 6,04 0,690 Gaussian nSv h-1
mic radiation

With regard to the calculation of the decision threshold and the detection limit, the gross indication
M g is the analogous quantity to the gross count rate x1 in the general model of evaluation given in
ISO  11929-1. However, the actual example is not a counting measurement with given gross and
background count numbers. It demonstrates that the possible application of ISO  11929 (all parts)
extends far beyond mere counting measurements. The particular feature of this example is that the
gross indication M g for a constant measurement time is proportional to the unknown number of counts
ng .
1 1
Consequently, for the relative uncertainty, urel ( M g ) , follows urel ( M g ) ∝ ∝ .
ng M g

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This allows calculating the relative uncertainty urel ( M g ) for any reading and thereby calculating the
standard uncertainty of the measurand as a function of an assumed true value in 17.4.3.

17.4 Evaluation of the measurement and characteristic limits

17.4.1 Background effect

The indication due to the intrinsic background of the monitor was determined independently with an
average of M ib = 2 , 5 nSv ⋅ h −1 and a standard uncertainty of u( M ib ) = 0 , 5 nSv ⋅ h −1 . A Gaussian PDF with a
coefficient of variation of 20 % is assumed.
The dose rate due to cosmic neutron radiation at the time of the measurement with an actual air
pressure p is H * (10 )CR = H * (10 )0,CR ⋅ K p ⋅ K sa . For H * (10 )0,CR a value of 11 , 2 nSv ⋅ h −1 with an
associated standard uncertainty of 1 , 1 nSv ⋅ h −1 was obtained from a previous measurement with a
Bonner sphere spectrometer. The correction factor due to air pressure is calculated with the help of the
barometric coefficient c b from the difference of the actual air pressure p and the reference air pressure
p0 : K p = 1 − c b ⋅ ( p − p0 ) .
This results in a reading of the instrument due to cosmic neutron radiation
H * (10 )0,CR ⋅ K p ⋅ K sa

MCR = = 6 , 04 nSv ⋅ h −1 with NCf being the calibration factor of the instrument in
NCf ⋅ K E ,CR
the reference field of a reference neutron source, e.g. 252Cf, and K E ,CR being the field correction factor
of the instrument in the field of cosmic neutrons. As neutron area dosemeters are usually designed for
the neutron energy range up to 20  MeV, these devices show typically a large underestimation of the
dose rate caused by the spectrum of cosmic neutrons. The factor of K E ,CR = 1 , 81 was actually determined
for the measurement device without lead shield. A value of K E ,CR in the order of 2 is typical for all
moderator based devices, which do not contain additional heavy metal in or nearby the moderator to
enlarge the response of the instrument at neutron energies higher than 20 MeV. The standard
uncertainty associated with M CR is calculated as u( M CR ) = 0 , 690 nSv ⋅ h −1 .
NOTE The results in this example depend on the calibration source used. They are different if an 241Am/Be
source is used for calibration instead of a 252Cf source. A different calibration source also results in a different
value of K E ,cr .

17.4.2 Primary result and its associated standard uncertainty

With the data of Table 25 the primary result of the ambient dose equivalent is calculated to be

H * ( 10 ) 0,CR ⋅ K p ⋅ K sa
H * ( 10 ) net = ( M g − − M ib ) ⋅ NCf ⋅ K E ,net
NCf ⋅ K E ,CR (229)
= ( M g − M b ) ⋅ w = 30 , 20 nSv ⋅ h -1
and its associated standard uncertainty

u  H * (10 )net  = u2 ( M g ) + u2 ( M b ) ⋅ w 2 + H * (10 )net 2 ⋅ urel

2
(w )
(230)
= 2 , 35 nSv ⋅ h -1

17.4.3 Standard uncertainty as a function of an assumed true value

( )
The standard uncertainty u H * (10 )net as a function of the true value H * (10 )net of the measurand is
needed to calculate the decision threshold and the detection limit.

