Jan 18

Indian Journal of
School Health
& Wellbeing
ISSN 2349-5464
! Health Services ! Life Skills Education ! Healthy School Environment
The National Life Skills, Values Education & School Wellness Program
Healthy Schools …… Healthy India 

Education is not preparation for life…
Education is life itself
- John Dewey
The National Life Skills, Value Education & School Wellness Program IJSHW ISSN:2349-5464
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i
Jan-April 2018, Vol. 4, No. 1 Expressions India
encompass how it feels to face a difficult 10. Announcements: Information regarding

diagnosis and what this does to relationships conferences, meetings, courses, awards and
and the quality of life. Personal narratives, if other items likely to be of interest to readers
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The Manuscripts to the peer-reviewed and refereed Indian Journal of School Health and Wellbeing (IJSHW)
are to be submitted via e-mail to:
Dr. Jitendra Nagpal – MD, DNB
Program Director “Expressions India”

The National Life Skills, Values Education & School Wellness Program
Sr. Consultant Psychiatrist & In-charge
Institute of Child Development & Adolescent Wellbeing
Moolchand Medcity, New Delhi
Web: www.expressionsindia.org
Email: [email protected]. [email protected]
ii
Contents Page
Editorial Board iv
Foreword v
A Note from the Editors vi
Original Research Papers
1. Binge-watching: A Road to Pleasure or Pain? 2
Ms. Aditi Mehra & Ms. Amita Gujral
2. Media Portrayals of Disability and Relationships: An Exploration of the Self and the 14
Other
Ms. Sabreen Kaur & Ms. Urvashi Dixit
3. Making Lives Whole: Exploring Facets of Dog-Human Companionship 22
Ms. Noyonika Gupta & Ms. Simran Kaur
4. Parenting a Child with Autism: Shared Experiences and Unique Realities 37
Ms. Kaaveri Dhingra
5. Guilt and Shame Proneness in Young Adults: Exploring Relation with Personality and 44
Well-being
Ms. Jagrika Bajaj & Ms. Mansimran Kaur
6. Resilience among Adolescents with Visual Disabilities 53
Ms. Kriti Trehan
7. Dark Humour and Personality Correlates 63
Ms. Akansha Marwah & Ms. Garima Chaturvedi
8. Physical Intimacy and Romance in Young Adulthood 69
Ms. Shivani Sachdev & Ms. Swathi J. Bhat
Review Article
9. Mirror Neurons and Consciousness: A Meta-synthesis 78
Ms. Ayushi Shukla
Case Report
10. Madness and Creativity: Unravelling the Mystery through Case Studies of Popular Artists 89
Ms. Anshu Chaudhary
• Saadat Hasan Manto Ms. Andree & Ms. Ana Gupta
• Sylvia Plath Ms. Kanika Mohan & Ms. Kriti Trehan
• Adolf Hitler Ms. Ria Dayal
• Eminem Ms. Poorva Parashar
Book Review
11. Are You There Alone? Ms. Niru Sankhala 109
My Voice: Reflective Narratives
12. Your appearance is none of our business 112
Ms. Lavanya Kaushal
13. Finding your Funny 114

Ms. Parul Tewari
Details of the Guest Editors and Authors 116
iii
Editorial Board
Editors-in-Chief
Dr. Jitendra Nagpal Prof. Namita Ranganathan
Guest Editors
Dr. Nidhi Malik Ms. Anshu Chaudhary Ms. Surbhi Kumar
Editorial Board
Prof. J.L Pandey Dr. Kavita Sharma Dr. Divya S. Prasad

Dr. Renu Malviya Dr. Neelima Asthana Dr. Vikas Baniwal
Prof. Neerja Chadha Dr. Toolika Wadhwa Dr. Poojashivam Jaitly
Dr. Sharmila Majumdar Dr Bharti Rajguru Ms. Swastika Banerjee
Ms. Sheema Hafeez Ms. Tanya Mithal Ms. Ameeta Mulla Wattal
Col. Jyoti Prakash Ms. Astha Sharma Dr. Naveen Raina
Ms. Manoranjini Ms. Aparna Singh Ms. Aprajita Dixit
Advisory Board
Dr. H .K. Chopra Dr. Geetesh Nirban Dr. Yuvakshi Juneja

Ms. Sudha Acharya Dr. Kalpana Srivastava Dr. Rajeev Seth
Ms. Sanjay Bhartiya Ms. Manjali Ganu
Administration & HR
Ms. Manju Madan Ms. Priya Sharma Ms. Aarti Prasad

In-charge Administration Manager (Office operations) Manager (HR)
Expressions India Expressions India Expressions India
(M) 8527283797 (M) 9999564366 (M) 8860159747
iv
Foreword

It is with a sense of pride and achievement that I introduce the work of the students and the faculty
members of the Department of Psychology, Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi. The honour
and recognition implicit in the selection of the team of Psychology faculty members from the College to edit a
reputed scholarly journal like the Indian Journal of School Health and Well Being by Expressions India,
cannot be overstated, and the College is grateful for that.
The Department of Psychology first, by virtue of curricular requirement has over time undertaken
regular and rigorous student research activities. The student –faculty teams of the Department have made forays
into many complex research areas and community outreach programs opening up related areas for study and
intervention. The Department has done signal service in documenting such research in all its academic aspects
and is now poised to present in the peer group. The present edition captures a part of the spectrum of research
interests and investigations of the students. By researching into discourses of disability, media, madness,
humour, companionship among many others, students have shown remarkable engagement through empirical
research as well as review papers.
For a decade now, IP College has encouraged undergraduate research mentored by faculty, through its
Departmental Academic Associations and its six Centres of Research and Learning. In this way, the original
and innovative thoughts of students are also put through the considerable discipline of training for, and
presentation of research work. The College has also instituted a dedicated grant – the Centenary Decade
Undergraduate Research Grant- to augment and support the spirit of research. The student awardees of the
College have completed significant projects, and also participated in the research conferences presenting their
work.
I thank Expressions India for the opportunity to present the work of the Department of Psychology,
one of the flagship departments of IP College. I congratulate the editors-the faculty members of the Department
of Psychology-my colleagues, who have endorsed the vision of the College and taken it forward, as evidenced
by the hours of very hard work that have gone into the mentorship and presentation of the research presented in
the Journal.
My best wishes, always.
Dr. Babli Moitra Saraf

Principal, Indraprastha College for Women
University of Delhi
v
A Note from the Editors

We are pleased to introduce the present issue of the Indian Journal of School Health and Wellbeing
focusing on the research undertaken by the students at Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi
during their undergraduate studies at the Department of Psychology. Research is at the heart of the discipline
of Psychology and we are proud to have students with an outstanding academic and research potential. Over the
years, a significant number of our students have actively engaged in research projects under the guidance of
faculty mentors and have produced work of commendable quality. The present issue provides these students
with an opportunity to publish their work for communicating with, and participating in, the larger research
community.
As shown by the work presented here, undergraduate students are not only able to engage in an intensive
study of a problem that reflects their personal interests, but pursue it with a true spirit of scientific enquiry. An
important skill set in the pursuit of science is translating research observations into an informative,
comprehensive report that presents the question at hand, the results and conclusions in a clear and concise
manner. The papers you will find here are representative examples of this excellent body of work.
It is noteworthy that the papers in this issue explore several pertinent, contemporary concerns spanning
a whole range of subfields within Psychology. The contributions include research on adolescents and young
adults, with studies on binge-watching, guilt and shame proneness, physical intimacy and romance, and dog-
human companionship. This issue also provides a perspective on the issue of disability in Indian context while
offering an insight into both the narratives of the persons with disability and that of the caregivers. Further, a
dedicated section on the enigmatic theme of ‘madness and creativity’ brings forth the connection between the
life experiences and the creative works of the so-called ‘mad artists or geniuses’. Adding an auto-ethnographic
flavour to the volume, two reflective essays are likely to take the readers close to the trials and tribulations of
the growing up years of the ‘millennials’ while they walk the path to self-discovery.
As editors of this special issue of the journal, we wish to express our sincere thanks to Dr. Jitendra
Nagpal and his entire team at ‘Expressions India’ for their relentless support. We also thank Prof. Namita
Ranganathan for her constant encouragement and trust. As members of the Department of Psychology,
Indraprastha College for Women, we would like to express our gratitude towards our Principal, Dr. Babli Moitra
Saraf, for nourishing the culture of academic excellence at our institution and encouraging us to explore the
possibilities of promoting research and publication. And we thank our valued colleagues for their critical
comments and suggestions. And lastly, as proud teachers and mentors, we would like to express the immense
pride we take in presenting the work of the creative young researchers from our institution. We congratulate
students for their commendable ideas and sincere endeavours.
The Editorial Team
Dr. Nidhi Malik, Ms. Anshu Chaudhary & Ms. Surbhi Kumar
Assistant Professors
Department of Psychology, Indraprastha College for Women
University of Delhi
vi
ORIGINAL RESEARCH PAPERS
1
Binge-watching: A Road to Pleasure or Pain?
Aditi Mehra* & Amita Gujral**

*Student, M.A. Applied Psychology with Specialisation in Counselling Psychology, Tata Institute of Social
Sciences, Mumbai
** Developmental Service Worker, Fanshawe College, London, Ontario
The advent of online streaming services has given rise to a new manner of watching television. Commonly
referred to as television binge watching, it involves watching several episodes of a television show in one sitting.
Even though Indians indulge in binge watching much more in comparison to the rest of the world, this area
hasn’t been researched upon enough and demands immediate attention. Literature available on binge watching
points to the fact that binge watching is closely associated with guilt. However, the literature is silent on the
direction of this relationship. Both qualitative and quantitative measures were used in the present study to
understand whether guilt is an antecedent or a consequence of binge watching. An online survey was conducted
on 80 under-graduate students, followed by a semi structured interview on 30 participants from the sample to
tap feelings of guilt experienced before and after indulging in binge watching behaviour. The present study
demonstrates that in real life, guilt precedes as well as follows binge watching and that it interferes with other
crucial duties in life. Further, it looks into the prevalence of viewership, notions of binge-watching, and
deliberations on the audience.
Keywords: binge-watching, guilt, procrastination
Introduction like Ascension. Previous studies have indicated that

people prefer to indulge in binge watching alone. In
Advancements in digital technology stimulate addition, the total time which is spent during the
different ways of television (T.V.) viewing. In the fast activity correlates with the amount of leisure time and
changing world we live in, new ways of watching T.V. has a significant role to play in the result of binge-
series has emerged. Also called marathon-viewing, watching on emotional wellbeing (Feijter, 2016). Pena
studies centred around this phenomenon have defined (2015) illustrated that a particular kind of series was
it as “watching 2-6 episodes of T.V. shows in one preferred more by viewers in order to make the
setting” (Netflix, 2013) and the same criterion will be
experience favourable for them.
used in this study so as to classify binge-watchers.
This new way of watching television is defying the Binge-watching has been subjected to a
traditional viewing styles by allowing the user to substantial amount of positive as well as negative
bypass linearly scheduled episodes to watching them media attention. Multiple researches suggest that
all at once according to their convenience. Beyond media may impact the psychological well-being of an
breaking the mould of watching on a predetermined individual positively by serving as a catalyst in
schedule, it has empowered the consumer with a recovering from the pressures of everyday life
choice, so much so that the expression “binge-watch” (Reinecke, 2009). Matrix (2014) put forth an
was put in the Oxford English Dictionary in 2013. argument according to which viewers of Generation Y
Harris Interactive conducted a survey in 2013 and Generation Z are indulging in binge watching
according to which younger people are more likely to behaviours as a means to relax as well as stay
binge watch in comparison to older people (The Harris connected to others beyond the classic form of
Poll, 2013). Majority of the binge watchers belong to television viewership. Willens (2013) of The
the millennial generation (MarketCast, 2013). In a Huffington Post further asserted that binge-watching
study conducted by Netflix (2013), it was established is an ideal activity to indulge in on a date night for
that while the global average to consume an entire TV couples. She emphasised on how “binge-bonding”
series is 4 days, the average time expended by Indians with peers led to the formation of positive connections
is only 3 days! Further, most favoured genre for binge- with them. Further, since binge-watching requires an
watching ended up being Sci-Fi in India with series individual to spend extended periods of time in front
2
of the screen, it serves as an escape for viewers, who watching as crucial aspects of behaviour. However,
avoid everyday activities by remaining immersed in a due to lack of consensus in the academic circles on
show (Thompson, 1997). whether feelings of guilt are a result of binge
watching, guilt will be the main focus for this study.
However, a number of researches have
pointed towards a negative relationship between This research focuses on the less explored
media use and well-being (Kubey & domain of the relationship between guilt and binge-
Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Smith (2014), equated watching behaviour and attempts to answer the
binge-watching to drug addictions as viewers are following questions:
chasing another “fix” with every new episode1. Sung,
1. Whether guilt is an antecedent or a consequence
Kang, and Lee (2015) found that addiction symptoms
of binge-watching?
such as loneliness and decreased self-control appeared
in those individuals who indulged in the most amount The study aimed at obtaining a clearer
of binge-watching. It has been noted that the term picture of whether guilt precedes or succeeds
“guilty pleasure” has often been associated with media binge-watching behaviour. In line with the
use, such as reality-based television viewing (Baruh, existing literature review which suggests that the
2010), reading romance novels (Radway, 1984), or reduced positive affect after watching television
personal Internet use at work (Stratton, 2010). may be suggestive of a negative post hoc
Gauntlett and Hill (1999) reported that irrespective of appraisal, the study hypothesised that guilt is a
the content being viewed, the audience regards consequence of binge-watching.
viewing television as a guilty pleasure. Further, there 2. What is the association between amount of
is a decrease in positive affect after television binge-watching and guilt feelings?
exposure indicating a negative post hoc appraisal: “In
other words, viewers know that they could have done In order to understand the relationship
something more productive. It makes sense, then, that between guilt and various levels of binge
after viewing, people are less likely to feel as good viewership, this study hypothesised that
about themselves as they do after sports or leisure”. respondents who report having longer duration
Prior research suggests that media enjoyment is binge-watching sessions will be more likely to
decreased because of feelings of guilt (Hartmann & feel guilty than participants who report shorter
Vorderer, 2010). This discovery is in sync with duration binge-watching sessions.
previous research that has found an association 3. To what extent a genre is preferred over the
between ego depletion and decreased levels of self- others when it comes to binge-watching?
control (Reinecke, 2014). People with a depleted ego
are more likely to give in to the pleasures of the In sync with Poniewozik’s (2015) analysis,
entertaining media than those who do not suffer from TiVo Research reported that dramas and crime
ego depletion (Hofmann, Vohs, & Baumeister, 2012). dramas were the most binge watched genres
In addition, perceived procrastination has been found (TiVo, 2014). Taking this into consideration, it
to be related with feelings of guilt in relation to media was hypothesised, certain genres are more likely
use. Walton-Pattison et al (2018) described how to be binge watched than others. This will
automaticity, anticipated regret and goal conflict provide insights on whether content and
contribute to scores on binge watching beyond storyline matter in keeping the viewers hooked
standard social cognitive factors. A key finding with to their television/computer screens.
regard to binge-watching is guiltiness (Cruz, 2014). Further, this study attempted to shed light on
However, it is still not clear whether guilt is an the factors leading to binge-watching in the first place,
essential or even recurrent outcome of binge- driving forces behind the inability to stop watching
watching. The aim of this study is to find out the multiple episodes, probable causes in case of
relationship between the factors of television experience of negative emotions, coping mechanisms
viewership and binge-watching. Literature views adopted to deal with such feelings and individuals’
factors such as guilt, context for viewership, the perceptions regarding appointment television.
viewing medium, amount as well as duration of
1
Similarly, Shuhua Zhou (2008) argued that any behaviour
that includes the word “binge” connotes excess, which is
never good for the brain or body (Linville, 2013).
3
Method consequences and the coping strategies used, if any, in

order to deal with these consequences.
Participants
Procedure
The study was conducted on college students
between the age range of 17-21 years. The data was A pilot study was carried out with 10 people
collected via purposive and snowball sampling where who gave inputs on the comprehensibility of questions
only those who spent two hours or more watching and design of the survey. The final survey included 11
television episodes were a part of the study. The questions. Post the administration of the survey, a
survey was administered on 80 students and 30 out of semi- structured interview was conducted with the
them were interviewed due to time constraints. participants which provided useful insights.
Descriptive Statistics was used to analyse the results
Tools
of the survey which identified the most common
To explore the relation between Binge- responses given by the participants. The chosen
watching and Guilt, both qualitative and quantitative analysis route for the semi-structured interview was
measures were used. An online survey was adapted content analysis. As a research method, it makes use
from Wagner’s Questionnaire (2016), keeping the aim of a set of categorisation procedures for making valid
of the study in mind which was followed by a semi- and replicable inferences from data to its context. The
structured interview to get deeper insights into the results of the semi- structured interview are attached
experiences of binge watching. The online survey was in Appendix 1.
carried out by administering a questionnaire to the
participants to explore the sectors: Demographic Results and Discussion
Information, Frequency of Viewership, Perceptions of Technological progress at a time of the golden
Binge-Watching, and Reflections on Viewership. In age of television has given rise to a phenomenon,
“Frequency of Viewership,” participants were posed which now represents an everyday behaviour for
two questions which looked into how much television many. Although this phenomenon is talked about
they watched. One question asked about the amount widely in the media sphere, there seems to be a lack
of binge watching, while the second asked about the of psychological research, which has looked into it. In
duration of binge-watching. For “Perceptions of the light of the review and the above-cited reasons, the
Binge-Watching,” participants answered questions goal of the present study was to understand the
regarding various genres and durations of television relationship between feelings of guilt and binge-
viewing sessions. The next section, “Reflections on watching behaviours in general and whether guilt
Viewership,” asked respondents about their guilt from precedes or succeeds binge-watching behaviour in
the binge-watching behaviours as well as the type of particular. Further, information was gathered from the
guilt they felt and used five-point Likert-type scale participants to gain a genuine understanding of their
questions. A question pointing to the feelings binge-watching experiences such as their viewing
experienced while watching multiple episodes made practices, underlying motivations and related
use of expressions (emoticons) for the ease of making behaviours.
it more relatable to participants. This section also
Binge-watching has now become the new
consisted of a question to tap the feelings of viewers
normative way of consuming television shows due to
while watching appointment television.
the convenience of having a plethora of shows just a
This was followed by the conduction of a few clicks away. According to figure 1, majority of the
semi-structured interview with the participants to sample reported watching 21-30 hours of television in
ensure that the findings are grounded in their the previous week. In addition, majority of the
experiences. The semi-structured interview probed the participants preferred to watch 5-6 hours of television
relationship between guilt and binge watching by in one sitting as indicated in figure 2. Binge-watching
looking at the subjective experiences of the was also voted to be the most popular manner of
participants in the face of numerous situations. consumption of television series as reported in figure
Further, it shed light on the motivation behind 3.
indulging in binge watching, its probable
4
Figure 1. Responses on Q1 asking about number of hours participant watched television.
Figure 2. Responses on Q2 asking about number of hours television is watched in one sitting.
50
40
30
20
10
0
I watch an I watch a I watch a I watch only one I watch multiple I watch one
episode each television series television series episode of a episodes of a television series
week after the only after the full completely in television series television series at a time before
newest airs season has one sitting, from in one sitting in one sitting sitting to watch a
ended start to finish new television
series
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
Figure 3. Responses on Q4: When I watch T.V....
5
It can be inferred, that this new way of themselves a mental reprieve. Like one respondent
watching television is defying the traditional viewing wanted to “think about someone else’s problems and
styles by allowing the user to bypass linearly escape into a different world for a few hours, to turn
scheduled episodes to view them together as per their my mind off and let the story take control.” Binge
convenience. This phenomenon is threatening to watching was found to be an effective way of getting
shake up appointment viewing as the people lost in a TV series, thus serving as a distraction for
preferring to binge watch is on an increase. viewers. It can be inferred that binge-watching helped
in temporarily alleviating their pre-existing feelings of
Two major reasons pertaining to what got the
stress and anxiety.
viewers to become so deeply engrossed in these sit-
coms in the first place, emerged during the interviews. There was a division in opinions when respondents
Being in a position to discuss the trending sitcoms were asked whether they were more inclined towards
with peers not only kept them from feeling alienated watching multiple episodes of the same television
but also facilitated them in being an active member of series or different ones. In figure 4, it has been
the conversation. This in turn helped them stay abreast depicted that almost half the sample prefers watching
with the recent happenings around them. By staying multiple episodes of the same television series, while
up to date with the popular television content, some the other half doesn’t.
viewers feel more equipped to engage in social
interactions. One respondent explained his incentive
as a desire to “enhance his social status.” Similar
findings were reported in a research conducted by
Wagner (2016) where the importance of being able to
have discussions about certain shows motivated them
to continue to binge watch.
When asked whether their choice to continue
watching still depended on the above cited reasons,
respondents voted procrastination to be the main
driving force behind this form of indulgence. On Figure 4. Responses on Q3 which inquired if multiple
being asked what leads them to move from spending episodes being viewed are required to be of the same
three hours to six, without consciously being aware of television series.
when they click the next episode, it was reported that
Contrary to the hypothesis of the present
putting off important work because “an hour won’t
study, the results of the study indicated that almost
make a world of a difference” was one of the most
half the respondents did not prefer watching multiple
favoured reasons. The participants reported feeling
episodes of the same television series. However, when
guiltier when they indulged in such behaviours in the
probed further through the interview, it was found that
face of an important event such as an assignment
a majority of the participants would rather watch
submission etc. This can be supported by the findings
several episodes of the same TV series, conditioned
of the survey wherein 66% of the sample reported
on availability which is in line with our hypothesis.
feeling guilty for something they did not do but should
Netflix has defined binge watching as the practice of
have done. Panek (2014) studying college students
watching television for a long-time span, usually a
found that feelings of guilt arose after they
single television show (West, 2014). It is safe to say
experienced the consequences of giving preference to
then, that binge-watchers pay attention to one TV
media over completing their assignments which has
series in its entirety before moving to the next. That
long-term benefits. It was also reported that another
being said, 35% reported that watching multiple
advantage of viewing multiple episodes was to avoid
episodes of the same show was not a necessity. There
spoilers as much as possible. As stated by one person,
is clearly a disagreement between whether viewers
“I usually watch multiple episodes in a row to ‘catch
need to focus on a single TV series or watch multiple
up’ with my peers, especially if they’ll be talking about
simultaneously, suggesting that the binge-watching
it in social situations. I don’t want any 34 spoilers
experience differs for people and is contingent upon
when I see them next!”. Sims (2015) pointed out
their perceptions of viewing.
towards the challenges viewers face while avoiding
spoilers. It was also brought forth that binge watchers Some participants reported certain sitcoms
indulged in such behaviours in order to allow were more suited for binge watching in comparison to
6
others. From figure 5, it can be seen that the most Thriller/ Horror which was followed by Comedy and
preferred genre to watch multiple episodes of was Fantasy/ Science fiction.
Figure 5. Responses on Q5 inquiring about the nature of television content being binge watched.
For specific genres such as thrillers/horrors, the of the episode), people still preferred watching
majority of respondents felt that they had the episodes of shorter duration, thereby being clouded by
maximum potential to be binge-watched. On the other the illusion of wasting lesser time.
hand, they believed that programs which impart
The main focus of the study was to tap the
knowledge such as news and discovery channels do
direction of feelings of guilt experienced by
not have the qualities of being a binge-worthy show
individuals indulging in the phenomena of binge
either due to the nature of their content or the manner
watching. It has been seen that even though television
in which they are structured. Contrary to an article
has shared a relationship with guilt since the very
written by Bijal (2016) where Scientific Fiction has
beginning, the nature of guilt has evolved under the
been suggested as most popular genre in India when it
influence of multiple factors, such as demographics,
comes to binge watching, the present study found
time period, technology, program type, and
thrillers/ horror to be the viewers’ favourite with 84%
intellectual stimulation. In figure 6, it has been
of the sample opting for this genre against the others.
depicted that the majority of sample experienced
When probed further during the interview, majority
feelings of guilt and inefficacy while engaging in
reported that their inability to deprive themselves of
binge watching behaviour. The number of hours spent
the climax (cliff-hangers) led them to jump from three
while binge watching was directly proportional to the
to six episodes of this genre. Participants claimed how
amount of guilt experienced. The results obtained in
thrillers and horrors are more ‘suspenseful’ and ‘nerve
the study wherein 70% of the sample consented to
wrecking’ as each episode nears its end. Sims (2015)
experiencing more amount of guilt with the increasing
put forth that a number of series exploit this storyline
hours is in line with the hypothesis of the present
in order to motivate viewers to continue watching
study, feelings of guilt are directly proportional to the
despite feeling guilty. A significant percentage of
number of hours spent while indulging in binge
respondents also felt that the average number of hours
watching. According to Leech, Barrett, & Morgan
devoted to binge watching increased as respondents
(2005) respondents who reported longer binge-
perceived that watching episodes of shorter duration
viewing sessions felt more guilty than those who
meant wasting lesser time. Wagner (2016) found that
reported a shorter duration of binge-watching.
even in cases when the time-equivalents of the
viewership were identical (irrespective of the duration
7
Figure 6. Responses on Q9: Based on your experience of watching multiple episodes in one sitting, choose as
many of the following.
Figure 7. Responses on Q6 about binge watching and guilt
60
45
30
15
0
Guilt for something you Guilt for something you Guilt for something you Guilt for watching Guilt that you are
did that violates a didnt do, but should did that violates a social something that you enjoying content that is
personal standard have done or societal standard were supposed to not held in high regard
watch with someone
else
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
Figure 8. Responses on Q7 inquiring about the type of guilt experienced on binge-watching.

On being asked the reason behind feeling was followed by deteriorating quality of interpersonal
guilty post binge watching, majority of the sample relationships.
stated lessening of productivity to be one of the chief
Previous studies on the psychological effects
reasons for the occurrence of negative emotions which
of media use as a form of relaxation have often
8
contradicted one another. Some have indicated that done.” Watching videos online is related to lesser time
they facilitate mental recovery from stress, while spent on doing meaningful work. The rationale for the
others have found that they cause people to feel guilty, same is that these activities offer short-term gains as
depressed, and frustrated. The results of the present opposed to those which offer larger, long-term gains
study were in line with our first hypothesis, ‘Guilt is a such as getting better grades and a successful career
consequence of binge watching.’ This can be (Panek, 2014). Being glued to the television all round
corroborated by the results obtained in the survey the clock often contributed to deteriorating quality of
wherein 71.2% of the sample reported that watching familial relationships, thus leading to experiences of
more than two hours of television led to feelings of guilt. This was all the more prominent due to the
guilt. The importance of intentionality was prevalent collectivistic culture of India. Some
highlighted by the respondents who reported that they respondents also went on to say that not just binge
had no intention to binge watch in the first place. watching but also thinking about the story line and
However, this unintended move from temporary discussing the same with peers added to number of
watching to bingeing has some uncomfortable effects hours of preoccupation with the sit-coms. Last but not
on bingers. Further it was reported that guilt became the least, participants also reported feeling more
more prevalent when there was no intention to indulge ‘lethargic’ and ‘blue’ due to lack of movement.
in binge watching in the beginning of the viewing Exercising releases certain chemicals called endorphins
session. Riddle et al (2017) found that addictive which trigger a positive feeling in the body. Watching
symptoms were more common among unintentional television, for most people at least, equals sitting. It is
bingers. In the interview, even though feelings of guilt clear that not only is television taking the place of our
post binge watching were reported by the entire exercise time, it is also restraining basic movements
sample, more than half the sample also indicated such as walking from one room to the other. These
experiencing guilt prior to indulging in the same. The activities which seem insignificant in reality, in fact
past experiences of having to deal with feelings of have positive health effects. No muscle movement
guilt were found to be one of the chief reasons that led contributes to lower metabolism and an overall lower
them to feel the guilt prior to binge watching. Though level of health — including brain health (Dunstan,
it was later pointed out how their urge to binge-watch 2008).
overpowered these negative emotions. Further, some
In the face of stressful situations, clients
were also found citing “Even though I knew how I was
reported adopting certain coping strategies in order to
going to waste the next 3-4 hours, not watching would
tackle the difficulties faced. 92% of the sample quoted
keep me from concentrating on the important tasks”.
how overcompensating by putting in greater effort on
Studies have also pointed at the certain pleasures
more important things helped in alleviating feelings of
which provide immediate awards as opposed to those
tension by utilising the leftover time in an efficient
which give delayed gratification. Commonly referred
manner. According to 47% of the participants, putting
to as ‘guilty pleasures’, they lure individuals to yield
a conscious effort to cut down on the usual number of
to instant pleasures rather than indulge in experiences
hours in order to catch up on the designated work was
which has delayed yet long-lasting benefits like
an effective coping mechanism and subsequently
cultural enrichment, enhanced ability to perform the
rewarding themselves by watching more post the
duties of a responsible, informed citizen, or increased
important event.
earning potential (Shiv & Fedorikhin, 1999).
Another interesting finding that emerged from
However, majority of the sample reported
this study was, that the viewers who had to make their
feeling guilty after experiencing positive emotions
schedules in accordance with the time of a show’s
stating lost time and thus lessening of productivity to
original broadcast (traditional/ appointment
be the reason. This can be further corroborated by the
television), almost never experienced negative
survey where 66.25% of the sample reported feeling
emotions as compared to those who preferred
“guilt for something they didn’t do but should have
watching television according to their suitability.
9
50
38
25
13
0
When I watched When I watched When I watched When I watched When I watched
traditional TV traditional TV traditional TV traditional TV traditional TV
yesterday after yesterday after yesterday after yesterday after yesterday after
work/school, I felt work/school, I felt work/school, I could work/school, I felt work/school, I felt
remorse tension not stop thinking like apologizing bad about it
about what I had
done
Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Figure 9. Responses on Q8 inquiring about how watching traditional TV makes you feel
As indicated in figure 9, majority of the Implications, Limitations and Directions for
sample “disagreed” feeling tension or remorse while Future Research
watching traditional television. According to Gillian
(2010) appointment television “requires a time This research allows exploring the concept of
commitment and a high tolerance for delayed ‘binge watching’, the manner in which the audience
gratification,” but the new manner of watching series makes a connection with digital TV, the way they feel
doesn’t place such high demands. “Viewers no longer after engaging in binge watching sessions and the
need to tolerate ‘appointment television’ access to circumstances and reasons behind viewers choosing
content at a time prescribed by content creators or this form of media from a plethora of leisure options
distributors and availability only on a single available. A complete understanding of this
broadcast, satellite or cable channel,” (Frieden, phenomenon will pave a way forward in identifying
2014). and handling problematic media usage. Further, it may
contribute in helping individuals willing to decrease
Concluding Comments their reliance on the overuse of media. In-depth
The study aimed at establishing better comprehension of this phenomenon is also beneficial
understanding of the relationship between guilt and to production companies while deliberating on the
binge-watching behaviours. Guilt was not only content and development of TV series.
regarded as the inevitable consequence, but also as an Limitations include a limited sample in terms of
antecedent of what is also known as, marathon- homogeneity representing only the urban university
viewing. Serving as an escape gratification for population who were avid consumers of specific genre
viewers, it was reported to be a useful way to “turn of their interest selected through snowball sampling.
off” one’s mind, thereby temporarily alleviating pre- Therefore, the results though indicative of trends in
existing feelings of stress and anxiety. Episodes of binge watching and its emotional dynamics, it cannot
binges led to positive emotions such as happiness and be generalized to the broader binge-watching
excitement, which was why the respondents’ ended up population. Further research should focus on looking
indulging in the same even after experiencing negative at a more heterogeneous population, as well as aim for
emotions like guilt in the longer run. Certain coping a larger sample so as to understand the nuanced effects
strategies were adopted in order to efficiently tackle of binge watching.
the feelings of guilt experienced. This study was able
In the future, research could ascertain co-
to find interesting insights on a popular yet greatly
relational relationships between different aspects of
under-researched phenomenon academically.
the behaviour. For example, if increasing the number
of hours of binge watching leads to enhanced feelings
10
of guilt in the viewer. The underlying mechanisms Despite the limitations, this study provides adequate
behind consuming video games and other products in insight into binge-watching behaviours and advocates
this fashion and how they differ from binge watching for a strong need for future research.
could also be explored to gain more fruitful insights.
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Appendix-1
Results of semi-structured questionnaire
Experience of pre guilt/ post Post guilt (100%)

guilt or both. Pre guilt
Due to prior experience of negative emotions (66.66%)
Both pre and post guilt (66.66%)
Impact of an important event Cut down the usual number of hours (50%)
(Exam, assignment Stop watching for the requisite time period (16.66%)
submission) on the Cut the usual number of hours and reward oneself by watching more post
phenomenon of binge exam (33.33%)
watching
Reasons to watch sit-coms in Discussion with peers (56.66%)
the first place To be aware of what’s new (13%)
Three to six episodes? Procrastinate working because another hour won’t make a world of a
difference (65%)
To avoid spoilers (34%)
Cliff hangers in thrillers. Inability to deprive of the climax (32%)
Escape from reality (30.33%)
Shorter duration of episodes. Feel that less time is being wasted (15%)
Probable causes of negative Lessening of productivity (94%)
emotions Familial relationships suffering. Glued all the time. (62%)
No of hour’s increases in discussions/ thinking about what will happen next.
(54%)
More lethargic and sad due to lack of movement (22%)
Multiple episodes of same or Preferred viewing many episodes of the same TV show conditioned on
different TV. Shows? availability (65%)
Multiple episodes of the same show are not a necessity (35%)
Coping strategies Overcompensate by putting in greater effort on more important things
(92%)
Make a conscious effort to cut down the number of hours indulged in (47%)
13
Media Portrayals of Disability and Relationships: An Exploration of the Self and

the Other
Sabreen Kaur* and Urvashi Dixit**

*Student, M.A. Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi
**Student, Master of Arts in Psychological Sciences (Clinical-Counselling Psychology), University of
Minnesota, Duluth
The present study aims to analyse portrayals of relationships of persons with disability in visual media. Media
reinforces stereotypes attached with disabled people by portraying them as pitiable, non-sexual and incapable
of being in a worthwhile relationship. It explores the understanding of self and other by analysing the
relationships of those who have some form of disability, as projected in the visual media and see how the self
evolves and changes in a romantic relationship. For a comprehensive understanding of media’s depiction of
the disabled, two movies were selected, namely Sai Paranjpye’s Sparsh (1980) and Shonali Bose’s Margarita
with a Straw (2014). While Sparsh narrates the story of a blind man and his falling in love with a singer and
the ups and downs of their relationship because of his apprehension about the relationship’s fate given his
disability, Margarita with a Straw traces the journey of a young girl with cerebral palsy embarking on self-
discovery and searching for love and intimacy. The protagonists and their conception of self was studied in
context of romantic relationships through the issues of sexuality, perception of society, personal inhibitions,
companionship and foundation of relationships in the backdrop of disability. Media mirrors society but also
creates a snapshot of accepted reality and perpetuates stereotypes. This study provides a critical appraisal of
mainstream media in its ability to locate romantic relationships in the lives of disabled and examines the
constructed images of self and other.
Keywords: disability, media, romantic relationships, self, other
Introduction with the rehabilitation model which acknowledges

