Engineering Statics
Engineering Statics
Daniel W. Baker
Colorado State University
William Haynes
Massachusetts Maritime Academy
Feedback. Feedback and suggestions can be provided directly to the lead au-
thor Dan Baker via email at [email protected], or through the Engineer-
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the San Francisco bridge of the San Francisco, California skyline. Image source:
https://unsplash.com/photos/Rx92z9dU-mA
History. This book is the vision of a handful of instructors who wanted to cre-
ate a free and open Engineering Statics textbook filled with dynamic, interactive
diagrams to encourage visualization and engineering intuition.
Dr. Baker brought together a team of volunteers from large public universi-
ties, small private colleges, and community colleges across the United States to
write the text and create the interactive elements. Some content was adapted
with permission from Jacob Moore’s Mechanics Map - Open Textbook Project.
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The book continues to evolve thanks to the contributions, suggestions, and
corrections made by users of the text, both professors and students. The original
authors are listed below, and others who have contributed are acknowledged in
the source code on GitHub.
Daniel W. Baker Erin Henslee
Colorado State University Wake Forest University
Project lead, chapter author, and in- Chapter author
teractive developer
Anna Howard
North Carolina State University
Devin Berg
Chapter author
University of Wisconsin - Stout
Chapter author James Lord
Virginia Tech
Andy Guyader Chapter author
Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo
Randy Mondragon
Chapter author
Colorado State University
Interactive developer
William Haynes
Massachusetts Maritime Academy Jacob Moore
Chapter author, interactive devel- Penn State University – Mont Alto
oper, and PreTeXt lead Chapter author
2
unsplash.com/@ampedimagery
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The book was supported by funding from the Colorado Department of Higher
Education, the Colorado State University Digital Learning Initiative, and the
Colorado State University Libraries.
vii
Contents
Acknowledgements vii
1 Introduction to Statics 1
1.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Equilibrium of Particles 49
3.1 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 Particles in One Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Particles in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.5 Particles in Three Dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.6 Exercises (Ch. 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
viii
CONTENTS ix
9 Friction 245
9.1 Dry Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
9.2 Block and Wedge Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
9.3 Slipping vs. Tipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9.4 Screw Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
9.5 Flexible Belt Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
9.6 Journal Bearing Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
9.7 Disk Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
9.8 Exercises (Ch. 9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Appendices
A Notation 324
Introduction to Statics
Engineering Statics is the gateway into engineering mechanics, which is the ap-
plication of Newtonian physics to design and analyze objects, systems, and struc-
tures with respect to motion, deformation, and failure. In addition to learning
the subject itself, you will also develop skills in the art and practice of problem
solving and mathematical modeling, skills that will benefit you throughout your
engineering career.
The subject is called “statics” because it is concerned with particles and rigid
bodies that are in equilibrium, and these will usually be stationary, i.e. static.
The chapters in this book are:
Rigid Body Equilibrium— balance of forces and moments for single rigid
bodies.
Internal Forces— forces and moments within beams and other rigid bodies.
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 2
Your statics course may not cover all of these topics, or may move through
them in a different order.
Below are two examples of the types of problems you’ll learn to solve in
statics. Notice that each can be described with a picture and problem statement,
a free-body diagram, and equations of equilibrium.
Equilibrium of a particle: A 140 lb person walks across a slackline
stretched between two trees. If angles α and θ are known, find the tension
in each end of the slackline.
y Person’s point of contact
to slackline:
ΣFx = 0
x
−T1 cos α + T2 cos θ = 0
ΣFy = 0
T1 sin α + T2 sin θ − W = 0
ΣFx = 0
D −Cx + Fx − Vx − Nx = 0
ΣFy = 0
−Cy − Fy − Vy + Ny = 0
F
ΣMD = 0
+(dy )Cx + (dx )Cy − MD = 0
The knowledge and skills gained in Statics will be used in your other en-
gineering courses, in particular in Dynamics, Mechanics of Solids (also called
Strength or Mechanics of Materials), and in Fluid Mechanics. Statics will be a
foundation of your engineering career.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 3
Figure 1.0.1 Map of how Statics builds upon the prerequisites of Calculus and
Physics and then informs the later courses of Mechanics of Solids and Dynamics.
• What are physical examples for each of Newton’s three laws of motion?
The English scientist Sir Issac Newton established the foundation of mechan-
ics in 1687 with his three laws of motion, which describe the relation between
forces, objects and motion. Motion can be separated into two types:
Some moving bodies are purely translating, others are purely rotating, and
many are doing both. Conveniently, we can usually separate translation and
rotation and analyze them individually with independent equations.
Newton’s three laws and their implications with respect to translation and
rotation are described below.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 4
This law, also sometimes called the “law of inertia,” tells us that bodies maintain
their current velocity unless a net force is applied to change it. In other words, an
object at rest it will remain at rest and a moving object will hold its current speed
and direction unless an unbalanced force causes a velocity change. Remember
that velocity is a vector quantity that includes both speed and direction, so
an unbalanced force may cause an object to speed up, slow down, or change
direction.
Figure 1.1.1 This rock is at rest with Figure 1.1.2 In deep space, where fric-
zero velocity and will remain at rest tion and gravitational forces are negli-
until a unbalanced force causes it to gible, an object moves with constant
move. velocity; near a celestial body gravi-
tional attraction continuously changes
its velocity.
Newton’s first law also applies to angular velocities, however instead of force,
the relevant quantity which causes an object to rotate is called a torque by
physicists, but usually called a moment by engineers. A moment, as you will
learn in Chapter 4, is the rotational tendency of a force. Just as a force will cause
a change in linear velocity, a moment will cause a change in angular velocity. This
can be seen in things like tops, flywheels, stationary bikes, and other objects that
spin on an axis when a moment is applied, but eventually stop because of the
opposite moment produced by friction.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 5
F = ma (1.1.1)
where F is net force, m is mass, and a is acceleration.
You will notice that the force and the acceleration are in bold face. This
means these are vector quantities, having both a magnitude and a direction.
Mass on the other hand is a scalar quantity, which has only a magnitude. This
equation indicates that a force will cause an object to accelerate in the direction
of the net force, and the magnitude of the acceleration will be proportional to
the net force but inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
In this course, Statics, we are only concerned with bodies which are not accel-
erating which simplifies things considerably. When an object is not accelerating
a = 0, which implies that it is either at rest or moving with a constant velocity.
With this restriction Newton’s Second Law for translation simplifies to
X
F=0 (1.1.2)
P
where F is used to indicate the net force acting on the object.
Newton’s second law for rotational motions is similar
M = Iα. (1.1.3)
This equation states that a net moment M acting on an object will cause
an angular acceleration α proportional to the net moment and inversely propor-
tional to I, a quantity known as the mass moment of inertia. Mass moment
of inertia for rotational acceleration is analogous to ordinary mass for linear ac-
celeration. We will have more to say about the moment of inertia in Chapter 10.
Again, we see that the net moment and angular acceleration are vectors,
quantities with magnitude and direction. The mass moment of inertia, on the
other hand, is a scalar quantity and has only a magnitude. Also, since Statics
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 6
deals only with objects which are not accelerating α = 0, they will always be at
rest or rotating with constant angular velocity. With this restriction Newton’s
second law implies that the net moment on all static objects is zero.
X
M=0 (1.1.4)
The actions and reactions Newton is referring to are forces. Forces occur when-
ever one object interacts with another, either directly like a push or pull, or
indirectly like magnetic or gravitational attraction. Any force acting on one
body is always paired with another equal-and-opposite force acting on some
other body.
Figure 1.1.4 The earth exerts a gravitational force on the moon, and the moon
exerts an equal and opposite force on the earth.
These equal-and-opposite pairs can be confusing, particularly when there are
multiple interacting bodies. To clarify, we always begin solving statics problems
by drawing a free-body diagram — a sketch where we isolate a body or system
of interest and identify the forces acting on it, while ignoring any forces exerted
by it on interacting bodies.
Consider the situation in figure Figure 1.1.5. Diagram (a) shows a book
resting on a table supported by the floor. The weights of the book and table
are placed at their centers of gravity. To solve for the forces on the legs of the
table, we use the free-body diagram in (b) which treats the book and the table
as a single system and replaces the floor with the forces of the floor on the
table. In diagram (c) the book and table are treated as independent objects. By
separating them, the equal-and-opposite interaction forces of the book on the
table and the table on the book are exposed.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 7
Statics
Statics Statics
1.2 Units
Key Questions
• What are the similarities and differences between the commonly used unit
systems?
• When a problem mentions the pounds, does this mean pounds-force [lbf]
or pounds-mass [lbm]?
Quantities used in engineering usually consist of a numeric value and an
associated unit. The value by itself is meaningless. When discussing a quantity
you must always include the associated unit, except when the correct unit is ‘no
units.’ The units themselves are established by a coherent unit system.
All unit system are based around seven base units, the important ones for
Statics being mass, length, and time. All other units of measurement are formed
by combinations of the base units. So, for example, acceleration is defined as
length [L] divided by time [t] squared, so has units
a = [L/T 2 ].
In the United States several different unit systems are commonly used includ-
ing the SI system, the British Gravitational system, and the English Engineering
system.
The SI system, abbreviated from the French Système International (d’unités)
is the modern form of the metric system. The SI system is the most widely used
system of measurement worldwide.
In the SI system, the unit of force is the newton, abbreviated N, and the
unit of mass is the kilogram, abbreviated kg. The base unit of time, used by all
systems, is the second. Prefixes are added to unit names are used to specify the
base-10 multiple of the original unit. One newton is equal to 1 kg · m/s2 because
1 N of force applied to 1 kg of mass causes the mass to accelerate at a rate of
1 m/s2 .
The British Gravitiaonal system uses the foot as the base unit of distance,
the second for time, and the slug for mass. Force is a derived unit called the
pound-force, abreviated lbf, or pound for short. One pound-force will accelerate
a mass of one slug at 1 ft/s2 , so 1 lbf = 1 slug · ft/s2 . On earth, a 1 slug mass
weighs 32.2 lbf.
The English Engineering system uses the pound-mass as the base unit of
mass, where
32.2 lbm = 1 slug = 0.4536 kg.
The acceleration of gravity remains the same as in the British Gravitational
system, but a conversion factor is required to maintain unit consistency.
lbf · s2
=1
32.2 ft · lbm
The advantange of this system is that (on earth) 1 lbm weighs 1 lbf.
It is important to understand that mass and weight are not the same thing.
Mass describes how much matter an object contains, while weight is a force and
it is the effect of gravity on an object. You find the weight of an object from its
mass by applying Newton’s Second Law with the local acceleration of gravity g.
W = mg. (1.2.1)
Table 1.2.1 shows the standard units of weight, mass, length, time, and
gravitational acceleration in three unit systems.
Table 1.2.1 Fundamental Units
Unit System Force Mass Length Time g (Earth)
SI N kg m s 9.81 m/s2
British Gravitational lbf slug ft s 32.2 ft/s2
English Engineering lbf lbm ft s 1 lbf/1 lbm
Thinking Deeper 1.2.2 Does 1 pound-mass equal 1 pound-force? Of
course not; they have completely different units! Additionallly, the acceleration
of gravity g varies from place to place. If you take a 1 lbm mass to the moon,
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 9
the object’s mass doesn’t change, but it’s weight does. The same mass in deep
space is weightless!
You can show that 1 lbm mass weighs 1 lbf on earth by applying Newton’s
second law with a = g = 32.2 ft/s2 with the appropriate unit conversions.
W = ma
ft
lbf · s2
= 1 lbm
32.2
ft · lbm
s2 32.2
lbm
= 1 lbf ∴ g = 1 lbf/1 lbm
lbm
= 1 lbf
Awareness of units will help you prevent errors in your engineering calcula-
tions. You should always:
• Pay attention to the units of every quantity in the problem. Forces should
have force units, distances should have distance units, etc.
• Use the unit system given in the problem statement.
• Avoid unit conversions when possible. If you must, convert given values to
a consistent set of units and stick with them.
• Check your work for unit consistency. You can only add or subtract quan-
tities which have the same units. When multiplying or dividing quantities
with units, multiply or divide the units as well. The units of quantities on
both sides of the equals sign must be the same.
• Develop a sense of the magnitudes of the units and consider your answers
for reasonableness. A kilogram is about 2.2 times as massive as a pound-
mass and a newton weighs about a quarter pound.
• Be sure to include units with every answer.
Warning 1.2.3 The gravitational “constant” g varies up to about 0.5% across
the earth’s surface due to factors including latitude and elevation, but for the
purpose of this course the values in this table are sufficiently accurate. Always
use the correct value of g based on your location and the unit system you are
using.
Don’t assume that g always equals 9.81 m/s2 !
Example 1.2.4 How much does a 5 kg bag of flour weigh?
Hint. A value in kg is a mass. Weight is a force.
Answer. W = 49.05 N
Solution.
W = mg
= 5 kg(9.81 m/s2 )
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 10
= 49.05 N
□
Example 1.2.5 How much does a 5 lb bag of sugar weigh?
Hint. When someone says “pounds” they probably mean “pounds-force.”.
Even if they mean pounds-mass, 1 lbmweighs1 lbf on earth.
Answer. W = 5 lb
Solution.
5 lb = 5 lbf
1.3 Forces
Key Questions
• What are some of the fundamental types of forces used in statics?
Some of the important terms used describe different types of forces are given
below; others will be defined as needed later in the book.
A point force is a force that acts at a single point. Examples would be
the push you give to open a door, the thrust of a rocket engine, or the pull of
the chain suspending a wrecking ball. In reality, point forces are an idealization
as all forces are distributed over some amount of area. Point forces are also
called concentrated forces. Point forces are the easiest type to deal with
computationally so we will learn some mathematical tools to represent other
types as point forces.
Body forces are forces that are distributed throughout a three dimensional
body. The most common body force is the weight of an object, but there are
other body forces including buoyancy and forces caused by gravitational, electric,
and magnetic fields. Weight and buoyancy will be the only body forces we
consider in this book.
In many situations, these forces are small in comparison to the other forces
acting on the object, and as such may be neglected. In practice, the decision
to neglect forces must be made on the basis of sound engineering judgment;
however, in this course you should consider the weight in your analysis if the
problem statement provides enough information to determine it, otherwise you
may ignore it.
In the example above, the point force due to the cable, and the weight of the
box are both called loads. The weight of an object and any forces intentionally
applied to it are considered loads, while forces which hold a loaded object in
equilibrium or hold parts of an object together are not.
Reaction forces or simply reactions are the forces and moments which
hold or constrain an object or mechanical system in equilibrium. They are
called the reactions because they react when other forces on the system change.
If the load on a system increases, the reaction forces will automatically increase
in response to maintain equilibrium. Reaction forces are introduced in Chapter 3
and reaction moments are introduced in Chapter 5.
In the example above, the force of the ground on the box is a reaction force,
and is distributed over the entire contact surface. The reaction force can be
divided into two parts: a normal component which acts perpendicular to the
surface and supports the box’s weight, and a tangential friction component
which acts parallel to the ground and resists the pull of the cable.
The weight, normal component, and frictional component are all examples
of distributed forces since they act over a volume or area and not at a single
point. For computational simplicity we usually model distributed forces with
equivalent point forces. This process is discussed in Chapter 7.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 12
These statements indicate that the students think they know how to use their
tools, but are skipping the planning step. They jump right to writing equations
and solving for things without making much progress towards the answer, or
they start solving the problem using a reasonable approach but abandon it in
mid-stream to try something else. They get lost, confused and give up.
Choosing a strategy gets easier with experience. Unfortunately, the way you
get that experience is to solve problems. It seems like a chicken and egg problem
and it is, but there are ways around it. Here are some suggestions which will
help you become a better problem-solver.
• Get fluent with the math skills from algebra and trigonometry.
• Study worked out solutions, however don’t assume that just because you
understand how someone else solved a problem that you can do it yourself
without help.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 13
The majority of the topics in this book focus on equilibrium. The remaining
topics are either preparing you for solving equilibrium problems or setting you
up with skills that you will use in later classes. For equilibrium problems, the
problem-solving steps are:
Using these steps does not guarantee that you will get the right solution, but
it will help you be critical and conscious of your chosen strategies. This reflection
will help you learn more quickly and increase the odds that you choose the right
tool for the job.
Chapter 2
Before you can solve statics problems, you will need to understand the basic
physical quantities used in Statics: scalars and vectors.
Scalars are physical quantities which have no associated direction and can
be described by a positive or negative number, or even zero. Scalar quantities
follow the usual laws of algebra, and most scalar quantities have units. Mass,
time, temperature, and length are all scalars.
Vectors represent physical quantities which have magnitude and a direction.
Vectors are identified by a symbolic name which will be typeset in bold like r or
F to indicate its vector nature. The primary vector quantity you will encounter
in statics will be force, but moment and position are also important vectors.
Computations involving vectors must always consider the directionality of each
term and follow the rules of vector algebra as described in this chapter.
2.1 Vectors
Key Questions
• What differentiates a vector from a scalar?
• How do you identify the tip, tail, line of action, direction, and magnitude
of any drawn vector?
• What are the standard notations for vectors and scalars in this textbook?
14
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 15
F⃗ = F̄ = F = a vector named F
Most printed works including this book will use the bold symbol for vectors, but
for handwritten work you and your instructor will use the bar or arrow notation.
Force vectors acting on physical objects have a point of application, which
is the point at which the force is applied. Other vectors, such as moment vectors,
are free vectors, which means that the point of application is not significant.
Free vectors can be moved freely to any location as long as the magnitude and
direction are maintained.
The vector’s magnitude is a positive real number including units which
describes the ‘strength’ or ‘intensity’ of the vector. Graphically a vector’s mag-
nitude is represented by the length of its vector arrow, and symbolically by
enclosing the vector’s symbol with vertical bars. This is the same notation as
for the absolute value of a number. The absolute value of a number and the
magnitude of a vector can both be thought of as a distance from the origin, so
the notation is appropriate. By convention the magnitude of a vector is also
indicated, by the same letter as the vector, but in an non-bold font.
same when you add A onto B, so the order of vector addition does not matter
and is considered commutative.
A − B = A + (−B) (2.2.1)
Example 2.2.2 Vector subtraction. Find A − B where A = 2 i and B = 3 i.
Answer.
R = −1 i.
Solution. You can simulate this in Figure 2.2.1.
2. Move the vectors until they are tip-to-tail. The order does not matter
because vector addition is commutative.
R = −1 i.
□
F = ⟨Fx , Fy ⟩.
P = (r ; θ).
Angles can be measured in either radians or degrees, so be sure to include a
degree sign on angle θ if that is what you intend.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 20
p y
−1
r = x2 + y 2 θ = tan
x
p 5
−1
= (−8.66)2 + (5)2 = tan
−8.66
−1
= 10 = tan (−0.577)
= −30◦
You must be careful here and use some common sense. The −30◦ angle
your calculator gives you in this problem is incorrect because point P is in the
second quadrant, but your calculator doesn’t know this. It can’t tell whether the
argument of tan−1 (−0.577) is negative because the x was negative or because
the y was negative, so it must make an assumption and in this case it is wrong.
The arctan function on calculators will always return values in the first and
fourth quadrant. If, by inspection of the x and the y coordinates, you see that
the point is in the second or third quadrant, you must add or subtract 180◦ to
the calculator’s answer.
So in this problem, θ is really −30◦ + 180◦ . After making this adjustment,
the the location of P in polar coordinates is:
P = (10; 150◦ )
Answer.
F = ⟨−173.2 N, −100 N⟩
Solution 1. Given: The magnitude of force F = 200 N, and from the diagram
we see that the direction of F is 30◦ counter-clockwise from the negative x axis.
Letting θ = 30◦ we can find the components of F with right triangle trigonom-
etry.
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
= 200 N cos 30◦ = 200 N sin 30◦
= 173.2 N = 100 N
Since the force points down and to the left into the third quadrant, these
values are actually negative, and the signs must be applied manually.
After making this adjustment, the the location of F expressed in rectangular
coordinates is:
F = ⟨−173.2 N, −100 N⟩
Solution 2. If you would prefer not to apply the negative signs by hand, you
can convert the 30◦ to an angle measured from the positive x axis and let your
calculator take care of the signs. You may use either θ = 30◦ ± 180◦ .
For θ = −150◦
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
= 200 N cos(−150◦ ) = 200 N sin(−150◦ )
= −173.2 N = −100 N
F = ⟨−173.2 N, −100 N⟩
• What are direction cosine angles and why are they always less than 180°?
P = (x, y, z) F = ⟨Fx , Fy , Fz ⟩
For nearly all three-dimensional problems, you will need the rectangular x, y,
and z locations of points in space and components of vectors before proceeding
with the computations. If you are given the components upfront, then you are
set to move forward, but otherwise you will need to transform one coordinate
system into rectangular coordinates.
Note the component in the numerator of each direction cosine equation is pos-
itive or negative as defined by the coordinate system, and the vector magnitude
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 25
0◦ ≤ θn ≤ 180◦ .
• Any direction cosine angle greater than 90◦ indicates a negative component
along that respective axis. Spatially this is because all direction cosine
angles are measured from the positive side of each axis. Mathematically
this is because the cosine of any angle between 90 and 180 degrees is
numerically negative.