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For H * (10 )net one expects M g = H * (10 )net / w + M b . Given a constant measurement time, for any

  2 
M g
 
H (10 )net the corresponding indication M g has the standard uncertainty u ( M g ) = u ( M g ) ⋅
* 2 
.
M g
Then the function u  H * (10 )net  is given by:
 


 M g 
    
u H (10 ) net = u ( M g ) ⋅
2 * 2
+ u2 ( M b ) ⋅ w 2 + H * (10 ) net2⋅ urel
2
(w ) =
   Mg 
 
 
H * (10 ) net   (231)
 + MCR + M ib 
= u2 ( M g ) ⋅ w + u2 ( M b ) ⋅ w 2 + H * (10 ) net2⋅ urel
2
(w )
 M g 
 
 
17.4.4 Decision threshold

The value of the quantile k1−α of the standardised normal distribution Φ ( k1−α ) = 1 − α is 1,645
assuming a probability α of 5 %. The decision threshold is calculated from Formula (231) with use of
Formula (232). With the data from Table 25 the decision threshold is

M + M ib
H * (10 )net
*
= k1−α ⋅ u ( 0) = k1−α ⋅ w ⋅ u2 ( M g ) ⋅ CR + u2 ( M b ) = 1 , 93 nSv ⋅ h-1 (232)

Mg

The measurement result H * (10 )net exceeds the decision threshold H * (10 )*net and hence an ambient
dose equivalent greater than zero has been detected.

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17.4.5 Detection limit

The probability β is set to 5 %. Then, the value of the corresponding quantile k1− β of the standardised
normal distribution is 1,645. The detection limit follows from Formula (231) with the decision threshold
as given in Formula (232)

H * (10 ) #net = H * (10 ) net

*
+ k1− β ⋅ u  H * (10 ) net = H * (10 ) #net 
 
= H * (10 ) *net (233)

 H * (10 ) #net  
 + MCR + M ib 
+ k1− β ⋅ u2 ( M g ) ⋅ w + u2 ( M b ) ⋅ w 2 + H * (10 ) #net 2⋅ urel
2
(w )
 M g 
 
 
The implicit Formula (233) is solved by iteration. As the initial value for the iteration is selected
2 ⋅ H * ( 10 )*net ≈ 3 , 8 nSv ⋅ h -1 . This iteration is almost always convergent; otherwise the measurement
procedure is completely unsuitable. Using the data from Table 25 the detection limit is

H * (10 )#net = H * (10 )net

*
+ k1− β ⋅ u( H * (10 )net = H * (10 )#net ) = 4 , 0 nSv ⋅ h-1 (234)

Since α = β , k1−α = k1− β = k . The detection limit can also be calculated by the explicit Formula (235):

2 ⋅ H * (10 )*net
H * (10 )#net = = 4,0 nSv ⋅ h-1 (235)
1 − k ⋅ urel ( w )
2 2

The detection limit is compared with the limit for legal or other requirements. If the detection limit is
smaller than the limit, the method is suitable for the measurement purpose.

17.4.6 Limits of coverage intervals

The limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval, H * (10 )net  and H * (10 )net  , of the
ambient dose equivalent rate is calculated for the probability 1 - γ = 0,95. From the standard normal
distribution result the parameters

ω = Φ  H * (10 )net / u( H * (10 )net  = Φ (13 , 1 ) = 1,000 (236)

and with
p = ω ⋅ (1 − γ / 2) = 0 , 975 and q = 1 − ω ⋅ γ / 2 = 0 , 975 (237)

and the quantiles of the standardised normal distribution kq = 1,96 respectively k p = 1,96 one obtains
the limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval

H * (10 )net = H * (10 )net − k p ⋅ u[ H * (10 )net ] = 25 , 59 nSv ⋅ h −1 (238)

and

H * (10) * * −1
net = H (10)net + k p ⋅ u( H (10)net ) = 34 , 81 nSv ⋅ h (239)

The limits of the shortest coverage interval, H * (10 )<net and H * (10 )net
>
are calculated for the probability
1 – γ = 0,95.

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With ω = Φ  H * (10 )net / u( H * (10 )net  = Φ (13 , 1 ) = 1 , 00 , the limits of the shortest coverage interval are
identical to those of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval.