that PWD need services from rehabilitation
Disability as a concept is a historically, professionals. However, this model also promotes the
culturally and socio-politically variable phenomena idea that PWD are very much capable of participating
which in terms of its meaning and form is not only effectively in the society and the idea of
dependent on individual bodies but also on the
institutionalising them is not correct or acceptable. A
prevailing conditions and forces (Grue, 2015). relatively newer model is the disability model, which
Historically, “disability” has been used either as a regards disability and considers it to be a normal
synonym for “inability” or alluding to legal imposition
aspect of life. Further on, it completely rejects the
of limitations on rights and powers. In addition to the stereotypical notion that PWD are in some way
discourse of abled bodies or non-disabled bodies, defective or responsible for their own condition. Most
disability is defined as “A transient, temporary, or individuals encounter some form of disability over the
partial impairment; a host of barriers to optimal course of their life, whether as a permanent or
functioning and the social dynamics and life-course temporary form. However, if the environment and the
development of persons with disabilities interacting system were more sensitive to disability it would not
with their behavioural settings” (Zimbardo, 2002).
seem to be abnormal or deviant (Kaplan, 2000).
According to the disability policy scholars, PWD respond to their disabilities in different
there are four different models of disability. Moral ways. Their reactions range from those that are
model, the oldest model of disability associates completely negative, in which the quality of life is also
disability to sin, shame and guilt. The medical model negatively affected, to being positive, in which these
looks at disability as a problem residing within the individuals continue to lead a positive and productive
individual, with the society having no responsibility to life. The experience of disability is influenced by
make place for persons with disabilities (PWD) along
14
various factors like nature of the disability, the shown disabled people in their true picture. Disabled
individual’s personality, meaning of the disability to people have also been depicted as “objects of
him/her and the support system. violence”, usually at the hands of able-bodied people.
Some movies have represented disabled individuals as
Media is an extremely important part of our
self-pitiers but have the capacity to overcome the
everyday lives and it plays a critical role in the
challenges put forward by the society if they stand up
dissemination of information about a variety of issues,
for themselves and their rights. Another common
not the least of which are attitudes toward disability.
theme that has found its place predominantly in
Barnes (1992) analysed the disabling imagery in the
literature and art has been around the presumptions of
media and found that the majority of information
the society towards the sexuality of individuals with
about disability is extremely negative. Stereotypes
disability. Majority of these depictions are about male
that are disabling that tend to medicalise, patronize
characters and images whereas there has been little
and criminalize disability and PWD are found in
exploration of disabled women's sexuality.
different forms of media such as books, films,
television or the press. They play a key role in the Conception of a unitary identity for PWD is
discriminatory behaviour and exploitation that impossible (and perhaps undesirable) to codify. The
persons with disabilities have to deal regularly. disabled body stands out as the most absolute figure
of otherness in our culture evoking emotions like pity,
Media reinforces a view of disability that is
repulsion, sympathy and disgust. Normality is not a
synonymous with illness and suffering. The
self-evident label for the desirable or the natural state
predominance of the medical approach to impairment
of the human body and mind, rather it is a social
and disability has diverted the public's attention away
construct that came into being as late as in the
from the social factors that underlie disability. The
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
language used in most media depictions creates a
sense of sentimentality that patronizes and exasperates The understanding of selves of those
the PWD. The constant industry insistence on individuals who often find them at the other end of the
superficial physical perfection is responsible for the society, excluded and separate from those who come
exclusion of PWD from advertising images. When under the purview of “normalcy” is often integrated
PWD appear in advertising, the majority depictions into their weakness stemming out of their
are of those using wheelchairs or those who are deaf. disability. The self-concept, self-understanding and
The role of PWD as consumers is completely denied self-confidence of those disabled bodies then becomes
(Lyle, 2003). bound not only to the acceptance of others and their
support but slowly integrates into the “others” and
In case of portrayal of disability, films have
finally emerges to be fragmented and shattered by
primarily shown two extreme trends. At one end of the
their weakness, inability to form meaningful
spectrum are movies portraying characters who have
relationships, impairments and the exclusion of the
a disability as those to be pitied, caricatured, to be
society.
sympathized and with awesome heroism, while at the
other end are symbolisms of discrimination, coping- Higher self-concept clarity has been
up, emotional swings and aspirations of the human associated with higher levels of relationship
soul (Mohapatra, 2012). The trends of media satisfaction and commitment (Lewandowski, 2010). A
portrayals of characters with disability have been strong and a loving relationship helps one to
varied. While movies such as Tom, Dick and Harry understand more about oneself with the beloved acting
and Pyare Mohan (2006) have used disability as a as a mirror portraying one’s own character as a
comic interlude, some others have used it to give a reflection. However, for many individuals with a
theatrical twist to their story with negligible regard for disabled partner, it may be hard to imagine seeing their
the PWD rights. A few films have meaningfully reflection in a disabled partner because of their
portrayed the insensitive ways of the society and impairment, and because of the difficulty in
discrimination faced by the PWD. The notion of understanding how someone with an impairment can
“disability as a punishment” has been one of the most bring out the best in them or be a successful partner.
prominent and majorly displayed portrayals of Having any kind of disability reduces the chances of
disability in Bollywood (Pal, 2012), as seen a Bombay relationships moving beyond acquaintanceship; as in
Talkies (1936). Movies have also depicted disabled such relationships, disability tends to loom in a
characters as “heroes and superheroes” like Dushman significant way in the minds of the nondisabled person
(1998). Movies such as “Koshish (1972)” have also (as well as the disabled person) obscuring other
15
features which may be more essential to establish a who moves to a new country and her journey of self-
successful intimate relationship. discovery and finding love.
Even when they do form romantic After an extensive review and understanding
relationships with others, the cultural stereotypes of the topic, the literature review pertaining to the
force them to more often than not be with “someone topic was studied and the source of media was
of their own kind” and if they do form intimate finalised. After this, the two movies were seen
relationships with non-disabled people, they must multiple times and a detailed summary was prepared.
consider the “real” reasons for being in such a Subsequently, important meaningful units were
relationship. Such reasons might range from being marked. Codes were derived out of meaningful units
built on dependency, pity, etc. Societal prejudices and themes were formed by clubbing the meaningful
perpetuate the view that PWD are incapable of units. Thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) was
participating in sexual relationships (Emens, 2009). used to analyse the data. Sub-themes were also created
and specific instances and scenes from the movie were
A complete sense of self makes one not only
also added. Different aspects of the theme of “self and
function truly as a healthy individual but also
other” were highlighted such as the characteristics of
contributes positively to healthy and strong
self, the “other” in the relationship, the relationship
relationships in life. Especially in the case of romantic
with the other and disability and its experience.
relationships, this understanding of “self” and the
“other” comes from how strong and meaningful the Discussion
relationship is. However, locating oneself and the
other person in a romantic relationship that is built on The focus of the present study was to
understand and explore the notions of self and the
the foundation of a fragmented self, emerging out of a
other in the lives disabled individuals as projected
disabled identity can be extremely challenging.
through cinema. The themes explore the notions of
The present study aims to provide an insight self, other, relationship between the self and other and
into romantic relationships in the lives of disabled the experiences of disability as experienced by the
people through the lens of mainstream cinema. It characters in the two movies. The following themes
focuses on looking into the various notions and were identified:
images of self and the other that are created in these
romantic relationships. The study will highlight the The characteristics of self. It refers to the
depiction of love and companionship against the conception of self in the lives of disabled persons and
backdrop of experiences of a person with disability. their innate desires. Many people with impairments
For the purpose of the present study, Sai Paranjpye’s tend to distance themselves from being identified by
others or identifying their own selves as disabled
movie Sparsh (1980) and Shonali Bose’s Margarita
(Cameron, 2014) especially in the case of sympathetic
with a Straw (2014) have been chosen for analysis.
gestures of others. The movie characters are also
Method shown to have a desire to not be seen as “bechara” or
helpless. Anirudh is of the view that PWD should not
The present study is a qualitative, exploratory
be viewed as those who are always in need of others
research with the objective to understand and gain an
but also who can offer a lot to others. While Laila
insight into the conceptions of self and the other in the
wants the world to view her independent of her
lives disabled individuals as projected through
disability and thus tries to crop out the wheelchair
cinema. Sparsh was chosen as the movie for analysis
from her profile picture on social media. Towards the
as it covers a broad spectrum of emotions that a
end of the movie Anirudh calls himself disabled while
disabled person goes through from the urge of having
denying being incapable in any way throughout the
autonomy to the willingness of finding dependency
movie and exposes his sense of being valueless
and companionship. The film portrays the constant
showing his insecurities and self-pity. This reflects the
challenges and frustrating experiences that persons
charity model wherein disabled people are considered
with disability have to often go through. It focuses on
as those in need of sympathy and pity from others and
the theme of disability and romantic relationships and
are dependent on the able-bodied individuals.
the stereotypes revolving around them. It highlights
the viewpoint that people with disabilities too expect PWD experience a range of emotions
love and genuine concern in a relationship, and not including sadness, frustration, despair and even anger.
charity. On the other hand, Margarita With A Straw Pierce (1998) found that among those individuals who
portrays the story of a young girl with cerebral palsy are full time wheelchair bound, frustration can be
16
experienced very easily. Both characters in the movie their initial interactions were largely dominated by
experience frustration on account of their inability to Anirudh’s appreciation towards Kavita’s music and
carry out simple everyday tasks like wearing clothes Kavita’s curiosity to know more about Anirudh and
or using a napkin. PWD often desire to be regarded as his work. For Laila and Khanum, their initial
normal (Abberley, 2005). Laila has the inner desire to interaction was based on asking about each other and
be identified as normal, while Anirudh has the fear of getting to know about one another. In both cases, the
getting sympathy from others and their pity. initial interaction was accidental in nature.
Both the characters are shown to be caring In the experiment stage, couples try to gather
individuals, who have a strong relationship with either in-depth information about each other with an aim to
family or their students. While Anirudh is often found see how well they are compatible with each other. In
to be socialising and connecting with people, Laila both the movies, the characters were shown to
finds happiness in small things of life and her music. spend quality time with each other and finding
common interests.
The “other” in the relationship. Women who
have lost their husbands feel a sense of loss contact In the intensifying stage, the relationship
with others and a reduction in their association with becomes less scripted. There is a spike in self-
others. This makes them a little withdrawn and disclosure and relational commitment is seen (Knapp
somewhat inhibited (Fasoranti & Aruna, 2007). & Vangelisti, 2009). Consistent with this, both Kavita
Kavita in the movie Sparsh, is a woman who has and Khanum disclose their dark past to their respective
become lonely and socially withdrawn due to the partners as a sense of trust develops. Love starts to
death of her husband which is also a dark past that she blossom between the partners.
lives with. She has thus, given up on all kinds of social
Finally, couples tend to make a public
interactions and prefers the company of her plants and
announcement their relationship which finds its place
music. In Khanum’s case her dark past was related to
in the formal also referred to as the legal bonding stage
her “coming out” to her parents about her sexual
in Knapp’s model (Knapp & Vangelisti, 2009).
orientation.
Though in case of Anirudh and Kavita this formal
Cartwright, Archbold, Stewart and Limnadri announcement was in the form of their marriage, but
(1994) emphasize the importance of relationships of Laila and Khanum did not make a formal
positive quality so as to find a sense of enrichment announcement of their homosexual relationship due to
from caregiving. In Sparsh, the scene where Kavita the fear of societal rejection. However, even they did
bakes a cake for Anirudh on his birthday when he was take the next step in the relationship by moving in
least expecting such a gesture shows how Kavita together. PWD are mostly expected to be with others
showers care and displays compassion towards of “their kind” and if the contrary is to happen by
Anirudh. While, In Margarita with a straw, Khanum chance, they must meet with demeaning assumptions
comes to India with Laila for a holiday, however when about the “catch” or the real reason behind an abled
Laila’s mother succumbs to her illness and Laila is person entering such a relationship such as pity
shattered, Khanum stays back and is there for Laila (Wasserman, et al., 2016). Anirudh and Kavita’s
through her difficult time. relationship hit a rough patch only when due to the
societal norms and stereotypes Anirudh started
The relationship with the “other”. Romantic
questioning Kavita’s intentions of being with him as
involvement forms a significant event in the process
emerging out of a sense of pity or sympathy.
of development of emerging adults (Arnett, 2000).
Knapp’s (1978) dual staircase model explains the An important component of a strong
important stages in the formation of a relationship. It relationship is the ability of the two individuals to find
explains how a relationship forms, escalates, stabilizes their weaknesses and strengths in each other. Both
and descends over time. The model explains the Anirudh and Laila were able to find comfort in their
process of forming and escalation of relationships partners. In both the relationships, beauty was
through five stages: initiating, experimenting, experienced through a sense of touch rather than
intensifying, integrating, and bonding. Initiating is visual appearance. In the scene where Kavita and
explained as the initial interaction between two Anirudh are sitting in the garden, Anirudh tells Kavita
individuals that occurs immediately upon meeting that he knows that she is pretty because he loves her
someone including making a first impression. In both smell and her “sparsh”, her essence. In the other
movies, the initial interactions played a key role in the movie, when Khanum and Laila are in the museum,
formation of relationships. With Anirudh and Kavita, Khanum holds Laila’s hand and tries to touch and feel
17
her hand and face and then tells her that she is very It is less likely for homosexual couples to
pretty. raise kids than their heterosexual counterparts.
However, this difference is declining particularly in
In both the movies, the protagonists feared the
the West (Gates, 2013). While societal attitudes
societal reactions to their romantic relationships. In
towards homosexual relationships may be changing
case of the movie Sparsh, Anirudh’s fear was of
there is still some concern over the need for having
marrying an abled bodied person. Disabled people
children and their importance in an individual’s life.
who are involved in intimate relationships are
Laila and Khanum’s relationship was also questioned
constantly subjected to stereotypes and prejudices.
by Dhruv in the movie in a particular scene wherein
They are only considered of being capable of forming
he tells Laila that loving Khanum is an evolved choice
relationships “with their own kind” (Wasserman, et
and asks them on how they will ever have children.
al., 2016). The fear of societal reactions in the
Laila also has some self-framed questions about how
relationship between Khanum and Laila was based on
her parents would react and if they would ever accept
the nature of their relationship as a homosexual
her relationship and sexuality or not.
couple. Consistent with this, Meyer’s (2003) minority
stress theory suggests that homosexuals are faced with Disability and its experience. Both the
distinct stressors owing to their sexual orientation. movies portray disabilities of two different kinds.
While Sparsh focuses on the visual impairment,
At some point in both the movies there was an
Margarita with a Straw focuses on cerebral palsy.
avoidance of the “other”. In Sparsh Anirudh initially
Significant scenes in the movie have brought out
tries to avoid Kavita when he starts having mixed
various nuances associated with the construct of
feelings about their relationship. In the other movie,
disability. Certain covert symbols related to disability
when Khanum is standing naked in front of Laila,
have also been identified in both the films such as
though she feels aroused, she stops herself and
Anirudh’s “walking cane” and “the wheelchair” that
controls her urge for sexual intimacy and tries to avoid
Laila is dependent upon, “the ramp” that Laila’s
any such contact with Khanum as she is unsure of her
mother has to pull out every time she has to come out
sexual orientation.
of the car.
A number of able bodied people consider
Societal reactions to disability vary at great
disabled people to be inept with respect to maintaining
length from pity and sympathy to marginalisation and
fulfilling romantic relationships (Wasserman et al.,
discrimination. Some people might also show genuine
2016). Anirudh’s character also portrayed such
care and concern for the disabled individuals. In
feelings when he thinks of the possible benefits Kavita
Laila’s case she was subjected to the realization that
could seek out of such a relationship with a disabled
she was “not normal” right from childhood and knew
person. British Columbia Adolescent Health Survey
that her mother had to deal with sharp comments of
(Saewyc, Poon, Wang, Homma, & Smith, 2007)
the society. In Anirudh’s case knowing that the
reported that having confusion related to one’s sexual
visually impaired find it hard to find routes, the passer
orientation is not very uncommon. Laila also faced
by changed the way he gave him directions and
such an uncertainty when she realized that she was
instead of visually telling him where the house was,
attracted to Khanum. This can also be inferred from
he told him to rely on his auditory sensations. These
the scene when she talks to Khanum and says “I wish
concerns hold a worldwide relevance and are
I could be that certain”.
significant in contributing to the overall experience of
The marriage rates of PWD are 41.1 per 1,000 disability and can be explained using the medical
which are significantly lower than for the general model as the society considers disability to be a
population (71.8 per 1,000) (Cohen, 2014). The problem within an individual and thus the effort to
inability of institutions to accommodate PWD on inculcate disabled people in the mainstream society.
account of physical and communication barriers, Thus, these children in Anirudh’s school also remain
fortifies people’s views that disabled people and at the periphery of the society waiting and hoping to
incapable of forming sexual relationships. PWD are become par with other “able-bodied” students.
often questioned when they decide to take the next
For many PWD, access to aid and assistance
step into marriage which is evident in a particular
are imperative to be able to participate in society. Both
scene from Sparsh, when Anirudh asks Kavita about
Laila and Anirudh were seen to be dependent on
the kind of life they would have after marriage and
others for a number of everyday tasks. For instance,
says it would lead her to “a sad life and emptiness”.
Anirudh was dependent upon his assistant to read out
18
letters to him, carry his things etc. and Laila was caused by it in different parts of the movie even
dependent upon her mother for everyday tasks such as though he does not like to be dependent on others,
combing her hair and giving her a bath. Laila does not openly acknowledge it throughout the
film even though she is dependent on her mother for
Some of the major problems associated with
most things. The foundation of Anirudh and Kavita’s
disability are the negative attitudes of people and
relationships lies on their mutual affection and love
limited accessibility to the built environments
towards the children of the school, while for Laila and
(including public accommodations) transportations
Khanum both are disabled and share the common
and information networks. Despite having laws in
experiences of disability which could be the founding
place which mandate buildings to be more PWD
stone of their relationship. Anirudh and Kavita’s
friendly, compliance is often very low. Both movies
relationship is clearly based on a relationship between
also address a very important concern when it comes
an abled and disabled body, while Khanum and
to understanding the needs of disabled, that is lack of
Laila’s relationship is of two disabled individuals.
accessibility. In Sparsh various scenes in the movie
While for Laila, family is her support system, Anirudh
portray how children who are visually impaired have
finds himself in the company of a few supportive
access to very few textbooks that are printed in braille.
friends and his friendly assistant. Doubts and
Margarita with a straw also shows a particular scene
questions about Kavita’s intentions of marrying a
when the college lift is not working and Laila along
person with disability often empower Anirudh’s mind
with her wheelchair has to be lifted by men. This can
but Laila, she doesn’t feel that Khanum who has a less
be explained using the social model of disability
severe disability than her is with her because of any
according to which the society creates barriers for the
compromise. Anirudh feels that Kavita treats him like
disabled.
a child whereas Laila openly says that Khanum will
PWD are also the recipients of unwanted take care of her. Laila explores her sexuality and
attention. This attention is often not appreciated by experiences relationships with various people,
them and often makes them realize that they deviate Anirudh, on the other hand does not hold any prior
from the normal. When the anchor announces that the experiences of having any romantic relationship with
victory of Laila and her band was on account of the someone else before meeting Kavita. While in the case
lyricist (Laila) being disabled, Laila is absolutely of Anirudh, intimacy in the relationship is initiated by
crushed, annoyed and shows her middle finger to the Kavita, in Laila’s case Khanum makes the first move.
anchor. This scene signifies the sheer disappointment Anirudh and Kavita’s relationship is based on respect
that she feels when she gets to know that she has won and understanding and maturity however, Laila and
something not because of her talent but because she is Khanum’s relationship is based on a lot of sexual
disabled. This sympathy and pity is provided to intimacy and blooming love.
disabled people can be explained using the charity
The study has helped in understanding the
model and both Anirudh and Laila display an innate
general discourse of disability in the context of
need to be self-sufficient which can be explained using
marginalisation and exclusion. The study also
the disability model as independent living is fostered
provided an understanding and a hope for achieving a
through it.
positive view of relationships in the lives of disabled
Conclusion portrayed in media. It provides an optimistic image of
depictions of love and successful relationships
After the data was analysed and common
possible in the disabled person’s life. It also gives us
themes were identified, commonalities were observed
a positive view about the possibility of having a
in the way the “self and other” were depicted in both
meaningful relationship between able bodied and
the movies. However, there were also significant
disabled individuals.
differences that were observed in these portrayals.
While Anirudh is seen as an older man working for an Through this research an understanding was
institution for the visually impaired, who has gained towards the various conceptions love and
established himself well and is doing well in life. Laila relationships of disabled people as portrayed through
on the other hand is a student in an inclusive media. Various aspects of the ability to form and
institutional environment who is still finding her niche maintain relationships under the purview of disability
in life and wants to explore more in terms of were explored. Challenges and obstacles provided by
relationships and love. Anirudh’s character is shown one’s disability and how they interfere in the ability to
to be acknowledging his disability and the impairment love and be in a loving relationship were also
19
uncovered. Therefore, the findings demonstrate how Due to the paucity of time, only two movies
then the understanding of oneself, other, and the could be included in the analysis and only Hindi
relationship between oneself and the other contribute movies were analysed and characters portraying the
to the understanding of “self”. While disabled roles of disabled individuals living in the east could be
individuals may experience turmoil and conflicts in studied. Paucity of relevant literature and specifically
their experience of being with the “other” but this can in the context of relationships among disabled people
also provide them the much-needed view of oneself and the qualitative nature of the study affect
that they were avoiding. Such explorations and generalizability of the results.
findings can help in contributing to the understanding
Including movies that display people across
of disability in a holistic way and can help to uncover
various cultures could help in a greater in-depth
the importance of love and relationships portrayed by
understanding of the topic. A greater number of
media. These portrayals are fraught with and reflect
movies could also be analysed which would help in a
the stereotypical thinking of the society to some
greater understanding of the experiences of disability.
extent. However, they also bring about an
Movies with protagonists suffering from various kinds
understanding of how much the society has progressed
of disabilities can also be included for greater depth.
and how much it still has to achieve.
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21
Making Lives Whole: Exploring Facets of Dog-Human Companionship
Noyonika Gupta & Simran Kaur

Students, Department of Psychology, Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi, Delhi
True friendship is symbolized by mutual trust and unquestioning support. Often dogs seem to be more loyal and
dependable as companions than most human beings. Previous research studies have suggested that having a
dog companion enhances one's physical and psychological wellbeing. In the present study, variables of
personality, empathy levels and coping strategies were studied amongst those with a dog companion and those
without a dog companion to gain an insight into how such companionship influences one’s worldview. The
sample consisted of 112 young adults belonging to the age group of 18 to 26 years (53 with dog companion and
59 without a dog companion). Data was collected using standardized tests; the Big Five Inventory (John 1992),
the Basic Empathy Scale (Jolliffe and Farrington, 2006) and the COPE Inventory (Carver, 2013). Relevant
statistical analysis was carried out by calculating independent samples t test and the effect sizes in order to
detect a difference between the two groups in the three variables. Results showed that people with a dog
companion possessed greater Openness and Empathy levels (cognitive and affective) in comparison to people
without a dog companion. Similar differences were found between those who like and dislike dogs. Moreover,
people who disliked dogs tended to use more of religious coping in stressful situations in comparison to those
who like dogs. Overall, the study provides wide ranging implications of how having a faithful animal
companion, has a therapeutic value and fulfils the inherent human need for affiliation and belongingness.
Keywords: companionship, coping strategies, dogs, empathy, personality
Introduction that pet owners experience a close emotional bond

with their animal companions and report that their
Human beings are essentially social beings. pets provide them with a safe haven acting as a source
We thrive on social contact and affiliations. The of comfort in difficult times. Allen, Balscovich, &
importance of interpersonal contact has been Mendes (2002) suggest that the demise of a pet
discussed by many prominent theorists. Freud, (1930) triggers feeling of despair, causing immense grief and
talked in length about it, although saw the motive as anguish (Gerwolls & Labott, 1995).
primarily sexual in nature. Maslow, (1968) ordered
"love and belongingness needs" as third most Human-animal interaction fulfils the need for
important after the basic physiological and safety belongingness for both individual and the pet.
needs in his motivational hierarchy. Bowlby’s Baumeister and Leary (1995) discuss two essential
(1969,1973) attachment theory also emphasized on features of belongingness. Firstly, people need
the importance of forming and maintaining fulfilling frequent and pleasant interactions with others. Since
relationships. Baumeister & Leary (1995) discussed the pet is involved in most of the family activities, it
extensively about the pervasive human drive to ensures frequent contact and bonding, viewing the pet
develop lasting and significant interpersonal as a part of the family. Secondly, people need to
relationships. It can thus be, understood that experience an interpersonal relationship characterised
establishing fulfilling relationships is one of the most by stability and concern. The warmth and compassion
crucial aspects of human existence. Companionship provided by pet provides a sense of unconditional
refers to a sense of fellowship, amity and positive regard and a feeling of being cared for. There
belongingness. This need for belongingness is usually are many cases where, divorced individuals, people
fulfilled by friends and family. However, apart from without a child, or elderly have reported forming close
fellow human beings, pets most frequently become connections with their pets as they become substitutes
significant companions in the lives of many. Animal for human companions.
companions meet the four fundamentals of an Out of various domestic animals, pet dogs are
attachment bond: proximity seeking, safe haven, most common. Dogs facilitate a symbiotic
secure base, and separation distress, as supported by relationship where the owner and the dog companion
Ainsworth (1991). Barker & Barker (1988) suggested
22
are mutually dependent for emotional support. They experiences of loneliness and alienation have become
are not considered mere animals but “unique common. Therefore, the objective of the present
individuals who are minded, empathetic, study, is to develop an understanding of how having a
reciprocating, and well-aware of the basic rules and dog companion, helps fulfil the need of
roles that govern the relationship” (Dotson & Hyatt, belongingness, and influences the worldview of a
2008). person. The target population consisted of young
adults in the age group of 18 to 26 years. These years
Dog companionship has been found
are typically marked by identity-seeking and
contributing to physical and psychosocial well-being
exploration of relationships as seen in 5th (Identity vs.
of many. Previous researches reveal that pet owners
Role Confusion) and the 6th (Intimacy vs. Isolation)
have high self-esteem, higher scores on interpersonal
psychosocial stages proposed by Erik Erikson. One
trust and social sensitivity as compared to non-pet
experiences increased responsibilities, societal
owners. (Hyde, Kudrek, & Larson, 1983). The sense
expectations and work pressures as well as the
of responsibility while nurturing a dog builds up self-
changing dynamics of relationships resulting in high
confidence and provides higher sense of independence
levels of stress, thereby, making it crucial to study this
and autonomy. In terms of personality, a study found
population. To understand how experiencing such
people who preferred dogs scored higher on the
loyal and faithful companionship influences one’s
domain of extraversion, particularly, on the facets of
worldview, we decided to study personality, empathy
warmth, gregariousness, and excitement seeking.
levels and coping strategies of individuals with and
Sociable, friendly and high spirited were top
without dog companions.
personality traits found among those who preferred
dogs (Levinson, 2009). According to some relevant Hypothesis
researches, neuroticism and pet ownership are
negatively correlated supporting the idea of Levinson H1: There will be a significant difference
that stability and emotional harmony are associated between dog lovers and non-dog lovers in: (i) the
with pet ownership, especially dogs. (Levy, 1985) domains of personality (openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism), (ii)
Besides personality, evidence from researches support
empathy and (iii) coping strategies used in stressful
that those who had a dog companion were more
empathic than those who did not. (Daly & Morton, situations.
2006). Not only dogs but in general young adults with H2: There will be a significant difference
pets during childhood were more empathic, more between individuals with and without a dog
socially oriented and more likely to choose helping companion in: (i) the domains of personality
professions than those without a pet. Moreover, dog (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,
owners are reported to be significantly lower than non- agreeableness, neuroticism), (ii) empathy and (iii)
dog owners in levels of perceived stress. The non- coping strategies used in stressful situations.
evaluative support experienced by participants from
their dogs support the dictums of Allen, Blascovich, Method
and Mendes (2002), who suggested that pet dogs and Participants
cats play a vital role in helping their owners cope with
challenges by enhancing positive affective states (Lee 112 participants belonging to age group 18 to
26 years (Mean age = 20.30 years) with 54 males, 57
& Chai, 2015). Recent studies also show that the
females and 1 person who identifies as gender fluid
company of a calm and affectionate dog companion,
residing in Delhi NCR were selected using Purposive
regulates stress in a better manner in comparison to the
presence of a supportive adult when children are Incidental Quota Snowball Sampling.
reading aloud or undertaking medical tests (Jalongo, Tools
Astorino, & Bomboy, 2004). In addition to
The study was conducted using a set of
psychosocial benefits, dog companionship is also
standardized questionnaires, which included:
associated with reduced depression, lower blood
pressure and heart disease as individuals having dogs Informed consent form. To ensure informed
are found to be more physically active. (Dotson & and voluntary involvement in research, a consent form
Hyatt, 2008). with preliminary details of the research was attached
at the top of the questionnaire. The participants were
Since the contemporary fast paced lifestyle
informed about the ethics of the research, i.e.
has made us overly ambitious and competitive,
confidentiality of responses and their anonymity.
23
Demographic Sheet. The demographic sheet The Big Five Inventory. The Big Five
was prepared to gain details regarding the gender and Inventory (BFI) developed by John (1992) is a 44-
age of the respondents. A set of questions aimed to tap item inventory that measures an individual on the Big
the respondent’s attitudes towards dogs as Five Factors (dimensions) of personality, which are
companions were asked at the end of the online presented in Table 1.
questionnaire.
Table 1: Dimensions of Big Five Inventory
DIMENSION EXPLANATION
Openness Individual’s readiness to try different things, think outside the box.
Conscientiousness Tendency to control impulses and act in socially acceptable ways.
Extraversion Extroverts “recharge” from interacting with others.
Agreeableness Ability to get along with others.
Neuroticism One’s emotional stability and general temper.
Basic Empathy Scale. Jolliffe & Farrington scales and some personality measures (optimism,
(2006) developed a 20-item scale with a 5-point hardiness, self-esteem, Type A tendencies and trait
Likert-rating of items assessing cognitive and anxiety). The 15 sub-scales measured by COPE are
affective empathy. In BES, cognitive empathy is the presented in Table 2.
capacity to comprehend other person’s affective
Procedure
states, and affective empathy is the capacity to
experience an emotive response when one faces the After extensive literature review, the
mental state ascribed to another person. For internal objectives of the study along with the variables to be
consistency, Cronbach’s alpha for cognitive and studied and the relevant hypotheses were formulated.
affective empathy was .71 and .84 respectively. On Next, the scales for assessment were decided upon. An
analysing the correlations between test retest online questionnaire that consisted of an informed
reliability, correlation for cognitive empathy was consent form, a demographic sheet and the three
r=.6110, r2=.3733, p<.001, and for affective empathy standardised tests was prepared. Thereafter,
was r=.7980, r2=.6368, p<.001 (Carre, Stefaniak, participants were approached, and data was collected.
D'Ambrosio, & Besche, 2013). The data collected was then tabulated in a spreadsheet
and analysis was carried out using IBM SPSS
COPE Inventory. COPE Inventory (Carver,
Statistics software. Independent samples t-test was
Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989) is a 60-item scale with
conducted to calculate differences in mean scores of
15 subscales each assessing the way an individual
the two groups obtained on the three variables.
copes with stressful situations. COPE items are on a
Furthermore, in order to help detect the size of the
4-point Likert scale. The internal consistency ranges
difference and to differentiate between a practically
from 0.46 to 0.93. The test-retest reliabilities ranged
important difference and a statistically significant
from 0.42 to 0.89 at 6 weeks and from 0.46 to 0.86 at
difference, effect sizes of the obtained significant
8 weeks. Regarding the convergent and discriminant
differences were calculated respectively.
validity, correlation was found between relevant
24
Table 2: Subscales of COPE Inventory
SUB SCALES EXPLANATION
Active Coping process of taking action to remove the stressor
Planning ability to plan active coping strategies.
Suppression of competing avoiding attention towards other activities to focus on the stressor.
activities
Restraint waiting for the appropriate opportunity to act
Use of instrumental social seeking advice and information about what to do

support
Behavioural disengagement withdrawing effort from trying to accomplish the objective related to
the stressor
Mental disengagement resorting to psychological ways of disengaging from the goal affected
by the stressor through sleep, daydreaming, self-distraction.
Positive reinterpretation and seeing something good growing out of the situation
growth
Focusing on venting of the ability to be aware of one’s emotional distress and discharging
emotions those feelings.
Denial rejecting reality of the stressful situation
Religious coping turning to religion to deal with stress

Humour dealing with the event by laughing at the stressor
Use of emotional social getting emotional support from someone
support
Substance use resorting to use of drugs and alcohol as means of disengaging with the
stressor
Acceptance accepting the stressful event as real
Results
Table 3: Frequency of activities participants engage in with their dog companion
Activities Frequency
Playing 33
Walking 21
Cuddling 11
Feeding 5
Exercising (jogging, running) 5
25
Talking 7
Grooming 3
Relaxing 3
Others (Sleeping, Watching TV, Dancing, Listening to music, going for road trips etc.) 12
Total Number of Responses: 44
Table 4: Frequency of responses of ways participants take care of their dog companion
Response Frequency
Provide food 53
Take care of medical needs 21
Provide shelter 25
Provide comfortable clothes during extreme weather 28
Others (Play, Groom) 4
Total Number of Responses: 53
Table 5: Table showing independent t test results, comparing mean scores of participants who like dogs with
participants who dislike dogs on the dimensions of personality (df=110)
Participants who
Personality Participants who p- 95% CI of the
like dogs t
Dimensions dislike dogs (n=43) value difference
(n = 69)
Mean S.D Mean S.D Lower Upper
Openness 36.86 4.333 34.47 4.920 2.694 .008 0.632 4.148
Conscientiousness 29.52 6.065 30.12 4.712 -.548 .585 -2.746 1.557
Extraversion 26.48 5.490 25.16 5.494 1.233 .220 -0.799 3.430
Agreeableness 33.29 5.041 33.16 4.741 .133 .895 -1.771 2.025
Neuroticism 23.49 5.674 24.30 5.630 -.737 .463 -2.988 1.369
26
Figure 1. Mean scores of participants who like and dislike dogs in the dimensions of personality.
Table 6: Table showing independent t test results, comparing mean empathy scores of participants who like
dogs with participants who dislike dogs (df = 110)
Participants who 95% Confidence

Empathy Participants who
like dogs t p-value Interval of the
scores dislike dogs (n = 43)
(n = 69) difference
Mean S. D Mean S. D Lower Upper
Cognitive
35.88 5.323 33.12 5.025 2.734 .007 0.761 4.774
Empathy
Affective
37.38 6.215 35.74 5.568 1.406 .163 -0.668 3.934
Empathy
Total
73.26 9.540 68.86 8.749 2.449 .016 0.840 7.961
Empathy
Figure 2. Mean empathy scores of participants who like and dislike dogs
27
Table 7: Table showing independent t test results, comparing mean scores of participants who like dogs with
participants who dislike dogs in the dimension of coping
Participants Participants who 95% Confidence

Scores on COPE who like dogs dislike dogs Interval
t p-value
Inventory
(n = 69) (n = 43) of the difference
Positive
reinterpretation and 11.87 2.229 11.84 2.115 .076 .939 -0.809 0.874
growth
Mental
10.23 2.723 10.79 2.531 -1.085 .280 -1.580 0.462
disengagement
Focus on venting
10.32 3.188 10.40 3.274 -.122 .903 -1.317 1.164
emotions
Use of instrumental
11.00 2.965 10.49 3.319 .848 .398 -0.684 1.707
social support
Active Coping 11.23 2.739 11.33 2.542 -.181 .857 -1.120 0.933
Denial 6.48 2.582 7.23 2.910 -1.432 .155 -1.798 0.290
Religious Coping 7.93 3.766 9.72 3.996 -2.394 .018 -3.278 -0.309
Humour 9.23 3.762 8.44 3.119 1.152 .252 -0.569 2.149
Behavioural
7.04 2.794 7.65 2.776 -1.122 .264 -1.681 0.466
Disengagement
Restraint 9.86 2.451 10.21 2.122 -.782 .436 -1.252 0.543
Use of emotional
10.12 3.256 9.33 3.682 1.188 .238 -0.528 2.109
Social Support
Substance use 5.86 3.079 5.51 2.857 .590 .556 -0.810 1.479
Acceptance 10.97 2.990 11.07 2.394 -.183 .855 -1.168 0.971
Suppression of
10.17 2.407 10.88 2.342 -1.533 .128 -1.627 0.207
competing activities
Planning 11.71 2.996 11.65 3.046 .101 .920 -1.102 1.220
28
Figure 3. Mean of scores obtained on COPE Inventory of participants who like and dislike dogs
Table 8: Table showing independent t test results, comparing mean scores of participants with and without
dog companions on the dimensions of personality
Participants with Participants without
Personality p- 95% CI of the
dog companion dog companion t
Dimensions value difference
(n = 53) (n = 59)
Mean S. D. Mean S. D. Lower Upper
Openness 37.26 4.184 34.75 4.837 2.931 .004 0.816 4.221
Conscientiousness 29.06 6.106 30.37 5.010 -1.252 .213 -3.400 0.767
Extraversion 26.6 5.756 25.41 5.253 1.151 .252 -0.864 3.258
Agreeableness 33.57 4.881 32.95 4.953 .663 .509 -1.228 2.462
Neuroticism 23.87 5.495 23.75 5.824 .114 .910 -2.005 2.249
Figure 4. Mean scores of participants with and without dog companions on the dimensions of personality.
29
Table 9: Table showing independent t test results, comparing mean empathy scores of participants with and
without dog companions.
Participants
Participants with dog 95% Confidence
without dog p-
Empathy scores companion t Interval of the
companion value
(n =53) difference
(n =59)
Cognitive Empathy 36.11 4.878 33.66 5.548 2.472 .015 0.486 4.418
Affective Empathy 38.13 6.089 35.51 5.691 2.357 .020 0.417 4.830
Total Empathy 74.25 8.914 69.17 9.346 2.933 .004 1.646 8.505
Figure 5. Mean empathy scores of participants with and without dog companions.
Table 10: Table showing independent t test results, comparing mean scores of participants with and without
dog companions obtained on COPE Inventory
Participants 95%
Participants with
Scores on COPE without dog Confidence
dog companion t p-value
Inventory companion Interval of the
(n = 53)
(n = 59) difference
Positive reinterpretation and
11.72 2.315 11.98 2.055 -.644 .521 -1.084 0.552
growth
Mental disengagement 10.32 2.834 10.56 2.500 -.473 .637 -1.237 0.760
30
Focus on venting emotions 10.68 3.056 10.05 3.334 1.036 .303 -0.574 1.831
Use of instrumental social