□
When vectors are specified using cylindrical coordinates the magnitude of the
vector is used instead of distance r from the origin to the point.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 26
When the two given spherical angles are defined the manner shown here, the
rectangular components of the vector A = (A ; θ ; ϕ) are found thus:
A′ = A sin ϕ (2.4.2)
Az = A cos ϕ (2.4.3)
Ax = A′ cos θ = A sin ϕ cos θ (2.4.4)
Ay = A′ sin θ = A sin ϕ sin θ (2.4.5)
Reflect on the equations above. Can you think through the process of how
they were derived? The generalized steps are as follows. First, draw an accurate
sketch of the given information and define the right triangles related to both θ
and ϕ. Then use trig identities on the right triangle involving the vector, the
z axis and angle ϕ to find Az , and A′ , the projection of A onto the xy plane.
Finally, use trig identities on the right triangle involving vector A′ and θ to find
the remaining components of A.
• r, the distance from the origin to the projection of the tip of the vector
onto the xy plane,
• What are the unit vectors along the Cartesian x, y, and z axes?
• How do you find the force vector components of known force magnitude
along a geometric line?
• How can you find unit vector components from direction cosine angles?
A unit vector is a vector with a magnitude of one and no units. As such, a
unit vector represents a pure direction. By convention a unit vector is indicated
by a hat over a vector symbol. This may sound like a new concept, but it’s a
simple one, directly related to the unit circle, the Pythagorean Theorem, and
the definitions of sine and cosine.
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 12
No matter what angle a unit vector makes with the x axis, cos θ and sin θ
are its scalar components. This relations assumes that the angle θ is measured
from the x axis, if it is measured from the y axis the sine and cosine functions
reverse, with sin θ defining the horizontal component and the cos θ defining the
vertical component.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 28
The x and y components of a point on the unit circle are also the scalar
components of F̂, so
Fx = cos θ
Fy = sin θ
F̂ = ⟨cos θ, sin θ⟩
= cos θ i + sin θ j.
This interactive shows vector F, its associated unit vector F̂, and expressions
for F in terms of its unit vector F̂.
Example 2.5.3 Find unit vector of a force. Find the unit vector corre-
sponding to a 100 N force at 60° from the x-axis.
Answer.
F̂ = (1 ; 60°) = ⟨cos 60°, sin 60°⟩
Solution. In polar coordinates, the unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1,
pointing in the same direction as the force, so, by inspection
F = (100 N ; 60°)
F̂ = (1 ; 60°)
F
F̂ =
F
⟨F cos 60°, F sin 60°⟩
=
F
= ⟨cos 60°, sin 60°⟩
∆y = ABy = By − Ay
∆z = ABz = Bz − Ax
AB = ∆x i + ∆y j + ∆z k
2. Find the direct distance between point A and point B using the Pythagorean
Theorem. This distance is also the magnitude of AB or |AB|
q
|AB| = (ABx )2 + (ABy )2 + (ABz )2 .
d to get force
4. Multiply the magnitude of the force by the unit vector AB
FAB .
d
FAB = FAB AB
Ax Ay Az
= FAB , ,
|A| |A| |A|
The interactive below can be used to visualize the displacement vector and
its unit vector, and practice this procedure.
Solution.
|AB| = 6.402 m
Solution.
q
|AB| = (∆x )2 + (∆y )2 + (∆z )2
p
= (−4.5)2 + (−1.5)2 + 4.32 m2
√
= 40.99 m2
= 6.402 m
Solution.
d= ∆ x ∆ y ∆ z
AB , ,
|AB| |AB| |AB|
−4.5 −1.5 4.3
= , ,
6.402 6.402 6.402
d = ⟨−0.7, −0.23, 0.67⟩
AB
Solution.
d
FAB = FAB AB
= 5 kN ⟨−0.7, −0.23, 0.67⟩
= ⟨−3.51, −1.17, 3.36⟩ kN
□
Given the properties of unit vectors, there are some conceptual checks you
can make after computing unit vector components which can prevent subsequent
errors.
• The signs of unit vector components need to match the signs of the original
position vector. A unit vector has the same line of action and sense as the
position vector but is scaled down to one unit in magnitude.
• Components of a unit vector must be between -1 and 1. If the magnitude
of a unit vector is one, then it is impossible for it to have rectangular
components larger than one.
Combining the Pythagorean Theorem with our knowledge of unit vectors and
direction cosine angles gives this result: if you know two of the three direction
cosine angles you can manipulate the following equation to find the third.
• Does it matter which vector you start with when using the Triangle Rule?
• Why can you separate a two-dimensional vector equation into two inde-
pendent equations to solve for up to two unknowns?
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 33
• If you and another student define vectors using different direction coordi-
nate systems, will you end up with the same resultant vector?
• Triangle Rule.
Place the tail of one vector at the tip of the other vector, then draw the
resultant from the first vector’s tail to the final vector’s tip.
• Parallelogram Rule.
Place both vectors tails at the origin, then complete a parallelogram with
lines parallel to each vector through the tip of the other. The resultant is
equal to the diagonal from the tails to the opposite corner.
The interactive below shows two forces A and B pulling on a particle at the
origin, and the appropriate diagram for the triangle or parallelogram rule. Both
approaches produce the same resultant force R as expected.
F = Fx + Fy = Fx ′ + Fy ′ . (2.6.2)
The interactive below can help you visualize the relationship between a vector
and its components in both the x-y and x′ -y ′ directions.
If you carefully draw the triangle accurately to scale and use a protractor
and ruler you can measure the magnitude and direction of the resultant. Your
answer will only be as precise as your diagram and your ability to read your
tools however. If you use technology such as GeoGebra or a CAD program to
make the diagram, you answer will be precise. The interactive in Figure 2.6.1
may be useful for this.
Even though the graphical approach has limitations, it is worth your atten-
tion because it provides a good way to visualize the effects of multiple forces,
to quickly estimate ballpark answers, and to visualize the diagrams you need to
use alternate methods to follow.
• If you fail to draw the correct vector triangle, or identify the known sides
and angles you will not find the correct answer.
• The trigonometric functions are scalar functions. They are quick ways of
solving for the magnitudes of vectors and the angle between vectors, but
you may still need to find the vector components from a given datum.
When you need to find the resultant of more than two vectors, it is generally
best to use the algebraic methods described below.
or in bracket notation
FR = ⟨ΣFx , ΣFy , ΣFz ⟩ . (2.6.3)
This process is illustrated in the following interactive diagram and in the
next example.
Answer.
Solution.
Use the given information to draw a
sketch of the situation. By imagining
or sketching the parallelogram rule, it
should be apparent that the resultant
vector points up and to the left.
Rx = Ax + Bx Ry = Ay + By
= 141.4 N + −281.9 N = 141.4 N + 102.6 N
= −140.5 N = 244.0 N
q
R= Rx2 + Ry2
= 281.6 N
Ry
θ = tan −1
Rx
◦
= −60.1
This answer indicates that the resultant points down and to the left. This is
because the calculator answers for the inverse trig function will always be in the
first or fourth quadrant. To get the actual direction of the resultant, add 180◦
to the calculator result.
The final answer for the magnitude and direction of the resultant is
R = 281.6 N∠119.9◦
measured counter-clockwise from the x axis. □
The process for adding vectors in space is exactly the same as in two di-
mensions, except that an additional z component is included. This interactive
allows you to input the three-dimensional vector components of forces A and B
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 38
A − B = A + (−B)
After negating the second vector you can choose any technique you prefer for
vector addition.
• What does it mean when the dot product of two vectors is zero?
• How do you use a dot product to find the angle between two vectors?
• What does it mean when the scalar component of the projection ∥ projA B∥
is negative?
Unlike ordinary algebra where there is only one way to multiply numbers,
there are two distinct vector multiplication operations. The first is called the
dot product or scalar product because the result is a scalar value, and the
second is called the cross product or vector product and has a vector result.
The dot product will be discussed in this section and the cross product in the
next.
For two vectors A = ⟨Ax , Ay , Az ⟩ and B = ⟨Bx , By , Bz ⟩, the dot product
multiplication is computed by summing the products of the components.
A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz . (2.7.1)
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 39
where θ in the equation is the angle between between the two vectors and |A|
and |B| are the magnitudes of A and B.
We can conclude from this equation that the dot product of two perpendicular
vectors is zero, because cos 90◦ = 0, and that the dot product of two parallel
vectors is the product of their magnitudes.
When dotting unit vectors which have a magnitude of one, the dot products
of a unit vector with itself is one and the dot product two perpendicular unit
vectors is zero, so for i, j, and k we have
A·B=B·A (2.7.3)
C (A · B) = C A · B = A · C B (2.7.4)
3. Distributive. If you are dotting one vector A with the sum of two more
(B + C), you can either add B + C first, or dot A by both and add the final
value.
A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C (2.7.5)
Dot products are a particularly useful tool which can be used to compute the
magnitude of a vector, determine the angle between two vectors, and find the
rectangular component or projection of a vector in a specified direction. These
applications will be discussed in the following sections.
A · A = Ax Ax + Ay Ay = A2x + A2y
√ q
A · A = A2x + A2y = A = |A|.
F = ⟨30 N, −40 N, 50 N⟩
√
F = |F| = F · F
√
= 5000 N2
= 70.7 N
A · B = |A||B| cos θ
A·B
cos θ = (2.7.7)
|A||B|
Example 2.7.2 Angle between Orthogonal Unit Vectors. Find the angle
between i = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩ and j = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩.
Answer.
θ = 90◦
Solution.
i·j
cos θ =
|i||j|
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 41
θ = cos−1 (0)
= 90◦
Solution.
F·G
cos θ =
|F||G|
F x Gx + F y Gy + F z Gz
=p 2 p
Fx + Fy2 + Fz2 G2x + G2y + G2z
(100)(−75) + (200)(150) + (−50)(−40)
=p p
1002 + 2002 + (−50)2 (−75)2 + 1502 + (−40)2
24500
=
(229.1)(172.4)
= 0.620
θ = cos−1 (0.620)
= 51.7◦
• Positive value.
means that A and B are generally in the same direction.
• Negative value.
means that A and B are generally in opposite directions.
• Zero.
means that A and B are perpendicular.
• Magnitude equal to B.
A and B point in the same direction, thus 100% of B acts in the direction
of A.
B⊥ = B − projA B (2.7.11)
• What is a determinant?
• How do you use the cross-product circle to find the cross product of two
unit vectors?
The vector cross product is a
mathematical operation applied to
two vectors which produces a third
mutually perpendicular vector as a
result. It’s sometimes called the vec-
tor product, to emphasize this and
to distinguish it from the dot prod-
uct which produces a scalar value.
The × symbol is used to indicate Figure 2.8.1 Direction of a cross prod-
this operation. uct.
Cross products are used in mechan-
ics to find the moment of a force
about about a point.
The cross product is a vector multiplication process defined by
The result is a vector mutually perpendicular to the first two with a sense deter-
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 45
mined by the right hand rule. If A and B are in the xy plane, this is
A × B = (Ay Bx − Ax By ) k. (2.8.2)
A × B = −B × A.
The magnitude of the cross product is the product of the perpendicular com-
ponent of A with the magnitude of B, which is also the area of the parallelogram
formed by vectors A and B. The magnitude of the cross product is zero if A and
B are parallel, and it is maximum when they are perpendicular.
Notice that all the terms in the cross product equation are similar to those of
the dot product, except that sin is used rather than cos and the product includes
a unit vector û making the result a vector. This unit vector û is simple to find
in a two-dimensional problem as it will always be perpendicular to the page, but
for three-dimensional cross products it is advisable to use a vector determinant
method discussed here.
Here, the first row are the unit vectors, the second row are the components
of A and the third row are the components of B.
Calculating the 3 × 3 determinant can be reduced to calculating three 2 × 2
determinants using the method of cofactors, as follows
Ay Az Ax Az Ax Ay
A × B = + i− j+ k (2.8.4)
By Bz Bx Bz Bx By
In practice, the easiest way to remember this equation is to use the aug-
mented determinant below, where the first two columns have been copied and
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 46
placed after the determinant. The cross product is then calculated by adding
the product of the red diagonals and subtracting the product of blue diagonals.
This equation produces the same result as equation (2.8.1) and you may use it
if it is more convenient.
Example 2.8.3 2-D Cross Product.
Answer.
A × B = −1, 697 N2 k
A × B = A B sin θ û
The direction of the the cross product is determined by applying the right
hand rule. With the right hand, rotating A towards B we find that our thumb
points into the xy plane, so the direction of û is −k.
Ax = 60 N Ay = 0 N
Bx = 40 N cos 45◦ By = −40 N sin 45◦
= 28.28 N = −28.28 N
From (2.8.8):
A × B = (Ax By − Ay Bx )k
= (60)(−28.28) − (0)(28.28) N2 k
= −1697 N2 k
□
Example 2.8.4 3-D Cross Product. Find the cross product of A = ⟨2, 4, −1⟩
and B = ⟨10, 25, 20⟩. The components of A are in meters and B are in Newtons.
Answer.
A × B = ⟨105, −50, 10⟩ N·m
i j k i j
A × B = 2 4 −1 2 4
10 25 20 10 25
= (4)(20) i + (−1)(10) j + (2)(25) k − (4)(10) k − (−1)(25) i − (2)(20) j
= (80 + 25) i + (−10 − 40) j + (50 − 40) k
= ⟨105, −50, 10⟩ N·m
A = ⟨2, 4, −1⟩ m
B = ⟨10, 25, 20⟩ N.
A and B are defined in the first two lines, and A.cross_product(B) is the
expression to be evaluated. Click Evaluate to see the result. You’ll have to work
out the correct units for yourself.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 48
i×i=0 i×j=k i × k = −j
j × i = −k j×j=0 j×k=i
k×i=j k × j = −i k×k=0
An alternate way to remember this is to use the
cross product circle shown. For example when you
cross i with j you are going in the positive (counter-
clockwise) direction around the blue inner circle and
thus the answer is +k. But when you cross j into i
you go in the negative (clockwise) direction around
the circle and thus get a −k. Remember that the or-
der of cross products matter. If you put the vectors
in the wrong order you will introduce a sign error.
If you have any negative unit vectors it is easiest Figure 2.8.5 Unit vec-
to separate the negative values until after you have tor cross product circle.
taken the cross product, so for example
Equilibrium of Particles
3.1 Equilibrium
Engineering statics is the study of rigid bodies in equilibrium so it’s appropri-
ate to begin by defining what we mean by rigid bodies and what we mean by
equilibrium.
A body is an object, possibly made up of many parts, which may be ex-
amined as a unit. In statics, we consider the forces acting on the object as a
whole and also examine it in greater detail by studying each of its parts, which
are bodies in their own right. The choice of the body is an engineering decision
based on what we are interested in finding out. We might, for example, consider
an entire high-rise building as a body for the purpose of designing the building’s
foundation, and later consider each column and beam of the structure to ensure
that they are strong enough to perform their individual roles.
A rigid body is a body which doesn’t deform under load, that is to say, an
object which doesn’t bend, stretch, or twist when forces are applied to it. It
is an idealization or approximation because no objects in the real world behave
this way; however, this simplification still produces valuable information. You
will drop the rigid body assumption and study deformation, stress, and strain
in a later course called Strength of Materials or Mechanics of Materials. In that
course you will perform analysis of non-rigid bodies, but each problem you do
there will begin with the rigid body analysis you will learn to do here.
A body in equilibrium is not accelerating. As you learned in physics, ac-
celeration is the rate of change of velocity, and is a vector quantity. For linear
motion,
dv
a= .
dt
For an object in equilibrium a = 0 which implies that the body is either
stationary or moving with a constant velocity
(
v=0
a = 0 =⇒ .
v=C
50
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 51
ΣF = 0. (3.1.1)
3.2 Particles
We’ll begin our study of Equilibrium with the simplest possible object in the
simplest possible situation — a particle in a one-dimensional coordinate
system. Also, in this chapter and the next all forces will be represented as
concentrated forces. In later sections the we will address more complicated
situations, higher dimensions, and distributed forces, but beginning with very
simple situations will help you to develop engineering sense and problem solving
skills which will be useful later.
The defining characteristic of a particle is that all forces that act on it are
coincident1 or concurrent2 , not that it is small. Forces are coincident if they have
the same line of action, and concurrent if they intersect at a point. The moon,
earth and sun can all be treated as particles, but we probably won’t encounter
1
Two lines are coincident when one lies on top of the other.
2
Two or more lines are concurrent if they intersect at a single point.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 52
position three. The forces have been Figure 3.3.1 A suspended weight
slid along their common line of ac-
tion until they both act on the dot,
which is an example of an equivalent
transformation called the “Principle
of Transmissibility.” This diagram
in view three is completely sufficient
for this situation.
Drawing free-body diagrams can be surprisingly tricky. The reason for this is
that you must identify all the forces acting on the object and correctly represent
them on the free-body diagam. If you fail to account for all the forces, include
additional ones, or represent them incorrectly, your analysis will surely be wrong.
So what kind of analysis can we do here? Admittedly not much. We can
find the tension in the rope caused by a particular weight and use it to select an
appropriately strong rope, or we can determine the maximum weight a particular
rope can safely support.
The actual analysis is so trivial that you’ve probably already done it in your
head, nevertheless several ways to approach it will be shown next.
In the vector approach we will use the equation of equilibrium.
Example 3.3.2 1-D Vector Addition. Find the relationship between the
tension in the rope and the suspended weight for the system of Figure 3.3.1.
Answer.
T =W
We learn that the tension equals the weight.
Solution.
The free-body diagram shows two forces acting on the particle,
and since the particle is in equilibrium they must add to zero.
ΣF = 0
T+W=0
T = −W
We conclude that force T is equal and opposite to W, that is, since the weight
is acting down, the rope acts with the same magnitude but up.
Tension is the magnitude of the rope’s force. Recall that the magnitude
of a vector is always a positive scalar. We use normal (non-bold) typefaces or
absolute value bars surrounding a vector to indicate its magnitude. For any force
F,
F = |F|.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 54
To find how the tension is related to W, take the absolute value of both sides
|T| = | − W|
T =W
□
We can also formulate this example in terms of unit vectors. Recall that j
is the unit vector which points up. It has a magnitude of one with no units
associated. So in terms of unit vector j, T = T j and W = −W j.
Example 3.3.3 1-D Vector Addition using unit vectors. Find the relation
between the tension T and weight W for the system of Figure 3.3.1 using unit
vectors.
Answer.
T =W
Solution.
Express the forces in terms of their magnitudes and the unit
vector j then proceed as before,
ΣF = 0
T+W=0
T j + W (−j) = 0
T j = W j
T =W
□
In the previous example, the unit vector j completely dropped out of the
equation leaving only the coefficients of j. This will be the case whenever you
add vectors which all act along the same line of action.
The coefficients of i, j, and k are known as the scalar components. A scalar
component times the associated unit vector is a force vector.
When you use scalar components, the forces are represented by scalar values
and the equilibrium equations are solved using normal algebraic addition rather
than vector addition. This leads to a slight simplification of the solution as
shown in the next example.
Example 3.3.4 1-D Vector Addition using scalar components. Find
the relation between the tension T and weight W for the system of Figure 3.3.1
using scalar components.
Answer.
T =W
Unsurprisingly, we get the same result.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 55
Solution.
The forces in this problem are W = −W j and T = T j, so
the corresponding scalar components are
Wy = −W Ty = T .
ΣFy =0
Wy + T y =0
−W + T =0
T =W
Unsurprisingly, we get the same result. □
R = 5 lb ←
Solution. Start by sketching the two forces. The subscripts indicate the line
of action of the force, and the sign indicates the direction along the line of action.
A negative Bx points towards the negative end of the x axis.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 56
R = Ax + Bx
= 10 lb + −15 lb
= −5 lb
R is the scalar component of the resultant R.
The negative sign on the result indicates that the resultant force acts to the
left. □
Example 3.3.6 2-D Scalar Addition. If Fx = −40 N and Fy = 30 N, find
the magnitude and direction of their resultant F.
Answer.
F = 50 N at 143.1◦ ∡
Solution. In this example the scalar components have different subscripts in-
dicating that they act along different lines of action, and this must be accounted
for when they are added together.
Make a sketch of the two vectors and add
them using the parallelogram rule to get
Fy
θ = tan
−1
F
x
−1 30 N
= tan
−40 N
= 36.9◦
q
F = Fx2 + Fy2
p
= (−40 N)2 + (30 N)2
= 50 N
• share the same line of action, have the same magnitude, and point towards
each other, or
1. Assumptions.
A free-body diagram of the rope is shown.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 58
Figure 3.3.9
We’ll solve this with scalar components because there’s no need for the
additional complexity of the vector approaches in this simple situation.
We’ll align the x axis with the rope with positive to the right as usual to
establish a coordinate system.
Assume that the pull of each team can be represented by a single force.
Let force M be supplied by the Marines and force A by the Airmen; call
the tension in the rope T .
Assume that the weight of the rope is negligible; then the rope can be
considered a particle because both forces lie along same line of action.
2. Givens.
M = 1500 lb.
3. Procedure.
Since they’re stalemated we know that the rope is in equilibrium.