17.4.7 The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty

The calculation of the best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty can be omitted since
ω = Φ  H * (10 )net / u( H * (10 )net  = Φ (13 , 1 ) = 1 , 00 . Consequently, the best estimate and its associated
standard uncertainty are equal to the primary measurement result and its associated standard
uncertainty, respectively. The results are given in Table 26 anyway.

17.5 Documentation of the results

The results and characteristic limits are summarized in Table 26 and the PDFs obtained by the
Monte Carlo approach are presented in Figure 13.

Table 26 — Results and characteristic values

Results Symbol Unit ISO 11929-1 ISO 11929-2
Net ambient dose equivalent rate *
H (10 )net nSv h-1 30,20 30,2
Standard uncertainty associated with
u  H * (10 )net  nSv h-1 2,35 2,4
the primary result
Relative standard uncertainty associ-
urel  H * (10 )net  1 0,08 0,08
ated with the primary result
Decision threshold H * (10 )*net nSv h-1 1,93 1,93
Detection limit H * (10 )#net nSv h-1 4,23 4,22

Best estimate H̂ * (10)net nSv h-1 30,20 30,18

Standard uncertainty associated with
u  H̂ * (10)net  nSv h-1 2,35 2,36
the best estimate  
Relative uncertainty associated with
urel  H̂ * (10)net  1 0,08 0,08
the best estimate  
Lower limit of the probabilistically
symmetric coverage interval H * (10 )net nSv h-1 25,59 25,70

Upper limit of the probabilistically

symmetric coverage interval H * (10 )net nSv h-1 34,81 34,93

Lower limit of the shortest coverage

interval H * (10 )<net nSv h-1 25,59 25,59

Upper limit of the shortest coverage >

interval H * (10 )net nSv h-1 34,81 34,81

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NOTE The blue PDFs are the respective Gaussian approximations according to ISO 11929-1. The blue vertical
lines indicate the best estimate and the limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval (upper panel),
the decision threshold (middle panel) and the decision threshold and the detection limit (lower panel).

Figure 13 — PDFs calculated by Monte Carlo methods according to ISO 11929-2 in red

17.6 Assessment and explanations

The assessment according to ISO 11929-1 concludes the following:

— The primary measurement result H * (10 )net = 30 , 2 nSv ⋅ h -1 exceeds the decision threshold
H * (10 )*net = 2 , 0 nSv ⋅ h -1 . It is decided to conclude that an ambient dose equivalent greater than zero
was recognized.

— The detection limit H * (10 )#net = 4 , 2 nSv ⋅ h -1 is below the guideline values H r* (10 )net = 5 nSv ⋅ h -1 . It is
concluded that the measurement procedure is suited for the measurement purpose.
— The lower and upper limits of the probabilistically symmetric coverage interval are
H * (10 )net = 25 , 6 nSv ⋅ h -1 and H * (10 )net = 34 , 8 nSv ⋅ h -1 .

— The lower and upper limits of the shortest coverage interval are identical to those of the
probabilistically symmetric coverage interval.
— The best estimate and its associated standard uncertainty are identical to the primary result and its
associated standard uncertainty.
Because the relative uncertainty of the primary estimate as well as of the input quantities are small,
the results obtained by application of ISO  11929-2 are practically identical with those obtained
by ISO  11929-1:2019, Table  26. The GUM approximations, assuming normal PDFs and using a Taylor
expansion truncated after the linear term, hold.
The probabilistically symmetric coverage interval is equal to the shortest coverage interval. The best
estimate and its associated standard uncertainty are equal to the primary measurement result and its
associated standard uncertainty. According to of ISO 11929-2:2019, Figure  B.3, this holds of for all
results with H * (10 )net / u[ H * (10 )net ] > 5 .