10.98 2.892 10.64 3.295 .573 .568 -0.830 1.504
support
Active Coping 11.25 2.695 11.29 2.640 -.085 .932 -1.043 0.957
Denial 6.60 2.691 6.92 2.769 -.602 .548 -1.336 0.713
Religious Coping 8.30 3.998 8.9 3.894 -.799 .426 -2.075 0.883
Humour 9.06 3.845 8.81 3.261 .362 .718 -1.088 1.574
Behavioural Disengagement 7.30 2.946 7.25 2.669 .090 .929 -1.004 1.099
Restraint 9.85 2.507 10.12 2.166 -.610 .543 -1.145 0.606
Use of emotional Social
10.30 2.913 9.37 3.810 1.437 .153 -0.352 2.210
Support
Substance use 6.25 3.339 5.25 2.570 1.770 .080 -0.119 2.101
Acceptance 11.17 3.173 10.86 2.360 .582 .562 -0.735 1.346
Suppression of competing
10.32 2.533 10.56 2.284 -.524 .601 -1.140 0.663
activities
Planning 11.72 3.002 11.66 3.026 .098 .922 -1.075 1.187
Figure 6: Mean scores obtained on COPE Inventory of participants with and without dog companion
31
Discussion Out of a total of 53 participants who answered

the question ‘How do you take care of your dog
“Dogs are not our whole life, but they make our lives
companion?’ all 53 reported ‘By providing food’.
whole.” -Roger Caras
Apart from this, 28 participants report providing
The meaning of friendship and fidelity was comfortable clothes during extreme weather, 25
probably introduced to mankind by our fellow canine participants report providing shelter, and 21
friends. As a popular proverb goes- “A dog is a man’s participants report providing medical care. During the
best friend”, there is no doubt to the fact that dog course of their friendship, dog becomes an inseparable
companions provide unending support and warmth to part of one's life and people start taking care of them
their human friends. The goal of the present study, is in whatever capacity they can. Since providing food
to develop an understanding of how having a dog and clothing do not require expending of much
companion, helps fulfil the innate human needs of resources they are most commonly reported ways in
belongingness, and influences the ways in which one which dogs are taken care of. Providing shelter and
responds to various life situations. For the purpose of medical care becomes important for the dog
this study, Dog Companionship has been described as companion’s wellbeing and thus are also frequently
a relationship of friendship, amity and closeness reported.
between an individual and his canine friend. Taking Personality
care of dogs and actively engaging with them can be
seen as building companionship with them. Three In order to find out whether there exists any
variables were chosen, namely personality, empathy difference between people with and without dog
and coping strategies, to gain understanding of the companions, as far as the personality trait of openness
worldview of both people with and without dog is concerned, an independent samples t-test was
companions and those who like and dislike dogs. conducted. A statistically significant difference was
Statistical Analysis, i.e. independent t-test was found at t (110) =2.931, p<.01; d = 0.55. The effect
conducted to calculate differences in mean scores size for this analysis (d=0.55) was found to exceed
existing in all the above-mentioned variables, for all Cohen’s convention (1988) for a medium effect
mentioned categories. (d=0.50). The results suggest that individuals with dog
companions have higher scores in Openness
Spending time and caring for ones’ dog companion (M=37.26, S. D=4.184) in comparison to those
Participants often describe their dog without a dog companion (M=34.75, S. D=4.837).
companions as a part of their family and so, they Similarly, an independent samples t-test was
become an inseparable part of their lives. Out of a total conducted to find the differences in the levels of
of 44 participants who answered the question- ‘How openness between those who like and dislike dogs.
do you spend time with your dog companion?’ 33 The test was found to be statistically significant at t
participants reported that they play with their dogs, (110) =2.694, p< .01; d = 0.51. The effect size for this
while 21 participants reported that they spend time by analysis (d=0.51) was found to exceed Cohen’s
walking with them. The childlike innocence and convention for a medium effect (d=0.50). The results
enthusiasm of a dog provides a chance to divert one’s show that those who like dogs have higher scores in
mind from daily stressors, and thus, people most Openness (M=36.86, S. D=4.333) in comparison to
commonly engage in such activities. It is also those who dislike dogs (M=34.47, S. D=4.920).
interesting to note that 7 out of 44 participants spend
The dimension of Openness taps intellectual
time talking with their dog companions and 11 out of curiosity, creativity and a proclivity for novelty. It is
44 of them spend time Cuddling them. Dotson and the extent to which a person depicts preference for
Hyatt (2008) have discussed in their study the unconventionality over strict routines. The results
tendency of people to see their dog companion as obtained are consistent with findings of Perrine &
more of a person and less of an animal Osbourne (2015) as they suggest that self-labelled dog
(anthropomorphism). It is often seen that the dog people are seen to score high on the dimension of
owners talk to their dogs, possibly in “Motherese” or
independence. The free willed nature of a dog finds
“Doggerel” (Russell, 1996). As dog companions are reflection in his human companion. Belk (1996) in her
often seen as substitutes for children, siblings or other study uses the metaphor-‘pets as an extension of self’.
important relations, people pamper them like they The dog companion and human being enter a
would have probably indulged their human relatives. symbiotic relationship wherein all emotional states are
shared amongst them. As dogs are essentially
32
accepting creatures, people who enjoy their In order to find whether there exists a
companionship, also become more accepting of difference between individuals with and without dog
unconventionality over the course of their friendship. companions in terms of empathy levels, an
Additional support on this finding has been provided independent samples t-test was conducted. The test
by Dotson and Hyatt (2008) as they suggest that dog was found to be statistically significant, t (110) =
owners show greater willingness to adapt than others. 2.472, p< 0.05; d = 0.47. The effect size (d=0.47) was
found to exceed Cohen’s convention for a small effect
No significant differences have been noted as
(d=0.20). These results suggest that those who have a
far as conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness
dog companion (M = 36.11, SD = 4.878) were high on
and neuroticism are concerned, between both people
cognitive empathy as compared to those without a dog
with and without dog companions and people who like
companion (M=33.66, SD= 5.548). Similarly, an
and dislike dogs. Previous research trends indicate
independent t-test was conducted to find whether a
that there exists high levels of extraversion and
difference exists in empathy between those who like
agreeableness amongst people with dog companions.
and dislike dogs. The test was found to be statistically
(Levinson, 2009; Gosling, Sandy & Potter, 2015)
significant, t (110) = 2.734, p<0.01; d =0.53. The
These researchers suggest that a dog companion
effect size (d=0.53) was found to exceed Cohen’s
facilitates social interaction, particularly while
convention (1988) for a medium effect (d=0.50).
participating in activities like walking with the dog.
These results indicate that those who like dogs
However, no significant differences have been found
(M=35.88, SD=5.323) were high on cognitive
in the present study. It may be possible that for
empathy as compared to those who dislike dogs
individuals with a dog companion, their canine friends
(M=33.12, SD=5.025). Research suggests that
may act as a substitute for other individuals, thereby,
nurturing behaviour towards animals often inculcates
decreasing their likelihood for, seeking human
sensitivity and empathetic understanding for fellow
contact. This is supported by Johnson and Rule (1991)
human beings. Daly & Morton (2006) found that
who suggest the existence of a negative correlation
children with a favourable attitude towards animals
between maintenance of a relationship with pets and
displayed higher empathy than those who had
extraversion. They propose that it is possible for pets
unfavourable attitude towards animals. Being
to be stand-ins for other human beings in the lives of
receptive to the cues of one’s pet, understanding and
these people. Furthermore, the non-significant results
being aware of the pet’s movements, wishes and facial
in other four personality variables in the present study
expressions helps the individual become more
reflects that both the groups in the population are same
emotionally sensitive and attuned to subtleties in
as far as personality is concerned. The tendency to
communication. This sensitivity and ability to
perceive pet owners as a group with an all-
understand others’ emotional states is reflected as
encompassing trait rather than just mere individuals
higher scores in cognitive empathy amongst dog
and see them as extraverted, sociable, and lively may
lovers and those with a dog companion.
not always be correct. Non-dog owners may be as
lively and extraverted as the pet owners. The t-test for affective empathy, t (110) =
2.357, p < 0.05; d = 0.44 was found to be significant
Lastly, research trends suggest the existence
indicating that those having a dog companion
of lower levels of neuroticism amongst dog owners.
(M=38.13, SD=6.089) were high on affective
Ryder (1973) and Levinson (1980) have posited that
empathy than those without a dog companion
pet-ownership may reduce the sense of experienced
(M=35.51, SD=5.691). The effect size (d=0.44) was
alienation and reduce levels of stress and anxiety.
found to exceed Cohen’s (1988) convention for a
Dogs provide space for emotional catharsis by lending
small effect (d=0.20). Caring for a dog teaches one to
a patient and a non-judgmental ear. However, it is also
care for another being, thus reducing self-centeredness
important to note that taking care of a dog makes
amongst individuals, particularly adolescents. It
people more empathetic and attuned to finer emotions
enhances perspective taking abilities, as one is
of everyday life. Thus, while having a dog companion
constantly caring for his dog companion and thinking
reduces vulnerability to stress, it may at the same time
of his well-being as opposed to his own. This ability
increase the intensity in which emotions are
extends for other fellow human beings as well,
experienced. This may have contributed to an
wherein one becomes more considerate towards
inconclusive difference in neuroticism scores between
others’ needs and feelings. This ability to experience
people with and without dog companions.
emotions from the perspective of another translates
Empathy
33
into higher scores in affective empathy amongst dog Conclusion

lovers and those with a dog companion.
The human-dog relationship is a truly special
The t test for total empathy, t (110) = 2.933, one. It not only provides unending support and love
p< 0.01; d = 0.55 was also found to be significant but also changes one’s perception of the world. In the
indicating that those having a dog companion present study, people with a dog companion were seen
(M=74.25, SD=8.914) were high on total empathy to possess greater Openness and Empathy levels
than those without a dog companion (M=69.17, (cognitive and affective) in comparison to people
SD=9.346). The effect size (d=0.55) was found to without a dog companion. Similar differences were
exceed Cohen’s (1988) convention for a medium found between those who like and dislike dogs. Dogs
effect (d=0.50). The t test for total empathy conducted are essentially loyal and accepting creatures, and
among those who like and dislike dogs, t (110) = humans who enjoy their companionship imbibe these
2.449, p< 0.05, d = 0.48 was also found to be qualities, thus becoming more open to
significant indicating that those who like dogs unconventionalities. Moreover, taking care of a dog
(M=73.26, SD=9.540) were high on total empathy teaches one to be sensitive, and emotionally attuned to
than those who dislike dogs (M=68.86, SD=8.749). subtle nuances in communication. People who
The effect size (d=0.48) was found to exceed Cohen’s disliked dogs tended to use more of religious coping
(1988) convention for a small effect (d=0.20). The in comparison to those who like dogs. No significant
unconditional support demonstrated by one’s dog differences however were reported between
companion, alongside the abilities of silent participants with and without a dog companion in
communication one inculcates while caring for a dog using coping strategies during stressful situations.
all contribute to higher scores in total empathy Overall, the study attempted to provide an
amongst those with dog companions. understanding of dog-human companionship and its
Coping Strategies subsequent influence in people’s lives.
In terms of coping strategies, an independent Implications and future directions

samples t-test between those who like and dislike dogs The present study has wide ranging
was found to be statistically significant at t (110) = - implications particularly in the nascent field of
2.394, p<.05, d = 0.46 for the dimension of religious Animal Assisted Therapy. Dogs have been seen as
coping. The effect size (d=0.46) was found to exceed loyal and faithful companions who fulfil the innate
Cohen’s (1988) convention for a small effect human needs of belongingness. They provide
(d=0.20). The results indicate individuals who dislike unconditional positive regard, which is indeed
dogs have higher scores on religious coping psychotherapeutic and provides a safe space for
(M=10.21, S. D=2.122) in comparison to those who people to explore their feelings. In the modern day
like dogs (M=9.86, S. D=2.451) context, where people are becoming increasingly self-
However, no significant differences were centred, lonely and alienated, such companionship
found between participants with a dog companion as restores the willingness to live life even in difficult
compared to those without a dog companion in using times. This suggests a scope for more researches
coping strategies during stressful situations. Both the addressing dog-human companionship to emerge
groups have been found using problem focused and successfully and viewing the company of a dog
emotion focused strategies to the same extent. A companion as a stress buster in future. However, since
reason for this could be that participants without a dog the present study was done on a sample of only 112
companion may have strong social support and human participants, it suffered from the limitation of low
companion in real life for dealing with everyday stress generalisability. Moreover, since companionship and
as participants with a dog companion. A similar belongingness are complex human experiences, a
research supporting this found a significant negative qualitative exploratory study would provide valuable
correlation between scores of perceived social support insights. Since, the present study has only focused on
from friends and family and scores of perceived stress young adults, an enquiry on dog companionship and
among non-dog owners. Likewise, among dog its influence on children and elderly is suggested.
owners, scores of perceived social support from Lastly, other variables like perceived stress, self-
family, friends, and dogs were not related to perceived esteem and perceived competence can also be studied.
stress scores (Lee & Chai, 2015).
34
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36
Parenting a Child with Autism: Shared Experiences and Unique Realities
Kaaveri Dhingra
Counsellor & Psychology Teacher, Cambridge School, Srinivaspuri, Delhi
The present study touches upon the confluence of two sensitive topics i.e. disability and parenting. The objective
of the present research is to explore the experiences of the parents (particularly fathers) of children with autism.
Three couples were identified using the purposive sampling from the hospital setup in Delhi. The data was
gathered using the semi-structured interviews and was subjected to thematic analysis. The discussion of results
was carried out in reference to the delineated research questions. It was also found that there were stark
differences in the parenting experiences of mothers which can be understood in reference to the stereotypical
gender roles prevalent in the Indian society. It also emerged that there was a significant impact of child’s
condition on the marital relationship of the couples where the relationship can either get strengthened or
compromised depending upon the support available, coping strategies adopted and engagement levels of both
the spouses. The findings of the research have further been discussed and related to the previous researches in
this area.
Keywords: parenting, autism, inclusion, lived reality, disability
Introduction One of the forms of mental disability is

autism. “Autism is a complex childhood
International Classification of Functioning, developmental disorder characterized by significant
Disability & Health/ICF, (WHO, 2001) defines impairments in reciprocal social interaction;
disability as “an umbrella term for all or any of the communication; and restricted, repetitive, and
following components- Impairments: problems in stereotypic patterns of behaviours, interests, and
body function or structure; activity limitations: activities.” (Butcher, Carson, & Mineka, 2007, p.
difficulties in executing any activities; participation 575). Autism is the third most common developmental
restrictions: problems an individual may experience in
disorder five times more prevalent in boys than girls.
involvement in life situations”. Over a billion people Typically the onset of symptoms for most children
are estimated to live with some form of disability,
with autism occurs during late infancy.
which corresponds to about 15% of the world's
population. Furthermore, the rates of disability are Parenting a child with autism is a particularly
increasing in part due to ageing populations and an challenging task in itself. A number of studies have
increase in chronic health conditions. According to demonstrated that parents of children with
census of India 2011, the percentage of disabled to developmental disabilities experience higher levels of
total population of India is 2.21%. However, if we stress than parents of typically developing children
look at the census figures of other developed and (e.g. Hodapp et al., 2003; Johnson et al., 2003).
developing nations closely, for instance, the census Webster et al. (2008) found that the scores in the
figures of Australia says 18.5% people have disability, Parenting Stress Index were above 85th percentile in
USA 12.1 %, Sri lanka 7%, Pakistan- 2.65%, it can be over 40% of parents of children with developmental
assumed that 2.21 % in India is a huge delay, indicating significant parenting stress. The
underestimation. It would defy the logic to think that stress of raising a child with autism varies across the
India is the sole exception for the lower figures. The family’s life cycle and with the extent of the child’s
reasons for such underestimation could be numerous, disability. Various studies in the discipline of
for example limited categories for enumeration of psychology have explored the lived experiences of
disabled people, lack of sensitivity on the part of parents with autistic children, issues regarding
trainers on the issue of disability, inability on the part schooling and inclusion, challenges faced by the
of disabled population to report about their disability parents, experiences of siblings and their reactions.
as there still continues a lot of stigma regarding any Woodgate (2008) and Kourkoutas (2012),
disability especially in rural areas. studied the experiences of parents with autistic
37
children using the qualitative interviews. Based on as a mistake or a burden on the family. It is the mother
these studies, both the researchers concluded that the who is blamed for everything and she is made
initial feelings of parents upon diagnoses of the child personally responsible for the child’s behaviour. Other
with autism includes a range of negative emotions family members, including the father, take on a more
such as shock, distress, terror, denial, depression, distant and inactive role in the child’s life.
guilt, helplessness and emotional emptiness. Despite
As evident by the review, the experiences of
of the early onset of the disorder, the diagnosis itself
mothers is well documented and explored in the
is often delayed as awareness is limited and the
current literature, but, the experiences of fathers are
behavioural symptoms are dismissed as temporary
often ignored and side-lined. Not only there are
problems. Woodgate (2008) also found that one of the
negligible studies focusing on the experiences of
most significant concerns that families of children
fathers, even the researches claiming to study the
with autism face is the lack of awareness and
experiences of parents have very few fathers in the
insensitivity on part of the people around such as
sample, most participants are mothers. Exceptions to
relatives, neighbours or acquaintances. They reported
this trend is a studies by Collins (2008) and Martins
facing repeated embarrassment in social settings and
(2013) that examined the experiences of 15 fathers
hostile reactions in public spaces when their child
raising a child diagnosed with autism. The study
behaved inappropriately.
revealed that the initial reactions of fathers range from
One of the significant researches in Indian sorrow and grief to guilt and lack of acceptance.
context on this topic has been carried out by Divan et Additional problems included, issues related to
al. (2012). They investigated the experiences of diagnosis and treatment, their dissatisfaction with
parents with autistic children using phenomenological mental health system and their apprehensions about
approach with a sample of 12 parents. The study the future of the child. However, their marital
concluded that with diagnosis of autism, parents, relationship provided strong support. The study also
especially mothers, embark on a difficult journey. The found that most fathers employed avoidant style
intensive care giving places excessive demands on coping where they chose to detach themselves
parents, which in turn can lead to negative emotional mentally by playing video games, reading, or listening
reactions, increased stress levels and a sense of to music whereas some of the participants also
isolation. The care giving process negatively affects reported having faith in ‘God’ which provided a
the professional, social and interpersonal aspect of means of effective coping. Additionally, research by
parent’s lives. Often mothers are the primary Martins (2013) Fathers articulated that within the
caregivers; hence, they sacrifice their aspirations and negative experience, there was a sense of relief and
literally become homebound. meaningfulness. Although it had a negative impact on
their social life and marital life. Fathers in the sample
Pathappillil (2011), using in-depth interviews,
reported making use problem focused means of
examined the experiences of 11 Indian mothers having
coping i.e. they coped by gathering additional
a child with autism. The study revealed that while
information regarding their child’s condition, as well
motherhood is a fulfilling and rewarding experience
as by exploring alternative treatment options. This is
for Indian mothers in general; mothering a child with
contradictory to Collin’s research.
autism is perceived as more of a challenge. Many
mothers in the study indicated that a child with autism The traditional role of mother is familiar, and
in Indian society is more likely to be looked down the influence of maternal behaviour on young children
upon due to social comparison. The cultural beliefs is also well researched. Knowledge, however, of the
and constricted mindset of Indians contribute to the comparable role of the father and their influences on
stigma attached to any kind of abnormality including child’s development is relatively limited. Somehow
autism. The dominant belief of Indians in the notion their role is always considered secondary to the
of ‘karma’, that action of past life will determine the mother’s role. It is equally significant to focus on men
present life’s successes, failures and illnesses further and their experiences of fathering a child with autism.
worsens the condition of the child. Severe physical or
In accordance with this idea, the present study
mental illness is perceived as punishment for past
aims to give voice to perspectives of fathers which are
wrongdoings of the individual’s previous lives. Due to
often missing in the current literature and also aims to
lack of awareness and social stigma, mothers are
bridge the gap in the existing literature which is one
resistant to accept the problems of the child and are
sided and raises concerns only encountered by
reluctant to seek professional help. The child is seen
mothers of autistic children.
38
For the purpose of present research three research the fathers. It was extremely difficult to obtain
objectives and questions were delineated. First, to detailed and accurate information from fathers as their
explore the involvement of both parents (particularly verbal and emotional expression was limited. Despite
fathers) with autistic children with respect to the extensive probing, their narratives were brief,
nature of involvement, meaning making and emotionally distant and lacked elaboration. Yet, the
challenges experienced by them. Second, to explore analysis revealed an interesting pattern of both
the differences in the experiences of mothers and similarities and dissimilarities across cases.
fathers. Third, to explore the impact of care giving
demands of the child with autism on the marital
Results and Discussion
relationship of the couple. Section 1
Method To make sense of the story of each of the three
couples, this section presents a brief case analysis of
The study was situated in the paradigm of
all three couples highlighting the relevant background
qualitative research. In order to develop an in-depth
information and presenting an overview of their
understanding of the experiences of parents, the
relationship dynamics and parenting experiences:
design chosen for the present study was instrumental
multiple case study analysis. As a method of data Case 1: Zara and Zayan Ahmad
collection in the present inquiry, semi-structured Seher Ahmad is 5 years and 6 months old girl
qualitative interview has been used. All participants who was born in Jammu and Kashmir. She was
were interviewed individually and each interview diagnosed with autism at the age of 3. Zara Ahmad
session lasted for about forty-five minutes to an hour. (Seher’s mother) is a 35 years old school teacher by
The interview sessions were audio-taped. Before profession from Jammu and Kashmir, living in New
starting the interview sessions, informed consent was Delhi from last 4 years with her husband and two
taken from all participants. The participants were children. She has been married to Zayan Ahmad,
assured of the confidentiality and careful handling of Seher’s father, for the last 6 years who is a medical
the data. In order to ensure the confidentiality, the
doctor by profession. Her second child Hamid is 3
names of all participants were changed to years old; he was conceived and born in Delhi. Initial
pseudonyms. Data collected from interviews in the period of her pregnancy with Seher was stressful as
form of transcripts was subjected to thematic analysis her relationship with her in-laws was disturbed. Also,
as suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006). In the due to her professional commitments, she couldn’t
present study, the method of inductive thematic give her daughter enough time in the early years. At
analysis has been employed to let the themes emerge that time, her parents were primarily taking care of the
from all possible theoretical perspectives. To gain a child. Zara and Zayan’s relationship has seen frequent
comprehensive understanding of the data at both ups and downs, though it has substantially improved
implicit and explicit level, the themes derived are post their movement to Delhi. Off lately, Zara is
interpreted at semantic and latent level. having difficulties with her job as she is not being
A total of six parents, three mothers and three given leave extension and thus, is required to travel to
fathers of children with varying degrees of autistic Kashmir on a weekly basis. For their financial needs,
disorders coming from New Delhi were selected as family is primarily dependent on Zara’s income as
participants. The participants were chosen using Zayan does not have a stable job. They also are
purposive sampling. The participants were contacted supported financially from the families on both sides.
through a prominent hospital in New Delhi. The It is surprising that despite Zayan being a
parents ranged in age from 33 to 35 years. The medical doctor, the awareness of the nature of autism
children with autism ranged in age from 3 to 5 years, in the couple was very limited to begin with. They also
with age of initial diagnosis ranging from 2.0 to 2.5 come from a background where there are not enough
years. resources available for the treatment of the child.
Many participants were approached some Zayan mentioned, “In Jammu the awareness level is
declined due to their taxing schedules and many very low, particularly about these types of cases”.
refused due to the sensitivity of the topic itself. The This has forced a transition in their life where they
process of data collection was the most challenging, have shifted their base from Jammu to Delhi. This
especially in case of fathers. During the interactions transition has brought with it multiple changes, some
with participants, mothers were more expressive than positive and some negative. While their marital
39
relationship has seen improvement due to non- overall level, their approach to parenting represents a
interference from the extended family as Zara balance of emotions, rationality and practicality.
mentions, “We bonded very well here only because we
Case 3: Neha and Gautam Das
didn’t get time”. But, the professional life of Zayan
has been compromised. There are also challenges Arun Das is 3 years and 6 months old;
being faced by Zara as she has to keep on travelling conceived and born in Delhi. He was diagnosed with
back to Jammu on a weekly basis. Hence, a lot of cares autism at the age of 2. Neha Das is a 33 year old house
giving demands have been forced on Zayan and he wife originally from Kolkata has now moved to Delhi
probably feels burdened by them, he even mentioned, 3 years back after her husband’s transfer. She has
when she (wife) is not around everything is done by completed her education from School of Learning and
me only, washroom to bathing and everything, Architecture. Instead for a full time job, presently she
feeding, clothing…”. At an overall level, both the has opted for a part time job wherein she is required to
parents are trying to deal with the situation. report to the workplace only once in a week. She has
been married to Gautam Das, a 34 years old manager
Case 2: Jenny and Rahul Fernandez
by profession for the last 8 years. They are childhood
Roy Fernandez is 4 years old, conceived and friends and it was a love marriage. They both reported
born in Delhi. He was diagnosed with autism at the satisfaction with their marital relationship.
age of a year and a half. Jenny Fernandez is a 33-year-
Neha and Gautam, it seems that have been
old Human Resource Executive living in Delhi from
thrown into a situation about which they are totally
last 4 years with her husband. She is on the verge of
unaware, In one of Neha’s narrative, she mentioned,
quitting her job due to extensive care giving demands.
“I was shocked, I could not understand what
Her husband is Rahul Fernandez and they had a love
happened, we had no idea about autism”. Since they
cum arranged marriage. He is a 35 years old training
had no idea about autism, initial period seemed
executive by profession. He is a patient and down to
manageable and they were hoping for quick and
earth person. Their married life is a satisfactory one.
complete recovery. However, after realizing the true
Jenny and Rahul are representatives of urban nature of the disorder, they are getting impatient as
modern parents who think through their parenting Neha mentioned, Gradually I’m realizing that it is
strategies well in advance. The diagnosis came as a very difficult”. Their unrealistic expectations about
shock to them as they were hoping for everything instant recovery of the child make them feel dejected.
‘normal’. Rahul reported the moment of the birth of It seems that their outlook is more fatalistic wherein
his child as a ‘priceless moment’ and articulated they do not take charge of their child’s life and their
expectations of a “smooth” life afterwards which did excessive and exclusive reliance on experts represents
not last for long. When enquired about reactions upon that they are not enthusiastically making efforts to
diagnoses, he reported, “We never wanted to accept it, improve the child’s condition. Post diagnosis, Neha
we were using our own ways of covering things”. But, has made significant changes in her life. She reported
they have managed coming out from this initial shock being career oriented from the very beginning but
very well and have now taken a very pro-active because of Gautam’s transfer she left her job as a
constructive approach to parenting. In this context teacher in Kolkata and moved to Delhi. She changed
Rahul proactively stated, “So I feel okay, I don’t feel her field and started Architecture course in Delhi. She
ashamed and I don’t take him as an autistic child”. In wanted to work but post Arun’s diagnoses; she has
order to meet the excessive care giving demands, they become homebound and started with a part time job.
have made multiple changes in their personal and She feels dejected about the same, she mentioned, “I
professional lives. Rahul is trying to balance his was planning to take up job, but now I can’t even think
professional and personal life in order to be there for of it and I feel really sad about it”. Being the prime
the child, while, Jenny is in the process of leaving her caregiver, she feels excessively burdened. As a parent,
job. Although this decision of leaving her job is very Gautam takes a secondary role, providing for mostly
difficult for her, she mentioned, “So leaving my job, for the financial needs. As a couple, being childhood
my career after a span of working in an organisation friends, they share a good chemistry and are
for good 8 years is a big change for me”. When further supportive of each other. But, recently, the intimacy in
probed about their relationship Rahul reported, that their marital relationship has been compromised.
their married life has been good overall but as a Gautam expressed his concerns regarding the same
couple, their intimacy has been compromised and they and said, “The time we used to devote to each other
have not been able to “spend time together”. At an
40
has been compromised, we used to go to theatres, commitment to her child’s well-being. Gautam’s role
concerts but now we have stopped everything”. primarily includes providing financially for the family
and his involvement with Arun is rather limited as
Section 2
compared to other fathers in the study. He accepts that
The experiences of every participant are he does not get to spend much time with Arun because
unique in their own respective ways, yet, there are of his professional commitments; he still tries to make
both convergences and divergences. This section aims up for it whenever possible. His role in his child’s care
at discussing the similarities and differences across all giving is limited and he also did not explicitly express
the cases, particularly, with respect to the delineated his concern over this issue. Neha’s involvement with
research questions. her son is absolute in the sense that she is single-
The first research objective was to explore handedly responsible for all his activities. She feels
burdened with the same as there is no respite from
the involvement of the parents (particularly fathers)
with the autistic children. The analysis in the previous these demands and even stated, “I feel as if I’m not
section indicates that there is marked increase in the living a normal life”.
involvement of the parents with the child post It is quite clear from the analysis that the
diagnoses. The nature of their involvement typically involvement of the fathers and mothers is in sync with
includes doing the activities recommended by the the stereotypical roles prevalent in Indian society.
experts. Involvement of the fathers was observed at Most of the times, the mothers are the primary care
both functional level and emotional level. For giver and engage in more daily based activities such
instance, due to his wife’s frequent travelling, Zayan’s as bathing; feeding whereas fathers are primarily
involvement with Seher includes taking her to the responsible for providing for the financial needs. A
hospital, getting the treatment done, learn whatever significant finding by Divan (2012) also found that
she learns in the sessions, go back home and make her often mothers are the primary caregivers; hence, they
perform the activities that she has learnt. Almost sacrifice their aspirations and literally become
everything is done by him including bathing and homebound. Even in the case of the most liberal
feeding. However, it seems that his parental role is couple who have claimed to share an egalitarian
driven more by responsibility rather than the relationship, i.e. Rahul and Jenny, when it came to the
emotional connect. He also feels burdened by the care choice of any one of them leaving the job despite both
giving demands which are imposed on him because of of them having the same professional standing, it was
the circumstances. When probed in this context he Jenny who quit her job. Although she exerted that,
mentioned, when she (wife) is not around everything “I’m the mother or I’m the female and that it’s a
is done by me only, washroom to bathing and patriarchal family where he should earn; it was
everything, feeding, clothing…usually a male in nothing like that it was a mutual decision”.
Indian society does not do it very often”. Zara has also
In reference to the second research question
made all necessary arrangements at the work and
that aimed at exploring the differences in the
home front to be able to spend as much time as
experiences of mothers and fathers, it can be said that
possible with her child that she could not do in the
although mothers and fathers share the experience of
initial year. She reported feeling guilty over her
parenting, but, there exist qualitative differences in the
absence and is now making up for it.
way they understand and experience parenting. Both
It was interesting to note that Rahul has the parents expressed grief upon diagnoses, this
devised interesting strategies to establish connect with confirms the previous research findings by
Roy over something that they both enjoy i.e. music. Kourkoutas (2012) & Woodgate (2008) that reported
He enthusiastically reported the fact that his son the initial reactions of parents upon diagnoses include
possesses a guitar and enjoys playing it just like him. a range of negative emotions such as shock, distress,
It is clear from the analysis that he proactively takes denial. Fathers took a more practical and rational
responsibility and is enthusiastically engaged with the approach in dealing with the situation by deciding to
child. Also, he takes dealing with his son’s condition take concrete steps for the treatment whereas mothers
as learning opportunity as he reported that, “it’s an were more emotionally driven and experienced
opportunity given by the God to make me a better emotional breakdown. During the discussion, Zayan
individual”. Jenny has also taken a major decision of mentioned, “When I got to know about this, I
quitting her job and being a full-time care giver for her straightaway decided to come to Delhi for the
son despite being very career oriented and she is trying treatment”. Zara on the other hand stated, “We were
to take it constructively. This demonstrates her
41
very upset, listening that your child is a…” Jenny Martins (2013), which also found that fathers reported
reported being ‘broken’. Rahul on the other hand that their relationship is adversely affected with their
reported being, “emotionally weakened” but spouse. Though this experience have brought them
immediately took a decision of starting with the together as a couple where they are extending their
treatment. Both Rahul and Neha had no clue about emotional support and love to each other in order to
Autism and hence they were confused. Mothers are give best possible environment to their child, yet, they
also more actively seeking the support from people are left with space where they can engage with each
around such as friends and other parents facing similar other like other couples do not have such
issues and derived strength from these relationships. responsibilities. It is interesting to note that while
In contrast to mothers, the support network for the Gautam reported missing the exclusive time he would
fathers was limited to their spouses and parents. They spend with his wife, the intimacy between Zayan and
are emotionally restrictive in sharing their concerns Zara has truly developed only after their movement to
with others and hence did not seek support from Delhi which was primarily for the treatment purposes.
others. An exception to this trend is Rahul. He has an
active group of friends who have helped him
Conclusion
immensely over the years. The present study aimed at exploring the
Lack of awareness was apparent in all the experiences of parents with autistic children. The
cases irrespective of gender. This finding is also parents who participated in this study provided a
consistent with previous finding by Kourkoutas wealth of valuable information about their
(2012) & Woodgate (2008) that despite of the early experiences and struggles. The experiences of every
participant are unique in their own respective ways.
onset of the disorder, the diagnosis itself is often
delayed as awareness is limited and the behavioural The significant themes common to all six participants
symptoms are dismissed as temporary problems that emerged from analysis include: Initial parenting
which is further reinforced by the reassurances experiences; excessive care giving demand; changing
provided by family and significant others. Also, the routines and increased involvement; lack of
awareness; discontent from societal reactions emerged
experience of social dejection and marginalization
as some common themes in all the cases. Though the
was shared irrespective of gender. Rahul while
reporting the incident at a telecommunication shop present enquiry was exploratory and had a specific
reported feeling, “embarrassment, anger, scope, yet it has significant implications. It not only
frustration”. The negative impact of societal uncovers the much neglected concerns and voices of
insensitivity on parents has also been confirmed in a fathers, it also helps us gain insight into their parenting
experience and coping strategies. This study also
study by Woodgate (2008) which concluded that one
of the most significant concerns that families of reinforces that much more familial and social support
children with autism face is insensitivity on part of the is required for parents with autistic children so that
people around such as relatives, neighbours or they are buffered from the stress and thus, can engage
acquaintances. All the participants shared the socially in better parenting which is crucial for the child with
autism. Support is especially warranted after the
unpleasant experiences. Mothers got more
emotionally affected by societal reactions, whereas diagnoses where the parents go through a period of
fathers took a practical approach and believed that emotional turmoil. The parents should also be
counselled by experts in this phase so that they adopt
being patient would help them to deal with the
situation in a positive manner. constructive coping strategies and engage in more pro-
active approach to parenting.
The third research objective of the present
study was to assess the impact of intensive care giving Based on the literature review and current
demands on the marital relationship of the couple. In findings, some suggestions for the future research
this regard, all the couples reported that the nature of emerged. Firstly, since the present study included
their marital relationship has undergone considerable limited participants due to time constraints,
researchers need to direct more studies towards
change post their child’s diagnoses with autism. It is
difficult to classify this change as completely positive experiences of fathers of children with special needs
or negative, however. Here, it would be safe to say that with varied backgrounds and socio-economic strata.
all the couples reported that the excessive care giving Additionally, since the awareness about autism is
demands have taken a toll on the intimacy in their lacking at every level and leads to significant
relationship. This is in sync with the findings by problems for parents, there may be an action-based
research carried out to address this issue. And lastly
42
researchers should investigate the efficacy of the coping strategies on parental psychological well-being
specific coping strategies employed by the parents and functioning.
through determining the perceived impact of different
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43
Guilt and Shame Proneness in Young Adults: Exploring Relation with

Personality and Well-Being
Jagrika Bajaj* & Mansimran Kaur**

*Student, MSc. Clinical Psychology, Christ University, Bengaluru
** Student, Masters in Business Administration, Institute of Management Technology, Ghaziabad
Shame and guilt are common emotional experiences in an individual’s life. Even though a substantial part of
our life is spent in either experiencing or avoiding shame and guilt, we disengage from such deliberations. The
present study focuses on bringing forth the relationship between personality traits and the emotions of guilt and
shame and its subsequent impact on the well-being of the individual. The study aims to understand if personality
mediates the management of guilt and shame in everyday life experiences. For the purpose of the study, 80
participants (40 males, 40 females) in age range of 15 to 30 years, using convenient and purposive sampling,
were selected. For the purpose of data collection, Big Five Inventory (McCrae and John, 1992) was
administered to determine personality traits of an individual while Guilt and Shame Proneness Scale (Cohen,
Wolf, Panter and Insko, 2011) was administered to understand an individual’s propensity to experience guilt.
Additionally, Flourishing Scale (Diener et al, 2010) was used to assess the subjective well-being of an
individual. Subsequently, t scores and correlation coefficients were calculated to study the interplay of
personality, guilt and shame and wellbeing in young adults. Results indicate that gender differences exist on
negative self-evaluation aspect of shame and significant correlations have been observed between facets of guilt
and shame and personality traits of conscientiousness and agreeableness. Further it has been observed that
participants high on guilt repair have higher subjective well-being.
Keywords: guilt, shame, well-being, personality traits
Introduction At the same time, shame and guilt can also be

seen as differing phenomenologically. Individuals
Theology, philosophy and psychology can feel exposed to public disapproval when ashamed.
particularly psychoanalysis along with literature are Guilt is more attuned to personal worries of having
among the few disciplines which have studied the
done wrong. Moreover, a failure that can be controlled
constructs of guilt and shame. These two emotions are also culminates in guilt which often results in
experienced by a lot of people on a daily basis but they individuals trying to make amends. However, it is the
fail to understand them. These emotions colour the sense of failure stemming from inadequacy that leads
way we feel, act and respond to situations in ways that to shame and is also characterized by negative self-
sometimes we don’t even realize. The subtle yet evaluation (Einstein & Lanning, 1998). Lindsay-Hartz
significant difference that exists between these two (1984) through a qualitative study elucidated on the
emotions is often overlooked by many. The common
structural differences in experiencing guilt and shame.
understanding of these emotions is a bit similar to the They found out that shame is associated with feelings
words from where they are derived from. ‘Shame’ that of ‘getting out’ of the situation while guilt is involved
is derived from the root kam/kem translates to ‘hiding’ with an effort to make things right again. Moreover,
or ‘to cover’ and ‘Guilt’ from the old English word they found out that when an individual experience
‘gild’ which loosely refers to money. Shame and guilt shame, they ‘feel small’ and the experience transforms
are often thought of as being similar. A lot of their identity while when they experience guilt, it only
discussions has been done on the differences and shakes their identity. The act of reparation and an
similarities between these two emotions and the interpersonal transaction was found to be more
possibility of it being interrelated. Guilt is understood associated with experiencing guilt. Baumeister,
often as subset of moral shame. As the individual is
Stillwell, & Heatherton (1994) found guilt arises in
seen as the causal agent, guilt and shame are interpersonal transgressions and this emotion was
considered to be similar. (Karlsson & Sjöberg, 2009). most common in interpersonal relationships.
44
Distinguishing between guilt and shame also prone to feeling shades of guilt and shame? Does this
depends to the degree to which individuals are influence my happiness? Further does the experience
applying these emotional labels to identify their own of guilt and shame influence a person’s well-being.
actions or the actions of others. Schmader & Lickel
The present study makes an attempt at
(2006) found out that people find it much easier to
exploring the relationship between the experience of
label experiences of others correctly while found it
guilt and shame and people’s personalities and their
difficult to distinguish shame and guilt in self-caused
well-being. We do not experience guilt and shame in
acts.
isolation. Who we are, the people we interact with and
The overlapping definitions and experience of how we cope with different life experiences also
states of shame and guilt makes it difficult to impact our feelings of guilt and shame. Our actions
discriminate one from other, nonetheless, important can result from our need to eliminate that guilt or hide
differences exist between the two (Cohen, Wolf, from the shame. The role of culture is also very
Panter, & Insko, 2011). important in this. A culture is made up of different
individuals who share the same beliefs, customs,
The nature of these differences, however, are
encompassing language and rituals to a large extent.
hotly contested. As of now, the difference between
To understand the cultural bases in experiencing
shame and guilt is majorly understood on two
Shame and Guilt, Wallbott and Scherer (1995)
criterion- the self– behaviour distinction and the
hypothesized that whereas ‘shame cultures’ regulate
public–private distinction. Following the self-
the behaviour of their members via external sanctions,
behaviour distinction, guilt emerges when an
‘guilt cultures’ have internalized sanctions. In other
individual makes unstable internal attributions that are
words, shame cultures regulate conduct via
specific to individual’s actions and lead to the negative
compliance and external pressure on the individual
feeling in regard to the behaviour that they have
and guilt cultures do the same via internalization.
committed. On the other hand, shame arises when one
Hence according to this India would be a ‘shame
makes stable internal attribution, not specific to an
culture.’ For example, in India, lust is accepted at an
action but global about one’s self, leading to negative
individual level but rejected at a social level. There is
feelings about the global self.
little guilt at lust, but rather, shame if that lust is
Differentiating guilt and shame through the exposed to society.
public-private distinction proposes that misdeeds that
Even in the same culture, no two people are
remain private are more likely to produce feelings of
truly similar. No two people can ever have the same
guilt while the failures that have been publicly
experience of life, the same perspective, go through
disclosed are more likely to needle feelings of shame.
similar trials and tribulations, have the same mind or
Following this idea of distinction, guilt arises when an
even react to the different life situations in the same
individual believes that s/he has done something that
ways. Thus, what makes everyone unique is the
doesn’t comply with their conscience and is linked
personality of an individual. According to Allport
with a personal feeling of doing something wrong.
(1937), “Personality is the dynamic organization
Shame, alternatively, arises when the failures and
within the individual of those psychophysical systems
misdeeds of an individual get the public eye. Thus,
that determine his characteristics behaviour and
guilt and shame are in this way different. (Cohen,
thought”. While Freud believed that an individual’s
Wolf, Panter, & Insko, 2011). This brings into the
personality was determined largely by one’s
equation of how people who experience both of these
unconscious thoughts and desires. These are among
emotions are different thus bringing the concept of
the various conceptualisations of the construct of
individual differences into play.
personality. The trait approach to personality focuses
The Present Study on studying human personality by identifying and
measuring the degree to which certain personality
Guilt and shame are often interchangeably
traits are existing in individuals. Traits are defined as
used and are considered as synonymous words in the
recurring patterns of behaviours and thought, such as
English language. But are these two distinct
openness to new things, anxiousness, shyness; exist
emotions? What do I feel when I am berated? Is it the
from individual to individual. Traits are an
same if I do something wrong and feel anxious? Why
individual’s patterns of understanding and dealing
is it that a similar situation has a different effect on
with the world around them. In the present study, Big
two people with all aspects same but different
Five approach to personality (McCrae & John, 1992)
temperaments? Does my personality make me more
45
has been used that makes use of factor analysis trait researches had focused only on the trait approach and
approach. Often called by acronym OCEAN, this its correlation with guilt and shame. Moreover, the
model includes the dimensions: Openness to effect on subjective well-being in correlation with
Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, guilt and shame has hardly been explored. This
Agreeableness and Neuroticism. Personality plays an research aimed to understand whether certain traits are
important in determining how prone we as individuals more prone to experiencing emotions of anxiety and
would be to the emotions of guilt and shame. In the guilt. The aim was not only to understand this
same situation, one person might be weighed down by correlation but also if it had an effect on their self-
the feeling of guilt while someone else might just walk perception of well-being and happiness.
away unaffected by it. Similarly, someone might be
ashamed in a situation while others might not be.
Method
Understanding how personality affects these emotions Participants
is important as it controls how we react to the situation
Target population for the present research was
in daily lives. Einstein & Lanning (1998) believed that
individuals belonging to the age group of 15-30 years
by following Singer & Bonanno (1990) argument, the
(Mean age = 22.5 years). Purposive and convenience
trait of extraversion can be associated with shame and
sampling were used to select the participants for the
guilt could be related with the traits of agreeableness
survey. Initially, a pilot study was conducted on 10
and conscientiousness. Einstein & Lanning (1998)
students. The data was then collected from 83
found out that significant correlations were present
participants but due to incomplete responses by some
between the five traits but they were related to guilt
respondents, the final study consisted of 80
and shame in different ways. While shame was
participants.
positively correlated with neuroticism and
agreeableness, it was negatively correlated with Measures
extraversion. In regard to guilt, there were positive
GASP (Guilt proneness and Shame
correlations between empathetic guilt and
Proneness Scale). Developed by Cohen, Wolf, Panter
agreeableness and between anxious guilt and
and Insko (2011). The GASP assesses guilt proneness
neuroticism.
and shame proneness of individuals and not the
As a member of this dynamic world, we have feelings of these emotions in the moment. It consists
to deal with these and numerous others emotions in of 16 questions that are based on scenarios.
our daily lives. It is important to understand how these Respondents read about these situations likely to
emotions, especially guilt and shame affect us. This occur in their everyday lives and give their reactions
study also looks into the Subjective well-being (SWB) to these. This scale has internal reliability and
of individuals calculated using the Flourishing Scale. construct validity > 0.60.
Subjective well-being basically refers to how people
The GASP comprises two guilt-proneness
experience the quality of their lives and includes a
subscales: Guilt Repair and Guilt negative behaviour
combination of both emotional reactions as well as
evaluation; and two shame-proneness subscales;
cognitive judgments of individuals. It is stable over
Shame withdraw and Shame negative self-evaluation.
time and has relations with the personality traits of an
Guilt Negative Behaviour Evaluation items describe
individual. SWB includes under it positive and
negative feelings one experiences about the actions
negative affect, life satisfaction and happiness.
one has committed (e.g., “you would feel that the way
Thus, the purpose of the present study was to you acted was pathetic”). Guilt-repair items are more
offer an understanding into the relationship between focused on the actual behaviour or intention of the
personality traits and their dynamic interplay with individual to recompense for the transgression (e.g.,
shame and guilt and its subsequent effect on the “you would try to act more considerately toward your
subjective well-being. Shame and guilt are emotions friends”). Shame-withdraw items describe actions
that almost all experience, but upon which, only few focused on hiding or withdrawing from the public
wish to dwell even when a great part of one’s life is (e.g., “you would avoid the guests until they leave”).
spent in either experiencing or avoiding shame and Shame Negative Self Evaluation items describe the
guilt. The study aimed to understand if a correlation negative feeling one experiences about oneself (e.g.,
prevails between an individual having a certain “you would feel like a bad person”).
disposition and his/her ordeal with guilt and shame as
Big Five Inventory. Big Five Inventory (John
constructs in their everyday experiences. Previous
& Srivastava, 1999) is a 44-item inventory that
46
assesses a person on five dimensions of personality was done on individuals from the age range of 15 to
namely Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientious- 30 years. Convenience and purposive sampling were
ness, Neuroticism and Openness to experience. The followed to get the total sample size of 80. A Google
scale has a reliability of 0.89 and validity of 0.92. Form was constructed to be circulated to participants
belonging to various regions. The questionnaire was
Flourishing scale. Developed by Diener et al.
available in only one language i.e., English, so only
(2010), it is an 8-item scale used to assess the
those who could understand English were included in
subjective well-being of individuals. This scale
the sample. The consent of those willing to participate
focuses on important aspects of human functioning
was taken in the beginning of the questionnaire and
that include positive relationships, feelings of
were asked to fill their required demographic
competence, to having meaning and purpose in life
information. The participants were requested to give
(Diener, et al., 2009). The validity and reliability of
honest responses and they were assured that the
the scale was given to be >0.60.
information they shared would be used for academic
Procedure purposes only. The final questionnaire had 4 sections
The planning of the study included the – a general introduction and consent form, Guilt and
formation of the questionnaire as well as the selection shame proneness scale, OCEAN’s Big Five Inventory
of the target population. The pilot study was and Flourishing scale. After the data was collected, the
conducted on 10 participants. The data obtained was analysis was carried out using SPSS. The analysis
studied carefully and analysed. Following this, the included an independent t-test to look for gender
questionnaire was revised and edited. The final study differences and correlations between and shame and
guilt subscales and personality traits.
Results
Table 1: Table showing Means, SD and t on variables on gender.
MEANS SD t (df=78)
Males Females Males Females
Shame Withdraw 3.0000 3.1625 0.92161 1.00408 -0.754
Shame Negative Self-Evaluation (Nse) 4.9250 5.4688 0.97763 1.05792 -2.387*
Guilt Repair 5.5938 5.5438 0.83721 0.90562 0.256
Guilt Negative Behaviour Evaluation (Nbe) 5.1750 5.1438 1.14662 1.24921 0.117
*p<.05
47
Table 2: Correlation between Shame and Guilt subscales and Personality Traits
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Shame Withdraw (1) .223* 0.094 -0.150 -0.046 -0.021 0.003 0.097 -0.285* -0.060
Shame Negative Self-

1 .410** .243* 0.137 .368** .239* 0.124 -0.041 0.211
Evaluation (2)
Guilt Repair (3) 1 0.134 0.110 .270* .277* -0.092 0.058 .251*
Guilt Negative
Behaviour Evaluation 1 0.194 .407** .431** -0.057 0.178 .324**
(4)
Extraversion (5) 1 .262* .372** -.262* .358** .380**
Agreeableness (6) 1 .395** -0.173 .302** .298**
Conscientiousness (7) 1 -.260* .417** .718**
Neuroticism (8) 1 -.330** -.332**
Openness to Experience
1 .414**
(9)
Flourishing Score (10) 1
*p<.05; **p<0.01
Discussion Out of these, Shame withdrawal was the least.