Applying the equation of equilibrium gives:
ΣFx = 0
−M + A = 0
A=M
= 1500 lb
We find out that both teams pull with the same force. This was probably
obvious without drawing the free-body diagram or solving the equilibrium
equation.
It may seem equally obvious that if both teams are pulling with 1500 lb
in opposite directions that the tension in the rope must be 3000 lb. This
is wrong however.
The tension in the rope T is an example of an internal force and in order
to learn its magnitude we need a free-body diagram which includes force
T . To expose the internal force we take an imaginary cut through the rope
and draw (or imagine) a free-body diagram of either half of the rope.
Figure 3.3.10
The correct answer is easily seen to be T = A = M = 1500 lb.
□
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 59
Answer.
W = 10300 N
Solution. The entire weight of the wire and the spool is supported by the hook
and sling.
Remember that weight is not mass and mass is not force. The total weight
is found by multiplying the total mass by the gravitational constant g.
W = mg
= (mw + ms ) g
= ((0.75 km)(927 kg/km) + 350 kg) g
= (1045 kg)(9.81 m/s2 )
= 10300 N
□
Question 3.3.12 How can we apply the principles of mechanics in the two
previous examples if the rope and the sling are clearly not “rigid bodies?”
Answer. They are not rigid, but they are inextensible and in tension. Under
these conditions they don’t change shape, so we can treat them as rigid. If the
force were to change direction and put either into compression, our assumptions
and analysis would fail. That why “tug of war” involves pulling and not pushing.
□
Cartesian plane with a horizontal x axis and a vertical y axis discussed in Sec-
tion 2.3 previously. This coordinate system can represent either the front, side,
or top view of a system as appropriate. In some problems it may be worthwhile
to rotate the coordinate system, that is, to establish a coordinate system
where the x and y axes are not horizontal and vertical. This is usually done to
simplify the mathematics by avoiding simultaneous equations.
1. Identify the particle. The particle will be the object or point where the
lines of action of all the forces intersect.
3. Draw a free-body diagram. The fbd shows the object and all the forces
acting on it, and defines the symbols we will use. Every force should be
labeled with a roman letter to represent its magnitude and, unless it aligns
with a coordinate axis, a greek letter or degree measure for its direction.
5. Find trivial angles. Some angles may be easily found from the geometry
of the problem. If that is the case, draw a simple, labeled triangle and use
trigonometry to determine the measure of the angle.
6. Count knowns and unknowns. At this point you should have no more than
two unknowns remaining. If you don’t, reread the problem and look for
overlooked information. When solving mechanics problems, it is always
helpful to know what you know and what you are looking for and this
information changes as you work through your solution.
9. Substitute values for symbols. When your equilibrium equations have been
fully simplified in symbolic form, pull out your calculator and substitute
the known values and calculate the unknowns. Indicate the units of your
results, and underline or box your answers.
10. Check your work. Have you made any algebra or trig mistakes? If you
add the forces graphically do they appear to add to zero? Do the results
seem reasonable given the situation? Have you included appropriate units?
If you have time, work the problem using another approach and compare
answers.
Answer.
P = 43.8 lb at 10°∡
N = 102 lb at 115°∡
Solution.
1. Assumptions.
We must assume that the block is in equilibrium, that is, either motionless
or moving at a constant velocity in order to use the equilibrium equations.
We will represent the block’s weight and the force between the incline and
the block as concentrated forces. The force of the inclined surface on the
block must act in a direction which is normal to the surface since it is
frictionless and can’t prevent motion along the surface.
2. Givens.
The knowns here are the weight of the block, the direction of the applied
force, and the slope of the incline. The slope of the incline provides the
direction of the normal force.
The unknown values are the magnitudes of forces P and N .
Notice that the force N is represented as acting 25° from the y axis, which
is 90° away from the direction of the surface.
4. Force Triangle.
Use the known information to carefully and accurately construct the force
triangle.
= 43.8 lb at 10°∡
N = (1.02 unit)(100 lb/ unit)
= 102 lb at 115°∡.
There must be no more than two unknowns to use this method, which may
be either magnitudes or directions. During the problem setup you will probably
need to use the geometry of the situation to find one or more angles.
If the force triangle has a right angle you can use Section B.2 to find the
unknown values, but in most cases the triangle will be oblique and you will need
to use either or both of the Law of Sines or the Law of Cosines to find the sides
or angles.
Example 3.4.4 Cargo Boom.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 65
Answer.
T = 17.16 kN C = 25.9 kN
Solution.
1. Draw diagrams.
Start by identifying the particle and drawing a free-body diagram. The
particle in this case is point B at the end of the boom because it is the
point where all three forces intersect. Let T be the tension of the topping
lift, C be the force in the boom, and W be the weight of the load. Let α
and β be the angles that forces T and C make with the horizontal.
Rearrange the forces acting on point B to form a force triangle as was done
in the previous example.
2. Find angles.
Angle α can be found from the slope of the topping lift.
−1 1
α = tan = 14.0°.
4
Angle β is the complement of the 40° angle the boom makes with the
vertical kingpost.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 66
Use these values to find the three angles in the force triangle.
θ1 = α + β = 64.0°
θ2 = 90° − α = 76.0°
θ3 = 90° − β = 40.0°
sin θ3 sin θ2
T =W C=W
sin θ1 sin θ1
sin 40.0° sin 76.0°
T = 24 kN C = 24 kN
sin 64.0° sin 64.0°
T = 17.16 kN C = 25.9 kN
This statement will only be true if all three coefficients of the unit vectors are
themselves equal to zero, leading to this scalar interpretation of the equilibrium
equation
ΣFx = 0
ΣF = 0 =⇒ ΣFy = 0 (three dimensions). (3.4.2)
ΣF = 0
z
G
T
T
T
152°
T
T
T
Answer.
G = 14.5 kN
Solution.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 68
1. Assumptions.
A utility pole isn’t two-dimensional, but we will consider the top view and
forces in the horizontal plane only.
It also isn’t a concurrent force problem because the lines of action of the
forces don’t all intersect at a single point. However, we can make it into one
by replacing the forces of the three cables in each direction with a single
force three times larger. This is an example of an equivalent transformation,
a trick engineers use frequently to turn complex situations into simpler ones.
It works here because all the tensions are equal, and the outside wires are
equidistant from the center wire. You must be careful to to justify all
equivalent transformations, because they will lead to errors if they are not
applied correctly. Equivalent transformations will be discussed in greater
detail in Section 4.7 later.
2. Givens.
T = 10.0 kN
3. Procedure.
Begin by drawing a neat, labeled, free-body diagram of the pole, estab-
lishing a coordinate system and indicating the directions of the forces. Al-
though it is not necessary, it simplifies this problem considerably to note
the symmetry and establish the x axis along the axis of symmetry. Let T
be the tension in one wire, and G be the tension of the guy wire.
76°
76°
ΣFx = 0
G − 6 Tx = 0
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 69
G = 6 (T cos 76°)
= 14.5 kN
This problem could have also been solved using the force triangle method.
See Subsection 3.4.3. □
In the next example we look at the conditions of equilibrium by considering
the load and the constraints, rather than taking a global equilibrium approach
which considers both the load and reaction forces.
Example 3.4.6 Slider.
Three forces act on a machine part which is free to slide
along a vertical, frictionless rod. Forces A and B have a
magnitude of 20 N and force C has a magnitude of 30 N.
Force B acts α degrees from the horizontal, and force C
acts at the same angle from the vertical.
Determine the angle α required for equilibrium, and the
magnitude and direction of the reaction force acting on
the slider.
Answer. The question asks for the reaction force. The reaction force R′ is
equal and opposite to force R.
R′ = −R = 30.00 N ←
= ⟨−30.00 N, 0⟩
Solution.
1. Givens.
We are given magnitudes of forces A = 20 N, B = 20 N, and C = 30 N.
The unknowns are angle α and resultant force R.
2. Procedure.
Since the rod is frictionless, it cannot prevent the slider from moving verti-
cally. Consequently the slider will only be in equilibrium is if the resultant
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 70
Ry = ΣFy = Ay + By + Cy = 0
Inserting the known values into the equilibrium relation and simplifying
gives an equation in terms of unknown angle α.
Ry = Ay + By + Cy = 0
A + B sin α − C cos α = 0
20 + 20 sin α − 30 cos α = 0
2 + 2 sin α − 3 cos α = 0
Once α is known, we can find the reaction force by adding the x components
of A, B, and C.
Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 71
= A + B cos α + C sin α
= 0 + 20 cos(22.62°) + 30 sin(22.62°)
= 30.00 N
The resultant force R is the vector sum of Rx and Ry , but in this situation
Ry is zero, so the resultant acts purely to the right with a magnitude of
Rx .
R = 30.00 N → .
Note that this value is the resultant force, i.e. the net force applied to
the slider by A, B, and C. However the question asks for the reaction
force, which is the force required for equilibrium. The reaction is equal
and opposite to the resultant.
R′ = −R = 30.00 N ←
□
The next example demonstrates how rotating the coordinate system can
simplify the solution. In the first solution, the standard orientation of the x
and y axes is chosen, and in the second the coordinate system is rotated to
align with one of the unknowns, which enables the solution to be found without
solving simultaneous equations.
Example 3.4.7 Roller.
A lawn roller which weighs 160 lb is being pulled up
a 10◦ slope at a constant velocity.
Determine the required pulling force P .
Answer.
P = 32.1 lb
Solution 1.
1. Strategy.
2
socratic.org/questions/59e5f259b72cff6c4402a6a5
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 72
2. Procedure.
ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0
−Px + Nx = 0 P y + Ny = 0
N cos 80◦ = P cos 40◦ P sin 40 + N sin 80◦ = W
◦
0.766
N =P 0.643P + 0.985N = 160 lb
0.174
Solution 2.
1. Strategy.
2. Procedure.
ΣFx′ = 0
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 73
−Px′ + Wx′ = 0
P cos 30◦ = W sin 10◦
0.1736
P = 160 lb
0.866
P = 32.1 lb
Hint. The particles are points B and C. The common force is the tension in
rope segment BC.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 74
Answer.
Solution.
1. Strategy.
Following the General Procedure we identify the particles as points A and
B, and draw free-body diagrams of each. We label the rope tensions A, C,
and D for the endpoints of the rope segments, and label the angles of the
forces α, β, and ϕ. We will use the standard cartesian coordinate system
and use the scalar components method.
θ
β
Weight W was given, and we can easily find angles α, β, and ϕ so the
knowns are:
W = 100 N
−1 40
α = tan = 63.4°
20
−1 10
β = tan = 7.13°
80
−1 50
ϕ = tan = 45°
50
Counting unknowns we find that there are two on the free-body diagram
of particle C (C and D), but four on particle B, (A C, P and θ).
Two unknowns on particle C means it is solvable since there are two equi-
librium equations available, so we begin there.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 75
2. Solve Particle C.
ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0
−Cx + Dx = 0 C y + Dy − W = 0
C cos β = D cos ϕ C sin β + D sin ϕ = W
cos 45◦
C=D C sin 7.13◦ + D sin 45◦ = 100 N
cos 7.13◦
C = 0.713D 0.124C + 0.707D = 100 N
C = 89.6 N D = 125.7 N.
With particle C solved, we can use the results to solve particle B. There
are three unknowns remaining, tension A, magnitude P , and direction
θ. Unfortunately, we still only have two available equilibrium equations.
When you find yourself in this situation with more unknowns than equa-
tions, it generally means that you are missing something. In this case it
is the pulley. When a cable wraps around a frictionless pulley the tension
doesn’t change. The missing information is that A = C. Knowing this,
the magnitude and direction of force P can be determined.
Because A = C, the free-body diagram of particle B is symmetric, and
the technique used in Example 3.4.5 to rotate the coordinate system could
be applied here.
3. Solve Particle B.
Referring to the fbd for particle B we can write these equations.
ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0
−Ax − Px + Cx = 0 Ay − P y − C y = 0
P cos θ = C cos β − A cos α P sin θ = A sin α − C sin β
These are the magnitude and direction of vector P. If you wish, you can
express P in terms of its scalar components. The negative signs on the
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 76
components have been applied by hand since P points down and to the
left.
y y
x x
z
Figure 3.5.1 Point-and-curl right-hand rule technique.
3.5.3 Angles
As stated above, when working in
three dimensions you actually need
three angles to determine the direc-
tion of the vector, namely, the angle
with respect to the x axis, the an- Figure 3.5.2 Direction Cosine Angles
gle with respect to the y axis and
the angle with respect to the z axis.
The three angles mentioned above
are not necessarily located in any of
the coordinate planes. Think of it
this way — three points determine
a plane, and in this case, the three
points are: the origin, the tip of the
vector, and a point on an axis. The
plane made by those three points
is not necessarily the xy, yz, or xz
plane. It is most likely a “tilted”
plane.
The angle the vector makes with the positive x axis is usually labeled θx , but
any Greek letter will do. The angle the vector makes with the positive y axis
is usually labeled θy ; and the angle the vector makes with the positive z is is
usually labeled θz .
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 78
Now, that is a bit of math there, but the important things to remember are:
• You can use three angles to determine the direction of a force in three
dimensions.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 79
• You can use the geometry to get them from a distance vector that lies
along the line of action of the force.
The three direction cosine angles are not mutually independent. From (3.5.1)
you can easily show that
so if you know two direction cosine angles you can find the third from this
relationship.
1. Identify the particle. The particle will be the object or point where the
lines of action of all the forces intersect.
3. Draw a free-body diagram. The fbd shows the object and all the forces
acting on it, and defines the symbols we will use. Every force should be
labeled with a roman letter to represent its magnitude. Appropriate angles
should be represented by a greek letter with a subscript indicating which
axis the angle of the vector is measured against.
5. Determine the direction of each of the force vectors. Angles are usually
determined by the geometry.
6. Count knowns and unknowns. At this point you should have no more than
three unknowns remaining. If you don’t, reread the problem and look for
overlooked information. When solving mechanics problems, it is always
helpful to know what you know and what you are looking for and this
information changes as you work through your solution.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 80
9. Substitute values for symbols. When your equilibrium equations have been
fully simplified in symbolic form, pull out your calculator and substitute
the known values and calculate the unknowns. Indicate the units of your
results, and underline or box your answers.
10. Check your work. Have you made any algebra or trig mistakes? If you add
the components of the forces, do they add to zero? Do the results seem
reasonable given the situation? Have you included appropriate units?
Example 3.5.3 Balloon.
spaced 10 ft apart. z x
B
Answer.
Solution.
1. Strategy.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 81
Use the point coordinates to find the x, y and z components of the forces.
−20 −30 0
Ax = A Ay = A Az = A
LA LA LA
30 −30 20
Bx = B By = B Bz = B
LB LB LB
0 −30 −20
Cx = C Cy = C Cz = C
LC LC LC
Where LA , LB and LC are the lengths of the three cables found with the
distance formula.
p
LA = (−20)2 + (−30)2 + 02 = 36.1 ft
p
LB = 302 + (−30)2 + 202 = 46.9 ft
p
LC = 02 + (−30)2 + (−20)2 = 36.1 ft
3. Equilibrium Equations.
Applying the three equations of equilibrium yields three equations in terms
of the three unknown tensions.
ΣFx = 0
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 82
Ax + B x + C x = 0
20 30
− A+ B + 0C = 0
36.1 46.9
A = 1.153 B (1)
ΣFz = 0
Az + B z + C z = 0
20 20
0A + B− C=0
46.9 36.1
C = 0.769 B (2)
ΣFy = 0
Ay + B y + C y + D = 0
30 30 30
− A− B− C + 900 = 0
36.1 46.9 36.1
0.832 A + 0.640 B + 0.832 C = 900 lb (3)
With B known, substitute it into equations (1) and (2) to find A and C.
A = 1.153 B C = 0.769 B
= 464 lb = 309 lb
□
Example 3.5.4 Skycam. The skycam at Stanford University Stadium has a
mass of 20 kg and is supported by three cables as shown. Assuming that it is
currently in equilibrium, find the tension in each of the three supporting cables.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 83
Answer.
Solution. In this situation, the directions of all four forces are specified by the
angles in the free-body diagram, and the magnitude of the weight is known. The
three unknowns are the magnitudes of forces A, B, and C.
We will first find unit vectors in the directions of the four forces by inspection
of the free-body diagram. This step requires visualizing the components unit
vectors, and determining the angles each makes with the coordinate axis.
Ŵ = ⟨0, −1, 0⟩
 = ⟨cos 35◦ , cos 55, 0⟩
B̂ = ⟨− cos 15◦ cos 30◦ , cos 75◦ , − cos 15◦ cos 60◦ ⟩
Ĉ = ⟨0, cos 70, cos 20◦ ⟩
P
Particle equilibrium requires that F = 0, so,
A Â + B B̂ + C Ĉ = −W Ŵ.
These can be solved by any method you choose. Here we will use Sage.
Evaluating the coefficients and expressing the equations in matrix form gives
0.819 −0.837 0 A 0
0.574 0.259 0.342 B = 196.2 N .
0 −0.482 0.940 C 0
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 84
[A][x] = [B].
When a force is applied to a body, the body tends to translate in the direction
of the force and also tends to rotate. We have already explored the translational
tendency in Chapter 3. We will focus on the rotational tendency in this chapter.
This rotational tendency is known as the moment of the force, or more simply
the moment. You may be familiar with the term torque from physics. Engineers
generally use “moment” where physicists use “torque” to describe this concept.
Engineers reserve “torque” for moments which are applied about the long axis
of a shaft and produce torsion.
Moments are vectors, so they have magnitude and direction and obey all
rules of vector addition and subtraction described in Chapter 2. Additionally,
moments have a center of rotation, although it is more accurate to say that they
have an axis of rotation. In two dimensions, the axis of rotation is perpendicular
to the plane of the page and so will appear as a point of rotation, also called
the moment center. In three dimensions, the axis of rotation can be any
direction in 3D space.
A wrench provides a familiar example.
A force F applied to the handle of a
wrench, as shown in Figure 4.0.1, cre-
ates a moment MA about an axis out of
the page through the centerline of the Figure 4.0.1 A moment MA is created
nut at A. The M is bold because it rep- by force F.
resents a vector, and the subscript A
indicates the axis or center of rotation.
The direction of the moment can be ei-
ther clockwise or counter-clockwise de-
pending on how the force is applied.
85
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 86
F r
M F
Figure 4.1.1 Two ways to apply the right hand rule to determine the direction
of a moment.
Another approach is the point-and-curl method. Start with your right hand
flat and fingertips pointing along the position vector r pointing from the center
of rotation to a point on the force’s line of action. Rotate your hand until the
force F is perpendicular to your fingers and imagine that it pushes your fingers
into a curl around your thumb. In this position, your thumb defines the axis of
rotation, and points in the direction of the moment M.
F M
the counter-clockwise moment acts in the positive z direction and the clockwise
moment acts in the −z direction.
y
x
• If you increase the distance between a force and a point of interest, does
the moment of the force go up or down?
• What practical applications can you think of that could use moments to
describe?
As you probably know, the turning effect produced by a wrench depends on
where and how much force you apply to the wrench, and the optimum direction
to apply the force is at at right angles to the wrench’s handle. If the nut won’t
budge, you need to apply a larger force or get a longer wrench.
This strength of this turning effect is what is what we mean by the magnitude
of a moment (or of a torque).
M = F d⊥ . (4.2.1)
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 88
Notice that the magnitude of a moment depends only on the force and the mo-
ment arm, so the same force produces different moments about different points in
space. The closer the center of rotation is to the force’s line of action, the smaller
the moment. Points on the force’s line of action experience no moment because
there the moment arm is zero. Furthmore, vector magnitudes are always posi-
tive, so clockwise and counter-clockwise moments with the same strength have
the same magnitude.
Answer.
1. CCW 2. CW 3. CW 4. CCW
Solution.
1. CCW. Use the default sign convention, i.e. CCW is positive.
2. CW. Negative value means moment acts opposite to positive direction.
3. CW. The arrow overrides default sign convention, so now CW is positive
direction.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 89
□
Scalar components are most useful when combining several clockwise and
counter-clockwise moments. The resulting algebraic sum of the scalar compo-
nents will be either positive, negative, or zero, and this sign indicates the direc-
tion of the resultant moment.
Example 4.3.2 Scalar addition. Use scalar moments to determine the mag-
nitude of the resultant of three moments:
M1 = 25 kN·m ⟳ , M2 = 40 kN·m ⟲, and M3 = 30 kN·m ⟳
Answer. |M| = 15 kN·m
Solution. Manually attaching the signs according to the standard sign conven-
tion (CCW +) gives the scalar moments:
M1 = −25 kN·m
M2 = +40 kN·m
M3 = −30 kN·m.
M = M 1 + M2 + M 3
= (−25 kN·m) + (40 kN·m) + (−30 kN·m)
= −15 kN·m.
The negative sign indicates that the resultant vector moment is clockwise.
Interpreting the resultant as a vector gives:
M = 15 kN·m ⟳ .
|M| = 15 kN·m.
□
In three dimensions, moments, like forces, can be resolved into components
in the x, y, and z directions.
M = Mx i + My j + Mx k.
This means that the three scalar components are required to fully specify a
moment in three dimensions.