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Annex A
(informative)

Determination of a calibration factor

A.1 General aspects

This annex describes the determination of a calibration factor by a single measurement of a calibration
source according to the model of evaluation in Formula (A.1). This is the case for many applications in
the laboratory.
It has to be mentioned, however, that the calibration factor in the general model of evaluation according
to Formula (1) is more complex and may depend on input quantities that comprise many different and
independent measurements. If the latter is the case, it may not be sufficient to describe a calibration
factor w simply by its value w and its associated standard uncertainty u( w ). In general, the calibration
x ⋅ x ⋅⋅⋅
factor is calculated as a function of one or several input quantities: w = 6 8 . The PDF
x5 ⋅ x7 ⋅⋅⋅
fW ( w x5 , x6 , x7 , x 8 ,....) describing the uncertainty associated with w has to be evaluated taking into
account the PDFs of all the input quantities( x i , i ≥ 5) . Consequently, the PDF of the calibration factor
may not simply be a normal distribution. Therefore, some clarifications for the evaluation of the
calibration factor according to ISO 11929-2:2019 are also given in this annex.

A.2 Measurement of a calibration factor

In this simple example, however, the calibration factor w is determined in an independent experiment
beforehand by measuring a calibration source. It is calculated by
aK aK
w= = (A.1)
nK,g nK,0 rK,n
−
tK t K,0
The relative standard uncertainty urel ( w ) = u ( w ) / w is calculated by

urel ( w ) = urel
2
( aK ) + urel
2
( rK,n ) (A.2)
with

  nK,0 number of counted pulses of the background effect (calibration source)

  nK,g gross number of counted pulses (calibration source)

  tK count time of the gross effect (calibration source), in s

  t K,0 count time of the background effect (calibration source), in s

  aK activity of the calibration source, in Bq

  rK,n net count rate of the calibration source, in s–1

  rK,0 count rate of the background effect of the calibration source, in s–1

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  rK,g gross count rate of the calibration source, in s–1.

The activity of the calibration source is given by ak = 25 , 035 kBq with the standard uncertainty
u( ak ) = 0 , 015 kBq at the date of the measurement. Additional data are shown in Table A.1.
The background effect of the calibration source has been measured. The number of the counted pulses
is  nk ,0 = 1 381 . This gives a count rate of
nK,0
rK,0 = = 2 , 302 s-1 (A.3)
t K,0
The standard uncertainty of the count rate is given by

nK,0
u ( rK,0 ) = = 0 , 061 9 s-1 (A.4)
t K,
2
0

Table A.1 — Input quantities and data

Quantity symbol xi u ( xi ) unit PDF
Count time of the background effect tK,0 600 — s  
measurement
Count time measurement tK 600 — s  
Number of the counted pulses of nK,0 1 381 — 1  
the background effect
Number of the counted pulses of nK,g 4 932 — 1  
the gross effect
Activity of the calibration source aK 25,035 0,015 kBq N( aK , aK , u( aK ))

The gross effect of the calibration source has been measured. The number of counted impulses is 
nk ,g nk ,0
nK,g = 4 932 . This leads to a net count rate of rK,n = − = 5 , 918 s −1 . Then, the calibration factor is
t k ,g t k ,0
given by
aK
w= = 4 , 230 k ⋅ Bq ⋅ s (A.5)
rK,n
The relative standard uncertainty urel ( w ) = u( w )/ w is calculated by

u2 ( aK )
⋅ u2 ( rK,g ) + u2 ( rK,0 )  (A.6)
1
urel
2
( w ) = urel
2
( aK ) + urel
2
( rK,n ) = +
aK2 rK,n
2

From this the relative standard uncertainty urel ( w ) and the standard uncertainty u ( w ) are calculated:

urel ( w ) = urel
2
( w ) = 0 , 022 4 (A.7)

and
u ( w ) = w ⋅ urel ( w ) = 0 , 094 7 k ⋅ Bq ⋅ s (A.8)

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A.3 Evaluation of the calibration factor according to ISO 11929-2:2019

A.3.1 General
In the general model of evaluation according to ISO 11929-1:2019, Formula (1) the calibration factor is
x ⋅ x ⋅⋅⋅
calculated from one or more input quantities ( X i , i ≥ 5) by w = 6 8 . For the evaluation of the
x5 ⋅ x7 ⋅⋅⋅
calibration factor according to ISO 11929-2, the free choice of arranging the PDF of an input quantity
either in the numerator or in the denominator can have a significant impact on the resulting
characteristic values due to the nonlinearity, typically if the relative uncertainty of the calibration
factor urel ( w ) becomes larger than about 0,3. In the following this is elaborated for the example where
the calibration depends on the detection efficiency ε only, i.e. w = 1 / ε .
NOTE Other nonlinearities than the division can occur in the calibration factor, e. g. due to corrections of
the inverse-square law with uncertain distance or Beer-Lambert’s law with uncertain attenuation coefficient or
distance. In such cases similar considerations apply.