However, in a study by Anolli & Pascucci (2005)
Guilt and shame are common emotional which examined the experience of these emotions as
episodes in everyone’s lives where they unbeknown to
well as their proneness in Indian and Italian young
us, they drive and influence our behaviour. Many adults, it was found that Indian participants responded
times they are considered to be the same while at more strongly to experiences of shame than to guilt as
others there are stark differences between them. The compared to Italians who showed a reverse trend. In
differences in individual proneness to guilt and shame terms of proneness towards these emotions, Indians
in various situation and its respective impact on well- were found to be sensitive to both guilt and shame.
being intrigued us. Also, our curiosity was heightened
by the fact that almost no researches were done on a In our study, gender differences were found
topic of this nature solely in the Indian context. on shame NSE. Women are more likely than men to
experience shame NSE (t= -2.387, p=0.019). In the
In the present study, it was found that both Indian context, due to Gender Stereotyping women
males and females score higher on the guilt subscales tend to adhere to cultural norms which subjects them
namely Guilt Repair and Guilt NBE than on the shame
to be obedient and submissive of their actions and
subscales namely Shame withdrawal and Shame NSE. experience societal pressure leading to feelings of
48
shame if deter from societal norms while men enjoy trait in an individual while the shame withdraw scale
greater autonomy. does not. In this study, we found a significant positive
correlation between Shame-NSE and agreeableness (r
Relationship between Guilt and Shame
= .368, p< 0.05). Agreeableness includes traits such as
From Table 2, it can be seen that there is a altruism, tender-mindedness, trust, and modesty and
positive correlation between Guilt Negative refers to a prosocial and communal orientation
Behaviour Evaluation and Shame Negative Self- towards others. High scorers on Agreeableness show
evaluation (r= .243, p<0.01). Experience of a situation empathy and are altruistic, while low scorers depict
or a self-afflicted action/behaviour is never isolated to selfish behaviour and a lack of empathy. Moreover, in
be interpreted either from an individual perspective or regard to decision making, the individuals with high
a social standpoint. It is a dynamic interplay of both. shame-NSE scores would have a low probability of
Hence the emotions attached to both social and unethical decision making as compared to individuals
personal experience come into play prompting a with high shame-withdraw scores who would be more
tangle of interrelated emotions distinct in their own likely to make unethical decisions. Thus, people who
right yet. Cohen, Wolf, Panter, and Insko, (2011) are high on shame NSE are also high on
believed that since guilt and shame, particularly guilt- agreeableness. Such individuals because of their
NBE and shame-NSE, are self-conscious emotions empathy, trust, kind and sympathetic nature are much
and often occur together so an individual feels bad not prone to find faults with oneself rather than other so
only about their behaviour but themselves too when experience more instances of shame negative self-
they commit transgressions. The correlation between evaluation. In our study, we found a negative, though
Shame NSE and guilt repair showed a strong positive not significant, the correlation between agreeableness
correlation (r= .410, p<0.05). This indicates that the and shame withdrawal. While previous research by
people who feel bad after committing a private Cohen, Wolf, Panter, & Insko (2011), these
transgression to try and alleviate this feeling by correlations have been found to be significant.
partaking in repairing acts. A positive correlation
Also, there is a significant positive correlation
between shame withdrawal and shame NSE (r= .223,
between shame negative self-evaluation and
p<0.01) is also found. Shame–withdrawal items
conscientiousness (r=0.239, p<0.01). Conscientious-
describe action tendencies focused on hiding or
ness is characterized by actions such as thinking
withdrawing from the public while shame negative
before acting, self-discipline, purposeful action,
self-evaluation (NSE) items describe feeling bad
following rules, organizing and planning but too much
about oneself. Both are negative self-conscious
priority to such acts can become psychologically
emotions often occurring in league with each other in
overbearing (Erden & Akbag, 2015). Thus, it can be
social situations. Thus, following a transgression, an
said that conscientious individuals may not be able to
individual feels bad about both their behaviour and
free themselves or let go of previous transgressions or
themselves.
failures which leads to shame NSE.
Personality Correlates of Guilt and Shame
Guilt-repair items are more focused on the
From Table 2, a significant negative actual behaviour or intention of the individual to
correlation between shame withdrawal and openness recompense for the transgression (e.g., “you would try
to experience (r = -.285, p<0.01) can be seen. to act more considerately toward your friends”). In the
Openness to Experience focuses on all aspects of an present study, we have a significant positive
individual’s mental and experiential life. If a person correlation between guilt repair and agreeableness (r
who is low on openness’s exposed to a public = .270, p < 0.01) and guilt repair and
transgression, then he/ she would experience shame conscientiousness (r = .277, p < 0.01). The individuals
withdrawal and try to hide/ escape the situation in who are high on agreeableness are thus, predisposed
order to reduce the possibility of experiencing shame. to prosocial behaviour and are perceived as warm,
Similar results were observed in a study by Einstein & caring and kind; such individuals would have a greater
Lanning (1998) where a reversed relation was seen tendency of correcting their transgression/failure to
between openness to experience and shame. reduce the guilt that their actions have brought.
Shame Negative Self Evaluation items define Similarly, individuals high on conscientiousness; who
the negative feeling one experiences about oneself follow rules and norms would be more inclined toward
(e.g., “you would feel like a bad person”). In turn, this correcting their wrongs to compensate for the amount
subscale garners some information about the moral of guilt they feel. This was also found in a research by
49
Lanning and Einstein (1998). Guilt Negative negatively but significantly correlated with
Behaviour Evaluation items describe negative feelings neuroticism (r= -.332, p<0.05). Neuroticism tends to
one experiences about the actions one has committed predict low scores in subjective well-being whilst
(e.g., “you would feel that the way you acted was extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and
pathetic”). It has a significant positive correlation with openness to experience tend to predict higher SWB. It
agreeableness (r= .407, p<0.05) and conscientiousness can be reasoned that an individual who scores high on
(r= .431, p<0.05) This is collaborated by previous neuroticism would suffer from more depressed states
studies done by Einstein and Lanning (1998) and by and would view life from a negative lens, which
Abe (2004). Einstein and Lanning (1998) found that negatively impacts their well-being. Albuquerque,
both Neuroticism (N) and Agreeableness (A) were Lima, Matos, & Figueiredo (2013) found that
related to aspects of shame and guilt but in a different neuroticism, extraversion and conscientiousness
way. Since agreeable personality types always are facets were significantly able to explain the variance
cooperative and take care of those around them, they in subjective well-being components (positive affect,
are more in tune with others feelings and any action negative affect and life satisfaction) thereby,
on their part that can disrupt communal harmony suggesting personality traits played a role in the
induces the feeling of guilt in them for having failed subjective evaluation of one’s well-being. In a meta-
to maintain peace. While on the other hand analysis by Steel, Schmidt, & Shultz (2008), all
conscientious individuals being task oriented and aspects of SWB were found to be significantly related
think before acting. When their own actions lead to a to neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and
private failure they find loopholes in their planning conscientiousness. Though neuroticism was the
and actions thus, tend to feel guilt at not having acted strongest predictor of overall SWB, quality of life was
in an orderly fashion. Other significant negative strongly predicted by neuroticism, extraversion and
correlations Einstein and Lanning (1998) were able to conscientiousness and modestly by openness to
achieve was between Extraversion and Anxious Guilt, experience and agreeableness.
and Openness and Shame. In the present study, there
With the help of this study, we were able to
was no significant correlation between extraversion
bring to light the fact that in the present times in the
and guilt/shame but a significant negative correlation
given cultural context how the dynamic interplay of
between openness and shame was present.
facets of five personality traits bring into play an
Relationship between Guilt and Shame, Personality ascendancy on guilt and shame as experiences and,
and Well Being consequently influence self-perception of well-being.
As expected, a correlation between shame/ guilt and
Furthermore, we found the Subjective well-
the five traits were found. Shame withdrawal was
being (SWB) using the Flourishing Scale. The scale
negatively correlated with openness to new
provides a single psychological well-being score
experiences. Shame NSE, guilt repair and guilt NBE
which is indicative of how people experience the
were positively correlated with both agreeableness
quality of their lives and include both emotional
and conscientiousness. There was also a negative
reactions and cognitive judgments. Results indicate
correlation between neuroticism and guilt subscales
that flourishing had a significant positive correlation
but these were not significant. Under Big Five Facets
with guilt repair (r= .251, p<0.01) and guilt negative
only agreeableness and conscientiousness were seen
behaviour evaluation (NBE) (r= .324, p<0.05). Guilt
to be positively correlated not only with guilt but also
is a negative emotion that decreases the
shame as was seen by Einstein and Lanning in 1998
comprehensive evaluation of a person’s own personal
using TOSCA scale. Both of these traits along with
satisfaction and happiness. So, they would have a
extraversion and openness were seen to be positively
greater tendency of correcting their transgression/
correlated with subjective well-being much like Steel,
failure to reduce the guilt that their actions have
Schmidt and Shultz observed in their study in 2008,
brought to restore their self-perception of being happy
focusing on individual measures of personality (e.g.,
and satisfied.
the Neuroticism-Extroversion-Openness Personality
In the present study, SWB was found to have Inventory; Costa & McCrae, 1992) and categories of
a strong correlation with the personality traits too. It is SWB (e.g., life satisfaction).
positively and significantly correlated with
extraversion (r= .380, p<0.05), agreeableness (r= .298, Implications, limitations and directions for
p<0.05), conscientiousness (r= .718, p<0.05) and future research
openness to experience (r= .414, p<0.05). It is In the present study, it has been found that in
50
Indian sub-context guilt is a much more defining the potential of the development of psychopathology
factor that colour their walk-through tribulations of in individuals. Through this, we have a better
life than shame. Conscientiousness and Agreeableness understanding of why some people with certain
are the most common traits under Big five that personality characteristics are more affected by the
influence the societal and personal effect of guilt and instances of shame. Their reaction to such events and
shame in everyday life. Moreover, the subjective well- coping is related to mental health conditions that they
being of individuals who are more prone to experience develop due to bad coping and internalization of
guilt was better as these tend to work to remove those behaviour and feelings. Also, with an understanding
transgressions and tend to perceive their own lives as of guilt and shame and how it relates to personality,
satisfied and happy. we can have a better idea of the moral judgement of
people and their tendency.
All these findings can help assess and predict
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52
Resilience among Adolescents with Visual Disabilities
Kriti Trehan
M.A. Applied Psychology, Jamia Millia Islamia University, Delhi
Resilience is often defined as the human’s amazing ability to bounce back and thrive in the face of serious life
challenges. The foundation of resilience includes psychological and social resources that act as a buffer against
the negative outcomes of risk exposure. The present study aims at exploring the lived realities of adolescents
with visual disabilities (n=5) between the ages of 12-18, years and how they experience and actively cultivate
resilience despite adverse life situations. Using the Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents developed
by Prince-Embury (2007, 2005) and a semi-structured interview schedule, participant’s psychological
resources such as their self-concept and sense of autonomy, as well as their environmental mastery and sense
of relatedness were examined. This can benefit the parents, caregivers and professionals developing the right
understanding regarding their experiences. This can also help to create effective resilience training programs
that raise the expectations and motivation of adolescents with disabilities for realizing their potentialities and
strengths, and to facilitate human flourishing despite difficult life circumstances.
Key Words: resilience, physical disability, self-concept, environmental mastery, competence
Introduction Historically, researchers have concentrated on

negative developmental outcomes, like “deficiency”
According to the UN Convention on the
and “dependency” that may interfere with the person’s
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006), “Disability
adjustment to his or her disability (Tirussew, 2005).
results from the interaction between persons with
Hallum (1995) in his comprehensive review of past
impairments and attitudinal and environmental
studies, stated that disabled adolescents often feel
barriers that hinder their full and effective
undesirable, both socially and occupationally. For
participation in society on an equal basis with other”
example, they may feel inadequate due to having
(as cited in Verma, et al., 2017). The Census 2011
fewer friendships (McGavin, 1996). Patterson and
estimated that the people with disabilities constitute
Blum (1996) found that male adolescents with chronic
2.21% of the total population of India (Sivakumar,
conditions have more emotional problems than
2013). It also estimated that 19% of the disabled
females when the prognosis of the condition is
population has visual impairment and the highest
uncertain, an important risk factor in developing
number of the persons with disabilities are in the age
vulnerability. Thus, conventional research uses the
group of 10-19 years, out of which 18% are visually
risk-deficit model, which focuses on disability as a
challenged (Verma, et al., 2017).
barrier in self-development, especially “when societal
The condition of disabled people is extremely discriminatory attitudes are widespread and lack of
deplorable in the country. Out of the total population, opportunities for self-growth and development is non-
45% are illiterates, out of which 38% are the males existent” (Tirussew, 2005). Few studies have focused
and 55% are the females In terms of work status, only on both the risks and protective factors.
36 % of the disabled persons are working, out which
However, psychologists today have begun to
47% are males and 23% are females (Verma, et al.,
identify people with disabilities with high success and
2017). This, coupled with misconceptions and
to examine the factors responsible for their
negative social attitudes about their condition can lead
achievements. This interest was sparked by resilience
the persons with disabilities to experience
research that grew out of longitudinal developmental
discrimination in the form of bullying, teasing and
studies of at-risk children, such as those exposed to
social exclusion (Pittet et al., 2010), being
substance abuse or domestic violence (Masten, 2001).
economically, physically and/or psychologically
Resilience is humans’ amazing ability to bounce back
dependent on their family, and being forced to live in
and even thrive in the face of serious life challenges
poor conditions (Tirussew, 2005). This makes them
(Baumgardner & Crothers, 2009). Masten (2001, p.
one of the most disadvantaged groups in the country.
228) defines resilience as a “class of phenomenon
53
characterized by good outcomes in spite of serious research. The participants were selected through
threats to adaptation or development”. Masten (2001) convenience sampling.
notes that resilience requires individuals to confront Measures
some kind of the significant life challenge that
threaten their normal development, and favourable Resiliency Scales for Children and
outcome, following the threat. Baumgardner & Adolescents. Developed by Prince-Embury (2007), it
Crothers (2009) suggest that the foundations of has three scales, each having their own subscales
resilience include psychological resources like a (Prince-Embury, 2007) namely, Sense of Mastery
flexible self-concept, a sense of autonomy and self- Scales and Sub-scales, Sense of Relatedness Scale and
direction, and environmental mastery and Sub-scales, and Emotional Reactivity Scales and Sub-
competence. It also includes social resources like scales.
intimacy and social support. A resilient person, Sense of Mastery Scales and Sub-scales. It
therefore, may be described as someone who has is 20-item self-report questionnaire, with three content
access to resources that act as a buffer against the areas- Optimism, Self-Efficacy and Adaptability.
negative outcomes of the risk exposure (Craig, 2012). Internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha
Today researchers focus on protective factors, coefficient was reported as 0.93 (Prince-Embury,
like quality relationships that help to cultivate 2007).
resilience (Ungar, 2007; Runswicke-Cole & Goodley, Sense of Relatedness Scale and Sub-scales.
2013). Tirussew (2005) found out that caring and It is a 24-item self-report questionnaire, with four sub-
supportive relationships within the family and outside scales- Sense of trust, Support, Comfort and
the familial context, like school and neighbourhood, Tolerance. Internal consistency using Cronbach’s
can help a disabled person build a positive self-esteem alpha coefficient was reported to be 0.94 (Prince-
and self-efficacy, which are important to function Embury, 2007).
effectively in different areas of life like school, job, Emotional Reactivity Scale and Sub-scales.
family and community. Patterson and Blum (1996) It is a 20-item self-report questionnaire measuring
have noted that physical traits like attractiveness, and emotional reactivity, which may be viewed as pre-
personality traits like flexibility and gregariousness, existing vulnerability, arousal, or threshold of
provide resilience to disabled adolescents. Overall, stimulation prior to the occurrence of adverse events
evidence suggests that people with disabilities can or circumstances (Prince-Embury, 2007). It has three
lead a successful life and can manage a stable content areas- Sensitivity, Recovery and Impairment.
physical, social and psychological functioning, Internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha
despite adverse situations. coefficient was reported to be 0.92 (Prince-Embury,
The present study was aimed at understanding 2007).
the lived realities of adolescents with visual Response options in all the three scales are
disabilities, between the ages of 12-18 years and how ordered on a 5-point Likert scale- 0(Never), 1(Rarely),
they experience and actively cultivate resilience 2(Sometimes), 3(Often), and 4(Almost Always). The
despite adverse life circumstances. Case study method scales use T-score equivalents for each scale total raw
was used to shed light on their self-concept, score. Reliability coefficients range from 0.94
environmental mastery and sense of relatedness with (Emotional Reactivity) to 0.95 (Mastery and
people, their hardships, and their personal and social Relatedness) for the total sample (Prince-Embury,
resources for coping. These insights can benefit 2007). Criterion group comparisons with matched
parents, caregivers and professionals in developing a groups provided strong and consistent validity
useful understanding of their experiences. Further, evidence for the Resiliency Scales (Prince-Embury,
this knowledge can be used to create effective 2007).
resilience training programs for adolescents with Resource and Vulnerability Indexes. The
disabilities to realise their potentialities and strengths, Resource Index combines the assessment of both, the
and to facilitate human flourishing despite difficult individual’s Sense of Mastery and Sense of
life circumstances. Relatedness, which helps to summarise his/her
Method positive strengths. The Vulnerability Index quantifies
Participants and estimates the individual’s personal vulnerability
by a discrepancy between his/her Emotional
Five participants in the age group of 12-18 Reactivity Scale score and Resource Index score.
years with visual impairment were chosen for the
54
Semi-structured Interview. A semi- issues associated with it through a semi-structured

structured interview schedule was also used to tap in interview. Each interview lasted for 20-30 minutes.
the subjective experiences of the participants. Results
Questions like, “How do you see your life in
general?”, ’Did you face any discrimination during The responses of the participants on the
your childhood years?”, “What challenges do you Resiliency Scales as well as on the Resource and
face in your day-to-day life?” and “What was your Vulnerability Indexes were scored. The raw scores
parents’ reaction when they came to know about your were converted into T-scores and interpreted using the
illness?” were asked. The questions focused majorly manual. The participants’ raw scores, corresponding
on the experiences of discrimination, daily problems T-scores and interpretation for all the three scales are
and their management, behaviour of significant others presented in Table 1 through 5.
and people in general, self-concept, and hope for For the qualitative data, all the interviews
future changes. were transcribed and subjected to thematic analysis.
Procedure First, the verbatim were highlighted and codes were
generated. Second, the broader themes were drawn.
After the participants were selected, they were The emerging themes were self-growth through
asked for their permission to participate in the autonomy and direction; personal resources in the
research. Rapport was formed, information about the environment; and hope for the future. The verbatim,
research was provided, and anonymity and codes and emerging themes are shown in Table no. 6.
confidentiality of data was assured. First, they were These themes were then discussed in the light of the
given the Resiliency Scales for Children and participants’ scores on the Resiliency Scales. Further,
Adolescents. The basic instructions and test items inferences were drawn and the convergent and
were read aloud to them. Participants gave their divergent themes drawn from the cases were
responses orally, which were marked by the discussed.
researcher in the response sheet. Then, the participants
were encouraged to talk about their disability and
Table 1: Participant 1’s raw scores, corresponding T-scores and interpretation of Resiliency Scales
Scale Raw Score T-Score Interpretation
Sense of Mastery 66 55 Average
Sense of Relatedness 64 42 Below average
Emotional Reactivity 43 66 High

RES (Resource Index) = 47 (Average); VUL (Vulnerability Index) = 62 (High)
Sense of Mastery 52 45 Below average
Sense of Relatedness 57 38 Low

RES (Resource Index) = 39 (Low); VUL (Vulnerability Index) = 65 (High)
55
Sense of Mastery 52 45 Below Average
Emotional Reactivity 23 50 Average

RES (Resource Index)= 41 (Below Average); VUL (Vulnerability Index) = 56 (Above Average)
Sense of Mastery 66 55 Average
Sense of Relatedness 76 50 Average
Emotional Reactivity 35 59 Above Average

RES (Resource Index)= 51 (Average); VUL (Vulnerability Index) = 55 (Above Average)
Sense of Mastery 53 45 Below Average

RES (Resource Index) = 36 (Low); VUL (Vulnerability Index) = 67 (High)
Table 6: Verbatim, Codes and Themes Emerging from the Semi-Structured Interviews
Verbatim Codes Themes

“Toh sab woh drishye dekhtein hain aur hum nahi dekh paate” Sense of being different
from others and constant
“Sighted bache toh kuch bhi kar sakte hai na kaam.” comparison with others
“Jaise form bharna hota hai na, toh uss samein kisi ka help lena
padhta hai.” Self-growth
through
“Jaise normal bache har ek tarah ki book padhake na apna Heightened sense of autonomy and
assignment bana lete hain, notes tyaar kar lete hain. Bahut feel vulnerability and being a direction
hota hai ki kaash mujhe bhi dikhta toh main bhi kar leti aisa.” burden
“Jaise koi bhi cheez chahiye ho toh, je agar dikhta hota toh kahin
bhi jaakar le ate. Abhi toh magar kisi ko bolna padhta hai.”
56
“Jab log puchte hain ki humne toh dekha hi nahi tha ki yeh bhi
Parental acceptance seems
samasya hai, tab thoda phir lagta hai ki kahin parents ko bhi kahin
difficult
lagta hoga ki isko dikhta kyun nahi hai.”
“Jaldi se uss cheez ke liye awaraness ho joon ki taki mujhe baar

baar kisi se help na mangni padhe.” Desire for self-reliance
“Toh hostel ka undar ka raasta mind mein feed ho gaya hai. Toh and sense of pride from
nahi kisi ki help leni padhti. Kudh hi chale jaate hain, kudh saara self-reliant actions
kar lete hain.”
“Mereko ko dekhne pasand nahi karte the, achi nahi hai yeh, jaise
ki yeh badsoorat hai.” Perceived attack on self-
“Man mein sochti hoon, phir bhi kisi ko kuch nahi kehti.” esteem and constant fear
“Kabhi-kabhi lagta hai jab kuch acha nahi kar paate, toh lagta hai of ridicule
ki nahi ki mere undar koi qualities nahi hai.”
“Main zyaada nahi sochti uss bare mein because sabka apna-apna
nature hota hai. Usko aisa lagta hai, toh uski baat hai.”
Non-complaining attitude
“Mujhe koi shikayat nahi hai apni life se.”
towards life and others
“Thodhe time ke liye mind karti hoon dil mein. Phir chod deti
hoon. Aise toh bahut se log hote hai”
“Main apni life ko matlab has-bol ke , khel-kud ke, padhayi-likhayi
Constant work on self-
karke.”
concept by cultivating self
“Iss physical appearance ko lekar main agar hamesha pareshan
– acceptance
rahoongi, toh phir meri life kaisi chalegi.”
“Lekin woh log bolte hain ki hamare liye toh achi hi hai.”
“Kafi saari expectations rehti hai mujhse. Aur woh yeh samajhte Supportive environment
hain ki main kuch bhi karoon aage, acha hi karoongi.” and family– both attitude
and action based
“Bilkul bhi yeh feel nahi hone dete ki tum blind ho, toh kuch daya-
sahanubuti, aisa kuch bhi nahi hai.”
“Padhai wagarah mein toh dikat thodi kam ho gayi kyunki nahi Education benefited from
technology wagrah aagayi hai, JAWS wagarah software.” technology
Personal
resources in the
“Matlab sab haan bol kar nikal jaate hain, phir age koi nahi
environment
karta.”
Lack of actual actions of
help
“Toh log nahi kehtein ki tumhari stick nahi hai, kahin geerna
goorna nahi. Stick nahi hai toh nahi pakda.”
“Jaise teachers bahut baar na jaise ache se nahi, galat tarike se

baat karte the.” Insensitive behaviors of
“Hum blind bachon ko alag baithya jaata tha aur normal bache others
sab ek side baithte the.”
Attempt to maintain
“Main bhi ab sabse bana ke rakhti hoon, ki koi bhi mera help kar
cordial relations with all
deta hai.”
for constant help
57
“Classmates bahut ache se baat nahi karte hain, thoda rudely

karte hain.”
Lack of supportive peers
“Par na baat-cheet karte hain na woh pasand nahi karte. Aisa hai
ki baat karke na galat kiya hai”
“Logon ke undar jagrukta ho ki woh kisi ko samajhne ki koshish Desire for being treated as
karein. Kisi ko apne se kam na dekhein.” ‘normal’
“Aisa hota hai ki duniya mein ayi hoon toh mujhe kuch karna hai
Desire to succeed in life
apne liye, parents ke liye.”
“Agar mujhe insaan ka roop mila hai toh mujhse na kuch galata
Desire to do good
na ho.”
“Toh main toh sochti hoon ki hume padhayi likhayi kar leni Success in education as
chahiye. Bas yehi ek hamara madhyam hai.” hope for change Hope for the
future
“Koi na laachar bhavana se na dekhe. Sympathy ki bhavan
dekhayein, par utna had tak na dikhayein ki yeh log kuch nahi kar Help but not pity
sakte.”
“Isko lekar aage badhna hai ab apne saath. Toh main kuch nahi
sochti iss bare mein zyaada kyunki mere jaise bahut saare log
hain…Aisa toh nahi ki hamari aankhe nahi hai toh zindagi nahi
Moving forward is
chal sakti. Achi-khaasi chal rahi hai.”
essential
“Meri life mein mujhe bahut hi sangharsh karna hai. Hare k cheez
ko bahut face karte huye aage badhana hai.”
Discussion On the Sense of Mastery Scale, she got a raw

score of 66 and a T-score of 55. This means she has an
The purpose of the present study was to
average sense of mastery. On Optimism, Self-Efficacy
explore the lived experiences of adolescents with and Adaptability subscales, she has got average
visual disabilities between the ages of 12-18 years,
scores. This shows that she has an adequate sense of
and how they experience and actively cultivate mastery despite negative life experiences. Also, her
resilience despite adverse life situations. Resilience is average scores on all three subscales reflect that she is
the ability to face significant threat that can potentially able to recognize her limitations and accept feedback
bring negative outcomes on one’s normal from others. Further, she has a positive attitude about
development. The foundations of resilience include life in general, specifically for the future: “Toh main
psychological and social resources that act as a buffer toh sochti hoon ki hume padhayi likhayi kar leni
against the negative outcomes of risk exposure. Thus, chahiye. Bas yehi ek hamara madhyam hai, matlab
the focus of the study was on the participants’ self- apne apko dekhane ka.”
concept, environmental mastery and sense of
relatedness with people in their environment. The On the Sense of Relatedness scale, she has got
Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents a raw score of 64 and a T-score of 42. This means that
(Prince-Embury, 2007) and a semi-structured her sense of relatedness is below average. Her scores
interview schedule were used as measures for this are below average on the Trust and Comfort subscales,
purpose. The case study method was used. while her scores on Support and Tolerance subscales
are average. It shows that her ability to experience an
Case 1 adequate sense of relatedness can get affected by poor
Participant 1 is a 17-year-old female. She is treatment from others. She doesn’t seem to trust other
blind since birth. She is pursuing Hindi (Hons.) from people easily. However, she still receives adequate
Delhi University. Currently, she lives in the hostel support from her family and friends.
away from her family.
58
On the Emotional Reactivity Scale, she got a high range. Her vulnerability to threat in the
raw score of 43 and a T-score of 66. Thus, her environment is higher as compared to her perceived
emotional reactivity is high. Her scores on Sensitivity, personal resources.
Recovery and Impairment sub-scales are high. She
Case 3
seems to get upset very easily. Her emotional arousal
doesn’t seem to let her think clearly. However she is Participant 3 is an 18 year-old female. She is
able to bounce back from this emotional disturbance. partially blind since birth. She is pursuing Political
Science (Hons.) from Delhi University. She is a day-
Her Resource Index score of 47 is in the
scholar and lives with her family in Delhi.
average range. Her Vulnerability Index score of 62 is
in the high range. Her vulnerability to threat in the On the Sense of Mastery Scale, her raw score
environment is higher as compared to her perceived is 52 and T-score is 45. This means, her sense of
personal resources. Her heightened sense of mastery is below average. Her Optimism score is
vulnerability is reflected when she says, “Jaise kahin below average. Her Self-Efficacy and Adaptability
ana jana hai, toh jab lagta hai kisse se karvaiyen.” scores are average. She has a satisfactory level of
mastery and is receptive to criticism. However, she
Case 2
generally has a negative attitude towards life. She
Participant 2 is an 18 year old female. Her perceives other people’s discriminatory behaviour as
visual impairment is a result of a medical reaction. She an attack on her self-esteem: “Mereko ko dekhne
is pursuing Hindi (Hons.) from Delhi University. pasand nahi karte the, achi nahi hai yeh, jaise ki yeh
Currently, she lives in the hostel away from her badsoorat hai.”
family.
On the Sense of Relatedness Scale, her raw
On the Sense of Mastery Scale, she got a raw score is 63 and T-score is 42. This means she has
score of 52 and a T-score of 45. This means, her sense below average sense of relatedness. Her score on Trust
of mastery is below average. On the Optimism sub-scale is below average. Her score on Comfort sub-
subscale, her score is below average; while on the scale is low. Her scores on the Support and Tolerance
Self-Efficacy and Adaptability subscales, her scores sub-scales are average. This shows that she feels a lack
are average. This shows that although she has a of security in her relationships. Her feelings may stem
pessimistic outlook towards her competence, she still from having fewer friendships in the past because of
believes she can master her environment despite harsh her disability. However, she perceives adequate
circumstances: “Main apni life ko matlab has-bol ke, support from her parents and can express differences
khel-kud ke, padhayi-likhayi karke.” She is also in a relationship.
receptive to feedback and criticism from others.
On the Emotional Reactivity Scale, her raw
On the Sense of Relatedness Scale, she has score is 35 and T-score is 59. This means her
got a raw score of 57 and a T-score of 38. This means emotional reactivity is above average. Her Sensitivity
her sense of relatedness is low. On the Trust and score is above average. Her Recovery score is below
Support sub-scales, her scores are average. Her average. Her Impairment score is average. She gets
Comfort is below average. Her tolerance is low. She upset easily and can lose control. However, she reports
has adequate perceived support from her family and that she can bounce back from emotional disturbance:
can trust other people. However, she is slow to warm “Thodhe time ke liye mind karti hoon dil mein. Phir
up to others outside her immediate environment. Also, chod deti hoon”
she also finds it hard to express differences within a
Her score on Resource Index is 51, which is
relationship.
average. Her score on Vulnerability Index is 55, which
On the Emotional Reactivity Scale, she got a is above average. Her vulnerability to threat in the
raw score of 40 and a T-score of 63. This means her environment is somewhat higher as compared to her
emotional reactivity is high. On the Sensitivity perceived personal resources.
subscale, her score is above average. Her Recovery
Case 4
score is high and her Impairment score is average. She
gets upset easily and loses control: “Toh main lagti The participant 4 is an 18-year-old female.
hoon rone, aisa boltein hain toh.” She is pursuing Hindi (Hons.) from Delhi University.
She resides with her family.On the Sense of Mastery
Her Resource Index score of 39 lies in the low
Scale, she got a raw score of 66 and a T-score of 55.
range. Her Vulnerability Index score of 65 lies in the
This means her sense of mastery is average. Her scores
59
on Optimism, Adaptability and Self-Efficacy sub- unauthentic. She finds it hard to approach others when
scales are average. She has an adequate sense of dealing with adversity, especially her friends. A
mastery over her environment. Her attitude towards reason for this may be the insensitive behaviour of her
life and herself is quite positive: “Mujhe koi shikayat classmates towards her.
nahi hai apni life se.”
On the Emotional Reactivity Scale, she got a
On the Sense of Relatedness Scale, she got a raw score of 41 and T-score of 64. This means she has
raw score of 76 and T-score of 50. This means her high emotional reactivity. Her score on Sensitivity
sense of relatedness is average. She has average scores sub-scale is average. Her score on Recovery sub-scale
on Trust, Comfort, Support and Tolerance sub-scales. is high. Her score on Impairment sub-scale is above
This shows that she sees others around her as reliable average. She gets upset easily. She sometimes loses
and accepting. She perceives adequate support from control, makes mistakes and cannot think clearly. But,
her family. She said that her family members have lot she can very quickly recover from the emotional
of expectations from her and love her. She doesn’t feel arousal: “Main zyaada nahi sochti uss bare mein
anxious and uncomfortable in the presence of others. because sabka apna-apna nature hota hai. Usko aisa
lagta hai, toh yaar uski baat hai.”
On the Emotional Reactivity Scale, she has
got a raw score of 35 and T-score of 59. This means Her Resource Index score of 36 lies in the low
her emotional reactivity is above average. Her score range. Her Vulnerability Index score lies in the high
on Sensitivity sub-scale is high. She has got average range. Her vulnerability to threat in the environment
scores on Recovery and Impairment sub-scales. This is higher as compared to her perceived personal
shows that upset easily, she doesn’t lose control and is resources. She often feels dependent on others: “Yeh
able to recover from emotional disturbance. log apna kudh se bana lete hain, aur hum kisi pe
dependent ho.”
Her Resource Index score of 51 lies in the
average range. Her vulnerability score of 55 lies in the In summary, the T-scores of the participants
above average range. Her vulnerability to threat in the on the Sense of Mastery scale range from average to
environment is somewhat higher as compared to her below average, indicating less than adequate mastery
perceived personal resources. She feels that reliance over their environment. The T-scores of the
on her parents is a necessity for her. For example, she participants on the Sense of Relatedness scale range
fears if she takes a decision independently without from average to low. Thus, they might find it hard to
consulting her parents, she might get into trouble. trust others and ask them for support while dealing
with an adversity. The T-scores of the participants on
Case 5
the Emotional Reactivity Scale range from average to
Participant 5 is an 18 year-old female. She is high, indicating increased sensitivity to emotional
blind since birth. She is pursing Hindi (Hons.) from disturbance due to negative attitudes and behaviours
Delhi University. She currently resides with her of others towards their disability. Overall, the
family. participants have higher levels of vulnerability as
On the Sense of Mastery Scale, her raw score compared to their perceived personal resources, as
is 53 and T-score is 45. This means her sense of seen from their Resource Index and Vulnerability
mastery is below average. Her scores on Optimism Index scores. Thus, their personal and social resources
and Self-Efficacy sub-scales are average. Her score on are inadequate to meet the environmental demands at
Adaptability Scale is below average. She has a the time of threat. We can further understand these
positive attitude towards life and herself. Her sense of results through the themes drawn from the
mastery over her environment is adequate: “Meri life participants’ semi-structured interview that shed light
mein mujhe bahut hi sangharsh karna hai. Hare ek on their personal experiences and coping resources.
cheez ko bahut face karte huye aage badhana hai.” Major themes across the cases
However, her ability to learn from her mistakes is
After analysing all the cases, three major
somewhat low.
themes were found. The first theme was Self-growth
On the Sense of Relatedness Scale, her raw through autonomy and direction. A sense of mastery
score is 47 and T-score is 31. This means she has a over one’s environment provides the opportunity to
low sense of relatedness. Her scores on Trust, Support develop autonomy and direction in life. Most of the
and Tolerance sub-scales are below average. Her score participants seem to have either average or below
on Comfort sub-scale is low. She may see people as average environmental mastery. This is because
60
negative life outcomes due to visual disability have dekhe. Sympathy ki bhavan dekhayein, par utna had
compromised their ability to experience an adequate tak na dikhayein ki yeh log kuch nahi kar sakte.” They
sense of mastery. They feel that their condition makes have a strong desire to prove themselves to others. For
them vulnerable and dependent on others: “Jaise koi example, one participant said, “Main kuch aisa kaam
bhi cheez chahiye ho toh, je agar dikhta hota toh kahin karoongi ki unn log ko bhi yeh yakin ho jaye ki yeh log
bhi jaakar le ate. Abhi toh magar kisi ko bolna padhta bhi apni life mein kuch larte sakte ahin, aur yeh log
hai.” Hallum (1995) found that adolescents with bhi kisi se kam nahi hai.” As noted by Arnold and
disability often feel undesirable, both socially and Chapman (1992), these teenagers have the same
occupationally. For example, they may feel concerns as any other normal teenager about what they
inadequate because of fewer friendships (McGavin, would like to have in their adult life- jobs, marriage
1996). This has negatively affected the participants’ and family. They hope to succeed in life through
self-reliance, problem-solving abilities and self- education and do something for themselves in the
esteem. They not only feel different from others, but future. For example, one participant said, “Toh main
also have a sense of being marginalized in the society. toh sochti hoon ki hume padhayi likhayi kar leni
However, these participants still demonstrate an chahiye.”
adequate sense of self-worth. Most of them feel
positive about their ability to carry out daily tasks with Conclusion
little or no assistance from others: “Toh hostel ka The present study adds to our knowledge
undar ka raasta mind mein feed ho gaya hai. Toh nahi about how disabled individuals deal with adverse life
kisi ki help leni padhti. Kudh hi chale jaate hain, kudh circumstances. Overall, the results indicate that
saara kar lete hain.” They are also constantly striving resilience needs to be cultivated in this particular
toward self-growth and autonomy. group. Though they are making efforts to move
The second theme was personal resources in forward, they find it difficult to gain acceptance from
the environment. Personal resources like quality the society and receive support from them. Thus, their
relationships are an important source of resilience for personal resources are underdeveloped as compared to
their vulnerability to negative life outcomes. The
the disabled (Ungar, 2007; Runswicke-Cole &
findings of the study demonstrate that it would be
Goodley, 2013). All the participants share quality
relationships with their family. Most of them find their advantageous to develop coping strategies that may
teachers to be cooperative. Tirussew (2005) states that contribute to their competencies, particularly in
caring and supportive relationships within the family relation to their welfare in the society. Furthermore, it
and outside the familial context, like school and highlights the importance of social resources and the
need for effective intervention programs.
neighborhood, can help a disabled person to build a
positive self-esteem and self-efficacy ,which are However, the study was its own limitations.
important to function effectively in different areas of First, the sample size was small and only included
life like, school, job, family and community. female participants. Second, the study was restricted
However, the participants find it difficult to trust their to adolescents with visual disability. This makes it
peers and perceive lack of support from others. For difficult to generalize the findings of the study. Future
example, one participant said, “Ye log jaan-bujhkar ke research can take these limitations into account and
bhi nahi bolte hain. Jaise raaste mein kuch rakha hua include a larger sample size with both males and
hai, toh matlab batate nahi hai.” Previous research females. The sample can also include people with
has shown that disabled individuals often experience other forms of disability to understand how they
discriminatory behaviours, such as bullying, teasing, cultivate resilience. This will help in developing a
and social exclusion from others (Pittet et al., 2010). more comprehensive picture of the experience of
The third theme was hope for the future. resilience among people with different forms of
Despite negative life circumstances, the participants disability. Further, future research can also focus on
have maintained hope for a better future. They have a resilience-building programs to strengthen the
personal and social resources of the disabled
strong desire to be treated normally by others, and they
despise self-pity: “Koi na laachar bhavana se na adolescents.
61
References
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62
Dark Humour and Personality Correlates
Akansha Marwah & Garima Chaturvedi