Warning 4.3.3 Be careful not to mix up magnitudes with scalar components.
• Both are scalar values with units.
• Magnitudes are never negative. Scalar components have a sign.
• Scalar components always have an associated sign convention. It may be
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 90
M = F⊥ d, (4.4.1)
M = ±Fx dy ± Fy dx . (4.4.3)
Answer.
MA = 174 ft·lb Clockwise.
Solution. Force F acts 60◦ from the vertical with a 750 lb magnitude, so its
horizontal and vertical components are
Fx = F sin 60◦ = 649.5 lb
Fy = F cos 60◦ = 375.0 lb
For component Fx , the perpendicular distance from point A is 2 ft so the
moment of this component is
M1 = 2Fx = 1299 ft·lb Clockwise.
For component Fx , the perpendicular distance from point A is 3 ft so the
moment of this component is
M2 = 3Fy = 1125 ft·lb Counter-clockwise.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 92
MA = −M1 + M2
= −1299 + 1125
= −174 ft·lb
The negative sign indicates that the resultant moment is clockwise, with a
magnitude of 174 ft·lb.
• Why does Varignon’s Theorem give you the same answer as a determinant?
• How can you combine a dot product and a cross product to find the moment
about a line?
M = r × F, (4.5.1)
Figure 4.5.1 Moment cross product.
where F is the force creating the mo- M = r × F
ment, and r is a position vector from
the moment center to the line of ac-
tion of the force. The cross product is
a vector multiplication operation and
the product is a vector perpendicular
to the vectors you multiplied.
The mathematics of cross products was discussed in Section 2.8, and equation
(2.8.1) provides one method to calculate a moment cross products
Here, θ is the angle between the two vectors as shown in Figure 4.5.1 above, and
û is the unit vector perpendicular to both r and F with the direction coming
from the right-hand rule. This equation is useful if you know or can find the
magnitudes of r and F and the angle θ between them. This equation is the vector
equivalent of (4.4.2).
Alternately, if you know or can find the components of the position r and
force F vectors, it’s typically easiest to evaluate the moment cross product using
the determinant form discussed in Subsection 2.8.1.
M=r×F
i j k
= rx ry rz
F F F
x y z
Mx = (ry Fz − rz Fy )
My = (rx Fz − rz Fx )
Mz = (rx Fy − ry Fx ).
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 94
These represent the component moments acting around each of the three coordi-
nate axes. The magnitude of the resultant moment can be calculated using the
three-dimensional Pythagorean Theorem.
q
M = |M| = Mx 2 + My 2 + Mz 2 (4.5.4)
It is important to avoid three common mistakes when setting up the cross
product.
• The order must always be r × F, never F × r. The moment arm r appears
in the middle line of the determinant and the force F on the bottom line.
• The moment arm r must always be measured from moment center to the
line of action of the force. Never from the force to the point.
M=r×F
i j k
= rx ry 0
F F 0
x y
= (rx Fy − ry Fx ) k. (4.5.5)
The second interactive shows a more realistic situation. The moment center
is at arbitrary point A, and the line of action of force F passes through arbitrary
points P1 and P2 . The position vector r is the vector from A to a point on the
line of action, and the force F can be slid anywhere along that line.
• finding the moment of a force about a point using the cross product, (4.5.1).
• finding the scalar projection of one vector onto another vector using the
dot product, (2.7.8) and,
Carrying these operations out gives a vector which is the component of mo-
ment r × F along the u axis.
Mû = û · (r × F) û (4.5.6)
The combined dot and cross product is the scalar projection of the moment
on the line of interest and is called the mixed triple product.
∥ proju M∥ = û · M
= û · (r × F)
• û, the unit direction vector of the line or axis of interest. This vector
represents the direction of the axis.1
• r, the position vector from any point on the line of interest to any point
on the line of action of the force.
• F, the force vector. If you have multiple concurrent forces, you can treat
them individually or add them together first and find the moment of the
resultant — using Verignon’s principle.
1
In many texts, the Greek letter lambda, λ is often used to indicate unit direction vectors.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 97
4.6 Couples
Key Questions
• What makes a couple different than a typical r × F moment?
where d⊥ is the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces.
Vector Addition. When you add forces together using the rules of vector
addition, you are performing an equivalent transformation. You can swap out
two or more components and replace them with a single equivalent resultant
force.
Any number of concurrent forces can be added together to produce a single
resultant force. By definition, the lines of action of concurrent forces all intersect
at a common point. The resultant must be placed at this intersection point in
order for this replacement to be equivalent. This is because before and after the
replacement, the moment about the intersection point is zero. If the resultant
was placed somewhere else, that would not be true.
The effects of the force in the x, y and (in three dimensions the z) directions
remains the same, and by Verignon’s theorem we know that the moment these
forces make about any point will also be the same.
An interesting special case occurs when two forces are equal and opposite
and have the same line of action. When these are added together, they cancel
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 100
The difference is what might happen to your vehicle. With one method
there’s a danger that you will rip your front bumper off, with the other you might
damage your rear bumper. These are the internal effects and they depend on
where the equivalent force is applied. These forces are are necessary to maintain
rigidity and hold the parts of the body together.
Sliding a force along its line of action. Sliding a force along its line of
action is an equivalent transformation because sliding a force does not change
its magnitude, direction or the perpendicular distance from the line of action to
any point, so the moments it creates do not change either. This transformation
is called the “Principle of Transmissibility”.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 101
inside the body definitely does depend on the specific point where the moment
is applied.
MR = ΣM
Example 4.7.5 Equivalent Moment.
Two concentrated moments and a couple are act-
ing on the object shown. Given: M1 = 400 N·m,
M2 = 200 N·m, F = 40 N and d = 2 m.
Replace these with single, equivalent concen-
trated moment, and give the magnitude and di-
rection of your result.
M3 = F d ⊥
= F d sin 60◦
= 69.3 N·m
MR = ΣM
= M1 + M2 + M3
= −400 N·m + 200 N·m + 69.3 N·m
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 103
= −130.7 N·m
MR = 130.7 N·m clockwise
• Do you have to include both r×F moments and couples to find the resultant
moment?
• How can you determine if two loading systems are statically equivalent?
A loading system is a combination of load forces and moments which act
on an object. It can be as simple as a single force, or as complex as a three-
dimensional combination of many force and moment vectors.
You will see that any loading systems may be replaced with a simpler stati-
cally equivalent system consisting of one resultant force at a specific point and one
resultant moment by performing a series of equivalent transformations. Force
system resultants provide a convenient representation for complex force interac-
tions at engineering connections that we will rely on later in a variety of contexts.
For now we will focus on the details of reducing a system to a single force and
couple.
Depending on the original loading system, the resultant force, the resultant
moment, or both may be zero. If they are both zero, it indicates that the object
is in equilibrium under this load condition. If they are non-zero, the supports will
need to provide an equal and opposite reaction to put the object into equilibrium.
The resultant force acting on a system, R, can be found from adding the
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 104
(c) FBD and reactions for (a). (d) FBD and reactions for (b).
Figure 4.8.2 Moving a force is not an equivalent transformation
You can move a force to a new line of action in an equivalent fashion if you add
a “compensatory couple” to undo the effect of changing the line of action. This
can be accomplished with of a series of individual equivalent transformations as
shown in the diagram below. To move P to another location, first add two equal
and opposite forces where you want the force to be, as in (b). Then recognize the
couple you have formed (c), and replace it with an equivalent couple-moment.
The result of this process is the equivalent force-couple system shown in diagram
(d), which is statically equivalent to the original situation in (a).
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 106
(a) Original situation. (b) Add two equal and opposite forces
at midpoint.
M = Pd
= (1200 lb)(9 in)
= 10, 800 in·lb
= 900 ft·lb.
□
Example 4.8.5 Equivalent Force-couple System. Replace the system of
forces in diagram (a) with an equivalent force-couple system at A.
Replace the force-couple system at A with a single equivalent force and specify
its location.
R = F1 + F2
MA = F1 d1 + F2 (d1 + d2 ).
To create the equivalent system (b), the resultant force and resultant moment
are placed at point A.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 108
Figure 4.8.7
Answer. (a) and (c) are statically equivalent
Solution.
1. Strategy.
Evaluate the resultant force and resultant moment for each case and com-
pare. We choose to evaluate the resultant moment about point A, though
any other point would work.
2. For system (a).
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 109
R = ⟨−10, 0⟩ lb
MA = −80 + 6(10)
= −20 ft·lb
R = ⟨−20 + 10, 0⟩ lb
= ⟨−10, 0⟩ lb
MA = −120 + 12(20) − 6(10)
= 60 ft·lb
R = ⟨−10, 0⟩ lb
MA = −40 + 20 + 0(10)
= −20 ft·lb
Systems (a) and (c) are statically equivalent since R and MA are the same in
both cases. System (b) is not as its resultant moment is different than the other
two. □
Any load system can be simplified to its resultant force R, and resultant
couple M, acting at any arbitrary point O. There are four common special cases
which are worth highlighting individually.
Concurrent forces. When all forces in a system are concurrent, the resultant
moment about that their common intersection point will always be zero. We
then need only find the resultant force and place it at the point of intersection.
The resultant moment about any other point is the moment of the resultant
force R about that point.
Parallel forces. When all forces in a system are parallel, the resultant force
will act in this direction with a magnitude equal to the sum of the individual
magnitudes. There will be no moment created about this axis, but we need to
find the resultant moment about the other two rectangular axes. That is, if
all forces act in the x direction, we need only find the resultant force in the x
direction and the resultant moment about the y and z axes.
Coplanar forces. When all forces in a system are coplanar we need only
find the resultant force in this plane and the resultant moment about the axis
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 110
perpendicular to this plane. That is, if all forces exist in the x-y plane, we
need only to sum components in the x and y directions to find resultant force
R, and use these to determine the resultant moment about the z axis. All
two-dimensional problems fall into this category.
In this chapter we will investigate the equilibrium of simple rigid bodies like your
book, phone, or pencil. The important difference between rigid bodies and the
particles of Chapter 3 is that rigid bodies have the potential to rotate around a
point or axis, while particles do not.
For rigid body equilibrium, we need to maintain translational equilibrium
with X
F=0 (5.0.1)
and also maintain a balance of rotational forces and couple-moments with a new
equilibrium equation X
M = 0. (5.0.2)
111
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 112
• Which reaction forces and couple-moments come from each support type?
• What are the typical support force components and couple-moment com-
ponents which can be modeled from the various types of supports?
Free body diagrams are the tool that engineers use to identify the forces and
moments that influence an object. They will be used extensively in statics, and
you will use them again in other engineering courses so your effort to master
them now is worthwhile. Although the concept is simple, students often have
great difficulty with them.
Drawing a correct free-body diagram is the first and most important step
in the process of solving an equilibrium problem. It is the basis for all the
equilibrium equations you will write; if your free-body diagram is incorrect then
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 113
Creating Free Body Diagrams. The basic process for drawing a free-body
diagrams is
cable (or other reaction force in-line body contacts roller on force perpendicular
two-force member) with two-force member smooth surface smooth surface to surface
Ball & socket Three reactions Free-axle bearing Four unknowns
ball cannot slide but is free to rotate axle free to slide & rotate
crate. If we were to remove the floor, the cable would be engaged and support
the weight of the crate.
not engaged engaged
T=0 T=W
W W
Figure 5.2.4 One hand holding an object versus two hands holding the same
object.
The vertical force in your right hand engaged instead of the couple-moment
of your left hand. The reaction couples from both hands are available, but the
vertical forces engage first and are sufficient for equilibrium. This phenomena is
described by the saying “reaction forces engage before reaction couple-moments”.
Free Body Diagram Examples. Given that there several options for repre-
senting reaction forces and couple-moments from a support, there are different,
equally valid options for drawing free-body diagrams. With experience you will
learn which representation to choose to simplify the equilibrium calculations.
Possible free-body diagrams for two common situations are shown in the next
two examples.
Example 5.2.5 Fixed support.
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 118
Solution.
Begin by drawing a neat rectangle to D
B 30°
represent the beam disconnected from
its supports, then add all the known C
forces and couple-moments. Label the
magnitudes of the loads and the known
dimensions symbolically.
Choose the standard xy coordinate system, since it aligns well with the forces.
The wall at A is a fixed support which prevents the beam from translating
up, down, left or right, or rotating in the plane of the page. These constraints are
represented by two perpendicular forces and a concentrated moment, as shown
in Figure 5.2.1. Label these unknowns as well.
The knowns in this problem are the magnitudes and directions of moment
C, forces B, and D and the dimensions of the beam. The unknowns are the two
force components Ax and Ay and the scalar moment MA caused by the fixed
connection. If you prefer, you may represent force A as a force of unknown
magnitude acting at an unknown direction. Whether you represent it as x and y
components or as a magnitude and direction, there are two unknowns associated
with force A.
The three unknown reactions can be found using the three independent equa-
tions of equilibrium we will discuss later in this chapter. □
Example 5.2.6 Frictionless pin and roller.
The beam is supported by a friction- 12 kN
less pin at A and a rocker at D. Draw 24 kN-m
45°
a neat, labeled, correct free-body di- A B C D
agram of the beam and identify the 30°
2m 3m 5
knowns and the unknowns. m
Solution. In this problem, the knowns are the magnitude and direction of force
B and moment C and the dimensions of the beam.
The constraints are the frictionless pin at A and the rocker at D. The pin
prevents translation but not rotation, which means two it has two unknowns,
represented by either magnitude and direction, or by two orthogonal components.
The rocker provides a force perpendicular to the surface it rests on, which is 30◦
from the horizontal. This means that the line of action of force D is 30◦ from
the vertical, giving us its direction but not its sense or magnitude
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 119
• How do I choose which are the most efficient equations to solve two-
dimensional equilibrium problems?
In statics, our focus is on systems where both linear acceleration a and angu-
lar acceleration α are zero. These systems are frequently stationary, but could
be moving with constant velocity.
Under these conditions Newton’s Second Law for translation reduces to
X
F = 0, (5.3.1)
and, Newton’s second law for rotation gives the similar equation
X
M = 0. (5.3.2)
The first of these equations requires that all forces acting on an object balance
and cancel each other out, and the second requires that all moments balance as
well. Together, these two equations are the mathematical basis of this course
and are sufficient to evaluate equilibrium for systems with up to six degrees of
freedom.
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 120
These are vector equations; hidden within each are three independent scalar
equations, one for each coordinate direction.
X ΣFx = 0 X ΣMx =0
F = 0 =⇒ ΣFy = 0 M = 0 =⇒ ΣMy =0 (5.3.3)
ΣF = 0 ΣM =0
z z
Working with these scalar equations is often easier than using their vector equiv-
alents, particularly in two-dimensional problems.
In many cases we do not need all six equations. We saw in Chapter 3 that
particle equilibrium problems can be solved using the force equilibrium equation
alone, because particles have, at most, three degrees of freedom and are not
subject to any rotation.
To analyze rigid bodies, which can rotate as well as translate, the mo-
ment equations are needed to address the additional degrees of freedom. Two-
dimensional rigid bodies have only one degree of rotational freedom, so they
can be solved using just one moment equilibrium equation, but to solve three-
dimensional rigid bodies, which have six degrees of freedom, all three moment
equations and all three force equations are required.
where the subscript z has been replaced with a letter to indicate an arbitrary
moment center in the xy plane instead of a perpendicular z axis.
This is not the only possible set of equilibrium equations. Either force equa-
tion can be replaced with a linearly independent moment equation about a point
of your choosing 1 , so the other possible sets are
P P P
P Fx =0 P MC = 0 P MC = 0
{2} = MB = 0 {3} = Fy =0 {4} = MB = 0
P
P
P
M =0 M =0 M =0
A A A
1
Labels A, B and C in these equations are representative. They don’t have to correspond
to points A, B and C on your problem.
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 121
For set four, moment centers A, B, and C must form a triangle to ensure the
three equations are linearly independent.
You have a lot of flexibility when solving rigid-body equilibrium problems. In
addition to choosing which set of equations to use, you are also free to rotate the
coordinate system to any orientation you like, pick different points for moment
centers, and solve the equations in any order or simultaneously.
This freedom raises several questions. Which equation set should you choose?
Is one choice ‘better’ than another? Why bother rotating coordinate systems?
How do you select moment centers? Students want to know “how to solve the
problem,” when in reality there are many ways to do it.
The actual task is to choose an efficient approach and carry it out. An efficient
solution is one which avoids mathematical complications and makes the problem
easy to solve. Complications include unpleasant geometries, unnecessary algebra,
and particularly simultaneous equations, which are algebra intensive and error
prone.
So how do you do set up an efficient approach? First, stop, think, and look
for opportunities to make the solution more efficient. Here are some recommen-
dations.
1. Equation set one is usually a good choice, and should be considered first.
2. Inspect your free-body diagram and identify the unknown values in the
problem. These may be magnitudes, directions, angles or dimensions.
4. Take moments about the point where the lines of action of two unknown
forces intersect, which eliminates them from the equation.
This problem will be solved three different ways to demonstrate the advan-
tages and disadvantages of different approaches.
Solution 1.
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 122
We choose to solve equation set {A}, and choose to take moments about point
A, because unknowns Ax and Ay intersect there. Substituting the variables into
the equation and solving for the unknowns gives
X
Fx = 0
B x − Ax = 0
Ax = B sin 60◦ (1)
X
Fy = 0
B y − C + Ay = 0
Ay = C − B cos 60◦ (2)
X
MA = 0
−Bx (3) − By (7) + C(4) + D = 0
3B cos 60◦ + 7B sin 60◦ = 4C + D
B(3 sin 60◦ + 7 cos 60◦ ) = 4C + D
4C + D
B= (3)
6.098
Of these three equations only the third can be evaluated immediately, because
we know C and D. In equations (1) and (2) unknowns Ax and Ay can’t be found
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 123
until B is known. Inserting the known values into (3) and solving for B gives
4(250) + 500
B=
6.098
1500 ft·lb
=
6.098 ft
= 246.0 lb
Now with the magnitude of B known, Ax and Ay can be found with (1) and
(2).
Ax = B sin 60◦
= 246.0 sin 60◦
= 213.0 lb
Ay = C − B cos 60◦
= 250 − 246.0 cos 60◦
= 127.0 lb
The positive signs on these values indicate that the directions assumed on the
free-body diagram were correct.
The magnitude and direction of force A can be found from the scalar com-
ponents Ax and Ay using a rectangular to polar conversion.
q
A = A2x + A2y = 248.0 lb
Ay
θ = tan = 30.8◦
−1
Ax
The final values for A and B, with angles measured counter-clockwise from
the positive x axis are
A = 248.0 lb ∡ 149.2◦ ,
B = 246.0 lb ∡ 30°.
This solution demonstrates a fairly standard approach appropriate for many
statics problems which should be considered whenever the free-body diagram
contains a frictionless pin. Start by taking moments there.
Solution 2.
250 lb
There is no particular advantage to this approach over the first one, but with
two unknown forces aligned with the x′ direction, Ay′ can be found directly after
breaking force C into components.
X
F x′ = 0
B − C x′ + Ax′ = 0
Ax′ = −B + C sin 30◦ (1)
X
Fy ′ = 0
−Cy′ + Ay′ = 0
Ay′ = C cos 30◦ (2)
X
MA = 0
−Bx (3) − By (7) + C(4) + D = 0
3B cos 60◦ + 7B sin 60◦ = 4C + D
B(3 cos 60◦ + 7 sin 60◦ ) = 4C + D
4C + D
B= (3)
7.56
Solving equation (2) yields
Ay′ = 216.5 lb.
Solving equation (3) yields the same result as previously
B = 246.0 lb.
Substituting B and C into equation (1) yields
Ax′ = −B + C sin 30◦
= −246.0 + 250 sin 30◦
= −121.0 lb
The negative sign on this result indicates that our assumed direction for Ax′
was incorrect, and that force actually points 180◦ to the assumed direction.
Resolving the Ax′ and Ay′ gives the magnitude and direction of force A.
q
A= A2x′ + A2y′ = 248.0 lb
Ay
θ = tan = 60.8◦
−1
Ax
α = 180 − (θ − 30◦ ) = 149.2◦
◦
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 125
Again, the final values for A and B, with angles measured counter-clockwise
from the positive x axis are
A = 248.0 lb ∡ 149.2◦ ,
B = 246.0 lb ∡ 30°
This approach was slightly more difficult than solution one because of the
additional trigonometry involved to find components in the rotated coordinate
system.
Solution 3.
250 lb
60°
For this solution, we will use the
B C
same free-body diagram as solution
500 ft-lb D
one, but will use three moment equa-
tions, about points B, C and D.
X
MB = 0
−Ax (3) + Ay (7) − C(3) + D = 0
−3Ax + 7Ay = 250 (1)
X
MC = 0
−Ax (3) + Ay (4) − By (3) + D = 0
−3Ax + 4Ay − 3B cos 60◦ = −D
3Ax − 4Ay + 1.5B = 500 (2)
X
MD = 0
−Ax (1.5) − Bx (1.5) − By (7) + C(4) + D = 0
1.5Ax + 1.5B sin 60◦ + 7B cos 60◦ = 4C + D
1.5Ax + 4.799B = 1500 (3)
This set of three equations and three unknowns can be solved with some
algebra.