A.3.2 Inverse probability density function

1
This case occurs if either the efficiency ε or the calibration factor w = is used and if a meaningful
ε
PDF shall be assigned to both quantities. In this case not the same PDF can be assigned to ε and w . The
respective models of evaluation in the simplest form are y = ( rg − r0 ) ⋅ and y = ( rg − r0 ) ⋅ w . Given an
1
ε
efficiency ε with the PDF fε ( ε ℑ) depending on the available information ℑ , a transformation
1
w = g( ε ) = is performed when shifting from the first model of evaluation to the second one and
ε
1
g −1 ( w ) = − follows. Then the PDF fW ( w ℑ) is calculated by
ε2
d ( g −1 ( w ))
= fε  ℑ  ⋅
1 1
f w ( w ℑ) = fε ( g −1 ( w ) ℑ) ⋅ (A.9)
dw  ε  w2
For large relative uncertainties of ε , the mean of w , E( f w ( w ℑ)) = E(1 / fε ( ε ℑ)) , can take values
larger than 1 / E( fε ( ε ℑ)) and also the variance and quantiles can change significantly.

A.3.3 Normal versus inverse normal distributions

If normal distributions are assumed for the PDFs f w ( w ℑ) or fε ( ε ℑ) , the transformations
1 1
w = g( ε ) = respectively ε = g( w ) = result in just minor distortions of the alternative PDFs as long
ε w
as urel ( w ) ≤ 0 , 25 respectively urel ( ε ) ≤ 0 , 25 holds. Results based on both PDFs are in good agreement
and E( f w ( w ℑ)) ≈ 1 / E( fε ( ε ℑ)) applies. Consequently, it is possible to use ISO  11929-1 and to
determine the calibration factor w either in the numerator or in the denominator and the calibration
can be done according to A.1. The application of ISO 11929-1 and ISO  11929-2 shows just minor
differences in the calculated characteristic limits.
For larger relative uncertainties significant differences the PDFs with important implications for the
resulting characteristic limits occur. For very large relative uncertainties even the detection limit
according to ISO 11929-1 may not exist. The results obtained by ISO 11929-1 and ISO  11929-2 differ
significantly because of the important nonlinearities.
If ISO 11929-2 is applied, the use of a normal distribution for detection efficiencies ε with large relative
uncertainties should be avoided and should be taken into account that ε is restricted to the interval
[0 , 1] or smaller. The inclusion of that information is covered by the following subclauses (A.3.4) and
(A.3.5).

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A.3.4 Rectangular versus inverse rectangular distributions

The information that the detection efficiency ε is typically restricted to an interval [ε L , ε U ] can be
taken into account by using the rectangular distribution (see ISO  11929-2:2019, 6.3) if further
information is not available as assumed e. g. in Clauses 8 and 9 where the rectangular distribution has
been used once in the numerator and once in the denominator. The choice was arbitrary, as the
reciprocal values of the interval boundaries could have been used instead. It simply depends on whether
the upper and lower bounds are given for which quantity, either ε or w , and for which of the quantities
a rectangular PDF has to be assigned. For the other quantity the proper transformation of the PDF has
to be used according to Formula (A.9).
According to Formula (A.9) the original rectangular distribution

1 /( ε U − ε L ) for ε L ≤ ε ≤ ε U
fε ( ε ℑ) =  (A.10)
 0 otherwise
1
with the expectation E( fε ( ε ℑ)) = ( ε U + ε L ) (A.11)
2
1
and the variance Var( fε ( ε ℑ)) = ( ε U − ε L ) (A.12)
12
transforms to the distribution

f w ( w ℑ) = 
{
1 / w 2 ⋅ ( ε U − ε L ) } for ε U−1 ≤ w ≤ ε L−1
(A.13)
 0 otherwise
with the expectation
ln(1 / ε L ) − ln(1 / ε U )
E( f w ( w ℑ)) = (A.14)
εU − εL
and the variance
2
1  ln(1 / ε L ) − ln(1 / ε U ) 
Var( f w ( w ℑ)) = −  (A.15)
εL ⋅ε U  εU − εL 
Since the difference between both distributions is apparently significant and the choice between a
numerator or denominator is arbitrary or determined by convention, the rectangular distribution is to
be used with care in practice, despite its repeated use in the previous examples for the sake of
convenience. Nevertheless, the benefit of the rectangular distribution either for the calibration factor
or the efficiency is the warranted existence of the detection limit y # due to the limited range of this
distribution.