Students, Department of Psychology, Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi, Delhi
The present study aims to explore the relationship between personality and dark humour, i.e. a form of humour
that turns human suffering into a joke, and deals with distressing subjects like disease, deformity, handicap,
suicide or violence with bitter amusement. For the purpose of the study, a sample comprising of 50 participants,
within the age range of 17-25 years from Delhi- NCR and Mumbai, was selected through convenience sampling.
An inventory of dark humorous video clippings and comic strips was prepared and its validity was ensured
through inter-rater agreement. Participants were asked to provide a preference rating on this five-point
inventory scale. For assessing personality, NEO- FFI was used. A correlational analysis was then conducted
to examine the association between personality dimensions and appreciation of dark humour. Results indicate
that preference for dark humour is positively correlated with the personality dimensions of extraversion and
openness to experience, and negatively correlated with neuroticism. Findings are discussed in the light of
broader theoretical framework of personality theories.
Keywords: dark humour, personality traits, black comedy, humour
Introduction conditions for humour experience. Furthermore,

release and relief theories hold that humour helps
Humour can be conceptualised as a habitual provide relief from strain or constrain. From a
behaviour pattern with the general tendency to laugh psychoanalytic point of view, humour saves the
or tell funny stories. The formal enquiry into humour expenditure of psychic energy. When energy is built
started with the study of individual differences in up for occupation in certain psychic channels
styles of humour i.e. habitual humour-related
(cathexis) and cannot be utilized (due to the censoring
behaviour patterns. Since the early 1980s, much of
of action by the superego), it may instead be
research has focused on trying to understand the discharged as laughter, which is a form of pleasure
potential beneficial effects of humour on physical and (Goldstein, 1972).
psychosocial well-being. With the emergence of
‘positive psychology,’ which focuses on adaptive Humour can also be classified into various
strengths such as optimism, faith, and courage, categories. The popular forms of humour are
interest in the study of humour is likely to continue observational comedy (pokes fun at everyday life),
(Martin, Doris, Larsen, Gray, & Weir, 2003). insult comedy (wherein offensive insults are directed
at the performer's audience and/or other performers),
Several theoretical perspectives have been cringe comedy (deals with embarrassing moments),
used to examine humour. Biological, instinct and satires (make fun of someone in a sarcastic way), blue
evolution theories describe laughter as a universal comedy (deals with comic content that borders on
phenomenon that appears early in life before any gross indecency), and parody (making fun of original
complex cognitive processes have been formed. works). In recent years, there has been an upsurge in
McDougal (1903) conceptualised it as an instinct. He the phenomena of Black Comedy or dark humour.
believed that without a sense of the ludicrous, which This term is used by various writers to refer to humour
was nature’s antidote for minor depressing and that is grotesque, macabre, sick, pornographic, ironic,
disagreeable spectacles, humankind might not have satirical, absurd, morbid, etc. The 1975 edition of the
survived. On the other hand, McComas (1923) and New Columbia Encyclopaedia, defines dark humour
Hayworth (1928) believe that laughter served
as “grotesque or morbid humour used to express the
communication functions in pre-lingual times, absurdity, insensitivity, paradox, and cruelty of
wherein it was meant to indicate good news. modern world” (Bloom, 2010). Willinger et al. (2017)
Superiority theories believe that laughter evolved describes dark humour as a kind of humour that treats
through elation felt during our triumph over others. sinister subjects like death, disease, deformity,
Surprise theories hold that elements of ‘surprise,’ and handicap or warfare with bitter amusement (Mindess
‘shock,’ are necessary (although not sufficient)
et al. 1985; Baldick 2001), and presents such tragic,
63
distressing or morbid topics in humorous terms exploring the links between dark humour and
(Oxford dictionaries, 2016). For e.g., ‘Why did Hitler personality. The rationale of the study thus lies in
commit suicide? Because he saw the gas bill.’ O’Neil filling this gap in literature. Also, both researchers find
in his writings in 1980s argues that dark humour, humour, in particular, dark humour, gratifying. Thus
the objective of study is to explore the relationship
“allows us to envisage the facelessness of
between preference for dark humour and the BIG Five
the void and yet be able to laugh rather than
personality dimensions.
despair. Entropic humour, which in the end
is seen to be simply an intensification of Method
the disturbing dynamics common to all
Participants
humour, comes in many shapes and forms,
and our laughter may contain many For the purpose of the study, a sample of 50
degrees of bitterness and hollowness, participants, consisting of 21 males and 29 females, in
mirthlessness and parody and pain, but in the age group of 17-25 years (mean age=19.74) was
the end- we do laugh, and while we laugh drawn from two metropolitan cities – Delhi-NCR and
there’s hope” (Bloom, 2010, p. 79). Mumbai. The sample was drawn using
convenience/incidental sampling. It is a non-random
Recent research in the area of humour has
tried to establish links between humour and probability sampling technique wherein participants
personality. It has been found that extraversion, are selected according to convenience. Incidental
agreeableness, and openness are positively associated sampling is used whenever there is no ready sampling
with self-enhancing humour, while aggressive and frame from which participants can be selected. One
condition for selection of sample was that the
self-defeating humour is found to be negatively
correlated with agreeableness and conscientiousness participants were well versed with English language,
but positively correlated with neuroticism as the items on the self-report inventories were in
(Greengross & Miller, 2008; Martin et al., 2003; and English.
Vernon, Martin, Schermer, & Mackie, 2008). Measures
Veselkaa et al. (2010) showed that participants who
For the purpose of the study, literature review
obtained higher scores on sub-clinical psychopathy
exploring the ideas of humour, personality traits, and
and Machiavellianism were more likely to make use
black comedy, was undertaken. An extensive
of negative humour styles such as aggressive and self-
reservoir of dark humorous content, consisting of
defeating humour, while individuals who obtained
comic strips, jokes, and videos, was collected. This
higher scores on narcissism were more inclined
reservoir, in the form of a Google form, was sent to 14
towards positive affiliative humour style. Martina et
professional comedians, five of who practice the style
al. (2012) replicated the results. Willinger et al. (2017)
of dark humour. The experts were asked to rate the
explored the relationship between dark humour and
items on a five-point rating scale - Not humorous at
intelligence and educational levels, and found that
all, No dark humour at all, A little bit dark, Dark
subjects who prefer this form of humour are high in
humour and Very dark humour, to distinguish dark
intelligence, have higher education levels and show
humorous content from other forms of humour. Based
lowest values regarding mood disturbance and
on expert ratings, fifteen items consisting of six jokes,
aggression.
six videos, and three comic strips with the highest
People typically seek pleasure and avoid pain. inter-rater agreement on ‘very dark humour’ rating
However, there is a lack of enquiry in the area of how were selected for inclusion in the inventory. The
disturbing or painful topics can also be pleasurable. inventory was developed for presentation to the
Research in the area of humour is not considered a participants with a five-point rating scale – 1-Not
respectable endeavour, despite humour having some funny at all; 2- Not very funny, 3- Somewhat funny,
practical implications in terms of promoting general 4- Quite funny, and 5- Exceptionally funny. The
wellbeing, health, and reduction of stress. Not only inventory was pilot tested with two participants and
this, there are observable personality patterns amongst their suggestions, e.g., to incorporate videos in
people who prefer different kinds of humour. between jokes instead of showing them separately at
Therefore, undertaking research exploring the the end, were taken into account to make necessary
personality traits of people who prefer particular changes in the humour inventory. The inventory’s
forms of humour becomes pertinent. Against this reliability, assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, was
backdrop, after thorough literature review, it was found to be .91.
observed that there was a particular lack of research
64
The NEO-Five Factor Inventory developed by Procedure

Costa & McCrae (1991) was chosen for a
The dark humour inventory was administered
comprehensive assessment of the Big Five Factors of
to 50 participants. Consent was sought from each
Personality. The 60-item test has a five-point rating
participant and adequate amount of time was spent on
scale - Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree,
rapport formation. The humour inventory was shown
and Strongly Agree. Internal consistency for the NEO-
to participants in the form of a PowerPoint
FFI scales, calculated using coefficient alpha, have
presentation (PPT) on a laptop. Sufficient time was
been reported to be .86, .77, .73, .68, and .81 for N, E,
provided to the participants to respond to each item on
O, A, and C domains, respectively (Costa & McCrae,
the humour inventory. After filling the humour
1991). The convergent correlations range from 0.56 to
inventory, the participants were asked to complete the
0.62; none of the divergent correlations exceeds 0.20
NEO-FFI. The two inventories were individually
(Costa & McCrae, 1991).
scored and the data thus obtained was analysed using
Demographics of the participants, including SPSS. The mean and standard deviation for scores on
name (optional), age, gender, and qualification, were humour inventory, and for each dimension of
included, and a form, seeking consent of the personality tested in NEO-FFI, was obtained.
participants for the present study, was created. It Furthermore, data was analysed using bivariate
informed the participants about the research study and correlation (Pearson’s r). The results were recorded in
reassured them of that would be anonymised and data tables 1 and 2, and later discussed in the light of
confidential. previous research studies and broader theoretical
framework on personality and humour.
Results
Table 1: Mean and SD of scores on dark humour inventory and the Big Five dimensions of personality
Mean SD
Humour Inventory 47.42 12.41
Openness 32.80 5.47
Conscientiousness 32.46 7.90
Extraversion 28.06 8.41
Agreeableness 28.84 6.34
Neuroticism 24.16 8.99
Table 2: Correlation between total score obtained on dark humour inventory and the Big Five dimensions of
personality
Dimension Appreciation of dark humour p-value
Neuroticism -.376** .007
Extraversion .308* .030
Openness .361* .010
Agreeableness -.225 .116
Conscientiousness .201 .162

*p<.05; **p<0.01
65
Discussion than subjects with low aggression values. Researchers

suggested that being able to appreciate dark humour
Dark humour is a form of humour that turns
was a complex “information-processing task”, and
human suffering into a joke. It deals with distressing
higher levels of aggressiveness and associated arousal
subjects like death, disease, deformity, handicap or
lead to decreased levels of pleasure when reading
warfare with bitter amusement (Mindess et al. 1985;
black humorous content.
Baldick 2001). Also referred to as black comedy or
gallows humour, it is a kind of humour that is The second domain, Extraversion (E) (M =
grotesque, sick, pornographic, absurd, etc. Dark 28.06, SD = 8.41) measures the degree of sociability,
humour includes content on death, disease, misfortune positive emotionality, and general activity among
(especially of innocent people), rape, mental illnesses, participants. A positive correlation (r =.308; p<.05)
disability, terrorism, natural disasters, mass shootings, was found between preference for dark humour and
to name a few. It makes it possible to have an open extraversion. High extraversion means that the person
discussion of deeply disturbing issues of the society. has positive emotionality, better emotional stability,
People are more likely to listen to someone making and less mood disturbance. Support for this positive
them laugh, than cry; hence, comedy is an acceptable correlation can be found in the study conducted by
form to prompt this discussion. Anthony Jeselnik, a Willinger et al. (2017) who found that people who
famous dark humourist, points out that dark humour is enjoy dark humour score low on measures of mood
not about being dark for the sake of being dark. It is disturbances and aggression. An extraverted person is
rather to acknowledge society in the face of dark less likely to be repulsed by disturbing content, as
topics that are absurd, morbid. he/she tends to focus more on positive emotions, like
subtler aspects of comedy in case of black humour.
The study employed a dark humour inventory
Furthermore, as humour is a means to decrease the
consisting of 15 items (including jokes, comic strips,
social distance between two individuals (Graham,
videos) with a 5-point rating scale. Total scores
1995), extraverts who prefer interacting with others
obtained on this inventory range from 25 to 69 with a
naturally gravitate to all its forms in order to exploit
mean score of 47.42 and a standard deviation of 12.41.
this social capital. Individuals high on extraversion
The 60-item NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI),
also like stimulation. The thrill in making fun of and
developed by Costa and McCrae (1991), was chosen
understanding the same about absurd, morbid,
to provide a quick and reliable measure of the Big Five
disturbing and insensitive issues might help stimulate
personality dimensions of neuroticism, extraversion,
such individuals.
openness, conscientiousness and agreeableness. A
correlational analysis of the two variables was Openness to experience (O) (M = 32.80, SD =
undertaken to ascertain the possible association 5.47) assesses the levels of curiosity, independent
between personality traits and a general appreciation judgment, and conservativeness of the participants.
of dark humorous content. The present study found a positive correlation (r
=.361; p<.05) between preference for dark humour
Neuroticism (N) (M = 24.16, SD = 8.99) is the
and openness. Research data supports this finding that
tendency of the participants to experience negative
affiliative and self-enhancing humour styles have
emotions and psychological distress in response to
been positively associated with the basic personality
stressors. The present study found a significant
traits of openness (e.g. Greengross & Miller, 2008;
negative correlation (r = -.376; p < .01) between
Martin et al., 2003; Vernon, Martin, Schermer, &
preference for dark humour and neuroticism
Mackie, 2008). Individuals high on this domain are
suggesting that individuals high on neuroticism are
usually keen to experience both positive and negative
likely to find dark humorous content emotionally
emotions. Openness to experience is also related to
disturbing. Hence, these individuals are less likely to
education and measured intelligence, especially
appreciate dark humour as it expresses disconcerting
divergent thinking skills. Such individuals are also
issues and dares the absurdity of the modern life that
highly creative, imaginative beings. Being high on
may provoke their negative emotions. Also, it is
intelligence, they show preference for and enjoyment
possible that negative emotions interfere with
of dark humour more than other individuals (Willinger
people’s ability to comprehend the joke and lead to a
et al., 2017). Another possible explanation for this
lack of appreciation. Similar results were found in the
could be that persons high on this domain are not
study conducted by Willinger et al. (2017) who found
conservative in their outlook. They may be open to
that subjects who present high levels of
unconventional ideas and values. It might, therefore,
aggressiveness are more likely to dislike black
humour and have lower black humour comprehension
66
be easy for them to accept this kind of humour, extraverted person may be less likely to be repulsed
thereby enjoying it more. by the dark content of humour as he/she may focus
more on its positive aspects. A significant positive
Agreeableness (A) (M = 28.84, SD = 6.34),
correlation between dark humour and openness to
the fourth dimension of NEO-FFI, measures the
experience was also found. Individuals high on this
altruistic, sympathetic, and cooperative tendencies of
domain tend to be more intelligent, and higher
the participants in the study. Through this research, a
intelligence has been found to be associated with
negative correlation (r = -.225, p>.05) was found,
enjoyment of dark humour. On the other hand, a
which was not significant. Individuals low on
negative correlation was found between neuroticism
agreeableness are hardheaded, not very sympathetic to
and preference for dark humour,. A possible
others around them, and less moved by appeals to pity.
explanation is that dark humour can provoke negative
Being less sympathetic, the morbid, sometimes
emotions among people who experience high
painful content involved in dark humour might not be
psychological distress. Finally, no significant
experienced as psychologically distressing. Instead, it
relationship was found between preference for dark
might be seen as enjoyable. Persons who score low on
humour and personality dimensions of agreeableness
this domain are also cynical in nature. Cynicism and
and conscientiousness.
sarcasm are also facets of dark humour. Therefore, the
two variables may be expected to have a negative Implications, Limitations and Directions for
correlation but the present study was unable to find a Future Use
significant relationship between preference for dark
humour and agreeableness. The research data can be used for identifying
the target audience for dark humorous content. The
Conscientiousness (C) (M = 32.46, SD = data also allows us to explore the possible reasons for
7.90) assesses the participant’s level of self-control in the preference in general populace for such humour,
planning and organization. The present study thereby allowing us to explore the role that humour
indicated a positive correlation (r = .201, p>.05) may play in the lives of people.
between preference for dark humour and
conscientiousness, which was not significant. This study was conducted on a small sample
Conscientious individuals are determined, strong- size and used a convenience-sampling technique,
willed, with high academic and occupational which allows for exploration of important insights into
achievement. This domain measures the tendency of a personality correlates and dark humorous content, but
person to act in socially acceptable ways. Enjoyment which also significantly limits the scope of
of dark humour involves cognitive and emotional generalization of results. Further, the sample
processing of the content. Therefore, this may be comprised mainly of urban educated youth from
unrelated to the behavioural tendency assessed by the Delhi-NCR and Mumbai. For future studies, selection
personality dimension of conscientiousness. of a more inclusive sample is desirable. This study
Conscientiousness might sometimes include only contains a self-reported measure of appreciation
perfectionist tendencies in people. A research found of humorous content and doesn’t use an observer
that other-oriented perfectionists display an rating system. Future studies could record individual’s
aggressive sense of humour and might enjoy jokes at reactions to the items on dark humour inventory to
the expense of others (Joachim, 2015). However, the supplement the results. It is noted that in recent years
present study failed to replicate the findings. there has been an upsurge in dark humorous content,
therefore, future studies can also conduct a
To conclude, it was observed that a significant comparative analysis between the younger and older
positive correlation exists between preference for dark generations to understand the causes of changing
humour and extraversion, which means that an preference for humour content.
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68
Physical Intimacy and Romance in Young Adulthood
Shivani Sachdev* & Swathi J. Bhat**

*Research Fellow, Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Sonipat
**Student, M.Phil. Clinical Psychology, Manipal University
Intimate relationships are influential in the lives of those involved and can often define ‘who’ we are. The
present study examines the role of physical intimacy in romantic relationships of young adults. For this purpose,
two males and two females in the age group of 18-25 years, in a romantic relationship for a period of 6 months
to 2 years, were interviewed using a semi-structured interview schedule. The interviews were subjected to
thematic analysis individually, following which the emerging broad themes were analysed. The results are
discussed in the light of cultural background and family upbringing, the extent and importance of physical
intimacy and the relative significance of physical versus emotional bonding. The study also aimed at addressing
the role of physical intimacy in strengthening a relationship, and the associated issue of morality in the Indian
context. Moreover, because of increasing Westernization and the contemporary changes influencing the life
styles of young adults, the study has also tried to examine its effect on the ways in which young adults express
their love towards their partner.
Keywords: physical intimacy, romance, young adults, attachment, emotional bonding
Introduction relationships that distinguishes these bonds from close

connections with friends and family at any age. Being
Romantic relationships in young adulthood in love with a specific person involves pleasurable
can play a crucial role in the development of an physiological, cognitive and behavioural experiences;
individual in both psychological as well as however, this increased arousal and preoccupation can
sociological sense. These relationships help in shaping also contribute to sleeplessness, distractibility,
up who we become. Romantic relationships can differ excessive reassurance seeking behaviour and concern
considerably from person to person and also within about possible rejection or betrayal for both males and
one relationship over the duration of the couple’s time females (Brand et al., 2007; Larson et al., 1999).
together. Broadly speaking, romantic relationships
entail three component features- passion, intimacy, Most teen’s sexual activities occur with
and commitment- that may be present in varying someone they are dating and, by the middle of
degrees in different relationships (Sternberg, 1986). adolescence, about half of established couples report
Passionate attraction and sexual desire are the sine qua having sex with one another (Cavanagh, 2007). As
non of romantic relationships; without these elements, might be expected, sexual activities become more
the relationship is just a friendship, not one of intense with age; younger teens most often engage in
romantic status (Connolly et al., 1999). Equally light sexual behaviours, such as hugging, holding
important, romantic relationships are mutually hands, or kissing; whereas, older teens expand the
acknowledged close connections between two people. sexual component of their relationship to include more
There is good evidence that the elements of passion, intimate behaviours (Williams, Connolly & Cribbie,
intimacy, and commitment are present in all romantic 2008). Also adolescent males and females differ in the
relationships regardless of the age of the partners extent to which sexuality is a key motivator of their
(Underwood, 2011). romantic experiences (Cavanagh, 2007; Feiring,
1996). Males’ ideal romantic relationship often
Passion or physical intimacy is a key includes significant sexual component, whereas
characteristic of romantic relationships in females’ ideal romantic relationships are more
adolescence. Feelings of love, attraction, and longing focused on emotional intimacy and companionship,
for another person are the essence of romantic passion with partners engaging in affectionate forms of
(Connolly et al., 1999; Tuval-Mashiach et al., 2008),
sexuality such as hugging and cuddling (Underwood,
and it is the passionate component of romantic 2011).
69
Many psychological theories guide our shared social network. It also found that apart from
understanding of romantic relationships. Romantic these seven behaviours, physical intimacy and equal
Attachment Theory (Hazan & Shaver, 1987) suggests sacrifices are also significant in the maintenance of a
that the function of romantic relationships is to romantic relationship. Thus, the study analyses the
provide adolescents and adults with the safe haven and significance of physical intimacy and equal sacrifices
secure base that they first experienced as infants and in the maintenance of a romantic relationship among
young children with their parents. These functions college students.
begin to transfer from parents to romantic partners
The purpose of the present research therefore,
during the adolescent period, a movement that is
is to understand the role, nature and extent of physical
motivated by adolescent’s emerging desire to have
intimacy in the romantic relationship of young adults,
these needs met by a person to whom they are sexually
and whether emotional bonding or physical intimacy
attracted. Romantic attachments may be secure or
is more important in a relationship. It also studies the
insecure expectations of relationships which are
effect of cultural background and family upbringing
shaped by the attachments that teens had with their
on the extent to which young adults get physically
parents when they were children, as well as the more
intimate in their respective romantic relationships.
recent experiences that they have with friends and
The study also tries to address the morality aspect of
others whom they may have dated (Furman & Simon,
physical intimacy in the Indian context. This research
1999).
aims to capture the influence of westernisation, if any,
Romantic relationships have been researched in the ways in which young adults express their love
by many to inspect the significance of physical to each other, such as a public display of affection.
intimacy within partnerships. Meggiolaro (2010)
The present study, hence, seeks to understand
tested the suggestion made by Simpson (1987) that
the role of physical intimacy in romantic relationships
physical intimacy could intensify the relationship and
during young adulthood for individuals in the age
hence, bring partners closer together by investigating
range of 18-25 years, who have been in a romantic
physical intimacy and relationship satisfaction among
relationship for a duration of 6 months to 2 years.
young adults in Italy. This research confirmed that
there is “a strong association between reaching an Method
orgasm and relationship stability” (Turtenwald, 2012).
Participants
Further, Turtenwald (2012) demonstrated what
behaviours can sustain intimate relationships that are Two males and two females, all Indian,
complex and multifaceted by utilizing findings of having a relationship (not necessarily with each other)
Pistole et al (2010) as framework. The study sought for a period of six months to two years, in the age
to gather qualitative data regarding seven maintenance group of 18-25 years (unmarried) were interviewed
behaviours, including: openness, positivity, conflict with informed consent. Details are presented in Table
management, assurances, advice, shared tasks, and 1.
Table 1: Participants’ demographic information
Age (in years) Gender Educational Qualification
A 21 Male Completed B.Com (H)
B 18 Female Pursuing B.A. (H) Economics
C 19 Female Pursuing B.A. (H) English
D 19 Male Pursuing B. Tech
Procedure consisted of areas that could be touched upon during

the course of the interview. Questions were framed
After the review of literature related to the
and re-framed keeping the probes in mind and clarity
topic was carried out, a probe list was prepared that
and unambiguity of the questions was ensured. It was
70
made sure that the language of the questions was such parents are settled in Myanmar. When it comes to the
that it avoided ‘Yes/ No’ responses but instead elicited proximity with the opposite sex, she said that they are
as much detailed information as possible in order to “not very open about having relationships and
gain rich data. The participants sampled using boyfriends and stuff” and their reaction wasn’t very
purposive convenience sampling. The participants accepting when they found out about her sister’s
were then informed about the nature of the research relationship. Hence, B hasn’t told them about her
and an informed consent was sought. They were relationship and is scared that they might get annoyed.
interviewed using a semi-structured interview She respects them and all the freedom they have given
schedule after ascertaining their willingness and their to her, and hence she wants to be honest with them
schedule. The interview was conducted in a suitable, about it, but is unable to do so because she fears being
uninterrupted, quiet place. The interview was reprimanded.
recorded using an audio recorder to avoid loss of data.
When it comes to being physically intimate,
The data obtained was then transcribed and she feels that it changes one as a person and makes one
subjected to thematic analysis. The important and feel vulnerable and awkward. She feels guilty about it
recurrent themes that emerged in the light of the up push her “boundaries” and feels that she is
current research study have been discussed below. “wronging her parents” by not being honest about her
relationship with them while they have trusted her and
Results and Discussion given her the freedom.
The data was subjected to thematic analysis. The Participant C: Not so open parents,
themes that emerged have been discussed below. follower of certain principles. It can be inferred from
Family, morals and cultural values the participant’s responses that she is not comfortable
telling her parents, especially her mother, about her
Participant A: Family opinion and
relationship, especially to her mother. She feels that
disclosure: ‘Not So Open’. The participant in his
she might lose her freedom as her mother will start
family is closest to his elder brother, and who is the
keeping a check on her. She said, “relationship is one
only member in his family who knows about his
thing that I can’t tell my parents about.” It seems that
relationship. When asked if he would ever be
her family is not very open when it comes to romantic
comfortable disclosing his relationship with his
relationships, and they might not respond in a positive
family, he replied “Never, I won’t be comfortable
manner if she tells them.
ever” and elaborated by saying “getting physical
before marriage in our society is a crime, so my family C seems to be a person who lives her life
being a conservative Punjabi family is also not according to certain principles and rules that she has
comfortable with it.” It can be thus said that the family set for herself. At one place, she said,
appears to be conservative and there is a general lack “there are some ground rules that I follow. For
of openness within the family that the participant instance, in a public place there is a certain
refrains the participant from sharing his relationship decorum that you ought to maintain. If a boy
status with them. and a girl are travelling in the metro, they
Further, the participant himself doesn’t want obviously can’t hug and kiss there. Those are
to ‘cross’ his boundaries and attaches morals to certain rules which I follow.”
physical intimacy. He repeatedly stated, “there should Participant D: Parents usually don’t
be some boundaries that I guess you should not cross”
understand everything; rules define an individual.
and “I have some limits that I prefer not to cross”. The participant is not at all comfortable talking to his
Further, he also believes that “females are more family about his relationship. In fact, he dreads the day
delicate about these things so you should not go to that when he will have to tell them about it. This can be
level (sex)”. Hence it can be said that Participant A inferred from several comments that he made, “It is
values virginity and wishes to retain it till marriage. going to be horrible if I talk about relationships with
Participant B: “Practical freedom” yet them”, “They will never be cool with it”, “If they ask
rules and regulations. Participant B believes that her me to break up, I will have no other option but to break
parents are strict and not very open about certain up with her.” All these statements indicate that D is
issues. However, they have given her and her sister all very afraid of disclosing it to his family; he does not
the “practical freedom” and trust them both. To plan share this anytime soon.
support this claim, she stated that she lives away from
her parents with her elder sister in Gurgaon, while her
71
He lives his life in accordance with certain person. For her, physical intimacy depends on the
principles and thinks that rules are something that setting she is in like, “if you are outside on the road
defines an individual. He accepts that he does have holding hands is physical intimacy, but like if you are
certain personal rules for himself when it comes to in a room and holding hands then I won’t call it
dealing with the opposite sex. He elaborated on this by physical intimacy.” She believes that physical
giving an example. He said, “For instance, if I have a intimacy is the complementary part of the package of
female friend who I have known for the past 2-3 years, relationship, but has set certain rules that define her
I might hug her and when it comes to my girlfriend, I relationship. She claims that she sometimes ends up
might kiss her on the cheek, not anything more than pushing her boundaries in the heat of the moment, but
that.” has made it clear to her boyfriend that she will not
have sex with him. Also she doesn’t feel that physical
To conclude the first theme, it can be said that
intimacy in general contributes to the security of the
the families of the participants are not open to the idea
relationship as she has seen so many instances with
of romantic relationships for their children. Therefore,
her friends wherein the other person has been found
the participants are hesitant and uncomfortable,
cheating.
perhaps sacred of talking to their parents about their
romantic partners. Also, probably because since time Participant C: You don’t need to sleep
immemorial, people in India have considered physical together to be a couple. When asked about her ideas
intimacy as immoral and something that brings a “bad on physical intimacy, she said, “If I put it bluntly, you
name” and disgrace to the family. The participants don’t need to sleep together to be a couple.” In her
have been socialised in this fashion, consequently, the own relationship, they have held hands and hugged.
guilt. Thus, they have set certain limits for themselves When asked if she would like to take it to the next
and do not intend to cross those self-imposed level, she said, “there are strong feelings and urges
boundaries. but there is no way that can happen because we mostly
meet at public places.” When probed further about
Importance and extent of physical intimacy
how intimate they plan to get in future, she very
Participant A: Physical intimacy not so clearly stated that they would definitely not end up
important. Although the participant believes that having sex. She seems to be fine with everything apart
physical intimacy strengthens the relationship, “we from sex, as far as physical intimacy is concerned.
are getting more comfortable with each other and the
Participant D: Physical intimacy should
bond is getting stronger and it also connects us
have a boundary. D feels that physical intimacy
emotionally.” He says,
should always have a boundary within which both the
“I don’t think it is very important getting persons involved feel comfortable. In his own
physical in your relationship because getting relationship, they have hugged and kissed once or
physical is not the only thing, there are so many twice. When asked about taking it to the next level, he
other things as well so I don’t think it plays any said that they couldn’t, because they mostly meet at
main role in my relationship.” He also public places. When probed further, he seemed a bit
mentions later, “I don’t give this so much confused. He does want to take it to the next level, but
importance that you have to get physical again at the same time feels comfortable with where he is
and again, matlab keep it to a limit.” right now. He is a little apprehensive about going
This can be further justified by viewing facts ahead because of the ramifications that might follow.
such as the participant first kissed his girlfriend after He mentioned at one point that he would try his best
one year (on their first anniversary) and the frequency to control himself.
is rare i.e. once or twice in a month. He is comfortable For all the participants, physical intimacy
only with kissing and has defined certain limits that he claims to strengthen the relationship but it is only
intends not to cross even though some part of him considered as a complementary part of the
wants to take the relationship to the next level. He relationship. It seems that the idea of having sex in a
believes that physical intimacy in a relationship is first relationship (before marriage) evokes feelings of
a choice that perhaps becomes a necessity later in a discomfort and anxiety in the participants. Williams,
relationship. Connolly & Cribbie (2008) observed that sexual
Participant B: ‘Part of the package’ but ‘I activities become more intense with age; younger
am not going to have sex’. B believes that what is teens most often engage in light sexual behaviours,
counted as physical intimacy depends from person to such as hugging, holding hands, or kissing; whereas,
older teens expand the sexual component of their
72
relationship to include more intimate behaviours. how can you even think about having a relationship”.
Participants in the present study are comfortable He substantiates this by talking about his own
exploring physical intimacy up to a certain limit, and relationship. He believes that it is emotional bonding
clearly mentioned that they would not end up having that has strengthened his relationship. He said, “in my
sex. This can also be explained by the fact that case, I know every little thing about her-how she
premarital sex is still considered to be a taboo in the thinks, how she will react to a particular situation,
Indian society and in spite of westernization, couples how she is going to reply.” He feels that physical
in the present study have held on to their cultural intimacy is a by-product of one’s emotions. According
values. to him, “it is something that cannot be planned, and
happens spontaneously in the moment.”
Emotional bonding versus physical intimacy
It is evident from the data that all participants
Participant A: Emotional bonding is
highly value emotional bonding and think that it is
relatively more important. It is evident from the data
more important than physical intimacy. According to
that participant A considers physical intimacy to be not
them, physical intimacy is just the part of the package
as important as emotional bonding. When asked
of a relationship. This is because emotional bonding
specifically he replied that, “emotional bonding is
probably provides them with the sense of security,
more important for me than getting physical, so yes,
which is similar to what infants experience in their
emotional bonding has an upper hand in my
early childhood through their attachment figure such
relationship as compared to physical intimacy.”
as parents. This is in accordance with the romantic
Moreover, according to him, it is immoral to get
attachment theory (Hazan & Shaver, 1987), in which
physical without knowing the person and developing
this sense of security later gets transferred towards a
an emotional bond.
romantic partner in the adolescent period.
Participant B: Physical intimacy is
Public display of affection
complementary to emotional bonding. According to
the participant, emotional bonding is important in the Participant A: Public display of affection –
relationship to a great extent but she doesn’t think it’s “Not acceptable to me at all”. A doesn’t believe in
a bad thing to be emotionally closer with someone public display of affection. “I am not at all
other than your boyfriend such as in her case, her comfortable because I don’t think expressing your
irreplaceable best friend with whom she is more open love in public areas is… I don’t feel right about it… I
and shares a stronger emotional bond than that with feel very ‘yuck’!” nor is he comfortable with others
her boyfriend. She further remarked that physical expressing their love in public and says, “it is not even
intimacy is not as important as emotional bonding but legal in India.” According to him, the acceptable ways
is something that is complementary. “It just comes; in public areas are holding hands, walking together but
it’s like the part of a package. It is automatic, even if nothing else, but for himself he doesn’t even feel
you kiss once and say you won’t do it again it happens comfortable as for him holding hands in public and
again sooner or later because it’s something you have hence does it rarely.
already experienced and you enjoy it.” This is in line
Participant B: ‘Once in a blue moon’.
with Meggiolaro’s (2010) and Simpson’s (1987)
When it comes to expressing love publicly, both B and
findings that physical intimacy could intensify the
her boyfriend don’t believe in public display of
relationship.
affection. They may hold hands under the bench
Participant C: Emotional bonding is more sometimes but that happens “once in a blue moon”.
important but one cannot do without physical For her, hugging is still an acceptable way of
intimacy. Going through the interview, it could be expressing love in public but nothing more. When
inferred that she places emotional bonding on a higher asked if she would be comfortable with someone else
plane as compared to physical intimacy. At the same portraying public display of affection, she says yes,
time, she acknowledges the fact that one can’t do and in fact, she would probably point and laugh and
without it. According to her, physical intimacy can be make fun of him or her.
seen as the happiness and joy derived out of holding
Participant C: Public Display of affection?
hands or standing together.
NO!!! C is strongly against public display of affection.
Participant D: Emotional bonding is She feels that certain decorum ought to be maintained
everything in a relationship. D strongly feels that in public places, and there are boundaries that one
emotional bonding is everything in a relationship. He should not cross while in public. She said, “I am shy
said, “if you do not understand a person emotionally, expressing my love in public places and I have my own
73
constraints”, “I keep looking in all directions, who is says for her relationship, the secret maybe lies in, “the
watching and who is not.” Also, she said that she gets fact that that I pull his hair and l am allowed to slap
extremely uncomfortable when it comes to public him.” For her, happiness is a mood and not a
display of affection. destination and it comes and goes in a relationship.
She believes that there are always ups and downs,
Participant D: Public display of affection
“sometimes you feel happy and contented, while
within certain limits is fine. He seems to be quite
sometimes you feel upset and frustrated.”
okay with public display of affection, as long as it is
within certain limits. He does not care much about Participant C: No candy-floss romance. C
what people around might think. He mentioned, “I mentioned at several places that she is not a very
believe I am more comfortable than she is. I can be romantic person. For instance, she said, “I don’t
demanding. What is the big deal if we hold hands! Till believe in candy floss romance, I don’t like coochie-
hugging I am fine with it.” poochie relationships.” She feels that an ideal
relationship is one that has its foundations in mutual
In today’s world, although Westernization is
love, understanding and honesty. Maturity is another
influencing the lifestyle of young adults, it can be
factor that is very important to her.
observed that the participants disapprove of public
display of affection. This can be linked to the fact that Participant D: Comfort and compatibility.
the social learning and cultural influence have shaped When asked about his idea of an ideal relationship, D
the beliefs of the participants that once formed cannot said, “There is no ideal relationship. I mean what is
easily unlearned. Moreover, India being a important is, the two persons involved should be
collectivistic culture emphasizes a lot on community- comfortable and compatible with each other. They
based society. Hence, it matters what others think or should fit into each other like gears.” Besides, he feels
say. Furthermore, under section 294 of the Indian that communication is very important, and that it is
Penal Code, Public Display of Affection (PDA) is a essential to be good with words, and at the same time
criminal offence with a punishment of imprisonment a good listener. For him, compatibility is the ultimate
up to 3 months or a fine, or both. Public Display of factor and it can ensure a close-to-perfect relationship.
Affection is considered as a taboo and offence in India
For the young adults interviewed, though some
with newspapers publishing articles such a “Keep
believe that there is no ideal relationship or that ideal
THESE in mind before indulging in a PDA” (Times of
is not sustainable; the key ingredients that make up an
India, 2015), warnings regarding what one can and
ideal relationship are understanding, comfort, trust,
can’t do in public.
compatibility, patience and maturity. This is in
The idea of an “Ideal Relationship” accordance with various models of intimacy, which
suggest that intimacy in a relationship is made up of
Participant A: Understanding is the key.
several components such as conflict resolution,
The participant says that the foundation of an ideal
affection, cohesion, sexuality, identity, compatibility,
relationship is understanding and trust. He also
autonomy, expressiveness (Waring & Reddon, 1983).
mentions that in his relationship, patience plays an
Some have focused on a particular aspect of intimacy
important role since he has to deal with the “short-
such as self-disclosure (Laurenceau, Barrett, &
tempered nature of his girlfriend”. Sharing is also one
Pietromonaco, 1998); a few researchers have focused
important aspect in an ideal relationship. According to
on commitment in relationships (Weigel and Ballard-
him, since “when you are sharing everything so it’s
Reisch, 2012). Others have used two or three different
easy for you to attach.” therefore implying that
intimacy scales in combination to capture the
emotional bonding is an important ingredient for an
multidimensional nature of intimacy (Hook, Gerstein,
ideal relationship.
Detterich & Gridley, 2003; Merves-Okin, Amidon &
Participant B: “I pull his hair and he pulls Bernt, 1991).
mine”. The participant believes that what an ideal
relationship is differs from person to person. In her Implications, limitations and suggestions
opinion, ideal is something that is not sustainable, It was seen that the participants were not
rather, comes and goes. It is an ideal relationship comfortable disclosing their relationships to their
“when both people understand each other, are happy parents. Hence they resort to lying, hiding etc. which
with each other and have fun with each other.” She in turn makes them feel guilty. Thus, programs to
says that because both she and her boyfriend are not address parental inhibitions about discussing sexual
very romantic people but instead are friendly and matters with their children are needed in order to
frank, she pulls his hair while he pulls hers. Thus, she encourage greater openness and interaction between
74
parents and children. Sometimes due to lack of Due to paucity of time, only a limited number of
communication between the parents and children, participants could be interviewed. Other tools of
young adults have no one to guide them. Therefore, research could also have been employed (such as
there should be programs to ensure that young men psychometric tests etc.) in order to get generalised and
and women are fully informed and equipped to make comprehensive results. All the participants were from
safe choices and negotiate wanted outcomes. Sex an urban background. Further research on this topic
education must be made compulsory from an early age can be done on participants varying in different
in schools and other settings in which young people aspects such as ethnicity, age, culture, and
congregate. Young adults may also be counselled to geographical and socio-economic background.
overcome their moral dilemmas.
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REVIEW ARTICLE
77
Mirror Neurons and Consciousness: A Meta-synthesis
Ayushi Shukla
Project Assistant, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru
Neuroscience has documented the activity of mirror neurons to explain action understanding and imitation,
evolution of language, experience of emotions, and mind reading abilities. The present study is a meta-synthesis
of available literature on the mirror neuron system in an attempt to understand the process of consciousness
through underlying functional mechanisms such as embodied simulation, intersubjectivity and intentional
attunement. Relevant research studies and theoretical papers were identified, and important concepts were
extracted to derive overarching themes that summarized the examined literature on the mirror neuron system.
Keywords: mirror neuron system, neuroscience, consciousness, meta-synthesis
Introduction mirror neurons in human beings. Direct evidence in