Adding (1) and (2) gives
Multiplying (4) by 2/3 and subtracting from (5) eliminates Ay and gives
3.049B = 750
B = 246.0 lb,
dimensions.
Three-dimensional problems are usually solved using vector algebra rather
than the scalar approach used in the last section. The main differences are that
directions are described with unit vectors rather than with angles, and moments
are determined using the vector cross product rather scalar methods. Because
they have more possible unknowns it is harder to find efficient equations to solve
by hand. A problem might involve solving a system of up to six equations and
six unknowns, in which case it is best solved using linear algebra and technology.
2. There are two general methods for summing the r × F moments. Both
techniques will give you the same set of equations.
4 ft
A 5 ft
4 ft
z
x
6 ft
B 4 ft
z x
2i − 4j − 1k
= √ .
21
Multiplying the unit vector by the cable tension gives the force acting on
A as a three-dimensional Cartesian force vector
F = λAB T
2i − 4j − 1k
= √ 500 lb
21
500
= (2i − 4j − 1k) √ lb
21
F = (218i − 436j − 109k) lb.
The moment about point C is found with the cross product (4.5.1) where
the moment arm is the displacement vector from C to A.
MC = rCA × F
i j k
500
= 4 0 5 √
2 −4 −1 21
ΣFx = 0 : Cx + F x = 0
Cx = −218 lb
ΣT = 0 :
y Cy − F y = 0
ΣF = 0
Cy = +436 lb
ΣTz = 0 : Cz − F z = 0
Cz = +109 lb
ΣMx = 0 : Mx + MC x = 0
Mx = −2180 ft·lb
ΣM = 0 :
y M y + MC y = 0
ΣM = 0
My = −1530 ft·lb
ΣMz = 0 : M z + MC z = 0
Mz = +1750 ft·lb
The resulting vector equations for the reaction force C and reaction mo-
ment M are
□
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 131
• How can I decide if a problem is both stable and determinate, which makes
it solvable statics?
below can technically be checked in any order, they have been sorted from the
quickest to the most time consuming to speed up your analysis.
Equilibrium of Structures
In this chapter you will conduct static analysis of multi-body structures. Broadly
defined, a structure is any set of interconnected rigid bodies designed to serve a
purpose. The parts of the structure may move relative to one another, like the
blades of scissors, or they may be fixed relative to one another, like the structural
members of bridge.
Analysis of structures involves determining all forces acting on and between
individual members of the structure. Fundamentally there is nothing new here;
the techniques you have already learned apply, however structures tend to have
more unknown forces, and so are more involved and provide more opportunities
for error than the problems you have previously encountered. Correct free-body
diagrams and careful work are required, as always.
6.1 Structures
Structures fall into three broad categories: trusses, frames, and machines, and
you should be able to identify which is which.
A truss is a multi-body structure made up of long slender members con-
nected at their ends in triangular subunits. Truss members carry axial forces
only. Trusses are commonly used for spanning large distances without interrup-
tion: bridges, roof systems, stadiums, aircraft hangers, auditoriums for example.
They are also used for crane booms, radio towers and the like. Trusses are light-
weight and relatively strong. Over the years many unique truss designs have
been developed and are often named after the original designer.
A frame is a multi-part, rigid, stationary structure primarily designed to
support some type of load. A frame contains at least one multi-force member,
which a truss never has. This means that, unlike trusses, frame members must
support bending moments as well shear and normal forces. Many common items
can be considered frames. Some examples: building structure, bike frames, lad-
ders, scaffolding, and more.
A machine is very similar to a frame, except that it includes some moving
parts. The purpose of a machine is usually to provide a mechanical advantage
135
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 136
Figure 6.1.1 Scissors and bridges are examples of engineering structures. Scis-
sors are a machine with three interconnected parts. The bridge is a truss.
Solving a structure means determining all forces acting on all of its parts.
The solution typically begins by determining the global equilibrium of the entire
structure, then breaking it into parts and analyzing each separate part. The
specific process will depend on the type of structure, but will always follow the
principles covered in the previous chapters.
θ
A AB CA
AB CA
B C
BC
AB CA
B C
BC BC
CD
BD
A AB
A B C
BD
AD CD
BD
AD CD
B C
BC A AB
C B
Floor Load
Slab
Columns
Footings
6.3 Trusses
Key Questions
• What are simple trusses and how do they differ from other structural
systems?
• How can we determine the forces acting within simple truss systems?
6.3.1 Introduction
A truss is a rigid engineering structure made up of long, slender members con-
nected at their ends. Trusses are commonly used to span large distances with a
strong, lightweight structure. Some familiar applications of trusses are bridges,
roof structures, and pylons. Planar trusses are two-dimension trusses built
out of triangular subunits, while space trusses are three-dimensional, and the
basic unit is a tetrahedron.
In this section we will analyze a simplified approximation of a planar truss,
called a simple truss and determine the forces the members individually sup-
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 140
port when the truss supports a load. Two different approaches will be presented:
the method of sections, and the method of joints.
Commonly, rigid trusses have only three reaction forces, resulting in the
equation:
2 × (number of joints) = 3 + (number of members)
Unstable trusses lack the structural members to maintain their rigidity when
removed from their supports. They can also be recognized using the equation
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 141
above having more system equations on the left side of the equation above then
system unknowns on the right.
Truss systems with redundant members have fewer system equations on the
left side of the equation above than the system unknowns on the right. While
they are indeterminate in statics, in later courses you will learn to solve these
trusses too, by taking into account the deformations of the truss members.
Thinking Deeper 6.3.2 The Danger of Simple Trusses. Simple trusses
have no structural redundancy, which makes them easy to solve using the tech-
niques of this chapter, however this simplicity also has a dark side.
These trusses are sometimes called fracture critical trusses because the failure
of a single component can lead to catastrophic failure of the entire structure.
With no redundancy, there is no alternative load path for the forces that normally
would be supported by that member. You can visualize the fracture critical
nature of simple trusses by thinking about a triangle with pinned corners. If one
side of a triangle fails, the other two sides lose their support and will collapse.
In a full truss made of only triangles, the collapse of one triangle starts a chain
reaction which causes others to collapse as well.
While fracture critical bridges are being replaced by more robust designs,
there are still thousands in service across the United States. To read more about
two specific fracture critical collapses search the internet for the Silver Bridge
collapse, or the I-5 Skagit River Bridge collapse.
D
DB
A AB BC C
A C
B B
A E
BA
ΣFy = 0
DA sin θ = 0
• We have assumed that all members have negligible weight or if not, applied
half the weight to each pin. The actual weight of real members invalidates
the two-force body assumption and leads to errors. Consider a vertical
member -- the internal forces must at least support the member’s weight.
• Truss members are not actually rigid, and long slender members under
compression will buckle and collapse. The so-called zero-force member will
be engaged to prevent this buckling. In the previous example, members
CD and DE are under compression and form an unstable equilibrium and
would definitely buckle at pin D if they were not replaced with a single
member CE with sufficient rigidity.
• Trusses are often used over a wide array of loading conditions. While
a member may be zero-force for one loading condition, it will likely be
engaged under a different condition — think about how the load on a
bridge shifts as a heavy truck drives across.
Answer. There are six zero-force members: GH, F G, BF , EI, DE and CD.
Solution. Rule 1:
Rule 2:
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 146
• Due to three forces meeting at joining B, with two being collinear (internal
forces in AB and BC) then BF is a zero-force member.
• Due to three forces meeting at joint I, with two being collinear (internal
forces IF and CI), then EI is a zero-force member. Note that member
EI does not need to be perpendicular to the collinear members to be a
zero force.
The remaining truss is shown.
Note that once EI and BF are
eliminated, you can effectively
eliminate the joints B and I
as the member forces in the
collinear members will be equal.
Also notice that the truss is still
formed of triangles which fully
support all of the applied forces.
□
Try to find all the zero-force members in the truss in the interactive diagram
below, once you believe you have found all of them, check out the step-by-step
solution in the interactive.
• How are the solutions found at one joint used to create an accurate free-
body diagram of another joint?
The method of joints is a process used to solve for the unknown forces
acting on members of a truss. The method centers on the joints or connection
points between the members, and it is most useful when you need to solve for
all the unknown forces in a truss structure.
The joints are treated as particles subjected to force by the connected mem-
bers and any applied loads. As the joints are in equilibrium and the forces are
concurrent, ΣF = 0 can be applied, but the ΣM = 0 equation provides no
information.
For planar trusses, each joint yields two scalar equations, ΣFx = 0 and
ΣFy = 0, and so two unknowns can be found. Therefore, a joint can be solved
when there are one or two unknowns forces and at least one known force acting
on it.
Forces are transferred from joint to joint by the connecting members, so when
unknown forces on a joint are found, the corresponding forces on adjacent joints
are also found.
6.4.1 Procedure
The procedure is straightforward application of rigid body and particle equilib-
rium
1. Determine if the structure is a truss and if it is determinate. See Subsec-
tion 6.3.2
2. Identify and remove all zero-force members. This is not required, but will
eliminate unnecessary computations. See Subsection 6.3.4.
3. Determine if you need to find the external reactions. If you can identify
a solvable joint immediately, then you do not need to find the external
reactions.
A solvable joint includes one or more known forces and no more than two
unknown forces. If there are no joints that satisfy this condition then you
will need to find the external reactions before proceeding, using a free-body
diagram of the entire truss.
4. Identify a solvable joint and solve it using the methods of Chapter 3. When
drawing free-body diagrams of joints you should
• Represent the joint as a dot.
• Draw all known forces in their known directions with arrowheads
indicating their sense. Known forces are the given loads, and forces
determined from previously solved joints.
• Assume the sense of unknown forces. A common practice is to assume
that all unknown forces are in tension, i.e. pulling away from the free-
body diagram of the pin, and label them based on the member they
represent .
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 148
Finally, write out and solve the force equilibrium equations for the joint. If
you assumed that all forces were tensile earlier, negative answers indicate
compression.
5. Once the unknown forces acting on a joint are determined, carry these
values to the adjacent joints and repeat step four until all the joints have
been solved. Take care when transferring forces to adjoining joints to
maintain their sense — either tension or compression.
6. If you solved for the reactions in step two, you will have more equations
available than unknown forces when you reach the last joint. The extra
equations can be used to check your work.
Rather than solving the joints sequentially, you could write out the equations
for all the joints first and solve them simultaneously using a matrix solution, but
only if you have a computer available as large matrices are not typically solvable
with a calculator.
The interactive below shows a triangular truss, loaded at the top and sup-
ported by a pin a A and a roller at B. You can see how the reactions and internal
forces adjust as you vary the load at C. You can solve it by starting at joint C
and solving for BC and CD, then moving to joint B and solving for AB Joint
A can be used to check your work.
6.5.1 Procedure
The procedure to solve for unknown forces using the method of sections is
4. Use your imaginary chain saw to cut the truss into two pieces by cutting
through some or all of the members you are interested in. The cut does
not need to be a straight line.
Every cut member exposes an unknown internal force, so if you cut three
members you’ll expose three unknowns. Exposing more than three mem-
bers is not advised because you create more unknowns than available equi-
librium equations.
5. Select the easier of the two halves of the truss and draw its free-body
diagram.
• Include all applied and reaction forces acting on the section, and show
known forces acting in their known directions.
• Draw unknown forces in assumed directions and label them. A com-
mon practice is to assume that all unknown forces are in tension and
label them based on the endpoints of the member they represent.
6. Write out and solve the equilibrium equations for your chosen section. If
you assumed that unknown forces were tensile, negative answers indicate
compression.
7. If you have not found all the required forces with one section cut, repeat
the process using another imaginary cut or proceed with the method of
joints if it is more convenient.
• Why can the method of joints and method of sections not be used for
frames and machines?
Figure 6.6.1 Frames are rigid ob- Figure 6.6.2 Machines contain
jects containing multi-force mem- multi-force members that can move
bers. relative to one another.
Procedure
The process used to analyze frames and machines is outlined below
2. Draw a free-body diagram for each of the members in the structure. You
must represent all forces acting on each member, including:
• Applied forces and couples and the weights of the components if non-
negligible.
• Interaction forces due to two-force members. There will be force of
unknown magnitude but the known direction at points connected to
two-force members. The forces will act along the line between the
two connection points.
• All reaction forces and moments at the connection points between
members. Forces with an unknown magnitude and direction are usu-
ally represented by unknown x and y components, but can also be
represented as a force with unknown magnitude acting in an unknown
direction.
F F
B D
A E
4. Solve the equilibrium equations for the unknowns. You can do this alge-
braically, solving for one variable at a time, or you can use matrix equations
to solve for everything at once. Negative magnitudes indicate that the as-
sumed direction of that term was incorrect, and the actual force/moment
is opposite the assumed direction.
7" 9" Α Α
Α F
24" Β θ
40"
F
Β
θ
24" D C
C
D D
Exclude the floor. To begin, we can remove the floor from the system. Every-
thing except the floor is now included as our body; only the floor is excluded.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 155
The floor was in contact with the other objects at the ground and also at the
connection between the floor and the wall.
Since we don’t know how the wall and the floor are connected we will assume
they were fixed together. We also have to model how the wall is attached to the
rest of the world. The fixed support from wall-to-world and wall-to-floor can be
combined to be a single set of three loads which we represent as horizontal and
vertical forces Vx and Vy , and a concentrated moment Mv .
7" 9"
Α
24"
40" Included Excluded
Β
F Lever ABC, Floor
Short Link BD,
θ Wooden Block,
24"
C Roller D, Wall,
D Bearing A
Tips.
• Include friction if it’s given or obvious.
• If you need info which you don’t have, select a variable to act as its
name.
Exclude the wall. If you next remove the wall, forces G and F remain from
before, but we now expose four loads from where the wall was connected to what
is now our body; a normal force N at the roller and three loads from the fixed
support between the bearing block and the wall Wx , Wy , and M .
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 156
Included Excluded
F
Β Lever ABC, Short Floor, Wall
Link BD, Wooden
θ Block, Roller D,
C Bearing A
N D
Tips.
• Every force needs a point of application and a clear arrowhead.
• Indicate any distances and angles needed and not available on the
original diagram.
• Define a coordinate system unless you are using the standard x-y
axes.
Exclude the bearing at A. We are not interested in the loads between the
bearing block and the wall Wx , Wy , and M and further, the free-body diagram
still includes too many unknowns to solve.
After removing the bearing we reduce the unknowns at A to two because the
bearing block and the lever are connected with a pin while the bearing block
and wall were connected with a fixed support. The loads Wx , Wy , and M and
Vx , Vy , and Mv are not included on this free-body diagram because they don’t
act on this object.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 157
F Included Excluded
Β
Lever ABC, Short Floor, Wall, Bearing A
θ Link BD, Wooden
C
Block, Roller D,
N D
Tips.
• Look for free-body diagrams which include only three unknowns in
two dimensions or six unknowns in three.
Tips.
• If the two forces are not the same don’t identify them by the same
name.
1
(less than about 0.1%)
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 158
Exclude the wooden block. We can further simplify the diagram by remov-
ing the wooden block, leaving only the roller, shortlink and lever.
Included Excluded
F
Β Lever ABC, Short Floor, Wall, Bearing A, Wooden
Link BD, Roller Block
θ D
C
N D
Examine the short link BD. The short link BD is a two-force body and as
discussed in Subsection 3.3.3 can only be in equilibrium if the forces at B and
D are equal-and-opposite and act along a line passing through these two points.
This means that the 24:7 slope of the link determines the direction of force BD.
Β
When drawing free-body diagrams, forces with known directions
should be drawn pointing in that direction rather than breaking
24 them into components, otherwise you may lose track of the fact
that the x and y components are not independent but are actu-
7
D ally related by the direction of the force.
Tips.
• A short-link is a two-force body.
• If you don’t know the sense of a force along its line of action, assume
one. If you guess wrong, the analysis will give you a negative value.
Tips.
• Recognize three-force bodies and use their special properties to your
advantage.
• Use the same name for the exposed forces on interacting bodies since
they are equal-and-opposite halves of an action-reaction pair.
Exclude the roller. We can further simplify the free-body diagram by re-
moving the roller. The roller and short link are connected with a pin but, for
equilibrium, the forces acting on a short link (or any two-force body) must share
the same line of action — the line connecting its endpoints; otherwise, compo-
nents perpendicular to this line would produce an unbalanced moment about
the other endpoint.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 160
F Included Excluded
Β
Lever ABC, Short Floor, Wall, Bearing A, Wooden
7
θ Link BD Block, Roller D
24
C
BD
Exclude the short link. The previous free-body diagram has three unknowns
and can be solved but the free-body diagram of the lever by itself is also correct,
and this is the free-body diagram that most people begin with.
Included Excluded
Β F Lever ABC Floor, Wall, Bearing A, Wooden
Block, Roller D, Short Link BD
7
24 θ
BD C
• the loads between the bearing block and the wall Wx , Wy , and M ,
All of the free-body diagrams we have drawn are correct, though not all
are necessary. Generally we only draw the free-body diagrams needed for the
solution. These diagrams form a chain which connect the known input forces to
the desired output forces. When solving frames and machines, think carefully
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 161
about what you know and what you need to solve for: that determines which free-
body diagrams you will need. Taking a few moments to consider what unknowns
you’d have at each step can help you optimize your problem-solving effort.
You should recognize that it is possible to draw incorrect free-body diagrams
which produce correct results. Consider the diagram below.
F
Β This diagram doesn’t accurately represent what is happen-
ing at pin D.
θ
C
N
D
24"
40"
F
Β
θ
24"
C
D
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 162
Answer.
BD = 2.52F
Q = 2.42F
Solution. For this problem, we need two free-body diagrams. The first links
the input force F to the link force BD, and the second links BD to the clamping
force Q.
BD
N
Β F
7
24 θ Q
BD C
FBD I: ΣMA = 0
BDx (24) + BDy (7) − Fx (40) − Fy (16) = 0
7 24
BD (24) + BD (7) = (F cos 60◦ )(40) + (F sin 60◦ )(16)
25 25
13.44BD = 33.86F
BD = 2.52F
The positive sign on the answer reveals that our assumption that member
BD was in compression
P was correct.
Applying Fy = 0 to the free-body diagram of the roller will give Q in
terms of F .
Q − BDy = 0
24
Q = BD
25
24
= (2.52F )
25
= 2.42F
While you could certainly find Ax , Ay and N using other equilibrium equa-
tions they weren’t asked for and we don’t bother to find them. □
Thinking Deeper 6.6.19 Why does the Method of Joints work on
trusses but fail on Frames and Machines? We can solve trusses using the
methods of joints and method of sections because all members of a simple truss
are two-force bodies. Cutting a truss member exposes an internal force which
has an unknown scalar magnitude, but a known line of action. The force acts
along the axis of the member, and causes no bending if the member is straight.
Cutting a truss member exposes one unknown.
Frames and machines are made of multi-force members and cutting these, in
general, exposes:
6.7 Summary
The various equilibrium topics we have covered and the associated problem solv-
ing techniques are summarized below.
You should be able to recognize these situations, draw the associated free-
body diagrams and solve for the unknowns of each case.
Rigid Body Equilibrium. A rigid body can rotate and translate so both
force and moment equilibrium must be considered.
ΣF = 0
ΣM = 0
In two dimensions, these equations produce in two scalar force equations and
one scalar moment equation. Up to three unknowns can be determined.
In three dimension, they produce three scalar force equations and scalar three
moment equations. Up to six unknowns can be determined.
Frames and Machines. Frames and machines are structures which contain
multiple rigid body systems. Frames don’t move and are designed to support
loads. Machines are generally designed to multiply forces, and usually have
moving parts. Both frames and machines can be solved using the same methods.
All interactions between bodies are equal and opposite action-reaction pairs.
When solving frames and machines
• Two-force members provide one useful equilibrium equation, and can de-
termine one unknown.
• In two dimensions, rigid bodies result in two scalar force equations and
one scalar moment equation. Up to three unknowns can be determined.
• In three dimensions, rigid bodies produce three scalar force equations and
scalar three moment equations. Up to six unknowns can be determined.
Keeping your body’s balance: Try standing up with your feet together and
leaning your head and hips in front of your feet. You have just moved your
body’s center of gravity out of line with the support of your feet.
Computing the stability of objects in motion like cars, airplanes, and boats:
By understanding how the center of gravity interacts with the accelera-
tions caused by motion, we can compute safe speeds for sharp curves on a
highway.
Designing the structural support to balance the structure’s own weight and
applied loadings on buildings, bridges, and dams: We design most large
infrastructure not to move. To keep it from moving, we must understand
how the structure’s weight, people, vehicles, wind, earth pressure, and
water pressure balance with the structural supports.
You probably have already developed a good intuition about centroids and
centers of gravity based upon your life experience, and can roughly estimate their
location when you look at an object or diagram. In this chapter you will learn
to locate them precisely using two techniques: integration 7.7 and the method
of composite parts 7.5.
165
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 166
moment about any point don’t change. An upward force at this point will
support the pencil without tipping.
To be equivalent, the total weight must equal the total weight of the parts.
W = W1 + W2 . Common sense also tells us that W will act somewhere between
W1 and W2 .