A.3.5 Beta distribution for the efficiency probability distribution function

If a series of n efficiency measurements ( ε i , i = 1 ,..., n ) is available and if the prior information is used
that the efficiency ε measured in a counting experiment shall fulfill 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1 , it can be shown[46] that
the Bayes Theorem leads to a beta distribution B( ε ,α , β ) with the parameters α and β (not to be
confused with the same symbols in the table of quantities and symbols in Clause 4 as the PDF for the
efficiency
Γ (α ) ⋅ Γ ( β ) α −1
fε ( ε x i , i = 1 ,..., n ) = B( ε ,α , β ) = ⋅ ε ⋅ (1 − ε )β −1 (A.16)
Γ (α + β )

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α
with the expectation E[ fε ( ε ε i , i = 1 ,..., n )] = (A.17)
α +β
α ⋅β
and the variance Var( fε [ε ε i , i = 1 ,..., n )] = (A.18)
(α + β )2 (α + β + 1 )
From this, the parameters of the Beta distribution are calculated as

 1 − E[ fε ( ε ε i , i = 1 ,..., n )] 1 
α = {E[ fε ( ε ε i , i = 1 ,..., n )]}2 ⋅  −  (A.19)
 Var[ fε ( ε ε i , i = 1 ,..., n )] E[ fε ( ε ε i , i = 1 ,..., n )] 
and

 1 
β = α ⋅ − 1  (A.20)
 E[ fε ( ε ε i , i = 1 ,..., n )] 
NOTE In case of a single counting calibration measurement α corresponds approximately to the number of
detected particles and β corresponds approximately to the number of missed particles (e.  g. derived from a
calibration standard or a second detector with known efficiency). So, in Formula (A.18) for a reasonable number
n of events the detection efficiency is calculated and in Formula (A.19) the corresponding statistical variance. For
low event numbers see the corrections derived in Reference [46].
n n
1
∑ ∑
1
With the mean ε = ε i and the squared standard deviation sε2 = ( ε i −ε )2 of the measured
n − 1 i =1 n − 1 i =1
efficiency data the parameters of the Beta distribution are calculated by

 1−ε 1  1
α =ε 2  −  and β = α ⋅  − 1  (A.21)
 s2 
ε  ε 
 ε
If the efficiency is not limited to the interval [0 , 1] but to [ε L , ε U ] the Beta distribution can be expanded
to the rescaled four parameter Beta distribution

1  ε − ε L 
f ( ε ( ε i , i = 1 ,..., n ), ε L ≤ ε ≤ ε U ) = B( ε ,α , β , ε L , ε U ) = ⋅ B ,α , β  (A.22)
εU − εL  εU − εL 

A.3.6 Empirical probability distribution functions

If the calibration factor consists of factors that cannot be derived from theoretical considerations, it is
possible to use empirical PDFs which can either be used directly e.g. in sorted order as lookup tables or
be approximated by means of fitted analytical functions. With this approach the issue, whether a
distribution is used in the numerator or the denominator disappears. If the calibration factors wi are
x6 ,i ⋅ x 8 ,i ⋅⋅⋅
individually calculated according to wi = ( i = 1 ,..., n ) for all n data tuples ( x5 ,i , x6 ,i , x7 ,i ,...)
x5 ,i ⋅ x7 ,i ⋅⋅⋅
and then used for the empirical PDF f w ( w wi , i = 1 ,..., n ) all input data are automatically at the correct
position according to the model of evaluation and contribute their true and hence correct PDFs including
possible intrinsic correlations. With n large enough to sufficiently cover the required percentiles in the
calculation of the characteristic limits for the provided probabilities α and β for wrong decisions and
for the coverage probability γ , the PDF contains all available information. It still shall be assured that
the used data are representative.