regard to the existence of mirror neuron systems in
Mirror neurons refer to a group of neurons human beings has been accumulated using
that fire in an individual as an indication of an action transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). A number
having been performed. Also, a part of these neurons of studies (Buccino et. al., 2004; Rizzolatti et. al.,
fire when the individual observes another person 2001) have shown that the occipital, temporal, parietal
perform the same action, thus helping the observer in
and visual areas and two cortical regions, namely the
understanding and recognising the action being rostral part of the inferior parietal lobule and the lower
performed. Neuroscientist Giacomo Rizzolatti part of the precentral gyrus plus the posterior part of
pioneered the research on mirror neurons and the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) are the core areas
suggested that mirror neurons could be the key to involved in the functioning of the mirror neuron
understanding why we empathise with other people or system in human beings (Rizzolatti & Craighero,
‘read’ their minds (Rizzolatti et al., 1996). 2004).
Activation of mirror neurons requires the There has been a tremendous amount of
presence of a biological agent performing the given research to understand the properties of the mirror
action. In order to be activated, mirror neurons require neuron system in human beings. One of the first
both a targeted object and an action being performed.
functions of the mirror neuron system, as suspected by
However, they do display a high degree of researchers is action observation. Direct evidence
generalization. The same neurons are fired upon
about the same has been obtained through an
presentation of various different kinds of visual experiment by Mukamel et. al. (2010). According to
stimuli like a human or a monkey biological effector, Mukamel’s findings, there exist neuronal mechanisms
given that these stimuli represent the same behaviour in human beings that are actively involved in the
such as eating, pulling, pushing etc. Thus, the integration and differentiation of execution and
properties of a given object do not affect the activation observation of actions. Secondly, mirror neurons in
of these neurons, i.e. the presentation of a banana human beings assist in action-imitation, an ability that
instead of a bottle does not increase or decrease the is unique to human beings. They learn from imitating
intensity of activation experienced by these neurons.
the behaviour of others in their society (Rizzolatti et.
Further, the activation of the mirror neuron system is al, 2001). Upon observing motor behaviour that is
not contingent upon the response received as a result
represented in an observer’s own repertoire, the
of the action that has been performed. Thus, mirror individual gets primed to repeat the behaviour. The
neurons get activated in a similar manner across stronger the motor repertoire, the stronger is the
various situations, regardless of whether the action priming that occurs (Prinz, 2002). Thirdly, the sudden
gets positively or negatively reinforced, is punished or evolution of a sophisticated system of communication
simply goes unnoticed. that developed within the human system is created to
Numerous research studies have been the evolution of the mirror neuron system which
undertaken to provide evidence for the existence of enabled imitation learning and therefore the ability to
imitate communicative gestures and sounds (Gallese,
78
2007). And lastly, the mirror neuron system of human the area of mirror neurons and consciousness from the
beings is also suspected to play an important role in year 1990 to 2015, and to draw out overarching
the higher cognitive functions of understanding themes that underlie contemporary research on mirror
emotions and sensations (Mullen, 2011). Research neurons.
evidence supporting this claim has been provided in
the form of indirect studies of the mirror neuron
Method
mechanism by Wicker et. al. (2003). A systematic review of literature on Mirror
neuron system in human beings and macaque
The information stated above summarizes
monkeys was undertaken by examining research
neuro-scientific experimental research on mirror
studies and other publications available on the web
neurons that provide evidence for the role of mirror
using search engines such as Google Scholar, Scopus,
neurons in action-observation, action-imitation,
development of language and communication, and and online research journal publications such as Sage
Publications and Wiley India. After the completion of
understanding of emotions. This is corroborated by
the embodied simulation theory proposed by Gallese the initial literature review, a meta-synthesis of the
(2001, 2007, 2009, 2012), which states that a process research on the mirror neuron system in human beings
of intentional attunement occurs on observing others was conducted.
due to which, in addition to the activation of our Meta-synthesis was seen as an appropriate
sensory apparatus enabling us to see these actions, method to be used for the current study. It allows the
there occurs the activation of internal representations researcher to not only review the qualitative research,
of bodily states that accompany these observed but also to extrapolate beyond the written content and
actions. This allows the observer to personally analyse the deep-rooted meaning behind the given
experience the phenomenon being observed i.e. the information in order to attain a better understanding of
observed behaviour gets mapped in an isomorphic the same.
format enabling social identification between
Sampling
members of the society (Gallese, 2009). Gallese
(2009) believes that the neural substrate experienced Since meta-synthesis is a process of synthesizing
by someone while experiencing an action, emotion or a number of studies, relevant research on the mirror
performing an intentional act is similar to the neural neuron system with a special emphasis on its function
substrate that gets activated while observing these in consciousness was identified, using a narrow,
experiences in someone else. specific search on the search engine SCOPUS with
two key words, “Mirror neuron system” and
The ability of an individual for embodied
“consciousness”. The result displayed 19 research
simulation creates opportunity for the creation of a
studies/articles. Several criteria were identified for the
‘shared manifold’ i.e. a meaningful shared inter-
selection of the articles to be analysed in the meta-
personal space (Gallese, 2012). Thus, not only do we
synthesis study:
embody their emotions, actions and intentions through
our own neural mechanisms, but also form a ▪ The article should, directly or indirectly, deal
meaningful relationship between the ‘I’ and ‘YOU’ by with the question of mirror neuron system in
accompanying the neural correlates with actual bodily human beings.
states that would accompany such actions, intentions
or emotions were they occurring within us (Gallese, ▪ It should focus upon the implications of the
2012). Gallese adds that the intentional relation presence of mirror neurons on various
between the acting objects and the observing subject conscious and unconscious processes in human
is relatively neutral to the identity of the subject i.e. as beings.
seen through various experiments performed on the
mirror neuron system in human beings, there occurs ▪ The studies included in the synthesis had to be
an activation of the mirroring mechanism of human published in English from the year 1990 to the
beings upon observing the actions of other human year 2015 in renowned journals.
adults and babies as well as actions performed by
monkeys. Thus, no matter who the other agent is, it ▪ Studies that were mainly theoretical reviews
gets recognized as another ‘functioning self’ like were included in the literature review.
oneself. The selection of the final seven studies occurred
The main objective of the current research is through the following steps:
to conduct a meta-synthesis study on research done in
79
▪ Out of the 19 studies, only 2 research studies ▪ Another search, using the same key words was
were found to fit into the inclusion criteria. conducted on JSTOR, Taylor & Francis, and
Wiley India.
▪ Snowballing technique, using references of the
primary studies were examined to find more ▪ Few new articles were found, out of which 2
studies that would be appropriate for synthesis articles were seen as relevant for the analysis.
and that fit the inclusion criteria. 3 more
relevant studies were discovered using this ▪ Thus 7 studies were finally identified for the
method. meta-synthesis study, and their titles along with
the year of publishing and authors were listed
(Refer Table 1)
Table 1: Articles reviewed for meta-synthesis of mirror neurons
Author and year of Title

publication
Ramachandran & Brang, Sensations evoked in patients with amputation from watching an individual
2009 whose corresponding limb is being touched
Gallese, Eagle & Migone, Intentional Attunement: Mirror neurons and the neural underpinnings of
2007 interpersonal relations.
Shapiro, 2009 Making sense of mirror neurons
Gallese, 2007 Before and below, ‘theory of mind’: embodied simulation and the neural
correlates of social cognition
Runehov, 2012 Imago dei and Simulatio or Imitation dei: A philosophical essay on empathy
Gallese, 2001 The ‘shared manifold’ hypothesis: From mirror neurons to empathy
Gallese, & Goldman, 1998 Mirror neurons and the simulation theory of mind-reading
Analysis formation of a synergistic understanding of a given

concept. At the end of this stage, various overarching
Theme Extraction and translation: Upon
themes that summarized complementary as well as
completion of the selection of the studies to be
contrasting ideas and concepts emerging out of the
included in the review, the process of theme extraction
synthesized studies were obtained. These themes are
was carried out. The subthemes extracted out of the
presented in Table 2 and are further analysed in the
various individual studies were then translated into
discussion.
each other. This step contributes towards the
Results
Table 2: Translated themes that emerged out of the meta-synthesis study
New, over-arching, Original sub-themes (along with author and year of publication)
synthesised theme
80
Mirror neurons promote ▪ Action imitation is a major function of mirror neurons (Gallese,
learning through action Eagle & Migone, 2005)
imitation and assist in action
understanding. ▪ Sensing and imitating action are functions of mirror neurons
(Shapiro, 2007)
▪ Action imitation via embodied simulation can occur (Gallese, 2007)
▪ Action observation implies action simulation (Gallese, 2001)
▪ Mirror neurons promote learning through action imitation (Gallese, &
Goldman, 1998)
Mirror neurons establish ▪ Only epistemic barriers exist between individuals (Ramachandran &
implicit links consisting of Brang, 2009)
shared neural states between
two individuals. ▪ Shared neural circuits exist between individuals (Gallese, Eagle, &
Migone, 2007)
▪ Same neural mechanisms underlie self and other’s actions, sensations
and emotions (Runehov, 2012)
▪ Direct implicit link between actor and observer can be established
(Gallese, 2001)
▪ Observer getting into the mental shoes of another (Gallese &
Goldman, 1998)
Mirror neurons are innate in ▪ Default intention-ascription occurs due to mirror neurons (Gallese,
their presence and 2007)
functioning.
▪ Mirror neurons mechanisms are innate (Runehov, 2012)
Mirror neurons display ▪ Tactile receptors provide input to mirror neurons (Ramachandran, &
flexibility of function. Brang, 2009)
▪ Mirror neurons assist in tactile simulation (Gallese, Eagle, & Migone,
2007)
▪ Mirror neurons display flexibility in their function (Shapiro, 2009)
▪ Communicative mirror neurons exist (Gallese, 2007)
▪ Mirror neurons are flexible in the functions they perform (Gallese, &
Goldman, 1998)
Mirror neurons lead to ▪ Dynamic reciprocal equilibrium exists between individuals

occurrence of shared body (Ramachandran & Brang, 2009)
states between individuals.
▪ Shared body states between actor and observer (Gallese, Eagle, &
Migone, 2007)
▪ There exists a multiplicity of states shared with others around us
(Gallese, 2001)
▪ Mirror Neurons assist in simulating other’s mental states (Gallese &
Goldman, 1998)
Mind reading capabilities of ▪ Human beings are mind readers (Runehov, 2012)
human beings are assisted
by mirror neurons. ▪ Mind reading as a result of a long evolutionary process (Gallese,
2001)
▪ Capacities for mind reading are affected by mirror neuron systems
(Gallese, 2007)
81
Residual sub-themes ▪ Mirror neuron system leakage occurs in some instances

(Ramachandran & Brang, 2009)
▪ Experiential line between actor and observer can be established
(Gallese, Eagle, & Migone, 2007)
▪ Mirror neurons are bi-modal in nature (Shapiro, 2009)
▪ Dishabituation occurs in mirror neurons (Shapiro, 2009)
▪ Social cognition has traceable neural correlation (Gallese, 2007)
▪ Automatic mirroring and synchronicity increasing with longer
duration and close proximity (Runehov, 2012)
Discussion In his paper on the shared manifold

hypothesis, Gallese (2001) puts forward the view that
The present research has been undertaken to
mirror neurons assist in action observation via action
understand the mirror neuron system in human beings simulation. He writes that observing a given
with an emphasis on its role in embodied action/goal related behaviour not only leads to the
consciousness. A meta-synthesis study on the mirror activation of the visual centers of the brain but also
neuron system was undertaken and the major themes lead to the activation of the motor cortex which leads
drawn out of this. Sub-themes extracted from the to the occurrence of a virtual reality simulation of the
reviewed research studies/theoretical papers were observed action, thus explaining how the activation of
translated and the major themes that emerged from the the mirror neuron system leads to action observation
meta-synthesis study were identified. The major
and in a way, action understanding due to action
themes extracted upon a final translation are now
simulation.
discussed.
Thus, from a detailed review of the studies on
Mirror neurons promote learning through action mirror neuron system, it can be said that the mirror
imitation and assist in action understanding neuron system plays an important function in
Action imitation refers to the ability of an understanding actions performed by others, imitation
individual to copy an action of another individual. The of these actions as well as intention ascription.
role of the human mirror neuron system in action Through all these processes, the mirror neuron system
imitation and learning can be seen in an article by assists in learning certain behaviours and actions
Gallese, Eagle, & Migone (2007). According to the
Mirror neurons establish implicit links consisting of
authors, the mirror neuron system in human beings is shared neural circuits between two individuals
involved in the imitation of not only simple finger
movements but also in the imitation of complex motor Another major theme that arises from the
acts. Their role in human beings in the realm of action meta-synthesis is related to the presence of shared
imitation also extends to the function of intention neural states between two individuals, namely, the
ascription. Upon observing a given behaviour, the observer and the observed, due to the presence and
premotor areas that have been usually thought of as activation of the mirror neuron system in human
being simply involved in understanding a given action beings. Shared neural states refer to the tendency of
also work towards understanding the ‘why’ aspect of human beings to employ common neural
the behaviour. Also, in many instances, this ascription representations for themselves as well others
of intention and action understanding is innate and (Lombardo, et al., 2010).
occurs without explicit instructions to the observer. Gallese, Eagle, & Migone (2007) inherently
According to Shapiro (2009), the discovery of mirror accept the view that shared neural circuits exist in
neurons can be viewed as the discovery of a new human beings, and their studies conducted using TMS
sense. These assist humans in sensing goal directed and fMRI technology provide evidence that these
behaviour and action and thus enable human beings in shared neural circuits modulate in the degree and
eliciting appropriate behaviour in response to the nature of their activation based on the kind of task and
observed behaviour. situation in which they function. Thus, in cases where
the subject is made to observe painful stimuli being
82
provided to a body part of a stranger, the sensory functioning is automatic. In their article on intentional
stimulus gets mapped on their own somatosensory attunement, Gallese & Goldman (1998) talk about the
system. However, in cases where the participants were automaticity of intention ascription. They provide
requested to imagine painful stimulation of a body part evidence that the premotor mirror areas get activated
of their spouses who were not present in their visual to help determine the cause of an action regardless of
vicinity, only the areas related to mapping the whether the participant was asked to determine the
affective quality of the pain got activated. Thus, the intention of the observed action or not. It occurred
study provides evidence that shared neural circuits implicitly, without conscious involvement on the part
exist in human beings. However, their activation of the observer.
depends upon the quality and nature of stimuli
Runehov (2012) discusses how the
presented to the observer.
development of mirror neurons in human beings could
Runehov (2012) discusses the role of mirror be a result of the formation of a high number of
neurons in divine empathy, the human belief and experiences, i.e., a sufficient amount of learning has
relationship with God. She examines the role and taken place to enable the neurons to ascribe intentions
presence of shared sensations, emotions, and actions and recognise emotions upon observing them in the
that are involved in the processing of the actions, environment. However, as she states in the paper,
emotions, and sensations of the self as well as the since the consensus for the same is far from majority,
other. She goes on to argue about the functionality of this function of mirror neurons in human beings still
these circuits in higher level of empathy and lower needs to be explored and researched upon more in
level of empathy, and concludes upon the possibility order to be considered a central function or role of the
of the centrality of the open mirror neuron circuits in mirror neuron system in human beings.
higher level empathy. Gallese (2001) suggests that a
Mirror neurons display flexibility of function
direct implicit link is established between an actor and
an observer during the process of being observed, in Mirror neuron system in the human brain is
order for them to embody a given shared goal. far more flexible more in its functioning and
excitability as compared to the mirror neuron system
Ramachandran & Brang (2009), in their case
in monkeys. It is involved in action understanding,
study with individuals who have undergone the
intention ascription as well as in aiding the
amputation of any limb of their body, propose the
understanding of social cues and emotions (Blakeslee,
existence of epistemic barriers between individuals. In
2006).
their study, the subjects reported the occurrence of a
touch referral in their amputated limb upon observing The high level of flexibility of mirror neurons
touch on the corresponding limb of the experimenter. has been discussed as a major property of mirror
According to the authors, upon the amputation of the neurons. Ramachandran and Brang (2009) discuss the
given limb, there is a removal of the tactile receptors ability of mirror neurons to fire in cases of motor
that enable the differentiation in touch performed on actions being observed as well as being activated upon
the self or the other, and upon the elimination of this receiving tactile stimuli. By following the case study
epistemic barrier, the demarcation between the self format and observing the ability of the subjects to
and the other disappears i.e. individuals are linked to experience touch and cold referrals, it was observed
each other at a mental/neural level. that the mirror neuron system, does, in fact consist of
tactile receptors.
Thus, from the above discussion, it can be
seen that the function of mirror neurons in establishing Shapiro (2009), in his article about the
shared neural circuits between two individuals is one possibility of mirror neurons being a kind of sixth
of the central functions of mirror neurons. Also, there sense, talks about the ability of these neurons to be
is a possibility that the only barrier that creates the activated upon observing stimuli with varying
illusion of one individual being separate from the physical properties e.g. a monkey hand or a human
other is epistemic, and upon the removal of this hand, varying sizes of these hands, variations in
physical barrier of the skin that we recognise our appearances and proximities or kind of gestures made,
identity as being shared with everyone else around us. in order to explain the flexibility of mirror neurons. He
also talks about the presence of various kinds of mirror
Mirror neurons are innate in their presence and
neurons; some that fire upon observing grasping
functioning
behaviour while others that fire on observing
Researchers suggest that mirror neurons are communicative or mouth gestures.
present in human beings since birth and a part of their
83
From this discussion, it can be concluded that the reason behind humans’ ability to exhibit
mirror neurons in human beings display a relatively experiential understanding.
high range of flexibility in their functioning. They
Gallese and Goldman (1998) mentioned the
consist of different kinds of receptors such as tactile
ability of mirror neurons in assisting and thereby
receptors, communicative receptors, receptors that get
enabling the experience of shared mental states in two
activated upon observing motor acts etc. Also, these
or more individuals. Thus, it can be said that mirror
receptors are flexible in the physical properties of the
neurons not only cause a virtual reality simulation in
stimuli that activate them i.e. the proximity, the size,
the observer but also leads to the occurrence of an
the appearance of the stimuli do not affect their
actual qualitatively similar state in the observer as is
activation.
present in the individual being observed.
Mirror neurons lead to occurrence of shared body
Gallese (2001), in his article about the ‘shared
states between individuals
manifold hypothesis’, states that it is due to the
Mirror neurons lead to the development of presence of the shared manifold that we can share the
shared body states between two individuals. Shared mental states of other individuals. This shared
body states, in this context, refer to the occurrence of manifold is the reason that we view other human
same or similar bodily processes between two beings as similar to us and it enables mind-reading and
individuals which assists in understanding the actor’s shared body states. He states that these shared states
behaviour by the observer. can exist in human beings at three main levels - the
phenomenological, where we empathise with
In their case study with amputees,
individuals due to shared experiences and action
Ramachandran & Brang (2009) talk about the
states; the functional, where we experience mental
interconnectivity of the shared neural circuits of the
states of others in the form of virtual reality
human brains, the dynamic nature of the equilibrium
stimulation as if we were experiencing these; and the
that has been established between these neural
subjective where the mirror matching circuits are
circuits, and the occurrence of an interaction between
highly coupled with mirror matching states within our
these even at the earliest stages of sensory inputs.
own body (Gallese, 2007).
They draw this conclusion after observing the fact that
upon amputation of their limbs, the participants were From the above stated discussion, it can be
capable of experiencing touch referrals in their own safely stated that the existence of shared body states in
phantom limbs when the corresponding, intact limb of human beings might be a legitimate result of the
the experimenter was stroked. Thus, there occurs a existence and functioning of the mirror neuron system
reorganisation/disturbance in the sensory apparatus of in human beings. These shared body states exist as
the amputated limb of the subject which skews the they enable us in identifying other human beings as
dynamic equilibrium that would otherwise have similar to us and help in empathising with them by
existed between the neural structures of this limb with experiencing the same inner emotional states as them
the corresponding, still attached limb of another within our own bodies.
individual. This provides evidence that in fact, there
Mind reading capabilities of human beings is
do exist dynamic states of equilibrium between
assisted by mirror neurons
different individuals and these states undergo a state
of disequilibrium upon interruption of the normal Mind reading, in the context of mirror
sensory circuits of the body. neurons refers to the ability of human beings to place
themselves in the mental-shoes of others such that we
Gallese, Eagle, & Migone (2007) proposed
are able to understand another’s mind by using our
that shared body states exist between two individuals
mind as a model for theirs (Than, 2005).
when they experience similar emotions or phenomena.
It is due to the presence of these shared body states Runehov (2012) believes in the ability of
that the observer is able to understand and empathise human beings to utilise their own brains as models for
with the actor. They deny the argument that an an actor’s brain in order to understand, and predict the
individual’s ability to empathise with another person actor’s behaviour. She talks about two kinds of mind-
arises out of their ability to formulate an analogy reading that exists in human beings. One is first person
between the actor’s situation and their situation and mind reading which is also prone to mind writing,
thus understand the observee’s situation. They forming beliefs about one’s own mental states. This
mention the experience of these body states as being kind of mind reading is prone to manipulation and
faking by the self. The second kind of mind reading,
84
according to Runehov, is third person mind reading, Shapiro (2009), in his article titled ‘Making
the Machiavellian mind-reading, which refers to the Sense of Mirror Neurons’, mentions various
tendency of human beings to try to understand other’s properties of mirror neurons which did not appear in
mind by modelling their own minds after others in any of the other reviewed articles. These included the
order to outsmart others or gain an advantage over ability of mirror neurons towards dis-habituation. By
them. This kind of mind reading is not prone to mind- dis-habituation, the author refers to the fact that a
writing as it is not open to first person interpretations. particular set of mirror neurons fire only upon
observing a particular function towards which they are
In his article about ‘The Shared Manifold
programmed. Even after repeated gestures performing
Hypothesis’, Gallese (2001) talks about the
the given act, if in one trial the gesture is half
evolutionary processes that lead to the development of
performed, these dis-habituate and do not fire.
the capacity for mind reading in human beings. He
also talks about development of intersubjectivity and The third, sub-theme that emerged out of the
mind-reading as a form of communication in human analysis of the study titled ‘Before and Below the
beings arising as a result of the development of the Theory of Mind’, Gallese (2007), mentions the neural
Shared Manifold Hypothesis (Gallese, 2001). correlates of social cognition. The author believes that
social cognition and many of its aspects can be traced
It can be seen from the above discussion that
back to a neural level in order to better understand and
though it is a controversial topic and requires further
examine these.
research to enable complete understanding of the
phenomenon of mind-reading, it can be seen as a The fourth sub theme was in the article by
legitimate role played by the mirror neuron system in Runehov (2012) where she talks about the increase in
human beings. similarity in the characteristics, mannerisms and
synchronicity of individuals who live together or
Residual Category
spend a large amount of time together for an elongated
Various sub-themes extracted out of the period.
reviewed articles did not fit into the synthesised
It can be seen from the above discussion that
themes that were formulated after the translation of
mirror neurons are not only involved in action
these sub-themes in order to understand the complete
imitation, forming shared neural circuits, establishing
picture. These sub-themes have been discussed here.
shared body states with others, and in mind-reading.
The first, sub theme that emerged out of the They could also be responsible for establishing an
review of the case study by Ramachandran & Brang experiential line between the actor and observer,
(2009) talks about the Mirror neuron system leakage. exhibit leakage and bi-modality, have neural
The authors discuss the incidents when a participant, correlates in social cognition and display
who had not undergone amputation of any part of their dishabituation. The tendency of mirror neurons
body experience a tingling sensation at the times when towards forming shared neural correlates and the
they observed the experimenter’s limb being stroke. existence of shared body states enables individuals to
They posit that this occurs due to the hyper form models of the other person within themselves. It
connectivity of the mirror neuron system which leads can be said that this system enables human beings in
to the leakage of neural signals and leads to the transcending the barrier between themselves and
dysfunction of the mechanism that is responsible for another individual, thus helping them identify
blocking of this sensation. themselves as being ‘one’ with the other person.
The second, sub-theme related to this However, evidence for their role in these is limited and
mentions the establishment of a direct experiential requires further research.
line between two individuals. This sub-theme emerged Limitations and recommendations for future
out of the review of the article by Gallese, Migone, & research
Eagle (2007). The authors suggest that even though
individuals employ explicit hermeneutic strategies Although careful systematic research was
consciously in order to make sense of others around undertaken to complete the present study, it has a few
them and their behaviour, at the unconscious level, limitations. Since the researcher lacks a high level of
there gets established a link between the actor and expertise in the field of neuroscience, the conclusions
observer enabling the observer to embody the actor’s drawn from the study are merely tentative and need to
mental states and understand their actions, emotions, be explored further. Since the study had to be
etc. completed within a given time-frame, only a limited
number of articles were reviewed. Another major
85
limitation of the study was the lack of resources to undertaken by individuals with a higher level of
access all the available literature. This might have, expertise in the concerned field. This could lead to
without the conscious knowledge of the researcher new, radical findings in this field as it has a high level
limited the scope of the study. However, due to the of potential for research. From the above stated
extensive amount of literature that had already been themes and discussion, it can be seen that the mirror
read up on the topic before the selection of a research neuron system in human beings is a mixed bag full of
question and start of the study, this limitation has surprises. It has immense research potential for the
hopefully been overcome. field of science as well as philosophy. It has been
called the point of amalgamation for the two fields that
In future, a higher number of articles may be
have existed in isolation, independent from one other.
reviewed and a more extensive study can be
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87
CASE REPORT
88
Madness and Creativity: Unravelling the Mystery through Case Studies of Popular Artists
Anshu Chaudhary
Assistant Professor, Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi, Delhi
Both madness and creativity are reoccurring themes in psychology. History is replete with examples of artists
who achieved fame and also suffered from psychopathology. For a long time now, psychologists have been
intrigued by the link between madness and creativity. Are creative people more likely to have psychopathology?
Or is it that the people with psychopathology have greater propensity towards creativity? The present paper
attempts to answer these questions with help of multiple case analysis of four popular artists namely Sadat
Hassan Manto, Sylvia Plath, Adolf Hitler and Eminem based on pertinent secondary data sources. The paper
discusses the major themes that emerge from the analysis of life history and creative works of these artists to
examine if there exists an overlap between the two. The analysis clearly indicates that the difficult life
experiences, especially during the formative years, is an underlying factor that fuels creativity and also
precipitates psychopathology. Further, the lived experience of psychopathology may itself makes a person feel
like a stranger in the world of ‘normalcy’ and the artists may find creative channels for expressing their
otherwise inexplicable pain and desires.
Key Words: madness, creativity, psychopathology, artists, case-study
Introduction selected for a series of content analytical studies that

culminated in publication of a classic titled
The images of a mad artist, a depressed poet ‘Clockwork muse’ (1975). Taking advantage of
and a tormented musician have never failed at collection of these biographical materials, Martindale
capturing the imagination of people. Tracing the decided to gauge the mental health of the poets at three
curiosity into the subject of ‘madness’ and ‘creativity’ levels: normal, symptomatic (when behaviour
back to ancient Greeks, it may be noted that Aristotle
displayed alcoholism, suicide, phobias, or mental
once said ‘Omnes ingeniosos melancholicos esse’,
“crises” or “breakdowns”) and psychotic (if they were
which means that no great mind has ever existed
committed to an asylum or exhibited recurring
without a touch of madness (Becker, 2014). Socrates symptoms such as hallucinations). It was found that
also believed that some of the highest goods have
about 15 percent of the poets had psychotic episodes
come to us by way of madness. He examined the idea at some point in their lives, and a significant 50
further and delineated four types of divine madness, percent had some type of psychopathological
each corresponding to a different God. Prophetic symptoms. The study made it clear that the prevalence
madness corresponding to Apollo, the madness of rate of psychopathology among poets was
mystery corresponding to Dionysus, poetic madness significantly higher as compared to the normal
corresponding to the Muses, and the madness of love population. If we were to go beyond the artists to
corresponding to Eros and Aphrodite. The Greek explore creativity among scientists, decades prior to
physician Hippocrates speculated that madness Martindale’s work poets, Judas (1949) examined 181
resulted from an imbalance of four bodily humours: scientists and 113 artists (including architects,
blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm. Each
sculptors, painters, poets, and composers) from
humour was believed to be endowed with a certain Germany. The findings of the study revealed that the
quality such as heat, cold, dryness, and moistness. If rate of psychopathology among scientists was far less
the humours and the corresponding qualities were than among the artists, and even among the artists,
properly balanced, the person was deemed healthy poets fared the worst in terms of mental health.
(Swindall, 2010).
One of the most notable large-scale efforts to
To examine the issue at hand empirically, study the link between madness and creativity has
Martindale (1972) studied lives and work of 21
been made by James Kaufman (2001). Based on his
English poets (born between 1670 and 1809) and 21 examination of 1,629 eminent creative writers,
French poets (born between 1770 and 1909). These Kauffman concluded that the writers in general and
forty-two poets were same as the ones who were poets in particular, have extraordinarily high rates of
89
mental illness and an enhanced risk of committing artists often use their work as a sort of biographical
suicide when compared with the regular population. mirror to reflect on their life experiences.
He found that the percentage of suicide is 26 percent
This area of research, like any other, is also
among the sampled poets and 14 percent among the
not without difference of opinions among researchers.
sampled writers as compared to 1 percent rate of
Many researchers do not accept the linkage between
suicide among the non-literary public. Kaufman called
madness and creativity and believe to be an outcome
his findings, “The Plath Effect” in memory of Sylvia
of popular imagination without any empirical
Plath-the famous writer, who after a long stint with
evidence. These researchers in support of their
depression, committed suicide in 1963.
position critique the robustness of the researches
Another empirical study by Carson et al. discussed earlier. For e.g., Waddell (1998) did a
(2003) threw light on the subject further. Carson and comprehensive review of 29 studies and 34 review
her colleagues reported a positive correlation between articles establishing a link between creativity and
high levels of creativity and abnormal behaviour. mental illness. Based on his scrutiny, he reported that
Thus, one may speculate that creative people do in fact most of these studies could not be trusted as they had
face a heightened risk of developing some kind of a flawed methodology with weaker case study designs
mental illness. It was noted in the study that they are and no cohort study. Schlesinger (2009) also argued
much more likely to be diagnosed with mood that most of these past researches used case histories
disorders are likely to have greater propensity for of very atypical individuals and thus, findings may not
developing substance abuse disorders. Carson and her be generalizable to a larger population. Another
colleagues posited that the artists diagnosed with criticism comes from the manner in which the key
mood disorders are able to effectively channelize their concepts of ‘madness’ and ‘creativity’ have been
creativity in the mania phase of bipolar mood disorder. defined in these studies. These definitions are diverse
The state of hypomania fosters creativity as it gives and inconsistent and thus, synthesizing their findings
rise to mental clarity and the subsequent rise in is all the more challenging.
activation of associated networks.
Given the elusiveness of the term ‘madness’,
At the neuro-psychological level, the deconstructing it becomes extremely important not
connection between creativity and psycho-pathology only in reference to these studies, but in general
is seemingly possible. A comprehensive review of academic discourse as well. In his classical work
past studies exploring the link between madness and ‘Madness and Civilization', Michael Foucault (1988)
creativity has revealed that there are neurological posited that madness is not merely a biological
similarities between the creative mind and the mind condition, it is a socio-culturally created lived
plagued with psychopathology (Sussman, 2007). experience. He convincingly argued that ‘mad’ is a
There is unusual activity in the frontal lobe label given by society to those who refuse to conform
(especially, prefrontal cortex) of people suffering and thus, are difficult to control. This critical take on
from bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. The the idea of madness is also shared by Thomas Szasz.
hyperactivity in this area is known to make a person In his influential essay titled 'The Myth of Mental
to draw connections between two unrelated ideas. Illness' (1960, p.113-118), Szasz noted that "mental
This ability may be at the core of creativity as well. illness, of course, is not literally a "thing" or physical
object and hence it can "exist" only in the same sort of
Moving beyond the prevalence rates towards
way in which other theoretical concepts exist.” Thus,
uncovering the dynamics of relationship between
going a step further, Szasz raised a controversial
madness and creativity in lives of eminent figures,
question: does mental illness or madness exists at all?
Swindall (2010) investigated the personal lives and
For him, it does not as so called ‘managing’ madness
creative works of six eminent writers, namely Gustav
is like witch-hunting where society tries to rationalize
Flaubert, Hector Berlioz, Friedreich Nietzsche, Rainer
strange behaviour of people by attributing it
Maria Rilke, Virginia Woolf and Sylvia Plath with a
wrongfully to an abstract theoretical concept of mental
psycho-historical focus. Through his extensive
illness that does not actually exist. It is all a
analysis, Swindall reported that in case of the mad
mechanism to control ‘deviance’ in society to bring in
artist, one’s life and creative work tends to be
homogeneity and control.
inexorably intertwined. They all had in one way or
another, difficulty distinguishing between the reality Keeping in view these ideas and thus,
and the myth that they were creating through their adopting a person-centric approach in reference to the
writings. He also concluded that the states of madness link between madness and creativity, Peterson (1986)
do provide inspiration to the creative person. The in his study titled ‘A mad people’s history of madness’
90
noted that the complexity of the nature of madness and • Eminem by Poorva Parashar
the critique of its idea can’t be dismissed. The term
Apart from offering a very interesting reading,
‘madness’ has had different connotations in different
each case serves the purpose of furthering the
socio-historic and cultural contexts. It is a subjective
academic discourse on the theme of madness and
experience that is lived differently by different people.
creativity.
Thus, one of the ways of unravelling the mystery of
madness will be acknowledging the lived experienced ***
of people who have experiences this ‘so called’
madness. The present study is intended to be one small Case 1: Saadat Hasan Manto
step in that direction. Andree* and Ana Gupta**
The Present Study *Student, Department of Psychology, University of
Delhi
This investigation was carried out by the sixth
semester students of the Department as part of the **Student, Department of Psychology, Amity
paper on Understanding Psychological Disorders. To University, Noida
discern the linkage between madness and creativity,
the specific research objectives delineated in the
present study were: “Saadat has died but Manto lives on…”
• To examine the life history of the eminent Saadat Hasan Manto is a well-known Urdu
person to uncover the lived experiences of author known for his many short stories and radio
psychopathology plays. He was both revered and despised for his bold
writings and was tried for obscenity several times. He
• To relate the life experiences with the creative was deeply affected by the partition of India and
works to identify the autobiographical Pakistan and wrote many stories on the subject. The
reflections of psychopathology latter part of his life was particularly poignant where
Method he underwent depression and also became dependent
on alcohol. The present work offers a glimpse into his
To understand the relationship between ‘madness’ professional and personal life and his simultaneous
and ‘creativity’, this research employed a multiple experiences of depression and alcoholism based on his
case study approach. The cases selected for the biography titled ‘Pity of Partition’ by Ayesha Jalal
purpose of analysis included the noted creative figures (2013). Two of his short stories- ‘The Insult’ and ‘Ten
who have experienced psychopathology. The cases Rupees’-are chosen as a sample of his creative work
were chosen by the students based on their personal to draw a parallel with his life experiences.
interest.
About Manto: A brief biographical sketch
The data for the present study was collected using
secondary sources such as autobiographies, Saadat Hasan Manto was born on May 11,
biographies, interviews, creative works like stories, 1912 in the city of Ludhiana, Punjab. His family
poems, speeches, art works etc. The secondary data migrated from Kashmir to Punjab in the early 19th
thus obtained was analyzed using the six steps of century and settled in Amritsar. He often used to say
thematic analysis as suggested by Braun and Clarke that being beautiful is the second meaning of being
(2006). Kashmiri. Manto’s childhood was not an easy one. His
father, Ghulam Hasan, was an orthodox Muslim and a
Results and Discussion trained lawyer. He married twice as his first wife was
This section focusses on the analysis and known to be mentally unstable. Manto was his only
discussion of the four cases studied extensively by the son from his second wife. Manto’s mother, Sardar
students as follows: Begum, married Ghulam Hasan at the age of 21 after
her first marriage was never consummated. Unlike his
• Saadat Hasan Manto by Ana Gupta & father who was cold and disapproving, Manto’s
Andree mother was warm, caring and supportive. Thus, as a
• Sylvia Plath by Kanika Mohan & Kriti child, Manto occupied two very different emotional
Trehan worlds with each of his parents.
• Adolf Hitler by Ria Dayal It is interesting to note that the great writer
Manto could not perform well in academics at school.
91
In fact, he failed thrice in school-leaving Pakistan, he felt an acute sense of dislocation and last
examinations. After barely passing in the fourth few years of his life were consumed by the alcoholism,
attempt, Manto entered the Hindu Sabha College in depression and nostalgia of life in Bombay. The
Amritsar in 1931, but dropped out a year later after money from his short stories was spent on alcohol. In
failing the annual examinations. A few years later, a April 1952, Manto entered rehabilitation to manage
turning point came in Manto’s life when he met Abdul his alcoholism, but, it was not helpful. Finally, his
Bari Alig who became his mentor. He was an editor of distress led to his tragic death on January 18, 1955.
the Amritsar newspaper named ‘Equality’. Under his
Manto’s life and his creative works: An interface
guidance, Manto translated various Russian plays and
short stories which were later published in 1933. One Manto’s biography titled “The Pity of
may say that Bari Sahib sparked the light of thinking Partition: Manto’s Life, Times, and Work across the
and writing in Manto and he was the first positive male India-Pakistan Divide” (2013) written by Ayesha
role model in Manto’s life. Subsequently, in 1934, Jalal, Professor of History at Tufts University, who is
Manto made a second attempt at higher education by the great grandniece of Saadat Hasan Manto. Gives an
entering the prestigious Aligarh Muslim University, insight into how his life experiences found reflection
but, this attempt also did not last long as he was in his creative writing. The significant themes that
inaccurately diagnosed with tuberculosis. Thus, emerge through this reading are as follows:
Manto retrieved to the mountains for sake of his Manto’s relationship with significant others
health. Later in 1935, Manto returned to Amritsar only
to find out the that the financial condition of his Manto’s relationship with his family members
mother was terrible and he would now have to support shaped him to be the kind of person he was. Maulvi
himself. Ghulam Hasan, Manto’s father, was a strict
disciplinarian and had very high expectations from his
A new chapter in Manto’s life began when he sons to follow in his footsteps and become successful
moved to Bombay in 1936 at the age of 24. These lawyers like him. While Manto’s step-brothers
times were later recounted by Manto as the most fulfilled their father’s dream, Manto was not
enjoyable and unforgettable years of his life. In interested in law. This may be the reason that Manto’s
Bombay, to begin with, he worked as an editor of the father was cold and distant. There was clearly a lack
weekly film newspaper ‘The Painter’. At the same of unconditional positive regard in their
time, he also wrote stories and radio plays and relationship. In a particular episode in his childhood,
published his first full collection of short stories titled once while flying a kite instead of studying, when he
‘Sparks’ and ‘Short Stories’. He also wrote the heard his father approaching, he jumped off the roof
dialogue and script for the 1935 film ‘Village Girl’. in panic hurting himself badly. Thus, fear dominated
All this while, Manto’s mother longed to see Manto’s feelings towards his father. At another
him married and got him engaged to Safiya in 1938. instance, Manto’s father invaded the informal drama
Manto and Safiya got married on April 26, 1939. The club he had formed with his friends and broke the
couple lived happily until grief struck them at the loss musical instruments they were using. He made it clear
of their new born son in 1941. A year later, Manto left that he considered these activities to be a waste of
for Delhi as he had accepted a job at the All India time. Manto was restricted in a lot of ways which later
Radio. This again was short lived as Manto was not gave way to his rebellion. Unable to bear his father’s
satisfied and he returned to Bombay. pressure any longer, Manto decided to drop the
science subjects in school to take up Persian and Urdu.
The next event in his life, the partition, was of
He had a clear affinity for languages which would
significance to all the people in the subcontinent. It
prove to be the reason for his success and fame later
was at midnight of August 15, 1947 when India
in life. But his father did not understand and appreciate
became independent and Pakistan came into being.
it and he did not care anymore.
Safiya went to Lahore with their three daughters and
Manto chose to stay in Bombay. His incentive for Manto’s father’s coldness was offset by his
staying back was the opportunity to work with the mother’s warmth. His mother, Sardar Begum, gave
famous actor Ashok Kumar to help him revive birth to four children, of whom only Saadat and his
Bombay Talkies. Unfortunately, Kumar accepted sister Nasira Igbal survived. Manto was very attached
Ismat Chugtai’s short story over Manto’s work for this to his mother whom he called Bibijan. They used to
purpose later. Manto couldn’t get over this blow and live separately in a small section of the house. The
decided to leave Bombay and set sail for Pakistan. He contempt shown by the paternal side of the family for
returned to Lahore on January 8, 1948. Being in his mother left a deep emotional scar. He resented the
92
differential treatment meted out to his mother. Singh.” (Jalal, 2013, p.41). Like Bhagat Singh, Manto
Manto’s spirits were lifted by his mother’s keen too fantasized about driving the British out of India.
appreciation of his early stories and unflinching belief His short story, ‘Inqilab Pasand’ written in 1935 was
in his impending success. When he was in Bombay, a semiautobiographical sketch about the injustices,
his mother wrote a series of letters to boost his morale. hypocrisies and lies that shaped his perception of the
She read his stories with rapt attention. Manto’s sister, world.
whom he called Balaji, also reinforced Manto’s
Manto’s characters were actual people faced
penchant for storytelling. Manto clearly thought well
with real life issues. Whether he was writing about
of his sister’s understanding of literature and sought
prostitutes, pimps, or criminals, Manto wanted to
her approval on every aspect of his literary works. The
impress on his readers that these so called
relationship between the brother and sister was tested
disrespectable people were also human, much more so
when his sister got married and moved away. Manto
than those who hide themselves under the thick veil of
wrote an emotional letter to his sister wherein he
hypocrisy. He was very empathetic towards the
wrote, “Balaji, your brother may be uncultured,
socially downtrodden and brought out their inherent
worthless, and peevish, but he possesses a sensitive
goodness. Manto’s stories emphasized on justice for
heart filled with love, a love that is hidden but which
all. “Jaib Katra” (Pick-pocket) was one of his radio
makes the smallest oversight seem like a major event”
plays where he wrote about a good-hearted expert
(Jalal, 2013, p.48). This reveals a special strong bond
pick-pocket, Kashi, who falls in love with a school
between the siblings.
teacher, Bimala, whose bag he had stolen. Through his
Manto got married to Safiya, who like him stories, Manto conveyed that the social forces produce
belonged to a Kashmiri family. She enriched Manto criminals, who, despite transgressing the norms, are
with rare insights into the female psyche. He human like anyone else and therefore susceptible to
published many stories dedicated to Safiya, which the reforming powers of love. Manto believed in the
indicated his love for his wife. They had a son whom goodness of human nature and blamed society for
they named Arif, but his sudden demise made Safiya pushing people into degrading themselves by
sick and pushed Manto into depression. This loss was becoming criminals and prostitutes.
tremendous for Manto, he wrote, “I fainted only three
Manto also wrote extensively about
times in my life; the first on my marriage, second on
prostitutes. Some of these stories are ‘Kali Shalwar’,
my mother’s sudden death and then on the death of my
‘The Insult’, ‘Ten Rupees’ and the classic ‘Thanda
son” (Jalal, 2013, p.108).
Gosht’. Due to the his bold writings, Manto was tried
Manto the writer: sensitive, revolutionary and for obscenity several times. “I am not a pornographer
champion for social justice but a story writer” (Jalal, 2013, p.109) he declared in
his defence several times. He even said, “If one could
Manto drew inspiration for his creations from
talk about temples and mosques, then why could one
his life. Manto’s characters in his short stories are very
not talk about whorehouses from where many people
elaborative and true reflections of the world and its
went to temples and mosques?” (Jalal, 2013, p.71).
people. He was very observant and had a keen insight
One may say that Manto was quite ahead of his times
into the complexity of the human psyche. Ayesha
in believing that a prostitute was not different from
Jalal, noted that Manto was “someone who liked to
any other “honourable or respectable woman” and
keep his ear close to the ground in order to weave
believed in her calibre of becoming anything she
tales out of facts gleaned from everyday life” (Jalal,
wants to. He questioned, “Aren’t prostitutes who
2013, p.23). Manto, from an early age, showed signs
don’t cheat anyone also respectable?” (Jalal, 2013,
of being sensitive to the spectrum of human emotions.
p.71). In that sense, Manto’s writings had clear-cut
The portrayal of these emotions come alive in the
feminist leanings.
diverse range of characters in his stories.
Manto had high opinions of his self and his
Manto wanted to inspire people to fight for
literary talent. He was arrogant and much ahead of his
independence through his stories. Right from the
times, which made it difficult for him to get along well
beginning, Manto was an avid reader of revolutionary
with others. Manto felt that the society was very unfair
literature. Bristling with anti-British sentiments, yet
to his writings and him but he was too proud to
being skeptical of the Congress and Muslim League
complain or act as a victim. Being a rebel, he did not
leadership, he was inspired by revolutionary ideas of
appeal for any kind of support and had a hatred for
Bhagat Singh. One of his friends Abu Saaed said,
victimhood. The same is reflected in the characters he
“Manto had all the qualities of being a Bhagat
portrayed in his stories.
93
Pain of Partition Manto slipped into severe alcoholism and