1 2
Figure 7.2.2 (top) Side view of a pencil representing each half as a particle.
(middle) A force diagram showing the weights of the two particles. (bottom) An
equivalent system consisting of a single weight acting at the pencil’s center of
gravity.
Next, let’s do the mathematical equivalent of sliding your finger back and
forth until a balance point is located. Pick any point O to be the origin, then
calculate the total moment about O due to the two weights.
The sum of moments around point O can be written as:
X
MO = −x1 W1 − x2 W2
Notice that the moment of both forces are clockwise around point O, so the
signs are negative according to the right-hand rule. We want a single equivalent
force acting at the (unknown) center of gravity. Call the distance from the origin
to the the center of gravity x̄.
x̄ represents the mean distance of the weight, mass, or area depending on
the context of the problem. We are evaluating weights in this problem, so x̄
represents the distance from O to the center of gravity.
The sum of moments around point O for the equivalent system can be written
as: X
MO = −x̄W
The moment of total weight W is also clockwise around point O, so the sign
of moment will also be negative according to the right-hand rule. Since the two
representation are equivalent we can equate them and solve for x̄.
−x̄W = −x1 W1 − x2 W2
x1 W1 + x2 W2
x̄ =
W1 + W2
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 169
This result is exactly in the form of (7.1.2) where the value being averaged
is distance x and the weighting factor is is the weight of part Wi and the result
is the mean distance x̄.
The pencil was made up of two halves, but this equation can easily be ex-
tended n discrete parts. The resulting general definition of the centroidal coor-
dinate x̄ is: P
x̄i Wi
x̄ = P (7.2.1)
Wi
where:
In other words, the distance from the axis of symmetry of the shape to the
centroid is zero. □
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 170
10 lb 10 lb 10 lb
a Find the total weight and the distance from the origin to the center of
gravity of the three boxes.
b How would the center of gravity change if the right-most box weighed 20 lb
instead of 10 lb?
Answer. a) W = 30 lb x̄ = 2.5 ft
b) W = 40 lb x̄ = 3.25 ft
The total weight increases by 10 lb and the center of gravity shifts to the
right by 0.75 ft. Also, if the weights of box three doubles, the first moment of
weight with respect to the origin of the third box would also double.
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HdqM4wITZq8
□
These equations give the coordinates of the center of mass. The numerator
contains the first moment of mass, and the denominator contains the total
mass of the object. As long as the assumption that g is constant is valid, the
center of mass and the center of gravity are identical points and the two terms
may be used interchangeably.
7.4 Centroids
Key Questions
• What is the difference between a centroid, center of gravity and a center
of mass?
• When will the centroid, center of gravity and center of mass refer to the
same point?
• Why do the equations for the center of gravity, mass, volume, and area all
have the same structure?
A centroid is a weighted average like the center of gravity, but weighted with
a geometric property like area or volume, and not a physical property like weight
or mass. This means that centroids are properties of pure shapes, not physical
objects. They represent the coordinates of the “middle” of the shape.
The defining equations for centroids are similar to the equations for Cen-
ters of Gravity (7.2.2) but with volume used as the weighting factor for three-
dimensional shapes
P P P
x̄i Vi ȳi Vi z̄i Vi
x̄ = P ȳ = P z̄ = P , (7.4.1)
Vi Vi Vi
We will see how to use these equations on complex shapes later in this chapter,
but centroids of some simple shapes can be easily found using symmetry.
If the shape has an axis of symmetry, every point on one side of the axis
is mirrored by another point equidistant on the other side. One has a positive
distance from the axis, and the other is the same distance away in the negative
direction. These two points will add to zero the numerator, as will every other
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 172
point making up the shape, and the first moment will be zero. This means that
the centroid must lie along the line of symmetry if there is one. If a shape has
multiple symmetry lines, then the centroid must exist at their intersection.
1 cm
1 cm
x
Answer.
x̄ = ȳ = 3.5 cm
Solution. The cross section is symmetrical about both a vertical and horizontal
centerline. The centroid is at the intersection, in the middle. The coordinates
are measured from the origin, in the bottom left of the diagram.
x̄ = ȳ = 3.5 cm
h x′
C
A = bh b/2 h/2
O x
b
y y′
h
x′
bh
b/3 h/3
C 2
x
O
b
y y′
a
h (a + b)h a2 + ab + b2 h(2a + b)
C x′
2 3(a + b) 3(a + b)
x
O
b
y y′
r
x′
C
πr2 r r
x
O
y y′
r
x′ πr2 4r
C r 1
x 2 3π
O
y y′
r
C x′ πr2 4r 4r
x 4 3π 3π
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 174
Note 7.4.4 In this table, all centroids are measured from the indicated origin.
You must make the appropriate adjustments when the origin of your coordinate
system is located elsewhere.
Wi = ρgtAi
P P P
x̄i Wi ȳi Wi z̄i Wi
x̄ = P ȳ = P z̄ = P
W W W
Pi Pi Pi
ρgt x̄i Ai
ρgt ȳi Ai
ρgt z̄i Ai
x̄ = P ȳ = P z̄ = P .
ρgt Ai
ρgt Ai
ρgt
Ai
The two dimensional centroid equations are sufficient to find the center of
gravity of a three dimensional object.
4r
1
See Example 7.7.14 for proof. ≈ 0.424 r
3π
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 175
• Where do the equations for the shapes in areas and centroids table come
from?
• When finding the centroid, what do you do with a cut-out area of a com-
posite part?
where,
x̄, and ȳ are the coordinates of the centroid of the entire shape.
x̄i , and ȳi are the coordinates of the centroid of composite part i.
The steps to finding a centroid using the composite parts method are:
For more complex shapes, the usual practice is to set up a table to organize
the information needed to calculate the centroid, as we will now show. The
process can be broken into three steps.
1.5 cm
2 cm
3 cm 2 cm 6 cm
There are often several ways to divide a shape, but it’s best to use as
few parts as possible to minimize your computations and opportunities for
error. For example, you could choose to break this shape into either a
5 cm × 4 cm rectangle, a 6 cm × 4 cm right triangle, and an r = 1.5 cm
circular hole,
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 177
1.5 cm
2 cm
2 cm
5 cm 6 cm
2 cm
2 cm 1.5 cm
11 cm 6 cm
Both options will give the same results, and in this case there is no par-
ticular advantage to one choice over the other. However, it would be silly
and unnecessary to break this into more than three parts, and it would
not be a good idea to divide this into a trapezoid minus a hole, unless you
know geometric properties of a trapezoid, which are not available in Sub-
section 7.4.1. Be sure your sub-shapes don’t overlap and don’t get counted
more than once.
The last two columns of the table contain the first moments of area Qx =
Ai ȳi and Qy = Ai x̄i , and are easily filled in by multiplying the values in
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 178
columns two to four. Be sure to attend to positive and negative signs when
multiplying. Note that the moment of area with respect to the x axis uses
the distance from the x axis, which is ȳi , and vice-versa.
The final row of the table are total values, calculated by summing the
entries for Ai , Qx and Qy , so for example the total area of the shape is
X
A= Ai = A1 + A2 + A3 . . .
P P
Don’t sum columns three or four, since x̄i and ȳi are meaningless.
Qy 112.8
x̄ = = = 4.52 cm
A 24.93
Qx 41.86
ȳ = = = 1.692 cm
A 24.93
Finally, plot the centroid (x̄, ȳ) on the diagram. If you have made a calcu-
lation error it will usually be obvious, because the centroid location won’t
“feel right.”
x̄i , ȳi , and ȳi is the coordinates of the centroid of composite part i.
Many three-dimensional shapes are just prismatic extrusions of the shapes.
The volume of a prism is the product of the cross-sectional area and the length of
the prism and is easily calculated. For example, the volume of a circular cylinder
with radius r and length l is V = π r2 l.
If the density varies for each part of a composite solid, we can find the center
of mass by dividing the first moment of mass by the total mass. You can also
compute the center of gravity by replacing the mass terms in the equations below
with weight terms.
P P P
x̄i mi ȳi mi z̄i mi
x̄ = P ȳ = P z̄ = P
mi mi mi
Here mi is the mass of composite part i.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 180
You must always use the same weighting factor (area, volume, mass, weight,
etc) in both the numerator and denominator of the center of area/volume/mass/
weight equations.
Example 7.5.3 3D Center of Mass.
z
block of lightweight concrete and a triangu-
lar wedge of steel with dimensions as shown.
The rectangular block has a 2 ft radius circu- ft
solid. 2f
t
y
Answer.
x̄ = −3.22 ft
ȳ = 2.59 ft
z̄ = 3.37 ft
Solution.
Table 7.5.4
Vi γ Wi x̄i ȳi ȳi Wi x̄i Wi ȳi Wi z̄i
Part
[ft ] [lb/ft3 ]
3
[lb] [ft] [ft] [ft] [lb-ft] [lb-ft] [lb-ft]
block 216 125 27000 -3 2 4.5 -81000 54000 121500
hole -50.27 125 -6283 -3 2 6 18850 -12566 -37699
wedge 12 493 5916 -4 4.67 1 -23664 27608 5916
26633 -85814 69042 89717
P
Wi x̄i −85814 ft3
x̄ = P = = −3.22 ft
Vi 26633 ft2
P
Wi ȳi 69042 ft3
ȳ = P = = 2.59 ft
Vi 26633 ft2
P
Wi z̄i 89717 ft3
z̄ = P = = 3.37 ft
Vi 26633 ft2
We have actually found the coordinates of the center of gravity, but since g
is constant they are also coordinates of the center of mass. □
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 181
The blue hatched rectangle has the same area as the gray shaded region, and
because the areas are the same, the height of the rectangle ȳ, is the average value
of f (x).
3. Rename the value being averaged to eliminate the index i. We often use
el as a subscript when referring to a differential element.
The two-dimensional centroid equations (7.5.1) become,
P R P R
x̄i Ai x̄el dA ȳi Ai ȳel dA
x̄ = P ⇒ R ȳ = P ⇒ R ,
Ai dA Ai dA
and in the same way the center of gravity equations become
R R R
x̄el dW ȳel dW z̄el dW
x̄ = R ȳ = R z̄ = R .
dW dW dW
Question 7.6.2 How far is it from the earth to the sun?
Answer. 92,958,412 miles
Solution. Siri says that “The average distance from the earth to the sun is
92,958,412 miles.”
That’s a pretty exact answer. What does it mean, exactly? From what point
on the earth to what point on the sun?
If the earth and sun were perfect spheres, we could use the distance between
their centroids. With more information about shape and density, we could find
their centers of mass and measure between those points.
The bigger problem is that this distance changes continuously as the earth
revolves around the sun. How can we find an average value for something which
is continuously changing?
We need to use the methods described here, integrating the distance as a
function of time over the course of a year. □
Key Questions
• How do you find the the centroid of an area using integration?
• Why are double integrals required for square dA elements and single inte-
grals required for rectangular dA elements?
In this section we will use the integral form of (7.4.2) to find the centroids of
non-homogenous objects or shapes with curved boundaries.
R R R
x̄el dA ȳel dA z̄el dA
x̄ = R ȳ = R z̄ = R (7.7.1)
dA dA dA
where
• A is the total area enclosed by the shape, and is found by evaluating the
first integral.
• x̄el and ȳel are the coordinates of the centroid of the element. These are
frequently functions of x or y, not constant values.
• Qx and Qy are the First moments of Area with respect to the x and y
axis.
The procedure for finding centroids with integration can be broken into three
steps:
You will need to understand the boundaries of the shape, which may be
lines or functions. You may need to know some math facts, like the defin-
ition of slope, or the equation of a line or parabola. A bounding function
may be given as a function of x, but you want it as a function of y, or
vice-versa or it may have a constant which you will need to determine.
You will need to choose an element of area dA. There are several choices
available, including vertical strips, horizontal strips, or square elements; or
in polar coordinates, rings, wedges or squares. There really is no right or
wrong choice; they will all work, but one may make the integration easier
than another. The best choice depends on the nature of the problem, and
it takes some experience to predict which it will be.
y y y
dy dy
dx
x dx x x
Finally, plot the centroid at (x̄, ȳ) on your sketch and decide if your answer
makes sense for area.
Thinking Deeper 7.7.2 What is dA? dA is just an area, but an extremely
tiny one!
It’s an example of an differential quantity — also called an infinitesimal.
A differential quantity is a value which is as close to zero as it can possibly be
1
without actually being zero. You can think of its value as ∞ . Integration is the
process of adding up an infinite number of infinitesimal quantities.
Some other differential quantities we will see in statics are dx, dy and dz,
which are infinitesimal increments of distance; dV , which is a differential volume;
dW , a differential weight; dm, a differential mass, and so on.
Any product involving a differential quantity is itself a differential quantity,
so if the area of a vertical strip is given by dA = y dx then, even though height
y is a real number, the area is a differential because dx is differential.
If you like, you can pronounce the d as “the little bit of” so dA = Ry dx reads
“The little bit of area is the height y times a little bit x.” and A = dA reads
“The total area is the sum of the little bits of area.”
y = kxn
b = kan
b
k= n
a
Next, choose a differential area. For this problem a vertical strip works well.
A vertical strip has a width dx, and extends from the bottom boundary to the
top boundary. Any point on the curve is (x, y) and a point directly below it on
the x axis is (x, 0). This means that the height of the strip is (y − 0) = y and
the area of the strip is (base × height), so
dA = y dx.
The limits on the integral are from x = 0 on the left to x = a on the right
since we are integrating with respect to x.
With theseR detailsR aestablished, the next step is to set up and evaluate the
integral A = dA = 0 y dx. This is the familiar formula from calculus for the
area under a curve. Proceeding with the integration
Z a
A= y dx (y = kxn )
Z0 a
= kxn dx (integrate)
0
a
xn+1
=k (evaluate limits)
n + 1 0
an+1 b
=k k= n
n+1 a
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 187
b an+1
= (simplify)
an n + 1
ab
A= (result)
n+1
This result is not a number, but a general formula for the area under a curve
in terms of a, b, and n. Explore with the interactive, and notice for instance
that when n = 0, the shape is a rectangle and A = ab; when n = 1 the shape is
a triangle and the A = ab/2; when n = 2 the shape is a parabola and A = ab/3
etc. This single formula gives the equation for the area under a whole family of
curves.
Thinking Deeper 7.7.4 Which is better, horizontal R or vertical ele-
ments? Recall that the first moment of area Qx = x̄el dA is the distance
weighted area as measured from a desired axis. The distance term x̄el is the
distance from the desired axis to the centroid of each differential element of area,
dA.
If you’re using a single integral with a vertical element y
dA
dA = f (x) (dx) = y dx
|{z} |{z}
height base
Additionally, the distance to the centroid of each element, x̄el , must measure
to the middle of the horizontal element. For this triangle,
x
x̄el = .
2
We find a similar contrast to finding the vertical centroidal distance ȳ where
it is easier to use a dy element to find ȳ than it is to use a dx element.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 188
y y
dy
dx x x
The interactive below compares horizontal and vertical strips for a shape
bounded by the parabola y 2 = x and the diagonal line y = x − 2 . Horizontal
strips are a better choice in this case, because the left and right boundaries are
easy to express as functions of y. If vertical strips are chosen, the parabola must
be expressed as two different functions of x, and two integrals are needed to cover
the area, the first from x = 0 to x = 1, and the second from x = 1 to x = 4.
Figure 7.7.5 Function demonstrating good and bad choices of differential ele-
ments.
7.7.3 Examples
This section contains several examples of finding centroids by integration, start-
ing with very simple shapes and getting progressively more difficult. All the ex-
amples include interactive diagrams to help you visualize the integration process,
and to see how dA is related to x or y.
The first two examples are a rectangle and a triangle evaluated three different
ways: with vertical strips, horizontal strips, and using double integration. The
different approaches produce identical results, as you would expect. You should
try to decide which method is easiest for a particular situation.
Example 7.7.6 Centroid of a rectangle. Use integration to show that the
centroid of a rectangle with a base b and a height of h is at its center.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 189
Figure 7.7.7
Answer.
x̄ = b/2 ȳ = h/2 (7.7.3)
Solution 1. This solution demonstrates solving integrals using vertical rec-
tangular strips. Set the slider on the diagram to h dx to see a representative
element.
dA = h dx.
x̄el = x
ȳel = h/2
With vertical strips the variable of integration is x, and the limits on x run
from x = 0 at the left to x = b on the right. For a rectangle, both 0 and h
are constants, but in other situations, ȳel and the left or right limits may
be functions of x.
dA = b dy.
x̄el = b/2
ȳel = y
dA = dx dy = dy dx.
x̄el = x
ȳel = y
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 192
We will integrate twice, first with respect to y and then with respect to x.
The limits on the first integral are y = 0 to h and x = 0 to b on the second.
For a rectangle, both b and h are constants. In other situations, the upper
or lower limits may be functions of x or y.
2. Solve the integrals.
Substitute dA, x̄el , and ȳel
into (7.7.2) and integrate the ‘inside’ integral,
then the ‘outside’ integral. The results are the same as before.
Z Z Z
A = dA Qx = ȳel dA Qy = x̄el dA
Z bZ h Z bZ h Z bZ h
= dy dx = y dy dx = x dy dx
Z b Z h Z b Z h Z b Z h
0 0 0 0 0 0
= dy dx = y dy dx = x dy dx
0 0 0 0 0 0
Z b h ih Z b h 2 ih Z b h ih
y
= y dx = dx = x y dx
0 0 0 2 0 0 0
Z b Z b Z b
h2
=h dx = dx =h x dx
0 2 0 0
h ib h 2 h ib h x 2 ib
=h x = x =h
0 2 0 2 0
h2 b b2 h
A = hb Qx = Qy =
2 2
3. Find the centroid.
Substituting the results into the definitions gives
Qy Qx
x̄ = ȳ =
A A
b2 h h2 b
= bh = bh
2 2
b h
= = .
2 2
Solution 4.
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XoeDvh6NuZk
□
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 193
Figure 7.7.9
Answer.
2 1
x̄ = b ȳ = h (7.7.4)
3 3
Solution 1. This solution demonstrates finding the centroid of the triangle
using vertical strips dA = y dx. Set the slider on the diagram to y dx to see a
representative element.
1. Set up the integrals.
The bounding functions in this example are the x axis, the vertical line
x = b, and the straight line through the origin with a slope of hb . Using the
slope-intercept form of the equation of a line, the upper bounding function
is
h
y = f (x) = x
b
and any point on this line is designated (x, y).
The strip extends from (x, 0) on the x axis to (x, y) on the function, has a
height of y, and a differential width dx. The area of this strip is
dA = ydx.
With vertical strips the variable of integration is x, and the limits are x = 0
to x = b.
2. Solve the integrals.
Substitute dA, x̄el , and ȳel into (7.7.2) and integrate. In contrast to the
rectangle example both dA and ȳel are functions of x, and will have to be
integrated accordingly.
Z Z Z
A = dA Qx = ȳel dA Qy = x̄el dA
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 194
Z b Z b Z b
y
= y dx = (y dx) = x (y dx)
0 0 2 0
Z b Z 2 Z b
h 1 b h h
= x dx = x dx = x x dx
0 b 2 0 b 0 b
Z Z
h h x 2 ib h2 b 2 h b 2
= = 2 x dx = x dx
b 2 0 2b 0 b 0
b
h b2 h 2 h x 3 ib h x3
= = 2 =
b 2 2b 3 0 b 3 0
bh h2 b b2 h
A= Qx = Qy =
2 6 3
We learn that the area of a triangle is one half base times height. Since
the area formula is well known, it would have been more efficient to skip
the first integral. Note that A has units of [length]2 , and Qx and Qy have
units of [length]3 .
b
x = g(y) = y.
h
The limits on the integral are from y = 0 to y = h.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 195
The strip extends from (x, y) to (b, y), has a height of dy, and a length of
(b − x), therefore the area of this strip is
dA = (b − x)dy.
dA = dy dx.
x̄el = x
ȳel = y
Solution 4.
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AksWTa-kiv4
□
The next two examples involve areas with functions for both boundaries,
Example 7.7.10 Centroid of a semi-parabola. Find the coordinates of the
centroid of a parabolic spandrel bounded by the y axis, a horizontal line passing
through the point (a, b), and a parabola with a vertex at the origin and passing
through the same point. a and b are positive integers.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 198
Figure 7.7.11
Answer.
3 2
x̄ = a ȳ b
8 5
Solution. We will use (7.7.2) with vertical strips to find the centroid of a
spandrel.
(a) Place a point in the first quadrant and label it P = (a, b). This point
is in the first quadrant and fixed since we are told that a and b are
positive integers
(b) Place a horizontal line through P to make the upper bound.
(c) Sketch in a parabola with a vertex at the origin and passing through
P and shade in the enclosed area.
(d) Decide which differential element you intend to use. For this example
we choose to use vertical strips, which you can see if you tick show
strips in the interactive above. Horizontal strips dA = x dy would
give the same result, but you would need to define the equation for
the parabola in terms of y.
y = kx2 , so at P
(b) = k(a)2
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 199
b
k=
a2
dA = (b − y) dx.
If you incorrectly used dA = y dx, you would find the centroid of the
spandrel below the curve.