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Annex B
(informative)

Calculations according to ISO 11929-2

This annex exemplarily describes the procedure according to ISO 11929-2. For this purpose, a simple
model of evaluation according to Formula (B.1) is assumed.

 ng n0 
a = ( x1 − x2 ) · w = ( rg − r0 ) · w = rn · w =  −  · w (B.1)
t 
 g t0 
Formula (B.1) is just a simple special case of the more general model in Formula (1)
x ⋅ x ⋅⋅⋅ x ⋅ x ⋅⋅⋅
y = ( x1 − x2 ⋅ x3 − x 4 ) ⋅ 6 8 = ( x1 − x2 x3 − x 4 ) ⋅ w with w = 6 8
x5 ⋅ x7 ⋅⋅⋅ x5 ⋅ x7 ⋅⋅⋅
or, more generally, for m input quantities,
y = G( x1 ,..., x m ) (B.2)

The uncertainty associated with y, u( y ) , is determined from the uncertainties u( x j ) by the method of
uncertainty propagation according to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3.
Applying instead the Monte Carlo simulation method according to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1
means to simulate a large number n M of measurements yi ( i = 1,..., nM ). This is achieved by generating
n M random values for each of the input quantities. The respective PDFs for the different input quantities
are derived according to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/Suppl.1. They are documented for the examples
in the tables with the available information. The necessary information is summarized for the
application of ISO 11929-1 by a = {x1 ,..., x m ; u ( x1 ) ,..., u ( x m )} . For the application of ISO 11929-2, PDFs
have to be assigned to each of the input quantities X 1 ,..., X m according to the ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008/
Suppl.1 depending on the available information, which is simply summarized by the symbol a .
ISO 11929-2:2019, 6.3, Annex A and Annex B give a detailed description of the methodology.
Assuming here for simplicity and as an example that the x j follow normal distributions, a random
value of x j is generated by
x ji = x j + u( x j )z ji (step A) (B.3)

where z ji is a N( 0 , 1 ) deviate, i.e., a random number following a standard normal distribution. The
simulated values
yi = G( x1i ,..., x mi ) ( i = 1,..., nM ) (step B) (B.4)

form an array (vector)

y = { y1 ,..., ynM } (step C) (B.5)

which after sorting the array ascendingly represents a discrete distribution of y from which the
characteristic values are derived as follows. For the following always sorted arrays are assumed.
The probability pk associated with a value yk is given by pk = k / nM . The pk -values represent the
cumulative probability density, i.e. a function increasing from zero to unity if plotted against the yk

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ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

‑values. The differential probability density is then given by

∂P ( yk ) pk − pk −1 k / nM − ( k − 1 )/ nM 1
pk ,dif = = = = . The sorted array can be separated
∂yk yk − yk −1 yk − yk −1 nM ⋅ ( yk − yk −1 )
into negative and positive values
y = { y( 1 ) ,..., y( nn ) , y( nn +1 ) ,..., y( nM ) } (B.6)

where ( nn ) is the number of negative values, yi < 0 .

Formula (B.6) as the result of a Monte Carlo simulation is formally equivalent to a probability
distribution (so‑called marginal posterior) written as a multi-dimensional integral
∞
m 
f Y ( y | x , u( x )) = ∫ ∏
 f X i ( x i | x i , u( x i ))  ⋅ δ ( y − G( x1 , ..., x m )) d x1 d x 2  d x m (B.7)
−∞  i =1 
or generally
∞
m 
∫ ∏
f Y ( y | a ) =  f X ( x | a )  ⋅ δ ( y − G( x )) d x (B.8)
−∞  i =1 
In 6.5 the marginal posterior for this example is explicitly given.
The primary estimate, including values <  0, together with its associated standard uncertainty are
calculated as

nM M n
∑ ∑
1 1
y= yi and u( y ) = ( yi − y )2 (B.9)
nM i =1
nM − 1 i =1
A quantile qp of the array { y1 ,..., ynM } , associated with a given probability p, is the value yk with
k = p nM .
The integral form analogues of the two expressions in Formula (B.8) are
∞ ∞ 
y = E (Y ) = ∫  ∫
y f Y ( y | x , u( x )) d y ; u( y ) = E (Y 2 ) − y 2 =  y 2 f Y ( y | x , u( x )) d y  − y 2 (B.10)