depression in the last few years of his life. During his
Manto’s sensitivity and empathy also made
adult years, Manto had taken to whiskey as it helped
him experience the pain of partition all the more
him relieve acute chest pain when he was sick. With
poignantly. Desolation of partition inspired many of
respect to alcohol, he confessed, “I have started
his stories. “The tumult wrought by the partition of the
drinking a lot, not so that I can write- I cannot write
country made a rebel out of me and I remain one,”
when I have been drinking, but actually to find that
(Jalal, 2013, p.133). Manto disclosed. His “1919 Ki
something within me that I have to do” (Jalal, 2013,
Baat” (A Story of 1919), written after partition,
p.72). Later, his under-appreciation at the professional
underlines his belief in the interconnectedness of
front led him to drinking. He borrowed money from
events that preceded the brutal segregation of the
his friends which he was unable to pay back. He could
subcontinent. Partition in this view was an intimate
not provide for his family. On one occasion, after a
aspect of the inner dynamics of India’s history. Manto
bout of excessive drinking, he was admitted to the
was not interested in analysing the causes of partition
hospital with symptoms of acute jaundice, but, the
but was keen on delineating its consequences. Unlike
condition was later found to be cirrhosis of the liver.
many other authors, Manto wrote partition related
Manto admitted that the word ‘abstinence’ did not
stories that did not pass judgment on events or human
exist in his dictionary. “I have sacrificed three
actions but sought to tease out their inwardness.
quarters of my life to the lack of abstinence.” He
Manto wrote on the plight of abducted women
believed that “if life is spent in abstinence, it is prison,
revealing the heinous face of humanity during the
and if one spends it intemperately, it is also a prison”
times of war. In his story “Khol Do” (Open it), he
(Jalal, 2013, p.74). His self- destruction was aided and
wrote about a Muslim girl, Sakina, who was separated
abetted by his friends who piled him with liquor. He
from her father and was later sexually abused by the
grew extremely weak and felt tired of the daily
same men who were supposed to take care of her
recriminations about his lack of responsibility toward
safety.
his family. He voluntarily gave his wife the rights to
In one of his internationally known partition all his writings so that he could no longer borrow
stories, “Toba Tek Singh” is about a non-muslim anything from the publisher without her prior
patient at a mental asylum in Lahore awaiting approval. Such an existence tantamount to a living
relocation to India. He was considered mad for death for him and soon after he left his body at the
questioning the wisdom of partition and the sheer young age of 42.
brutality it had let loose. Blending hard facts with
Creative Work Analysis: ‘Insult’ and ‘Ten rupees’
realistic fiction, Manto was able to document the
His work is a treasure trove of rare insights
multifaceted nature of human sufferings at the time of
into human nature. The two short stories that we
partition. According to Manto, the pity of partition
focused on in the present study were ‘Insult’ and ‘Ten
was not that instead of one country there were now
rupees’. These stories provide us with the insight into
two- independent India and independent Pakistan, but
the feminist leanings of Manto apart from his struggle
the fact that “human beings in both countries were
for social justice.
slaves, slaves of bigotry….. slaves of religious
passions, slaves of animal instincts and barbarity.” Insult is the story of Saugandhi, a self-
(Jalal, 2013, p.137). contained prostitute living in the big city of Bombay.
This story was inspired by his Bombay years and had
Living through the same pain at a personal
elements of Bombay life such as prostitutes living in
level, he found it exceedingly difficult to stay on in
overcrowded chawls, film actresses and thousands of
Bombay in an atmosphere poisoned by killings, arson
people crowding the city in their quest to make it big.
and rape. While he was working in Bombay Talkies,
Saugandhi is portrayed as an independent, fearless
friction between Hindu and Muslim employees hurt
woman who lives life by her own rules. A big blow to
him deeply. He was disappointed at being
her high self-esteem is delivered when a rich man
marginalised for being a Muslim. Manto himself was
refused her services out of disgust. It was also
torn apart and could not decide if his home was India
disturbing given that she had never judged anyone
or Pakistan. Soon, he decided to move to Lahore,
wanting to satisfy their sexual needs, yet she was the
Pakistan. Disillusioned with the lack of opportunities
one being judged and looked at with disgust.
in his newly adopted country, Manto turned to heavy
Following the rejection, Saugandhi starts questioning
drinking.
the importance of beauty in life. She introspects on the
Alcoholism and depression fact as to why the comment of a stranger had such an
94
impact on her and why is she seeking approval from alcoholism and depression. His earlier writings have
others. Eventually, she understands that peace comes more of reflection of his ideological commitments
from within and not from acceptance by anyone else where the character portrayed are strong and are
outside of you. There seems to be a parallel here with fighting battles against injustices meted to them in
Manto’s personal struggle of thinking highly of society. His later writings, may be due to his own
oneself yet seeking approval from the world. Manto, experience of hopelessness and desolation, portrayed
otherwise, was also very empathetic towards the characters that are beaten by circumstances, are
plight of women and had female protagonists in many hopeless, yet refuse to give-up, just like the
of his stories. Manto’s stories are clear reflections of unwavering spirit of Manto himself who would just
the objectification of women in our society. not succumb to victimhood. There is something about
Manto’s writing and characters that it strikes a chord
The other story in focus is ‘Ten rupees’
of the innermost, hidden parts of our self that may
where the protagonist of this story is Sarita, a 15 year
have been disowned on account of social compliance
old girl who is forced into prostitution by her mother
and decency. Thus, in our hearts, though Saadat has
due to their poor conditions. Sarita is a sweet, innocent
died, Manto continues to live on.
child who has no care in the world. She likes to spend
her days playing around with the other kids in locality. ***
Not knowing what is in store for her, Sarita doesn’t
mind dressing up for the rich men who come to pick
Case 2: Sylvia Plath
her up in long cars as she loves car rides. She loves the Kanika Mohan* & Kriti Trehan**
carefree feeling of the wind whipping over her face so
*M.A. Psychology, Department of Psychology,
much that she doesn’t give a damn about the men who
University of Delhi, Delhi
buy her for a mere sum of ten rupees. She was
blissfully free from worry while her innocence and **M.A. Applied Psychology, Department of
oblivion is still intact. The story revolves around an Psychology, Jamia Milia Islamia, Delhi
incident when Sarita is sent off with three men who
have bought her for the evening. In her naivety, Sarita
ends up having an amazing evening with the men as Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) was a prominent
they laugh, sing songs and have fun ending the ride at American poet, novelist and short story writer. She
the beach. The story is very touching as it shows how was born in Boston, Massachusetts to Otto Emile
depravity can force children to such harsh realities of Plath and Aurelia Plath on October 27, 1932. She
life which they are too young to understand. received her education from Smith College and later
from Newham College, University of Cambridge. She
The protagonists of the two stories are very
was an achiever throughout her life. She met Ted
different from each other yet both of them are bound
Hughes, an acclaimed poet himself, whom she later
by the common thread of depravity and forced
married in 1956. She is best known for two published
prostitution. Saugandhi is a grown, independent
collections of her poems, The Colossus and Other
woman consciously in this profession whereas Sarita
Poems (1960) and Ariel (1965), and a semi-
is a child forced into the trade by her mother. Manto
autobiographical novel, The Bell Jar (1963). Plath
described unique beauty of both women in his writing.
suffered from severe depression and had suicidal
All his stories, including this one, Manto voiced that
tendencies throughout her adult life. She died on
the repression of sexuality by society is at the core of
February 11, 1963. Even after 40 years of her death,
the social evils. Manto’s preference for women-
she continues to attract the readers. Her writings are
centric stories also point to the central role women-his
constantly read, interpreted and understood in order to
mother, sister and wife-played in his life.
find a link to her tragic death. In order to explore the
Concluding Remarks link between her mental illness and creativity,
parallels were drawn between her life and creative
The discussion above establishes that Manto’s
work. Presented here are the major themes that link
life influenced his work. The characters he created
the experience of madness with creative expression in
drew inspiration from real-life persons and from his
the life and works of Sylvia Plath:
ideological convictions. Yet, one may not say that his
madness led to creativity or vice-versa. One may Bell Jar-An inspiration drawn from self
however argue that his sensitivity and emotional
The Bell Jar (1963) is considered to be a semi-
vulnerability at one level added to his talent as a writer
autobiographical account of Plath’s life. It is a thinly
and at the other level also made him vulnerable to both
disguised literary memoir which traces her life
95
between her freshman year at Smith College in 1951 expose the hypocrisy of the patriarchal structures and
and her release from the Mclean psychiatric ward resultant mind-sets in the society.
following her first suicide attempt in 1953. It narrates
Critique of the Conventional Womanhood
the story of a young woman named Esther Greenwood
and her subsequent mental breakdown. As Esther’s Plath herself and her character Esther, lived in
story and descent into mental illness mimics Sylvia’s America of 1950s where the society was still heavily
own bouts of depression, she may be considered as a patriarchal and the struggle of feminism was in the
fictional incarnation of Plath. She may be seen as an nascent stages. During her young adulthood, Plath
embodiment of Plath’s own fears, ambitions and often questioned the American dream’s pressures and
desires. The Bell Jar (1963) contains numerous expectations of getting a house, having a job, and
instances, the inspiration for which was drawn from raising children. She believed that a woman ought to
Plath’s own life. Like Plath, Esther is born in a make her choices irrespective of the social
suburban area of Massachusetts, enjoys a glittering expectations and gender role impositions. She
academic career both at school and college, does a considered that being a writer was more a part of her
glamourous internship at a woman’s magazine in New identity than being a wife or being a mother. In fact,
York, and aspires to become a successful writer. she found it hard to become a mother till she had
established herself as a writer. She feared that
Even the characters in the novel are based on
childbearing would lessen her compulsion to write.
people in Plath’s life. The character of Philomena
Plath’s protagonists as well espoused the similar
Guinea is based on Plath's own patron and author
values in her novels. Esther questions the very idea of
Olive Higgins Prouty, who funded Plath's scholarship
womanhood. She tries hard to form an identity of her
to study at Smith College. Dr. Nolan’s character is
own in a male dominated world. She feels trapped by
thought to be based on Plath's own therapist, Ruth
the society’s expectation that the woman should marry
Beuscher, whom she continued seeing after her
immediately after finishing her education, have
release from the hospital. The protagonist’s
children, and become a dutiful wife and a dedicated
relationship with her family, especially her parents, is
mother. Esther felt that “This was a wasted life for a
also depicted in the same manner as Plath felt about
girl with fifteen years of straight A’s” (Plath, 1963, p.
those relationships in her real life. Very similar to
44). She does not want to follow the path of women
Plath’s hatred for her mother given that she held her
like Mrs. Willard, who are considered to be an
mother responsible for her father’s death and her
example of an ideal wife, one who is supportive and
sadness, the protagonist-Esther- also held her mother
caring towards her husband, his ambitions, needs and
responsible for her madness. Like Plath, Esther too
desires. While Esther’s mother pushes her towards
had lost her father at an early age. The Bell Jar (1963)
family life, Esther is driven to be a successful poet and
also contains parallels to Plath’s romantic
a writer. Thus, just like Plath, the female characters
relationships with her two lovers. In the novel, Esther
she created live in a constant conflict of realizing their
breaks her leg while skiing and believes that it is
professional dream and living a fulfilling family life
symbolic of her broken relationship with Willard. In
and it is impossible to reconcile this conflict without
real life too, Plath broke her leg upon which she
succumbing to the gender norms.
convinced herself that it symbolically stood for the
break up with Dick Norton. Dick Norton is widely Sexual exploration and expression
believed to be an inspiration for the character of Plath consistently pointed out the double
Willard in The Bell Jar (1963). Even Esther’s first standards the society had with respect to sexuality and
sexual encounter seems to be derived from the its expression in both genders. Virginity being a big
relationship that Plath had with the biology professor deal for women, Plath noted that it was unfair that men
she met during her college days. Due to these were allowed to explore their sexuality while women
overlaps, one may convincingly believe that The Bell were expected to be chaste till marriage. Plath in fact,
Jar (1963) is a seminal piece of work which depicts freely dated several men and did not cower down to
Plath’s inner psychological world. She also admitted these conventions. She also had the courage to write
that for her, writing this novel was a therapeutic about her own sexual exploration in her journals. Even
experience. her protagonist in The Bell Jar (1963) struggles with
Feminism the idea of sexuality and virginity. She is very keen on
losing her virginity before marriage as she insists that
Both in her life and in her writings, Plath tried
she “could not stand the idea of a woman having a
bringing forth the issues related to the oppressive
single pure life and a man being able to have a double
nature of the conventional gender roles and tried to
96
life, one pure and one not” (Plath, 1963, p. 43). Thus Plath portrays Esther as an ambitious girl who
she wants to lose her virginity not because of some experiences a gap between the ideal life she aspires for
sexual pleasure, but because she believes that she is and the real world in which she lives. When Esther
entitled to the same sexual experiences as men. In gets a job in New York, she is captivated by the urban
reference to sexual exploration, Esther’s relationship and luxurious city life. However, she soon comes to
with Buddy Willard is significant as, by being with harbour dual feelings for the people around her. While
him, she realises the significance of being sexually she epitomises the freedom and glamour of her job,
liberated. Being with him makes her realise that she she is also completely disenchanted with her dreams
could not be married to someone like him for the rest and their meaninglessness and hollowness. This
of her life. She would rather explore her true identity makes Esther question her worth and lays the
on her own. By trying out new things she wants to foundation for her mental breakdown and suicide
break free from the shackles of the societal attempt later. As it has already been observed that
expectations- “I’ll be flying back and forth between Plath reflected on her own life experiences through
one mutually exclusive thing and another for the rest The Bell Jar (1963). It may be noted that here she drew
of my days.” (Plath, 1963, p. 49). At the end of the from her experiences as the guest editor of
novel, she loses her virginity. She feels relieved at Mademoiselle in New York. Plath was very
finally relinquishing her virginity and worries enthusiastic about getting the job to begin with but she
surrounding it. Further, by exercising the full control soon became more and more dissatisfied. In the midst
in choosing her sexual partner, she is challenging her of all the glamour accompanying her job, Plath felt a
own ignorance about sex. For her, relationship is not sense of alienation from the place. Being there, she
important, but an impersonal and unconditional sexual often doubted her abilities as a writer and felt that she
experience with no strings attached. It does not matter was not capable of realizing her dream. These feelings
to her whether her partner is already in a relationship. were further exacerbated by two incidents, firstly, on
hearing of Rosenberg executions and on being
Just like Ether’s character, Plath has also had
sexually assaulted at a party. Thus, she finished her
erotic engagements with several men before her
task in New York as soon as possible to return home.
marriage to Hughes. Her first significant relationship
Thus, both Plath and Esther found it difficult to relate
was with an Estonian artist named Ilo Pill. Her another
to the people around them and felt a gap between their
significant relationship was with a biology professor
real life experiences and the ideal life they desired.
she met during her college days. Her friend Hunter had
noted in her memoir-‘A Closer Look at Ariel’ (1973)- Feeling Inadequate and Directionless
that though Plath was disciplined, she wanted to have
Esther questions her role as a woman by
experiences that were out of the ordinary (Steinberg,
expressing her desire to die. Perhaps, she seems right
2004). She longed to explore her sexuality. But her
from her perspective as she feels the pressure of the
morality and the society she lived in prevented this,
restrictions placed on her as a woman. Esther is torn
leading to a constant inner conflict. So, through these
between her writing career and the norm of settling
relationships, Plath wanted to break free from her
down. Though her intellectual talents bring her many
conventional morality and become sexually liberated.
laurels, she is only accepted by her friends when she
Experience of Madness starts dating a handsome and popular boy. Moreover,
her boyfriend Willard thinks that when they will get
The Bell Jar (1963) narrates the story of
married, she will drop her poetic ambitions for him.
protagonist’s journey from a normal girl to a resilient
Esther also longs to enjoy sexual freedom by seeking
woman, who regresses into madness. This madness
newer experiences. Simultaneously, she suffers from
may be considered the key which unlocks the answers
a writer’s block and starts doubting her ability to write.
to her questions about the meaning of her life. As she
She becomes unsure about what to do after college as
recovers in a psychiatric ward from her mental illness,
her life till now has been centred on doing well
she aspires to survive and find meaning in this
academically. Esther feels the anxiety about her future
survival. Esther’s perils with her madness and
and starts feeling directionless and inadequate due to
subsequent treatment are arguably drawn from Plath’s
her indecisiveness. This leads to her madness. At this
own battle with depression and shock treatment. In
point, she tries to commit suicide. Again we see a
fact, some believe that perhaps The Bell Jar (1963)
parallel between the novel and Plath’s life. Plath too
was a response to many years of electroshock
was very ambitious and often questioned the standard
treatment and the scars it left.
role set for the woman by the society. She was even
Ideal life versus actual experiences of the world ready to ditch the domestic life for becoming a
97
successful writer. During her young adulthood, she At the end of the novel, the bell jar- Esther’s
often feared that a mother’s role will come in her way madness- is lifted. But she still feels that it may
of becoming an accomplished writer. Therefore, it can descent again and take a grip of her: “How did I know
be said that Esther exhibits the same fears that Plath that someday—at college, in Europe, somewhere,
had during her own younger days. anywhere—the bell jar, with its stifling distortions,
wouldn’t descend again?” (Plath, 1963, p. 126).
Esther portrays the same insecurities that
Though Esther can function more or less normally
Plath had about herself. She often sought constant
now, she stills feels terrified about the future. Plath’s
external approval due to her lack of confidence in her
own life story confirms that the “bell jar” can descend
own abilities, like when she taught at Smith College
again. Just as the pressures that culminated in her late
and became increasingly tensed about her
teens drove Plath to attempt suicide, the pressures that
qualifications as a teacher. She had developed a
culminated in her early thirties led her to end her life.
paranoia that she was letting down the people who had
recommended her and had shown faith in her. In fact, Critique of Psychiatry
she wrote a letter to herself, which she called “Letter
The novel critiques the profession of
to the demon”, in which she addressed the demon
psychiatric medicine through Esther’s experiences.
which caused her to attempt suicide (Steinberg, 2004).
The critique begins when Esther meets her first
She also found it difficult to accept criticism and
psychiatrist, Dr. Gordon, whom she finds very self-
rejection, as when she came to know that she was not
satisfied and unsympathetic. He prescribes her a
accepted in Frank O’Connor’s short story course (an
traumatic and painful shock treatment, which worsens
incident she used in the novel). Already her
her symptoms. Joan, a girl who Esther strongly
experience at New York had been too stressful and a
disliked since her college days, too describes her
disappointment for her. After coming to know about
insensitive treatment at the hands of male
her rejection, she started believing that she had no
psychiatrists. Also, some of the hospitals in which
talent as a writer. This led Plath’s first suicide attempt
Esther lives, pay more attention to sanitation than to
on August 24, 1953, by trying to swallow 48 sleeping
the patients and are frighteningly authoritarian. By
pills.
seeing the inactive patients, she realizes that mental
Bell Jar - Symbolism of Madness illness is something defective and to be ashamed of, to
be hid and denied, rather than to be cured and
The Bell Jar (1963) is an inverted glass jar,
discussed.
generally used to display an object of scientific
curiosity. Esther Greenwood compares her mental But when Esther starts receiving treatment
illness to a bell jar. When she becomes insane, Esther from Dr. Nolan, her experiences are rather positive
feels herself trapped in an airtight jar which enable her and she even makes a quick recovery. So, the novel
to make a connection between her real world does not entirely presents a negative picture of
experiences and her perceptions. She feels: “To the psychiatric care. In fact, Esther’s relationship with Dr.
person in the bell jar, blank and stopped as a dead Nolan reaches a point where she starts seeing her as
baby, the world itself is the bad dream.”(Plath, 1963, her mother. In Freudian psychoanalysis, this reaction
p. 124). Esther feels paralyzed and sick. The “bell jar” to the therapy is called transference, in which the
in fact reflects Plath’s own inward response to her patient attaches her feelings to the therapist which she
illness. She, like Esther, was trapped inside herself, harbours for a significant person in the past. Esther
and no external stimulation, no matter how new and tries to resolve her feelings for her mother through her
exciting, could alleviate this condition. The “bell jar” transference. She believes her mother is also not able
of Sylvia’s madness separated her from the people she to understand her situation. Although she is very
cared about. Sylvia’s association of madness with a caring, Esther’s mother thinks that by deciding not to
bell jar suggests her feelings that madness descended receive any more shock treatments, Esther will behave
on her without her control or assent. Sylvia’s suicidal more normally. For her, Esther’s illness is just a
urges came from this sense of suffocating isolation. As passing phase. But Esther thinks that her own mother
already mentioned, Esther’s experience of madness has failed her.
parallels Plath’s own suffering from depression. Like
Still Esther criticises the shock treatment that
her creator, Esther makes numerous attempts to
she receives from her new psychiatrist. The shock
commit suicide. The incident of her last suicide
treatment clears her mind entirely like when she
attempt, when she hides herself in the basement of her
completely stops thinking about knives. This comes as
mother’s house and swallows sleeping pills, is directly
a relief, but at the expense of blunting of her sharp
taken from Plath’s life.
98
intelligence. This highlights the dubious methods that The present study is focused on exploring the
psychiatrists and psychologists often use to treat their link between madness and creativity through the case
patients. They help the patient clear their mind of Adolf Hitler, one of the most well-known and
entirely. But they may not always help the patients to controversial political leader in recent history. Hitler
address the underlying important issues that are the was born on 20 April 1889 in Austria. He was the
root cause of their mental and emotional suffering. leader of the Nazi Party and acted in capacity of
chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945. He was a
Plath’s own psychiatric history and her
notorious dictator who was responsible for the
feelings about her treatment can be traced in this
holocaust which took a toll on the lives of 54 million
critique. Plath often felt in her later life that the electric
people, most of whom were Jews. He was also
shock treatment that she received in her youth had
responsible for the exile of countless others. As leader
blunted her mind. Also, Esther’s relationship with Dr.
of the Nazi party ruling Germany, Hitler was at the
Nolan parallels Plath’s own relationship with Dr. Ruth
center-stage of the World War II in Europe. After his
Beuscher. Plath considered Dr. Beuscher as a mother
defeat, he shot himself at the age of 56 on 30 April
figure, who took care of her with unusual tenderness.
1945.
Thus, Plath had also transferred her feelings for her
mother onto her therapist. Through her novel Plath A close reading of ‘Mein Kampf’ (1971) that
openly critiqued the loopholes in modern psychiatric translates to ‘My Struggle’, the autobiography of
treatment and its eventual impact on the patient. Hitler, makes it clear that Hitler was a skilled public
speaker, propagandist and politician. In just a few
Concluding Remarks
years, he not only became the most powerful leader of
The link between madness and creativity have his country, but he also managed influencing a
been debated over thousands of years. Throughout majority of the German population in the direction of
history, philosophers have speculated on the nature of anti-Semitic views. Such is his reputation till date that
a ‘mad genius’, specifically a depressed writer and he needs no introduction. It is also noteworthy that his
poet. Whenever the idea of mad genius strikes our IQ was 141, which was clearly off-charts. It is
mind, we often picture an artist or a scientist shutting significant also because, apart from creativity, a high
himself/herself in a closest and doing his/her creative level of intelligence has also been linked with
work. The artist usually has very little contact with the psychopathology.
outside world, but his/her inside world finds
The present analysis is based on secondary
expression in his/her creative endeavours. The same
sources and is derived from the work of psychoanalyst
was also true for Sylvia Plath to a certain extent. As
Murray (1943) who prepared a report titled ‘Analysis
she outpoured her feelings of sadness and isolation in
of the personality of Adolf Hitler with predictions of
her poems, short stories and the novel The Bell Jar,
his future behaviour and suggestions for dealing with
the insights drawn from her case history helps us to
him now and after Germany’s surrender’ for the US
unravel the connection between insanity and
Office of Strategic Services. This report was kept
creativity. If we look at Sylvia Plath’s case, her own
confidential for a long time and was only made public
life story confirms that where madness lies, creativity
years later. This report is believed to be one of the
lurks. The life of Sylvia Plath is that of a female poet
most ground-breaking and coveted documents in
who became an icon after tragically committing
history. The analysis is also supplemented by
suicide. The most astonishing aspect of her creativity
Langer’s book titled ‘The mind of Adolf Hitler’
is that while dealing with severe depression during the
(1943). Results of a CATI test by Coolidge et.al.
last few years of her life, Plath wrote the majority of
(2007) compiled as a report titled ‘Understanding
the Ariel poems, two short pieces “America,
madmen: A DSM-IV assessment of Adolf Hitler’ was
America” and “Snow Blitz,” as well as her memoir,
also looked into for the present analysis. In addition,
“Ocean 1212-W.” She also wrote her novel The Bell
the present study also refers to Diamond’s analysis of
Jar. Thus, the lowest point of her life also became her
Hitler as presented in his book titled ‘Anger, Madness,
most productive period.
and the Daimonic’ (1996).
***
Establishing Hitler’s psychopathology: Child
Case 3: Adolf Hitler Abuse and its later influence
Ria Dayal Hitler's father was physically abusive towards
Hitler and his brother, more so towards Hitler as he
Consultant, Organisational Effectiveness, Grant
was a rebel. He beat Hitler so much by the tender age
Thornton
99
of 11 that he "refused to give his father the satisfaction that existential anxiety is caused by "being confronted
of crying, even after 32 lashes." (Diamond, 1996). by those terrifying aspects of existence against which
Having endured this extent of physical abuse, Hitler we are utterly powerless and cannot control." In order
harboured tremendous anger and resentment towards to manage this ‘existential anxiety’, psycho-
his father. He wanted to avenge him for the pain he analytically positing, Hitler compensated by trying to
had caused him and his brother, but, he died by the exert total control over his immediate environment
time Hitler could have his way with his father. It is including other people leading to obsessive-
also interesting to note that "Hitler's hatred for his compulsive tendencies. If this is viewed from the
father fuelled his hatred of Jews, who served as Freudian position, it would seem that Hitler remained
scapegoats for his residual fury" (Diamond, 2014). It arrested at the anal stage of development. Diamond
is also possible that he developed inferiority complex, (2014) said that, "Hitler maintained a very close
narcissism, obsessive-compulsive and paranoid relationship with his personal physician, who helped
tendencies due to disturbed childhood experiences. manage Hitler’s anxiety symptoms with numerous
medications, many of which were highly unorthodox,
Diamond (2014) remarked that Hitler, "like so
and are said to have included both sedating
many victims of physical or sexual abuse during
barbiturates and stimulating amphetamine on which
childhood, may have experienced an extraordinary
Hitler came to depend." Therefore, Hitler suffered
sense of helplessness and powerlessness as a boy,
from mild substance abuse disorder as well which is
stemming mainly from his poor relationship with his
frequently acknowledged as a co-morbid condition
exceedingly domineering and controlling father. It is
with obsessive-compulsive personality.
frequently this terrifying feeling of total helplessness
and powerlessness in childhood that drives what Hitler also had clear paranoid tendencies.
Nietzsche called this exceptional "will to power" later Murray (1943) said that Hitler manifested other forms
in life." Related literature also suggest that Hitler was of somatoform conditions such as hysterical
frail and sickly during his childhood and was regularly blindness and mutism. Diamond (2014) mentions that
bullied by young Jewish boys about his size (Langer, “Hitler is said during adolescence to have developed
1943). Thus, it may be argued that in order to syphilophobia, a dread of being contaminated by
compensate for the deep-seated inferiority complex sexual contact with women, leading eventually to
Hitler developed as a child, Hitler had intense need for sexual impotence according to acquaintances." This
power which he achieved through success in his was probably a result of his Oedipus complex not
political career. However, Hitler was not like other being resolved and over-identification with mother
run-of-the-mill power-hungry politics. Hitler was in it instead of father. Over the years, despite being
for world domination. He concocted the idea of acknowledged as an extremely powerful person, his
superiority of the "Aryan race" to segregate society neurosis persisted. Despite becoming Chancellor of
into inferior Jews and superior Aryans. Germany, his neurosis manifested as "episodes of
"emotional collapse" characterised by violent bouts of
Usually, pathological narcissism develops as
furious screaming and crying” (Diamond, 2014). It is
a defence mechanism against the anxiety caused by a
due to this reason, Murray diagnosed Hitler with
deep-seated inferiority complex. This could have been
borderline paranoid schizophrenia and called him
the case with Hitler too. To compensate for the deep-
hysterical "megalomaniac."
seated inferiority complex, Hitler put up a front of
superiority and self-adulation. Diamond (2014) Dysdiamonic genius and Messiah Complex
referred to Murray’s explanation of Hitler's adult
Having lost both his parents at a very young
behaviour as the "counteractive type" i.e. "primarily
age, Hitler was left with no support and had to live in
motivated by resentment and revenge in response to
an orphanage in Vienna. Initially, Hitler wanted to
prior narcissistic wounding and profound feelings of
become an artist and as a young artist, he survived
inferiority." Adler terms this reactive response as
with a meagre income generated from the sale of
‘masculine protest’ which is "compensatory striving
paintings. Eventually, he moved to Munich to be with
for superiority (to counteract feelings of inferiority),
his cousin in order to avoid enlistment in the army.
aggression, ambition, avarice and envy, coupled with
Yet, he was forced to enlist. In 1919, Hitler got a taste
constant defiance, vengeance, and resentment"
of the blood of politics. It was then that Hitler
(Diamond, 2014).
discovered his talent for public speaking at political
Hitler may have suffered from constant meetings. By September of 1919, Hitler became an
anxiety because of the lack of control as a child army corporal investigating a group called the German
enduring abuse and bullying. Diamond (2014) says Workers' Party. He was impressed with the group's
100
anti-Semitic, nationalistic doctrine and signed up for surprised and defeated many of his enemies. He was
the party. From thereon, Hitler became more popular, so dangerously disturbed, yet so creative and gifted
being elected in 1921 as the leader of the Nazi party. that he by his mid-40's commanded such power and
had such political standing. His lack of compassion
As established before, Hitler harboured a lot
and disregard for ethics enabled him to achieve this
of resentment and anger which when repressed
tremendous feat. He had no qualms about lying,
manifests as “fits of daimonic possession in its most
stealing, torture or murder if he thought they would
negative form' (Diamond, 2014). Diamond (2014)
further his goal. Another phrase that comes close to
argued that Hitler displayed symptoms of
‘malevolent creativity’ is ‘mad genius’. Rather, it is
Dysdaimonic genius:
this ‘mad genius’ that made Hitler who he was. If the
"The dysdaimonic genius manifests a ‘mad’ was missing from the ‘genius’ or if the ‘genius’
confounding combination of exceptional creative was missing from the ‘mad’, this extent of destruction
powers coalesced with equally strong tendencies would have not happened. Therefore, it may be argued
toward psychopathology, perversity, destructiveness, that the confluence of madness and creativity, in case
and evil; a providentially rare amalgamation of of Hitler, proved to be both potent and decisive.
daimonic power witnessed-in its negative extreme-in
***
devious historical figures like Adolf Hitler. Typically-
-but not always--these diabolical individuals die at an Case 4: Eminem
unusually young age, laid low by their overweening
arrogance, hubris, and unholy alliance with evil." Poorva Parashar
He further takes another example of Osama Student, Department of Psychology, Indraprastha