For vertical strips, the bottom is at (x, y) on the parabola, and the top is
directly above at (x, b). The strip has a differential width dx. The centroid
of the strip is located at its midpoint and the coordinates are are found by
averaging the x and y coordinates of the points at the top and bottom.
x̄el = (x + x)/2 = x
ȳel = (y + b)/2
For vertical strips, the integrations are with respect to x, and the limits
on the integrals are x = 0 on the left to x = a on the right.
Z Z Z
A= dA Qx = ȳel dA Qy = x̄el dA
Z a Z a Z a
(b + y)
= (b − y) dx = (b − y)dx = x(b − y) dx
2
Z0 a Z
0
Z0 a
1 a 2
= (b − kx2 ) dx = (b − y 2 ) dx = x(b − y) dx
2 0
0
a Z Z o
x3 1 a 2 a
= bx − k = (b − (kx2 )2 ) dx = x(b − kx2 ) dx
3 0 2 0 o
Z Z
a3 1 a 2 a
= ba − k = (b − k 2 x4 ) dx = (bx − kx3 ) dx
3 2 0
3
5 a
o 2 a
b a 1 2 2x bx x4
= ba − = b x−k = −k
a2 3 2 5 0 2 4 0
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 200
" 2 5 # 4
3ba ba 1 2 b a ba2 b 4
= − = b a− 2
= −
3 3 2 a 5 2 a2 4
2 1 1 2 1 1
= ba = b2 a 1 − = ba −
3 2 5 2 4
2 2 1
A = ba Q x = b2 a Qy = ba2
3 5 4
The area of the spandrel is 2/3 of the area of the enclosing rectangle and
the moments of area have units of [length]3 .
x̄ is 3/8 of the width and ȳ is 2/5 of the height of the enclosing rectangle.
□
Example 7.7.12 Centroid of an area between two curves. Use integration
to locate the centroid of the area bounded by
x x2
y1 = and y2 = .
4 2
Figure 7.7.13
Find the centroid location (x̄, ȳ) of the shaded area between the two curves
below.
Answer.
1 1
x̄ = ȳ = (7.7.5)
4 20
Solution 1. This solution demonstrates finding the centroid of the area be-
tween two functions using vertical strips dA = y dx. Set the slider on the
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 201
dA = ydx.
x̄el = x
ȳel = y/2
With vertical strips the variable of integration is x, and the limits are x = 0
to x = b.
Z Z
Qx = ȳel dA Qy = x̄el dA
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 202
Z 1/2 Z 1/2
y1 + y2
= (y1 − y2 ) dx = x(y1 − y2 ) dx
0 2 0
Z Z 1/2
1 1/2 x x2
= y12 − y22 dx = x − dx
2 0 0 4 2
Z 1/2 2 Z 1/2 2
1 x x4 x x3
= − dx = − dx
2 0 16 4 0 4 2
3 1/2
1 h x3 x5 i1/2 x x4
= − = −
2 48 20 0 12 8 0
1h 1 1 i h1 1 i
= − = −
2 384 640 96 128
1 1
Qx = Qy =
1920 384
Solution 2. This solution demonstrates finding the centroid of the area be-
tween two functions using vertical strips dA = y dx. Set the slider on the
diagram to h dx to see a representative element.
dA = ydx.
x̄el = x
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 203
ȳel = y/2
With vertical strips the variable of integration is x, and the limits are x = 0
to x = b.
Z Z
Qx = ȳel dA Qy = x̄el dA
Z 1/8 Z 1/8
x2 + x1
= y(x2 − x1 ) dy = (x2 − x1 ) dy
0 0 2
Z p Z
1/8
1 1/8 2
= y 2y − 4y dy = x2 − x21 dy
0 2 0
Z √ Z
1/8
1 1/8
= 2y 3/2 − 4y 2 dy = 2y − 16y 2 dy
0 2 0
h 2 √2 4 i1/8
1 2 16 3
1/8
= y 5/2 − y 3 = y − y
5 3 0 2 3 0
h 1 1 i h
1 1 1i
= − = −
320 384 2 64 96
1 1
Qx = Qy =
1920 384
□
The last example demonstrates using double integration with polar coordi-
nates.
Example 7.7.14 Centroid of a semi-circle. Find the coordinates of the top
half of a circle with radius r, centered at the origin.
Figure 7.7.15
Answer. The centroid of a semicircle with radius r, centered at the origin is
4r
x̄ = 0 ȳ = (7.7.6)
3π
Solution. We will use (7.7.2) with polar coordinates (ρ, θ) to solve this problem
because they are a natural fit for the geometry. In polar coordinates, the equation
for the bounding semicircle is simply
ρ = r.
Normally this involves evaluating three integrals but as you will see, we can
take some shortcuts in this problem. Otherwise we will follow the same procedure
as before.
1. Set up the integrals.
Divide the semi-circle into ”rectangular” differential elements of area dA,
as shown in the interactive when you select Show element. This shape
is not really a rectangle, but in the limit as dρ and dθ approach zero, it
doesn’t make any difference.
The radial height of the rectangle is dρ and the tangential width is the arc
length ρdθ. The product is the differential area dA.
dA = (dρ)(ρ dθ) = ρ dρ dθ. (7.7.7)
ȳel = ρ sin θ.
This is because each element of area to the right of the y axis is balanced
by a corresponding element the same distance the left which cancel each
other out in the sum.
All that remains is to evaluate the integral Qx in the numerator of
Qx ȳel dA
ȳ = =
A A
4r
So x̄ = 0 and lies on the axis of symmetry, and ȳ = above the diameter.
3π
This result can be extended by noting that a semi-circle is mirrored quarter-
circles on either side of the y axis. These must have the same ȳ value as
the semi-circle. Further, quarter-circles are symmetric about a 45◦ line, so
for the quarter-circle in the first quadrant,
4r
x̄ = ȳ = .
3π
• Magnitude equal to the the area or volume under the distributed load
function.
• Line of action that passes through the centroid of the distributed load
distribution.
The next two sections will explore how to find the magnitude and location
of the equivalent point force for a distributed load.
shelf or
W = w(x)ℓ
weight
total weight = × length of shelf
length
This total load is simply the area under the curve w(x), and has units of
force. If the loading function is not uniform, integration may be necessary to
find the area.
Example 7.8.2 Bookshelf. A common paperback is about 3 cm thick and
weighs approximately 3 N.
What is the loading function w(x) for a shelf full of paperbacks and what is
the total weight of paperback books on a 6 m shelf?
Answer.
Solution. The weight of one paperback over its thickness is the load intensity
w(x), so
3N
w(x) = = 100 N/m.
3 cm
The total weight is the the area under the load intensity diagram, which in
this case is a rectangle. So, a 6 m bookshelf covered with paperbacks would have
to support
W = w(x)ℓ = (100 N/m)(6 m) = 600 N.
The line of action of this equivalent load passes through the centroid of the
rectangular loading, so it acts at x = 3 m.
100 N/m
6m 3m 3m
600 N
along its line of action, the vertical coordinate of the centroid is not important
in this context.
Similarly, for a triangular distributed load — also called a uniformly vary-
ing load — the magnitude of the equivalent force is the area of the triangle,
bh/2 and the line of action passes through the centroid of the triangle. The
horizontal distance from the larger end of the triangle to the centroid is x̄ = b/3.
Essentially, we’re finding the balance point so that the moment of the force
to the left of the centroid is the same as the moment of the force to the right.
The examples below will illustrate how you can combine the computation
of both the magnitude and location of the equivalent point force for a series of
distributed loads.
Example 7.8.3 Uniformly Varying Load.
Answer. The equivalent load is 30 lb downward force acting 4 ft from the left
end.
10 lb/ft
6 ft 4 ft 2 ft
30 lb
Solution 1. The equivalent load is the ‘area’ under the triangular load intensity
curve and it acts straight down at the centroid of the triangle. This triangular
loading has a 6 ft base and a10 lb/ft height so
1 1
W = bh = (6 ft)(10 lb/ft) = 30 lb.
2 2
and the centroid is located 2/3 of the way from the left end so,
x̄ = 4 ft.
Solution 2.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 210
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eGtd6Qyzhws
□
Distributed loads may be any geometric shape or defined by a mathematical
function. If the load is a combination of common shapes, use the properties of
the shapes to find the magnitude and location of the equivalent point force using
the methods of Section 7.5. If the distributed load is defined by a mathematical
function, integrate to find their area using the methods of Section 7.7.
A few things to note:
• You can include the distributed load or the equivalent point force on your
free-body diagram, but not both!
• Since you’re calculating an area, you can divide the area up into any shapes
you find convenient. So, if you don’t recall the area of a trapezoid off the
top of your head, break it up into a rectangle and a triangle.
Answer.
Ax = 0
Ay = 16 N
M = 64 N·m
Solution. Draw a free-body diagram with the distributed load replaced with
an equivalent concentrated load, then apply the equations of equilibrium.
ΣFx = 0 → Ax = 0
x ΣFy = 0 → Ay = 16 N
4m 2m
ΣMA = 0 → MA = (16 N)(4 m)
16 N
= 64 N·m
□
Example 7.8.5 Beam Reactions.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 211
Answer.
Ay = 196.7 lb, Ax = 0 lb, By = 393.3 lb
Solution. Start by drawing a free-body diagram of the beam with the two dis-
tributed loads replaced with equivalent concentrated loads. The two distributed
loads are (10 in)(12 lb/in) = 120 lb each.
120 lb 100 lb 150 lb 100 lb 120 lb
X
Fy = 0
−(12 lb/in)(10 in) + By − 100 lb − 150 lb
−100 lb + By − (12 lb/in)(10 in) = 0 → By = 196.7 lb
X
Fx = 0 → Ax = 0
• How can use use our knowledge of centroids to compute the equivalent
point forces of fluids?
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 212
y y
P = ρgh.
Assuming that the density of seawater and g are the same everywhere under the
ocean, the gage pressure depends on depth only. □
Question 7.9.3 Compare the pressure at three feet and thirty feet below the
surface of freshwater to the atmospheric pressure.
Answer. The gage pressure at 3 ft is
This is
14.7 lb/in2 + 1.3 lb/in2
= 1.088,
14.7 lb/in2
approximately 9% greater than atmospheric pressure.
At 30 ft below the surface, the pressure is 10 times higher, 13.0 lb/in2 which
is nearly twice atmospheric pressure. □
Find the force of the water on the window, and the loca-
3m
tion of the equivalent point load.
B
Answer. F = 155 kN acting 1.29 m above point B or 3.71 m below the surface
of the water.
Solution 1. Begin by drawing a diagram of the window showing the load
intensity and the equivalent concentrated force.
a=2m
b=3m
F
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 215
The pressure at the top and the bottom of the window are
Since the loading is linear, the average pressure acting on the window is
The total force acting on the window is the average pressure times the area
of the window
This force may also be visualized as the volume of a trapezoidal prism with
a 1.5 m depth into the page.
The line of action of the equivalent force passes through the centroid of the
trapezoid, which may be calculated using composite areas, see Section 7.5.
Dividing the trapezoid into a triangle and a rectangle and measuring down
from the surface of the tank, the distance to the equivalent force is
P
Ai ȳi
d= P
Ai
1
PA (3 m) (3.5 m) + (PB − PA )(3 m) (4 m)
2
d=
1
PA (3 m) + (PB − PA )(3 m)
2
d = 3.71 m
If you prefer, you may use the formula from the Centroid table to locate the
centroid of the trapezoid instead.
Solution 2.
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3qRaa9vFZa8
□
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 216
Answer.
h = 1.99 m
Solution.
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xfO0CKPpnMQ
□
Example 7.9.6 Sea Gate.
A sea gate is hinged at point A and is designed
to rotate and release the water when the depth
d exceeds a certain value.
The gate extends 2 m into the page. The mass A
d
density of the water is ρ = 1000 kg/m3 . 500 mm
What depth will cause the gate to open? B
Answer.
d ≥ 1.50 m
Solution 1. For the gate to tip, the force of the water must act at or above A.
That happens when the centroid of the load intensity diagram from the water
has its equivalent point force at or above A, so
d
≥ 500 mm
3
d ≥ 1500 mm.
Solution 2.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 217
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i1jWLFpfh-s
□
Example 7.9.7 Gate with Horizontal Surface.
A gate at the end of a freshwater channel is fabri- D
Dx = 124 N right
Ax = 2636 N left
Ay = 2795 N up
Solution.
Fx = Pave A
1
= ρ g 0.75 m (0.75 m × 1 m)
2
1
= (1000 kg/m )(9.81 m/s ) 0.75 m (0.75 m × 1 m)
3 2
2
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 218
= 2760 N
Fy = Pave A
= [ρ g (0.15 m)](0.6 m × 1 m)
= [(1000 kg/m3 )(9.81 m/s2 ) (0.15 m)](0.6 m × 1 m)
= 882.9 N
W = mg
= (125 kg)(9.81 m/s2 )
= 1226 N.
From here solve the equilibrium equations to find the reactions. You should
complete this for practice.
Internal Forces
One of the fundamental assumptions we make in statics is that bodies are rigid,
that is, they do not deform, bend, or change shape. While we know that this
assumption is not true for real materials, we are building the analytical tools
necessary to analyze deformation. In this chapter you will learn to compute the
forces and moments inside a object which hold it together as it supports its own
weight and any applied loads.
The chapter begins with a discussion of internal forces and moments and
defines a new sign conventions especially for them. Next we will determine
internal forces at a specific point within a rigid body. Finally, we develop three
techniques to find internal forces at every point throughout a beam. Note that
we use the words internal forces when we are referring to both “internal forces
and internal bending moments.”
Determination of the internal forces is the first step in the engineering design
of a structure. A properly designed structure must safely support all expected
external loads, including live loads, dead loads, wind and earthquake loads. Ex-
ternal loads produce internal forces, which in turn creates stresses, strains, and
deformations in the structure. In a successful design, the shape, size, and mate-
rial must all be carfully chosen to limit them to safe values. You are advised to
pay attention, and master this topic.
219
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 220
You are familiar with straight, two-force members which only exist in equi-
librium if equal and opposite forces act on either end. Now imagine that we
cut the member at some point along its length. To maintain equilibrium, forces
must exist at the cut, equal and opposite to the external forces. These forces
are internal forces.
F F
F F
F F
M M
F F
F F
Figure 8.1.3 The internal forces are represented as an equal and opposite force
F and a bending moment M
The horizontal force can also be resolved into orthogonal components parallel
and perpendicular to the cut. These components have special names in the
context of internal forces.
N V
M M
F F
V N
F F
Figure 8.1.4 The internal forces are represented as a normal force N, a shear
force V, and bending moment M
The internal force component perpendicular to the cut is called the normal
force. This is the same internal tension or compression force that we assumed
to be the only significant internal load for trusses. If the object has an axis, and
the cut is perpendicular to it, the normal force may also be properly called an
axial force.
The internal force component parallel to the cut is called the shear force.
The word shear refers to the shearing that occurs between adjacent planes due
to this force. You can get a feel for shearing adjacent planes by sliding two pieces
of paper together.
The internal couple-moment is called the bending moment because it tends
to bend the material by rotating the cut surface.
The shear force is often simply referred to as shear, and the bending moment
as moment; together with the normal or axial force the three together are
referred to as the “internal forces”. The symbol V is commonly chosen for the
shear force, and A, P or N for the normal force and M for the bending moment.
• Positive Shear.
Positive shear forces tend to skew an object as shown,
i.e. positive shear forces push down when looking
from the right, and up when looking from the left.
• Positive Normal Force.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 223
Question 8.2.1 We have defined positive internal forces by looking at the “front”
side of the object. Would the results change if you walked around the object and
analyzed it from the other side? □
A=F
V =0
M = wL2 /8
Solution.
Then apply and simplify the equations of equilibrium to find the external
reactions at A and B.
ΣMA = 0
−(wL)(L =0
/2) + (B)L
B = wL/2
ΣFx = 0
−Ax + F = 0
Ax = F
ΣFy = 0
Ay − wL + By = 0
Ay = wL − wL/2
= wL/2
Cut the beam at the point of interest and separate the beam into two
sections. Notice that as the beam is cut in two, the distributed load w is
cut as well. Each of these distributed load halves will support equivalent
point loads of wL/2 acting through the centroid of each cut half.
F
B
w
F
L/2 L/2
B
F
B
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 227
ΣFy =0
Ay − wL/2 − V =0
V = wL/2 − wL/2
V =0
ΣMcut =0
(wL/2)(L/4) − (Ay )(L/2) + M =0
M = −wL2 /8 + wL2 /4
M = wL2 /8
ΣFy =0
V − wL/2 + By =0
V = wL/2 − By
V = wL/2 − wL/2
V =0
ΣMcut = 0
−M − (L/4)(wL/2) + (L/2)(By ) = 0
M = −W L2 /8 + wL2 /4
M = W L2 /8
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 228
□
Regardless of which side is chosen, we get the same results for the internal
forces at the chosen point.
When you solve for the internal forces, the results can be either positive,
negative, or sometimes zero. Negative values indicate that the actual direction of
the load is opposite to the assumed direction. Since we assumed all three internal
forces were positive as defined by the standard sign convention, a negative answer
means that the load actually acts in the opposite direction to the vector shown
on the free-body diagram.
Example 8.3.3 Internal forces in a cantilever beam.
Consider a cantilever beam which is sup-
P
ported by a fixed connection at A, and
loaded by a vertical force P and horizon- A B
tal force F at the free end B. Determine F
the internal forces at a point a distance L
a from the left end.
Hint. If you think ahead, you may not need to find the reactions at A.
Answer.
N =F
V =p
M = −P l + P a = −P (L − a) = −P b
Solution.
1. Determine the reactions.
P
Draw an fbd of the entire, un-cut
beam and determine the reactions. F
L
Notice that only the applied loads and support reactions are included on
this un-cut beam fbd. The internal forces are only exposed and shown on
a fbd after the beam is cut.
Use this free-body diagram and the equations of equilibrium to determine
the external reaction forces.
ΣFx = 0 =⇒ Ax = F
ΣFy = 0 =⇒ Ay = P
ΣMA = 0 =⇒ MA = P L
a b P
The free-body diagrams of both portions have been drawn with the internal
forces and moments drawn in the positive direction defined by the standard
sign convention.
The axial force is shown in tension on both parts. This force has been
named N so its name doesn’t conflict with the forces at point A.
The shear force V is positive when the shear is down on the right face of
the cut and up on the left face.
The bending moment M is positive if the bending direction would tend to
bend the beam into a concave upward curve.
Always assume that the unknown internal forces act in the positive direc-
tion as defined by the standard sign convention.
Solving the other free-body diagram would produce the same results
Once you have found the reactions and drawn a free-body diagram of the
simpler portion with the normal force, shear force, and bending moment
assumed positive, you then solve for the unknown values and signs just like
any other equilibrium problem.
□
This workflow typically includes:
• Establishing a horizontal x and vertical y coordinate system.
• Assuming that the internal forces act in the positive direction and drawing
a free-body diagram accordingly
• Using ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, and ΣMz = 0 to solve for the three unknown
internal forces.
The shear force V , normal force N , and bending moment M are scalar com-
ponents and they may be positive, zero, or negative depending on the applied
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 230
loads. The signs of the scalar components together with the sign convention for
internal forces establish the actual directions of the shear force, normal force
and bending moment vectors.
Since beams primarily support vertical loads the axial forces are usually small,
so they will not be considered in this section.
Beams can be supported in a variety of ways as shown in Figure 8.4.1. The
common support methods are
P P
x x
The plots of the equations for V (x) and M (x) are shown below in Figure 8.5.2.
These equations indicate that the shear force V (x) is constant P over the length
of the beam and the moment M (x) is a linear function of the position of the cut,
x starting at −P L at x = 0 and linearly increasing to zero at x = L. Note that
the graphs are only valid from 0 ≤ x ≤ L, so the curves outside this range is
show as dotted lines. These two graphs are usually drawn stacked beneath the
diagram of the beam and loading.
x
P
x
the left (or right) of the cut. Always assume that the exposed internal shear
force and internal bending moment act in the positive direction according to the
sign convention.
w w B w B C
A x A x A x
A x B
Figure 8.6.1 A simply supported beam with a distributed load that is a function
of beam position w(x).
If we select a small section of this beam from x to x + ∆x to look at closely,
we have the free-body diagram shown in Figure 8.6.2.
Figure 8.6.2 A free-body diagram of a small section of the beam with a width
of ∆x
Since ∆x is infinitely narrow, we can assume that the distributed load over
this small distance is constant and equal to the value at x, and call it w.
Applying the force equilibrium in the vertical direction gives the following
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 234
result:
X
Fy = 0
V + w(∆x) − (V + ∆V ) = 0
∆V
=w
∆x
Taking the limit of both sides as ∆x approaches 0, we get this important
result
∆V
lim = lim (w)
∆x→ 0 ∆x ∆x→ 0
dV
=w
dx
This equation tells us that, at a given location x, the slope of the shear
function V (x) there is the value of the loading directly above, w(x). Furthermore,
if we multiply both sides by dx, we can integrate to find that
Z
∆V = w(x) dx
In words, this equation says that over a given distance, the change in the
shear V between two points is the area under the loading curve between them.