−∞  −∞ 
Comparing Formula (B.8) and Formulae (B.9, B.7) demonstrates how the Monte Carlo method simplifies
the calculations.
The best estimate, refers to values yi ≥ 0 ( nP number of positive yi , 0 ≤ nP ≤ nM ). It is calculated
together with its associated standard uncertainty as

nM nM
∑ ∑
1 1
ŷ = yi and u( ˆ)
y = ( yi − ˆ)
y 2 (B.11)
nM − nn i = nn + 1
nM − nn − 1 i = n +1
n
A quantile qp of the sub-array { ynn +1 ,..., ynM } , associated with a given probability p, is the value yk
with  k = p ⋅( nM − nn ) .
The integral form analogues of the two expressions in Formula (B.10) are also represented by
Formula (B.9), but with the lower integral limit raised to zero.
The limits of the coverage intervals are obtained as suitable quantiles of the sub-array { ynn +1 ,..., ynM }
.

© ISO 2022 – All rights reserved  91


BS ISO 11929‑4:2022
ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

For the calculation of the decision threshold and the detection limit, the MC simulations refer to possible
true values a of the measurand, A, which differ from y. In this case, the input quantity value rg differs
from the measured one or, in other words, the information a = {x1 ,..., x m ; u ( x1 ) ,..., u ( x m )} is changed to
a´ = {x ´1 ,..., x m ; u ( x ´1 ) ,..., u ( x m )} . It is also assumed, that ng represents the first of the input quantity
values.
The integral form of the associated probability distribution is given by the so-called prospective
posterior
∞
m 
f A ( a | a ´ ) = C ∫ ∏
fX1 ( x ´1 | x ´1 , u( x ´1 )) 
 i =1
fXi ( xi | xi , u( xi )) ⋅ δ ( a − G( x ´1 ,..., xm )) d x1 d x2 d xm (B.12)

−∞

The calculation of the decision threshold is performed by an iterative procedure searching for a set of
information a´ = {x ´1 ,..., x m ; u ( x ´1 ) ,..., u ( x m )} for which a =0 results. If this set is found, the (1−α )
-quantile of the prospective posterior according to Formula (B.11) is the decision threshold y* . The
decision threshold value is obtained as its upper quantile: y * = yk , with k = p nM at p = 1 −α .
The distribution associated with the decision threshold may become asymmetric (e.g., if a rectangular
distributed input quantity is involved) and the mean value then may deviate from zero. In that case it is
recommended to implement an iteration method also for the decision threshold, which, by applying
small deviations of x1 from zero, tries to diminish the distribution mean deviation from zero.
The calculation of the detection limit is performed by an iterative procedure through which the center
of the associated distribution is stepwise adjusted such that its lower quantile ( p = β ) finally converges
to the value y * . Therefore, the MC simulation needs to be repeated several times. In each iteration
step, the iteration procedure generates a specific value a of the measurand. From the latter, a new
value
∞
P ( y > y * y = 0 ) = ∫ fY ( y ′ a ', y = 0) dy ′ = α (B.13)
y*
is calculated. At this stage within a single iteration step, the simulation procedure (steps A-C) is
repeated. After conversion, the detection limit value is given as the mean value of the array

y = { y 1 ,..., ynM } , being the last one within the iteration.
The iteration requires using a numerical root finding method. Due to Monte Carlo uncertainties, the
functions supplied to such a root finding method are “noisy” (fluctuating). Therefore, such routines
should be more robust with respect to these fluctuations than for instance, the simpler bisection
method.

92  © ISO 2022 – All rights reserved


 BS ISO 11929‑4:2022
ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

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ISO 11929-4:2022(E)

[43] Michel R.2017, Uncertainty, detectability, and conformity in measurements of ionizing

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© ISO 2022 – All rights reserved  95


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