College for Women, University of Delhi, Delhi
Bin Laden to substantiate his point. He adds that these
individuals "can further be understood as manifesting
a "messiah complex". This means that "they become
In order to explicate the relation between
inflated by a grandiose identification with the Messiah
madness and creativity, the present study attempts to
archetype present within each of us." Therefore, this
explore the connection between the experience of
identification with a grandiose self-image may cause
living through major depressive disorder (MDD) and
one to have such extreme narcissism. Such narcissism
creative expression in the life and work of Marshall
is coupled with elevated mood which alternates with
‘Eminem’ Bruce Mathers III (hereon referred to as
emotional lows. This point of emotional low,
Eminem). Eminem is a fifteen time Grammy award
according to Diamond (2014), manifests as episodes
winning rapper, songwriter, record executive, and
of ‘emotional collapse’ characterized by violent bouts
record producer. Through his career spanning
of screaming and crying. This resembles the
decades, Eminem has been in conflict with the law,
symptomatology of bipolar disorder, but, such post-
media, and his own fraternity. His public image has
hoc diagnosis could be problematic as well.
been of a troubled artist from a difficult background.
Conclusion: Hitler-A case of ‘malevolent However, there is more to it than meets the eye as far
creativity’ as his underdog story goes and there is much to be
understood of the process of creative expression from
In case of Hitler, the madness and creativity
came together and manifested as what Diamond his journey.
(2014) termed as ‘malevolent creativity’. In this To understand the lived experiences of MDD,
regard, he said that "it is more important than ever to it is pertinent to clarify its clinical picture. Common
understand the underlying psychology of such physical symptoms of major depression include
dangerous individuals. Often gifted with the ability to fatigue, low energy, and physical aches. Sleep patterns
influence and motivate the masses through the power are generally disturbed and thus, individuals may find
of oration and messianic vision, such leaders, as it hard to fall asleep (insomnia) or sleep throughout the
Murray (1943) observes, become the "incarnation of day (hypersomnia). Similarly, appetite may
the crowd's unspoken needs and cravings." This is significantly increase or decrease. Individuals
“much like the mythic figures of the Antichrist in generally feel a lack of interest in pleasurable
Christianity, Armilus in Judaism, and Masih ad-Dajjal activities such as sex. Thoughts and movements may
in Islam, they are not merely false prophets, but, even slowdown for some people (psychomotor retardation),
more perniciously, the very embodiment of evil” while others may find it difficult to sit still, and tend
(Diamond, 2014). Hitler’s malevolent creativity to pace, fidget, and wring their hands (psychomotor
allowed him to devise strategies and tactics that agitation). Social withdrawal is common in
101
depression. Individuals may lose connect with their studies have explored the links between being bullied
peers and loved ones and prefer to be silent and alone. and childhood or adult depression (Boulton &
Cognitively, depressed individuals tend to view the Underwood, 1992; Kumpulainen et. al., 1998;
world around them in a very negative light, and find it Rantanen et. al., 1999; Salmon, James, & Smith,
difficult to be optimistic. Suicidal ideation is also 1998). It has been suggested that among the
present in depression. There may be organized plans consequences of being bullied are anxiety, low self-
for suicide, or simply persistent thoughts and esteem, feelings of insecurity at school, and resistance
considerations about suicide. This is termed as to attend school.
‘suicidal ideation’. The phenomenon of suicide
Eminem has also recounted being on the ‘free meals’
contagion has been explored in multiple studies in
list at school. At a young age, this publicly visible
case of celebrities. Musicians, artists, writers, poets,
marker of depravity ‘othered' him and added to his
and others in creative industries often have a lot of
bullying. Apart from other difficult experiences,
influence over the masses and when they attempt or
poverty has often been reported to be “one of the most
successfully commit suicide, it is soon replicated by
consistent correlates of depression” (Belle & Doucet,
the fans. There is now significant evidence to show
2003, p. 102). It has also been suggested that due to
credibility for the phenomenon, through studies of
the vast and multifaceted reach of the impact of
suicide clusters and suicide ‘epidemics.’ (Bakwin,
poverty, those who grow up in it are predisposed to
1957; Gould, Kleinman, & Wallenstein, 1994; Brent
anxiety and mood disorders (Najman, et. al., 2010).
et al., 1989; Gould, 1990).
Thus, Eminem’s behavioural problems, drug abuse
Since the present work attempts to explore the and depression in later years can be linked to his very
life of Eminem through an analysis of his creative early experiences of economic and social
work as well as personal accounts of his career and deprivation.
creative process, relevant secondary sources of data
A ray of hope entered Eminem’s life when his
were chosen. The personal history of Eminem has
uncle Ronald ‘Ronnie’ Nelson, introduced him to the
been obtained from the media interviews and from his
world of rap music. Eminem has described him as a
autobiography titled ‘The Way I Am.’ For the purpose
“well-intentioned dude who just couldn’t function in
of brevity and to focus the discussion on the parts of
society” (Mathers, 2008, p. 135). Eminem has also
his work that directly reflect his experiences with
described the rampant abuse present in Nelson’s life
depression and conflicted identity, this paper will only
— he was the victim of many ‘whippings’ from his
analyse two songs from his vast umbrella of work —
mother’s ex-husbands. He also experienced abuse
‘Beautiful’ and ‘Rock Bottom.’
himself. In this regard, he also mentioned, “A lot of
About Eminem: A biographical analysis people in my family had screws loose because of
abuse. If you go back and look at the abuse that I took,
Disturbed childhood experiences
it’s no surprise I became who I am. Someone I don’t
Eminem was born on October 17, 1972, in St. really want to be.” Eminem admitted the abuse
Joseph, Missouri. He was the only child of Marshall “twisted him up” too. Viewing such abuse by and of
Bruce Mathers Jr. and Deborah Rae Nelson. his close relations may have impacted the mind of a
Reportedly, Bruce moved away from the family to young child and adolescent. Several studies have
California when Eminem was 6 months old. Debbie highlighted how childhood neglect and childhood
Nelson recollects Eminem writing letters to his father physical abuse may be indicators and risk factors for
as a child. All of them came back marked ‘return to future depressed or suicidal adults (Widom, DuMont,
sender.’ This absence of a father figure early in his & Czaja, 2007; Brown, Cohen, Johnson, & Smailes,
life made him vulnerable to a range of negative 1999; Silverman, Reinherz, & Giaconia, 1996). One
influences. may convincingly argue that Marshall’s childhood
Eminem moved around a lot in his childhood, primary experience (as a victim) and secondary
primarily staying with family members. He has experience (as a witness) with abuse may have
discussed how this constant relocation prevented his contributed to him becoming an individual he claims
ability to form close bonds with his peers. Further, he he did not want to be. His negative self-image may be
was bullied extensively at school and in his a direct consequence of his abusive childhood
neighbourhood. This bullying often took the form of experiences.
physical abuse and violence. At nine years old, he was Nelson was indeed a significant figure in his
injured so severely that his brain seemed to be life, but, the relationship was short-lived as he also
bleeding out of his ear (Mathers, 2008). Several committed suicide in December 1991. Given that
102
Eminem sports a tattoo of his name and has many (Mathers, 2008, p. 144). This acute sense of
songs that mentions him, one may assume that vulnerability made him take some extreme steps.
Eminem deeply valued him presence in his life. This Eminem obtained a gun to protect himself and his
early example of a role model committing suicide family, but soon, it gave way to more frequent,
could have predisposed him to suicidal ideation in face dangerous and illegal use. It might have given him a
of his own depression. sense of control he lacked thus far and he would often
shoot in the air behind his recording studio and pull
Dissociation and internal-split
guns on individuals. In sync with the culture of crime
Eminem’s public image may be juxtaposed and poverty that prevailed where he lived, he would
with Eminem’s personal persona. He began his career not reckon such use as a crime that might lead to
with his alter ego, Slim Shady, an aggressive ‘bad potential jail time (Mathers, 2008). Thus, one may
guy’ who seemed distinct from both Eminem and argue that at the heart of all the pent-up anger and
Marshall Mathers. Eminem’s best friend and resentment, was a sense of deep vulnerability and
colleague Proof described the distinction between isolation. He felt powerless and inferior and tried
Eminem and Slim Shady as, “Slim Shady is the guy making up for it through his music as well as through
who shows up after a few shots of Bacardi; Eminem is various unlawful activities he got involved with.
the emcee who goes on stage sober and spits his Lewis’ (2017) study also emphasised the experiences
metaphors. Slim Shady gets drunk and wants to fight” of isolation, helplessness, and a sense of inferiority
(Mathers, 2008, p. 34). Thus, Slim Shady persona was that people internalise as part of growing up in culture
perhaps the most reckless and aggressive. Analysis of poverty.
from the previous theme clarifies that this persona
Rap Music: an escape, an opportunity
emerged from very real experiences in Marshall
Mather’s life. The cumulative sense of anger he had This idea of rap as a land of fantasy
felt for a large part of his life was both verbalised underlines the possible importance of music and rap
through and manifested in Slim Shady. This sense of for a young boy who had grown up in difficult
anger is discussed further in context with Rock circumstances. The world of rap had the allure of the
Bottom. world of fantasy and may have offered an escape as
well as an opportunity to a better future. It could
It is indeed noteworthy that that these distinct
allow him to escape the poverty and abuse that were
personalities of Eminem, Slim Shady, and Marshall
characteristic of the Detroit neighbourhood where a
Mathers seemed to coexist in a single individual
young Marshall grew into Eminem and eventually
pointing in the direction of internal-split. We, as
donned the persona of Slim Shady.
outsiders, can only speculate as to the conflicts that
may be at the core of such a split. As is usually in the Creative Work Analysis: ‘Rock Bottom’ and
case of a split persona, it is possible that the persona ‘Beautiful’
of Slim Shady acted as a safety valve by allowing
Lyrics as an expression of the inner world
Mathers to express the anger that he had repressed for
years. This may have been a better alternative than The album Relapse (2009) was released after
repression but it came with its own challenges in terms a long hiatus period. His last album before Relapse
of drawing the line between Eminem, Slim Shady, and was Encore (2004). In this gap, Eminem went through
Marshall Mathers. Eminem has described blaming some very difficult experiences at a personal level. His
Slim Shady for the things he said or did, in a manner re-marriage with Kimberly Ann Scott had fallen apart
dissociating himself from his anger and recklessness. after eleven weeks. His best friend, Proof had been
To him, “it was great to have someone else to blame. shot and killed outside a Detroit nightclub. Proof’s
In real life, if you live like that, people call you crazy. death was a significant life event that Eminem
Rap is one big Fantasy Island” (Mathers, 2008, p. 34). continued to have trouble dealing with for some time.
Proof had been with him and a part of his entourage
Isolation and Helplessness
since before Marshall was Eminem. The two shared a
The circumstances did not change much even deep bond and Eminem has described the gravity of
when he grew older. The Detroit neighbourhood his loss, “I have never felt so much pain in my life. It’s
where Eminem grew up was one such area dominated a pain that is with me to this day. A pain that has
by a culture of poverty, where drug use and crime become a part of who I am” (Mathers, 2008, p. 5).
were rampant. His private domicile was burglarised Further, Eminem, had relapsed after his time in drug
five times — “Kim and I were always either getting rehabilitation. Remembering this difficult phase,
evicted or our house was getting shot up or robbed” Eminem once said, “I just went into such a dark place
103
that, with everything, the drugs, my thoughts, In this verse, even though Eminem uses the
everything. And the more drugs I consumed, and it word ‘you,’ he seems to be referring to his own rage
was all depressants I was taking, the more depressed at the ‘happy people of the world who don’t know what
I became, the more self-loathing I became…” it’s like to be broke.’ Such intensity in the song
(Dawton, 2009). At the professional level as well, perhaps is a result of living through extremely difficult
Eminem was unsure of his return to the world of hip- times when Eminem was working on this track. He
hop. Yet, ‘Beautiful’ was written as a track that would was unemployed and was so economically
reassure those who felt they were in a dark place that disadvantaged that he could not even afford diapers
there was a way out. Beautiful may also be considered for his daughter, Hailie. No wonder that the title and
a track that is a direct reflection of his struggles with the lyrics of the song are so pessimistic. His inner state
depression. of rage and helplessness is reflected when he writes
that he possibly is — ’mad enough to scream, sad
“I'm just so fuckin' depressed,
enough to tear’ — but is unable to do so.
I just can't seem to get out this slump
If I could just get over this hump Rap as a let out for pent-up anger and resentment
But I need something to pull me out this dump,” The extreme anger expressed in Rock Bottom
(Eminem, 2009) may have stemmed from the cumulative experiences
Here, phrases such as “I’m just so fucking depressed,” of deprivation in formative years and financial
“I just can’t seem to get out of this slump,” mirror the struggles that he endured before becoming an
inner struggles of Eminem. established artist. In this regard, he opens up in his
book as follows:
Preoccupation with self, absolutist cognitions and
pessimism “When you grow up like I did — bouncing
around, fighting for everything — it does make
In the song ‘Beautiful,’ Eminem has used you angry (…) when I do think back about how
pronouns referring to his self a total of 85 times. many schools I went to and everything else, it
Interestingly, he has also used the word ‘you’ 42 makes me realise, no wonder I was so mad at
times. In many cases, even the word ‘you’ seems to everything. It was almost a way for me piss
refer to his own self. For instance, “So don't let 'em back in the face of the people who pissed on me
say you ain't beautiful…Just stay true to you” all my life.” (p. 133)
(Eminem, 2009) seems to be addressed to the listeners
of the song. However, Eminem is also referring to his In his songs, particularly in Rock Bottom,
struggle with his public image and nay-sayers. there seems to be a sense of urgency to get back at the
world for all the wrong it seems to have done him. The
Through his lyrics, Eminem also expressed anger and resentment he was surrounded with while
his belief that he simply can’t escape or better the growing up, it seems, became an inspiration for his
position he is currently in. “Words, phrases, and ideas creative angst.
that denote totality, either of magnitude or probability,
are often referred to as absolute.”(Al-Mosaiwi & Hitting the ‘rock bottom’ and suicide ideation
Johnstone, 2018, p. 1). Absolutist words, cognitive After writing and recording the song Rock
rigidity, and deficits in problem-solving ability have Bottom, he “swallowed a handful of Tylenol 3s”
been associated with depression (Ellis & Rutherford, (Mathers, 2008, p. 28). In fact, he had recorded the
2008). Many therapies for depression are centred song with the intention of it being his very last song.
around understanding and managing negative thinking This was followed by Eminem’s defeat at The Rap
(Beck, 1979; Burns, 1989). Olympics - “I was giving up. I had lost. All I kept
Similar sentiments, even more forcefully, are thinking after that was, what the fuck am I going to
expressed in his song Rock Bottom. do? Because I was going home to nothing” (Mathers,
2008, p. 29). While his life was otherwise also grim,
“That's rock bottom losing at the Rap Olympics was the loss of a
When this life makes you mad enough to kill significant opportunity. This defeat seemed final in
That's rock bottom nature to Eminem, probably to him, there was no
When you want somethin' bad enough to steal turning back from here. This finality seemed to exist
That's rock bottom to the degree that it erased all hope that he could find
When you feel like you've had it up to here in life. He also felt that he was unable to provide for
‘Cause you're mad enough to scream his wife and daughter. He lost at the only thing he was
But you're sad enough to tear” (Eminem, 1999)
104
good at and was pinning his hopes on. In this regard, predisposed him to depression and suicide ideation.
he noted, “Rap was always a pipe dream for me, but But, the very same depravity and resultant rage and
rap was all I had. Because really, what was I going to angst gave his rap music a kind of depth that people
do with my life” (Mathers, 2008). This broke him from could relate to. His creative expression not only
within and added to his suicidal ideation. As discussed became an escape from the difficult life he had but
earlier, the suicide of his uncle and role model Nelson also his music gave him a ray of hope for a better life
also made him prone to a suicide attempt. and respect. Eminem’s life and works are, thus, a
perfect example of how the life experiences become
Eminem’s Journey from ‘Rock Bottom’ to
the underlying thread connecting the ‘madness’ and
‘Beautiful’
‘creative expression’. Fortunately, the suicide
An important difference between Rock attempts of Eminem were not successful and he
Bottom and Beautiful lies in the perspective towards became a well-known and respected artist. But, there
his future. Rock Bottom maintains the same may be many others who are either lost in oblivion or
pessimism from beginning to end. The first verse and else had their short-lived stint with glory as they could
the last verse are written in the same tone — “My life not cope with the psychopathology which led to
is full of empty promises and broken dreams, I’m disastrous consequences. It is, therefore, important for
hopin' things look up, but there ain't no job openings.” us as a society to work towards creating a culture
(Eminem, 1999) where mental health issues are not brushed aside as
However, Beautiful ends on a different note, “Be insignificant. We should create programmes for
yourself, man, be proud of who you are, Even if it identifying at-risk citizens and provide avenues for
sounds corny, Don't ever let no one tell you, you ain't seeking help. When it comes to suicidal ideation and
suicide contagion, it is imperative to understand when
beautiful.” (Eminem, 2009) This is also evident of
Eminem’s journey as an individual. Rock Bottom was intervention is needed. It is also significant to note
written at the time in his life when he was much here that as a researcher, I believe that understanding
younger and unemployed. Beautiful was written about the different ways in which people experience and
10 years later when he was one of the most recognised express depression may enhance our understanding of
rap artists. While it is true that at both times in his life, the condition.
he has faced many emotional and familial challenges, On a positive note, one may say that Eminem
but his perspective on life was perhaps less negative has come a long way since his early years. On 20th
in ‘Beautiful’ due to his success and recognition as an April, 2018, he completed a decade of sobriety. Thus,
artist. this paper is dedicated to the continued efforts of those
Concluding Remarks who may find themselves in difficult circumstances
but continue to persevere regardless.
The discussion above establishes clearly that
the difficult life experiences that Eminem endured
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107
BOOK REVIEW
108
Are You There Alone?
Niru Sankhala
Student, Department of Psychology, Indraprastha College for Women, University of Delhi, Delhi
Book Review: Malley, S.O. (2004). The Unspeakable Crime of Andrea Yates. NYC: Simon & Shuster.
“Are you there alone?” asked the dispatcher Through this discussion with help of the
who answered the call at 911 when Andrea Yates necessary evidence from Andrea’s case, the author
called the police after murdering her 5 kids. Suzanne makes the readers question that, ‘is Andrea is a
O’ Malley a journalist was at the eye of the storm, she criminal or a victim who did what she did as a result
covered the murder of Andrea Yates’ 5 kids Noah, of a failed system of care?’ This is an important book
John, Paul, Luke, and Mary on June 20, 2001 in as besides telling Andrea’s poignant story, it also
Houston Texas as an investigative reporter. The serves a larger purpose of creating awareness among
mother (Andrea Yates) was pronounced guilty by the people about the struggles of mental health that are
court in 2004 but acquitted later in 2006 because she outcome of the postpartum conditions such as post-
was found to be legally insane when she committed partum depression. The book also presents much
the crime. The author believed that the intricacies of needed statistics and figures related to these
the deadly event goes well beyond what has been conditions which establish that there are many women
heard and told in the media and can only be captured who suffer in silence and guilt. It is important to note
in the form of a book. According to her, the facts of that what Andrea went through is rather common as
the crime can be known with precision, but it was one in five women develop mental health problems
Andreas’ mind, that was the lesser understood entity during the pregnancy or during the first year after the
and hence, the book. Thus, the author very birth of the child (Russell K. , 2017). These problems
methodologically, at many instances in the book “Are can range from prolonged low mood to psychosis. The
you there alone?”, published in 2004 in New York by book can be thus seen as a much needed step in the
Simon & Schuster, quotes the excerpts from the actual direction of clarifying the clinical picture of a long
interviews and dialogues with Andrea Yates. For a ignored and misunderstood disorder.
writer whose subject is crime, exact details become
While one of the foremost challenges that the
important to gain credibility and create an impact by
author takes up for herself is understanding and
reminding the readers that the event being written
bringing forth the intricacies of Andrea’s mind, the
about happened in real time.
book in some ways fails to meet this challenge. The
This is a meticulously written book where the author, being trained as an investigative reporter and
writer interviewed over 100 people involved with the not as a therapist, ends up focusing more on her
case. She personally corresponded with Andrea Yates observable behaviours, psychiatric facts and her
and her husband-Rusty Yates-more than 30 times. The medication etc. She does not bring out the lived
treatment of the subject in the book is well-rounded as experience of what it meant for Andrea to live through
the author delves into the psychiatric, legal as well as the gloomy, dark life of post-partum depression and
the religious aspects of Andrea’s life. The initial thus, what it meant to her subjectively to cross the line,
portions of the book discusses in details the backdrop where she took the lives of her own children. Andrea
of Andrea’s life until the day she commits the Yates was a deeply religious individual. Her psychosis
murders. Her thoughts, behaviour patterns, medical was also intertwined with her religious beliefs. It is
history and the course of treatment (which was rather highly appreciable that the author cognises and
inadequate) are presented in sufficient details for the explicates the religious references that Andrea gave
reader to identify with her as a person. during her psychosis. It is indeed interesting to note
Simultaneously, by using Andrea’s case as an the subtle ways in which the author communicates to
example, the author also raises concerns over the lack the readers that religion could be seen as a collective
of awareness about the issues related to maternal delusion. The point where to draw the line of
mental health, especially, post-partum disorders. differentiation between delusions and religion also
becomes contentious in Andrea’s trial. In this pursuit,
109
the book also presents the views of one of the most verdict and this time, the jury declared Andrea not
controversial persons associated with the case-the guilty due to the grounds of insanity. The credit may
religious teacher of Andrea. at least partially be given to the impact the book might
have made. It would also be extremely interesting if
The most gripping segment of the book
the author were to revise her book to extend the story
describes Andrea’s trial at length starting from
of Andrea’s retrial leading to a non-guilty verdict to
selection of the jury to the final verdict. The attorneys’
complete the story that she started narrating.
approach and arguments on either side of the defence
and prosecution are used very artfully to build Overall, one may convincingly propose that
suspense around the final verdict. The idiosyncratic the author does a brilliant job of placing Andrea in her
canons within the Texas legal system for deciding life context wherein her actions become
whether a person can be acquitted on the grounds of understandable for the readers. The book achieves a
legal insanity are also presented in detail. However, greater goal of bringing forth how the medical, legal
the legal jargon in this section goes well beyond the as well as social-support system had failed a suffering
understanding of an individual who is not familiar mother. The book also appraises the reader that this
with the legal system in USA and hence, the readers tragedy was entirely avoidable had Andrea’s disorder
may find themselves loosing connect with the text at received proper care and treatment. The rigorous
many places. research over the years from thousands of sources
makes the book impactful indeed. Although, I really
Finally, the book sheds light on Andrea’s
wish the facts were also supplemented by Andrea’s
relationship with her husband post the pronouncement
voice which is largely missing. Nevertheless, the book
of a guilty verdict where she was given life
is a good read for anyone interested in suspense, law
imprisonment. The book also paints a poignant picture
and psychology. It is also a recommended reading for
of Andrea’s psychological condition as she spends
scholars interested in taking a peak into the disastrous
months and years in the jail. It is noteworthy that the
consequences that may be associated with disorders
book was published in the year 2004, i.e., two years
related to disturbances of maternal mental health.
after Andrea was pronounced guilty by the court.
However, in 2006, an appeal was filed against the
Reference
Russell, K. (2017). Maternal Mental Health – Women’s Voices. London: Royal College of Obstetricians and
Gynaecologists.
110
MY VOICE:
REFLECTIVE NARRATIVES
111
Your appearance is none of our business
Lavanya Kaushal
In a world of Instagram filters and body wearing sleeveless tops because of the fear of my ‘fat
modification apps (yes, they exist), it is evident that arms’ showing, I stopped wearing shorts because of
we think a lot about how we look. Don’t most of us my ‘thunder thighs’ (a term my mother uses
spend a considerable amount of time every day, frequently, which I quite like, ironically) and I used to
looking into the mirror, trying to enhance our physical shut myself up in my room if any relative came to my
appearance, and if possible, making small fixes to hide house. Had I been a bit older, I would not have cared
our flaws? A little concealer here, a little hair gel there. a lot, but as a young child, this had a deep and long-
No matter how satisfied we are with our own looks, lasting impact. Weight was just one aspect of my
no matter how much we think we resemble our appearance, which people pointed out blatantly. I have
favourite actor or actress, we are always targets of also been ridiculed for my skin tone, and I took it so
comments like “What are you wearing? You look like seriously that I started using Fair ‘n’ Lovely (which
a guy!” Comments like, “You’re too dark, you won’t for the record, is extremely harmful for the skin).
get a good partner this way,” addressed towards a When my mother observed, she insisted that I trashed
person who has a bit more melanin than average, are all those fairness creams. Thanks to that, I learnt how
pretty hurtful. I’m sure that 90% of us have received to appreciate my skin colour.
such unsolicited, ‘friendly’, criticism about our Of course, if one is lucky enough, one might even
physical appearance at some point in our lives. The have very ‘enthusiastic’ friends, along with such
remaining 10% could be lying, or could be the relatives. In grade 6, one of my ‘friends’, Piya
‘heroes’ who save us from embarrassing ourselves in (pseudonym), out of nowhere, started commenting
front of others by (not-so) ‘subtly’ pointing out their that, “Oh, just look at Lavanya. Everything about her
defects, so that we can start working on them. We too is imperfect. Her uniform, her eyebrows, her hair and
might have done the same, even if unintentionally. her skirt.” We all must have heard of a term called
Who knows, perhaps a small comment we made about backbiting or back-bitching, but ever heard of front-
someone’s appearance could have affected them a lot. bitching? At that moment, I smiled and thought, “She
To elucidate more on this topic, I will share is my friend, and if I say something back to her, our
some examples from my personal life. I have a great relationship will turn sour, and I don’t want that to
love for food that has contributed very generously to happen.” But the moment I stepped into my home, I
my body weight. I have been teased about my weight broke down. A similar incident happened when I was
before and used to cry a lot earlier. As I’ve grown around 15 years old. I was sitting in class one day, just
older, I have learnt to take it easy and I even joke about making senseless jokes with the rest of my friends.
my weight. I realised that taking these comments After 5 minutes, my friend made an out-of-the-blue
seriously will not affect the other person in any way, statement. “Lavanya, your nose is like a pakoda
so I might as well just brush it off. I never actually (fritter)...” I did not understand whether to laugh at
cared about my weight when I was younger. I used to how creatively she had criticized my poor nose, or cry
wear clothes that were obviously tight for me, but that my nose didn’t fit her ‘ideal’ standard of what a
nothing deterred me from wearing those clothes, and I nose should be like. I still laugh at the ridiculousness
would often go around showcasing myself as a of her comment sometimes, but I will not deny that it
confident, Victoria’s Secret model. I never felt bad did impact me and since then, I’ve been conscious
about being a chubby person until my relatives, and a about it as well.
few friends, started reprimanding me for it. “Lavanya, These instances are just a few examples. Whether
lose some weight,” “You look like your mother’s we like it or not, we all are affected by it in some way
mother,” “You’re too fat.” Constantly hearing these or the other. It may be expressed in the form of
comments really lowered my self-esteem. Of course, sadness, disappointment, or even anger. I have seen
while I did know that I was fat, I just could not people being conscious about certain physical features
understand why it bothered other people more than it because others have ridiculed them. One of my friends
bothered me. It was almost as if my adipose, which I has big breasts, and almost every other day someone
had nurtured for more than 15 years, would infect used to taunt her about it. She always wears oversized
them as well, like a virus. Consequently, I stopped clothes in an effort to hide herself, and no matter how
112
much I try to make her feel comfortable in her own in your own skin, not everyone will like you, but you
skin, she is never able to gain the confidence be won’t care about it one bit.”
herself. I contemplated a lot about it. Is it wrong to Here, I have only elaborated on examples of
look a certain way because it is considered to be physical appearance, but there are a lot of things we
‘imperfect’ and ‘peculiar’ by others? Will I be say or even do in real life that can affect someone very
accepted by others only if I listen to what they have to negatively, as stated previously. It is extremely
say about my body and my appearance? The answer important to surround oneself with positive and non-
to these questions, I realised much later in life, is no. Piya kind of people. As a Psychology student, and as
Having imperfections is what makes us human and a person who has had such experiences, reflecting on
people who accept us for who we are, are the ones that them has made me extremely careful about what I say
deserve to be a part of our lives. to people. I try to be as honest as possible, but without
In light of this statement, I find it necessary to coming off as condescending. It is, of course,
mention that Piya and I are no longer friends, but, I am important to communicate what one has in one’s
grateful towards her, because if it were not for her, I mind, but it is equally important to say it in such a
would have probably never understood that it is alright manner that the person does not feel dismayed. I have
to look a certain way, irrespective of the so called now realized how the tiniest of things can impact us
beauty standards. No matter what, there will always negatively, and I have learnt to be more sensitive
be a person who will be unhappy with a certain part, towards the insecurities that other people may have.
or perhaps, even the whole of us. The same people Even if I do (unintentionally) end up offending
who used to tell me to become healthy and fit, are the someone, I am always sure to apologize. The wise
ones who now say I look weak, because of the weight persona inside my head always says, “Sticks and
I have lost over the years. Weak? Out of all the words stones may break someone’s bones, but words can
that are available in the dictionary, they chose weak. definitely hurt them,” which I couldn’t agree with
But, if wearing bright, quirky clothes makes one more.
happy, then no one should stop one from wearing Now, as an almost 20-year-old person, armed
them. If one is comfortable in one’s own body, then with my takeaways from these experiences, I have
not a single person has the right to put them down for become more optimistic in my outlook towards life.
it. Though I never use this Internet phrase (because it Not only do I view myself more positively, but I
is grammatically incorrect), I think it is appropriate in ensure that a bit of my positivity also rubs off on
this context to say, “You do you.” As one of my others as well. I have certainly come a long way, from
favourite quote (by an anonymous person whose name being a shy, funny and emotionally driven person, to
I wish I knew) goes, “When you are truly comfortable a shy, funny, and emotionally driven, but also, a much
wiser person.
113
Finding Your Funny
Parul Tewari
In the winter of 2017-18, I noticed that I was comedy. I enjoyed watching sketch comedy, stand-up
sad. I realised that the cold weather was making me comedy, late night talk shows and a few other forms
miserable and awful about everything. I had never felt of unusually funny stuff. This niche genre of comedy
this way before and was unsure how to even describe is not for everyone, as is evident from the small fan
what I was feeling. I felt clueless about how to deal base that consumes such content as opposed to what is
with the sadness and melancholy that I was considered conventionally funny.
experiencing. A month into 2018, I realised that it was
It’s very hard to describe the things that made
getting worse and it was because of the weather. I was
me laugh, even harder to understand why it did so, but
hoping that my mood would get better as the days get
the fact remained that it made me laugh. It made me
warmer. I also knew that eventually things would
laugh on some of the most difficult days during the
work out because nothing lasts forever. But such a
winter. There were days when the only thing that made
mere long term reassurance did not change the fact
me smile was an absurdist Lonely Island digital short,
that in that moment of time, I was a sad person and the
or a well-crafted joke by John Mulaney on robots, or
things around me didn’t bring me much joy.
a bizarre Stefon club, or one of Kristen Wiig’s or Kate
As a psychology student, I had read McKinnon’s wacky characters on Saturday Night
extensively about sadness and depression, its types, Live, or parody shows like Documentary Now. I found
and ways to treat it, both as part of my course and this stuff hilarious because of the pure talent,
beyond. So, I tried the things one is supposed to try, creativity and absurdity of it. I tried to introduce a few
including sharing my concerns with others, more people to this type of humour, but it almost
exercising, sticking to a good routine, but nothing always received poorly. People often reacted in a
worked. I regularly meditated which helped me confused way trying to ‘find the joke’. But it stopped
introspect. Despite this, I could see myself going mattering to me how other people viewed it. These
further downhill with every passing day. I felt jokes made me laugh, and I realised that that was
powerless and overwhelmed by the sadness around me enough.
and I was desperate to find anything that would keep
This reflection is centred round a phase when
me happy. I very badly wanted to be ‘just fine’ again.
everything around me was telling me to be sad, yet,
Taking a little detour from my narrative, I there was a reason why I laughed amidst that. Comedy
would like to share that humour has always been and humour became my anchor. I was not consuming
extremely important to me. It’s one of the things I humorous content as a defence mechanism or as a
value most in life. I stand by the fact that we take life distraction. It was an active choice to surround myself
too seriously. I often worry that people, especially with a weird, unexplainable and niche form of comedy
adults, forget to laugh regularly. I think it’s important to remind myself that happiness can come from the
to be able to laugh at one-self and others. I was always strangest of places. It made me realise that happiness
the ‘funny one’ in the group. I liked to laugh and make is that treasure that is just waiting to be discovered in
other people laugh, even if it came at the cost of being all of life’s turns and twists.
ridiculed. I think that the importance of humour in my
In my pursuit of sketch and stand-up comedy,
life also made me more sensitive about being sad.
I also understood the value of the lows in life. Every
During that time, the one thing that kept me going was
once in a while, I used to stumble upon an act that
humour.
bombed and died an awful death with an audience. I
Humour, as depicted in mainstream media, drew an interesting parallel from this. Think of it this
was never something I enjoyed. Part of the reason for way, for every 10 jokes that fail, there will be one
this was that my exposure to comedy was limited to which will work. Similarly, for every moment I felt
slapstick comedy, a genre I’m not particularly fond of dejected, I found this other moment of happiness that
due to its incessant sexist nature and overall lack of made me appreciate how much I needed to laugh. And
creativity. However, my fondness for humour in in that one moment of joy when I was laughing till I
media increased once I discovered my brand of
114
couldn’t breathe, I felt that I was recovering. And that I am pleased to share that I am in a much
honestly felt like the best feeling in the world. better place now. I look back on my journey and
derive strength from it. I am not the same person that
This experience also made me change my
I was before this and I know that I will never be the
perception with respect to others. I realised that people
same person. But maybe that is what growth does to a
can find joy and happiness from surprising places and
person. I don’t want to be the same person. I would
it’s important to respect that. Most people did not like
never have discovered so many things and never learnt
what I found funny and I did not enjoy mainstream
so many new things had it not been for this. I am a
comedy shows and movies. I learned that while I may
changed person and I will continue to change,
not enjoy slapstick comedies or shows like Comedy
continue to explore and continue to laugh. Most of all,
Nights, there are still people who do and I don’t get to
I taught myself how to laugh again in a time when it
denounce that. I grew more tolerant of other people’s
was just easier to be miserable. In closing, I would like
preferences and I extended this new found open
to quote a comedian who has made me laugh harder
mindedness to areas beyond media preferences.
than anyone else, Bill Hader, who said “If I’m not
making you guys laugh, we’re all screwed”.
115
Details of the Guest Editors and Authors
Dr. Nidhi Malik Anshu Chaudhary

Assistant Professor, Psychology Assistant Professor, Psychology
Indraprastha College for Women, Delhi Indraprastha College for Women, Delhi
+91-9310789696; [email protected] +91-9718399983; [email protected]
Surbhi Kumar Aditi Mehra

Assistant Professor, Psychology Student, M.A. Counselling Psychology
Indraprastha College for Women, Delhi Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai
+91-9811997250; [email protected] +919818156576; [email protected]
Amita Gujral Sabreen Kaur

Developmental Service Worker Student, M.A. Psychology
Fanshawe College, London, Ontario University of Delhi, Delhi
+1 (519) 697-1847; [email protected] +919650225944; [email protected]
Urvashi Dixit Noyonika Gupta

Student, M.A. Clinical-Counseling Psychology Student, Department of Psychology
University of Minnesota, Duluth Indraprastha College for Women, Delhi
+1 (908)499-1089; [email protected] +91-9953960178; [email protected]
Simran Kaur Kaaveri Dhingra

Student, Department of Psychology Counsellor & Psychology Teacher
Indraprastha College for Women, Delhi Cambridge School, Srinivaspuri, Delhi
Mansimran Kaur Jagrika Bajaj

Student, Masters in Business Administration Student, MSc. Clinical Psychology
Institute of Management Technology, Ghaziabad Christ (deemed to be) University, Bengaluru
Kriti Trehan Garima Chaturvedi

M.A. in Applied Psychology Student, Department of Psychology
Jamia Milia Islamia University, Delhi Indraprastha College for Women, Delhi
Akanksha Marwah Shivani Sachdev

Student, Department of Psychology Research Fellow
Indraprastha College for Women, Delhi Jindal Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Sonipat
116
Swathi Bhatt Ayushi Shukla

Student, M.Phil. Clinical Psychology, Project Assistant, National Institute of Mental
Manipal University Health and Neurosciences , Bengaluru
+91- 9711108871; [email protected] +91-7987027801; [email protected]
Andree Ana Gupta

Student, M.A. Psychology Student, M.A. Psychology
University of Delhi, Delhi Amity University, Noida
+91-9560877898; [email protected] +91-9910047808, [email protected]
Kanika Mohan Ria Dayal

Student, M.A. Psychology Consultant - Organisational Effectiveness
University of Delhi, Delhi Grant Thornton
Poorva Parashar Niru Sankhala

Student, Department of Psychology Student, Department of Psychology
Lavanya Kaushal Parul Tewari

Student, Department of Psychology Student, Department of Psychology
117

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Indian Journal of

! Health Services ! Life Skills Education ! Healthy School Environment

Healthy Schools …… Healthy India

General Guidelines words and an abstract (structured format) of

encompass how it feels to face a difficult 10. Announcements: Information regarding

Dr. Jitendra Nagpal – MD, DNB

Program Director “Expressions India”

13. Finding your Funny 114

Details of the Guest Editors and Authors 116

Dr. Jitendra Nagpal Prof. Namita Ranganathan

Dr. Nidhi Malik Ms. Anshu Chaudhary Ms. Surbhi Kumar

Prof. J.L Pandey Dr. Kavita Sharma Dr. Divya S. Prasad

Dr. H .K. Chopra Dr. Geetesh Nirban Dr. Yuvakshi Juneja

Ms. Manju Madan Ms. Priya Sharma Ms. Aarti Prasad

My best wishes, always.

Dr. Babli Moitra Saraf

A Note from the Editors

The Editorial Team

ORIGINAL RESEARCH PAPERS

Binge-watching: A Road to Pleasure or Pain?

Aditi Mehra* & Amita Gujral**

Introduction like Ascension. Previous studies have indicated that

Method consequences and the coping strategies used, if any, in

Figure 1. Responses on Q1 asking about number of hours participant watched television.

Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always

Figure 3. Responses on Q4: When I watch T.V....

Figure 7. Responses on Q6 about binge watching and guilt

Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always

Figure 8. Responses on Q7 inquiring about the type of guilt experienced on binge-watching.

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

Experience of pre guilt/ post Post guilt (100%)

Media Portrayals of Disability and Relationships: An Exploration of the Self and

Sabreen Kaur* and Urvashi Dixit**

Introduction with the rehabilitation model which acknowledges

Grue, J. (2015). Disability Discourse. Wiley Online Library, 511-512.

Making Lives Whole: Exploring Facets of Dog-Human Companionship

Noyonika Gupta & Simran Kaur

Introduction that pet owners experience a close emotional bond

Table 2: Subscales of COPE Inventory

SUB SCALES EXPLANATION

Active Coping process of taking action to remove the stressor

Planning ability to plan active coping strategies.

Use of instrumental social seeking advice and information about what to do

Denial rejecting reality of the stressful situation

Religious coping turning to religion to deal with stress

Acceptance accepting the stressful event as real

Exercising (jogging, running) 5

Mean S.D Mean S.D Lower Upper

Openness 36.86 4.333 34.47 4.920 2.694 .008 0.632 4.148

Conscientiousness 29.52 6.065 30.12 4.712 -.548 .585 -2.746 1.557

Extraversion 26.48 5.490 25.16 5.494 1.233 .220 -0.799 3.430

Agreeableness 33.29 5.041 33.16 4.741 .133 .895 -1.771 2.025

Neuroticism 23.49 5.674 24.30 5.630 -.737 .463 -2.988 1.369

Participants who 95% Confidence

Mean S. D Mean S. D Lower Upper

Participants Participants who 95% Confidence

Mean S. D Mean S. D Lower Upper

Denial 6.48 2.582 7.23 2.910 -1.432 .155 -1.798 0.290

Humour 9.23 3.762 8.44 3.119 1.152 .252 -0.569 2.149

Restraint 9.86 2.451 10.21 2.122 -.782 .436 -1.252 0.543

Acceptance 10.97 2.990 11.07 2.394 -.183 .855 -1.168 0.971

Planning 11.71 2.996 11.65 3.046 .101 .920 -1.102 1.220

Healthy Schools …… Healthy India 

Extraversion (5) 1 .262* .372** -.262* .358 .380

Agreeableness (6) 1 .395 -0.173 .302 .298**

Conscientiousness (7) 1 -.260* .417 .718

Neuroticism (8) 1 -.330 -.332