Now looking at the internal bending moments on the fbd in Figure 8.6.2,
when we apply moment equilibrium about the centroid of the element, and take
the limit similarly,
X
M =0
∆x ∆x
− V − (V + ∆V ) − M + (M + ∆M ) = 0
2 2
∆M 1
= (2V + ∆V )
∆x 2
∆M ∆V
lim = lim V +
∆x→ 0 ∆x ∆x→ 0 2
dM
=V
dx
This final equation tells us that, the slope of the moment diagram is the value
of the shear. Furthermore, if we multiply both sides by dx, we can integrate to
find that
Z
∆M = V dx
In words, this equation says that over a given segment, the change in the
moment value is the area under the shear curve.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 235
Hence, the functional relationships between the internal shear force V (x),
internal bending moment M (x) at a point x, and the value of the loading at
that point w(x) are are simply the derivatives and integrals that you learned in
Calculus I. These relationships are summarized below.
The slope of the shear function dV
at x is the value of the loading = w(x) (8.6.1)
dx
function at the same position.
An upward load is considered a
positive load.
The change in the shear value
Z b
between two points is the area
under the loading function be- ∆V = w(x) dx (8.6.2)
a
tween those points.
The slope of the moment func- dM
tion at x is the value of the shear = V (x) (8.6.3)
dx
at the same position.
The change in the moment value
Z b
between two points is the area
under the shear curve between ∆M = a V (x) dx (8.6.4)
those points.
Shear and bending moment diagrams show the effect of the load on the
internal forces within the beam and are a graphical representation of equations
(8.6.1)–(8.6.4). The diagrams are made up of jumps, slopes and areas as a result
of the load.
• Slopes are gradual changes in shear and moment diagrams. Positive slopes
go up and to the right.
• Areas are “areas” under the loading and shear curves, i.e. integration.
The area under the loading curve is actually the force, and the area under
the shear curve is actually the bending moment.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 236
5. Add another interesting point wherever the shear diagram crosses the x-
axis, and determine the x position of the zero crossing.
6. After you have completed the shear diagram, calculate the area under the
shear curve for each segment. Areas above the axis are positive, areas
below the axis are negative. The areas represent moments and the sum of
the areas plus the values of any concentrated moments should add to zero.
If they don’t, then recheck your work.
7. Establish the moment graph with a horizontal axis below the shear diagram
and a vertical axis to represent moment. Positive moments will be plotted
above the x axis and negative below.
8. Draw and label dots on the moment diagram by starting with a dot at
x = 0, M = 0 then proceed from left to right placing dots until you reach
the end of the beam. As you move over each segment move up or down
from the current value by the “area” under the shear curve for that segment
and place a dot on the graph. In this step, you are applying (8.6.4).
(a) Positive areas cause the moment to increase, negative areas cause it
to decrease.
(b) If you encounter a concentrated moment, jump straight up or down
by the amount of the moment and place a dot. Clockwise moments
cause upward jumps and counter-clockwise moments cause downward
jumps.
(c) When you reach the end of the beam you should return to M = 0. If
you don’t, then recheck your work.
9. Connect the dots with correctly shaped lines. Segments under constant
shear are straight lines, segments under changing shear are curves. The
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 239
but instead of finding areas and slopes using geometry, we will integrate the load
function w(x) to find the ∆V , then integrate that result to find the ∆M .
These results are the change in shear and moment over a segment; to find the
actual shear and moment functions V (x) and M (x) for the entire beam we will
need to find initial values for each segment. This is equivalent to using boundary
conditions to find the constant of integration when solving a differential equation.
The initial values come from either the final value of the previous segment or
from point loads or point moments. Because of the requirement for these segment
starting values, no segment can be computed in isolation from the other segments.
Physically this means that the shear and moment along a beam are not just due
to the loading in one segment, but are related to the loading on the rest of the
beam as well.
of the beam, or local equations, where each segment uses its own origin, usually
at the left end of the segment. Often local equations are easier because you
can simply use the variable x in your equations as opposed to “x + constant”,
and you do not have to project the y-intercept values back to an axis system
which is not adjacent to the segment. See interactive Figure 8.8.1 to explore the
difference between local and global equations.
When determining equations for the loading segments from the load diagram,
consider the following.
• No load.
Whenever there is no load at all on a segment there will be no change in
the shear on the segment. On such sections the loading function is
w(x) = 0.
Note that this can only occur when the weight of the beam itself is ne-
glected.
• Point Load.
A point load is a concentrated force acting at a single point which causes
a jump in the shear diagram.
• Uniformly Distributed Load.
A uniformly distributed load is constant over the segment and results in
a linear slope, either a triangle or a trapezoid, on the shear diagram. The
loading function on such sections is
w(x) = C V (x) = Cx + b.
The constant value is negative if the load points down, and positive if it
points upward.
• Uniformly Varying Load.
In this case the loading function is a straight, sloping lie forming a trian-
gle or trapezoidal shape. The resulting shear function is parabolic. The
general form of thes functins are
mx2
w(x) = mx + b V (x) = + bx + c.
2
The slope m, intercept b, and constant c must be determined from the
situation, and will depend on whether you are writing a global or local
equation.
• Arbitrary Load.
The loading function will be a given function of x.
w(x) = f (x),
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 241
Most gravitational distributed loads are drawn with the arrows pointing
down and resting on the beam. If you slide these along their line of action
so that their tails are on the beam, the tips define the loading equation.
This interactive compares the local and global equations for a beam segment
with a uniformly varying load.
1. You will need to have solved the loading segment to the left of your desired
segment.
2. Write an equation for the loading w in the segment using either local or
global coordinates.
3. Integrate the loading equation w(x) to find the change in the shear ∆V and
include the shear value at the beginning of your loading segment including
the influence of any point loads at that location, which is equivalent to the
integration constant.
4. Integrate the shear equation V (x) to find the change in the bending mo-
ment ∆M and include the moment value at the beginning of your loading
segment including the influence of any point couple-moments at that loca-
tion, equivalent to the integration constant.
5. To find maximum shear and bending moments, recall from calculus that
the local maximum/minimum points of a fuction occur at the endpoints
and where the function’s first derivative is equal to zero.
(a) For shear, evaluate the shear function V (x) at the ends and where
ever the load function crosses the x axis.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 242
(b) For bending moments, find the roots of the shear function by solving
V (x) = 0, then evaluate the moment function M (x) at these points,
and also at the endpoints.
The critical values we are looking for are the points where the magnitudes
of the shear and bending moment are maximum. The direction of the
internal forces is not usually significant.
Example 8.8.2 Example.
Use the integration method to find the equations w
for shear and moment as a function of x, for x
L
a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly
distributed load w over its entire length L.
Answer.
L w
V (x) = w −x M (x) = (Lx − x2 )
2 2
Solution.
This beam has only one load section, and on that section the load is constant
so,
w(x) = −w.
There is a pinned connection at x = 0 which provides a vertical force and no
concentrated moment, so the initial conditions there are V (0) = wL/2, and
M (0) = 0.
Integrating equations (8.6.2) and (8.6.4) we have.
Z x
∆V = − w(x) dx
0
wL/2
*
V (x) −
V(0) = −wx x
wL
V (x) = − wx L
2
L
=w −x
2
Z x
∆M = V (x) dx
Z x
0
*0
L
M (x) −
M(0) = w − x dx x
0 2
w
M (x) = (Lx − x2 )
2
□
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 243
8.10 Summary
You have likely realized that in engineering (and life) that there are multiple
ways to solve a problem. The four different techniques to compute internal
forces discussed in this chapter are a demonstration of this. In the end, the
choice of which method to use is yours; the better you know each method the
easier it will be to choose the one which is most applicable and efficient.
The list below summarizes each of the four approaches and their advantages
and disadvantages.
Friction
Friction is a force which resists any relative motion between surfaces in contact
with each other. To this point we have only discussed cases where the fric-
tion could be safely ignored or had no impact on the situation, however there
are many interesting situations in statics including impending motion, wedges,
screws, belts, bearings, and rotating disks where friction must be taken into
account. These are the subject of this chapter.
• Know when you can use the equation F = µs N and when you cannot
• Graphically show how the friction and normal force vectors are related to
the friction resultant vector and the friction angle at impending motion.
1. Dry friction: the force that opposes one solid surface sliding across another
solid surface.
246
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 247
Statics focuses on dry friction. Dry friction occurs between two surfaces in
contact and always acts in the direction which opposes the relative motion of
the contact surfaces. We can represent this distributed force as a concentrated
friction force. Depending on the details of the situation, dry friction can hold
the object in equilibrium or cause it to accelerate or decelerate. In Statics we are
only concerned with objects in equilibrium; accelerating and decelerating objects
will be covered in another course.
Consider the football training sled shown in Figure 9.1.1. Prior to use, the
weight of the sled is supported by a normal force directly underneath the center
of gravity, and the frictional between the ground and the sled is zero. When
players push to move the sled to the right, dry friction will develop along the
bottom surface of the sled in order to prevent the sled from sliding to the right.
This frictional force is represented as a point normal force, offset from the center
of gravity of the sled. This offset is required to maintain rotational equilibrium
given the pushing force. If the pushing force is large enough, equilibrium will
break and the sled will begin to slide to the right.
Figure 9.1.1 Dry friction appears between the bottom of a training sled and
the field when motion is impending or occurring.
The friction forces acting on the motorcycle in Figure 9.1.2 are more compli-
cated. Both wheels rotate clockwise, but the rear wheel is driven by the engine
and chain, while the front wheel is rotated by the road friction. The friction
force on the rear tire acts to the right and is what allows the bike to maintain
speed or accelerate. The dry friction on the front tire acts to the left and retards
the motion of the motorcycle.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 248
Figure 9.1.2 Dry friction on a motorcycle occurs where the tires contact the
road.
Thinking Deeper 9.1.3 Statically Equivalent Loadings. For computa-
tional simplicity we can decompose the force on an object being pushed across
the ground into a vertical normal force and a horizontal friction force, as shown
in the third free-body diagram below. In reality, the force acting on an ob-
ject approximates the non-vertical distributed force shown in the first free-body
diagram below. The second free-body diagram shows the intermediate step.
1. Static friction
2. Impending motion
3. Kinetic friction.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 249
3
1
0
Coulomb friction relies on a friction coefficient µ to serve as the proportionality
constant between the normal and friction forces. The friction coefficient µ is
always greater than 0 and commonly less than 1. The friction coefficient can
be greater than 1 for materials that exhibit positive adhesion to each other (like
silicone rubber or glued surfaces).
Figure 9.1.4 A simple model of a book being pushed horizontally while sitting
on a table. fbds are provided for the system, book, and table. Additionally, a
Coulomb friction graph is shown and the various phases are numbered.
Here is a more detailed discussion of what happens in each friction phase.
2. Assuming the pushing force Fpush gradually increases from zero in this
static-but-not-impending phase, the friction force increases proportionally
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 250
Notice that impending motion friction is always greater than kinetic friction,
this is because the coefficient µs > µk for most materials. Practically, this tells
us that once a material starts to move it is easier to keep moving than it was to
get it started from rest.
If you wonder why we include kinetic friction in a statics course, remember
that a body in equilibrium might be moving with constant velocity.
The key to deciding what type of friction is appropriate for a given problem
will depend on the specifics of the problem statement.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 251
Table 9.1.5 Summary of the three phases of friction with the key to
recognizing and examples of each.
Note that when you solve static-but-not-impending motion problems (as op-
posed to impending or kinetic) that you will need one additional piece of data
given in the problem to solve for both Ff and N as you will not be able to apply
the equation Ff = µN .
Friction and normal forces. Using these perpendicular vectors is most con-
venient on block and wedge type problems and apply equally-well in all three
phases of friction (static but not impending, impending motion, and kinetic
friction)
Resultant force and friction angle. Recall that resultants are the sum of
two or more vectors. In this case, the friction resultant is R = F + N. The
friction angle ϕs is the angle between the friction resultant and normal forces
but only is applicable at impending motion. The friction resultant and friction
angle are used for screw, flexible belt, and journal bearing type problems.
Figure 9.1.7 (A) A box at rest has a uniformly distributed normal force along
the bottom of the box. Hence, the resultant normal force is located directly below
the weight force, and the friction force (while available) is not engaged. (B) As
a pushing force Fpush is applied, the distributed normal force changes shape, and
the resultant normal force N is shifted to the right to maintain equilibrium. (C)
This trend continues as you push harder on the box as the normal force continues
to shift right.
Figure 9.2.1 A hydraulic ram is used to push a stationary wedge into the
through a piece of firewood. All forces are drawn with respect to forces on the
log and there would be mirrored friction and normal forces on the other side of
the splitter. The normal force N is pushing the two halves of the log apart while
the friction force F is opposing the pushing force P .
Luckily the free-body diagrams and computations associated with both low-
and high-friction wedges are identical. Block and wedge friction problems are
quite similar to the multi-force body equilibrium problems from Chapter 5 Rigid
Body Equilibrium and Chapter 6 in the Frames and Machines section. The main
difference is the inclusion of friction from all non-smooth contact surfaces. The
directions of both the normal and friction forces on the free-body diagrams are
defined below.
Normal forces act between bodies are reactions forces perpendicular to the
contacting surfaces. All normal forces on a free-body diagram should be pointing
at (and not away from) the body.
Friction forces are reaction forces between bodies parallel (or tangential)
to the contacting surfaces and created by the roughness of both surfaces. All
friction forces on a free-body diagram should resist the motion at the point of
contact.
The key added challenge of solving wedge problems is that the angled faces of
wedges create additional force components in your equations. One of the critical
steps to solve a block or wedge problem is to look at the problem statement and
drawing to determine which force is engaging the friction of the system. Start by
drawing the friction forces on the body where this force acts (see Figure 9.2.2).
As you are passing the friction and normal forces to adjacent free-body diagrams,
do not forget to draw both friction and normal forces in the opposite direction.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 255
Figure 9.2.2 This figure demonstrates the free-body diagrams to find the min-
imum P1 to raise the block. We would assume that all the friction forces are
pushed to impending motion, thus you can use F = µs N to relate the friction
and normal forces at all contact surfaces. A detail of N2 and F2 has also been
provided so that you can see how the angle θ is incorporated into the x and y
components.
If the problem in Figure 9.2.2 was changed to “Given a coefficient of static
friction of µs = 0.6 find the minimum force P2 to keep the wedge from slipping
out under the 10 lb block”, the free-body diagrams would need to change in the
following ways:
• all friction force directions would change as the impending motion of both
the wedge and 10 lb block would change direction and
• the direction of P may have to change if the wedge has sufficient friction
to stay static when P = 0.
Note that for all values of P between P1 and P2 the system would be static,
and the friction forces would be static-but-not-impending.
This section focuses on the various ways a rigid body in equilibrium might
begin to move. The point at which an object starts to move is called the point
of impending motion.
The interactive in Figure 9.3.2 shows a box sitting on a rough surface. Imag-
ine that we start pushing on the side of the box with a gradually increasing
force. Initially, friction between the block and the incline will increase to main-
tain equilibrium, and the box will sit still.
As we continue to increase the force there are two possibilities; the maximum
static friction force will be reached and the box will begin to slide, or the pushing
force and the friction force will create a sufficient couple to cause the box tip on
its corner.
1. Check slipping.
Create a free-body diagram with the normal force N at some unknown
location and solve for the pushing force necessary to make the body slip.
A body will slip across a surface if the pushing force exceeds the maximum
static friction force that can exist between the two surfaces in contact. As
in all dry friction problems, this limit to the friction force is equal to the
static coefficient of friction times the normal force between the body
F = µs N .
Figure 9.3.3 The box will slip when the pushing force exceeds the maxi-
mum force of friction.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 257
2. Check tipping.
Create a free-body diagram with the normal force N at the corner of the
box and solve for the pushing force necessary to make the body tip. Given
a box on a rough horizontal surface, as we push horizontally on the body
the resultant normal force will shift to the right. Because the normal force
is the direct result of physical contact, we cannot move the normal force
beyond the corner of the box.
At tipping, the friction force is static-but-not-impending as it has not
reached impending motion for slipping.
Figure 9.3.4 The box will tip if the resultant normal force moves to the
corner before slipping.
3. Compare the results.
The smaller value of Fpush will initiate impending motion.
• Contrast the different types of screw motion, with and against applied
loads, and match the motion cases to their corresponding equation, and
• machines where the movement of the screw creates dual motion, like a
hand-screw wood clamp.
Figure 9.4.5 Notice that the threads on a right hand threaded screw angle up
to the right, while those on a left-hand threaded screw angle up to the left. Note
that turning a screw upside-down does not reverse the direction of its threads.
The motion of left-hand screws can either be thought of as opposite the right-
hand rule or conforming to the same relationships if you use your left hand.
Figure 9.4.6 Notice that the threads on a right hand threaded screw angle up
to the right, while those on a left-hand threaded screw angle up to the left. Note
that turning a screw upside-down does not reverse the direction of its threads.
Using the right triangle shown in Figure 9.4.6, we see that the thread pitch
α (also known as the lead angle or helix angle) is the inverse tangent of the ratio
of the lead over the circumference
−1 l
α = tan
2πr
We now have the tools assembled to derive the relationship between a screw’s
geometry and applied loads.
Figure 9.4.7 Free body diagram showing the moment M required to raise a
load W given the friction F and normal force N on a single thread of a screw
interacting with a nut.
For screw analysis, it is often easiest to express the friction force F and
normal force N as the friction resultant R and the friction angle ϕs . Recall that
the friction force F direction always opposes the impending motion of the point
of contact – in this case, the screw threads. Also, the thread angle α determines
the angle of the normal force N from the centerline of the screw. Finally, the
friction angle ϕs is the angle between the friction resultant force R and the
normal force N.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 262
Figure 9.4.8 FBD of single thread element. Wi is the fraction of the total
weight on this element, and the total moment M is represented by the fraction of
the rotational force Pi acting at the mean radius r from the center of the screw
(Mi = r Pi ).
Summing the forces in the x and y directions for the free-body diagram in
Figure 9.4.8 yields:
X X
Fx = 0 Fy = 0
Pi = R sin(α + ϕs ) Wi = R cos(α + ϕs )
By summing the forces across all elements of one wrap of the screw we find:
X X
Fx = 0 Fy = 0
M
= ΣR sin(α + ϕs ) W = ΣR cos(α + ϕs )
r
We next need to reduce these two equations to a single equation and also
eliminate the difficulty to quantify ΣR term. Thus we solve both equations for
ΣR.
M
ΣR =
r sin(α + ϕs )
W
ΣR =
cos(α + ϕs )
Then, set them equal to each other and solve for the moment M .
M = W r tan(ϕs + α) (9.4.1)
M is the moment required to raise the screw to impending motion, W is the
force load on the screw, r is the mean radius of the screw, ϕs is the screw friction
angle, and α is the screw thread pitch.
Practically, you can interpret from this equation that the moment to move a
screw against an applied force must overcome the screw friction (represented by
ϕs ) and also the component of the weight on the screw (represented by α ).
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 263
Figure 9.4.9 Free body diagrams for the three cases where the impending mo-
tion of the screw is in the direction of the force on the screw. Cases include (a)
a self-locking screw (ϕs > α) , (b) a screw that will unwind-with-load (α > ϕs )
, and (c) a screw at impending motion (ϕs = α). Note that in all three cases,
the thread angle α also determines the angle of the normal force N from the
centerline of the screw, and the friction angle ϕs is the angle between the friction
resultant force R and the normal force N.
Self-locking screw(ϕs > α) Self-locking screws are the typical type of
screws that you will encounter in mechanical systems as they are highly pre-
dictable. They have sufficient friction available to hold their applied load even
with no moment applied. Thus, they would be safely carrying the load in a static-
but-not impending condition until you wish to overcome the excess friction by
using a moment M ’ to push them to impending motion.
Summing the forces in the x and y directions for the free-body diagram in
Figure 9.4.8 yields:
M ’ = W r tan(ϕs − α) (9.4.2)
Unwind-with-load screw(ϕs < α) - As its name implies, an unwind-under-
load screw will start turning unless a moment M ’’ is applied to keep the screw
at (or beyond) impending motion. Note that the moment to push a self-locking
screw to impending motion M ’ is in the opposite direction as the moment to
keep unwind-under-load screws at impending motion M ’’ , as M ’’ is in the same
direction as the moment to loosen (or raise) a screw. These unwind-with-load
screws are not often found in mechanical systems, except for in dynamic motion
control systems, where the screw is used to slow down motion. To be designed
in an unwind-with-load condition, a screw must have a quite steep thread angle
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 264
α and minimal friction between the threads and nut, which reduces ϕs .
Summing the forces in the x and y directions for the free-body diagram in
Figure 9.4.8 yields:
M ’’ = W r tan(α − ϕs ) (9.4.3)
Impending-motion screw(ϕs = α) - As the derived equations for all three
unwind-with-load screw cases push the screw to impending motion if a screw is
already at impending motion, it requires no applied moment. Note that this case
is mechanically unstable. If the load increases, the screw will begin to unwind-
under-load, whereas if the load decreases, the screw will become self-locking.
• Compute the contact angle \beta between the belt and pulley or cylinder
• Compute the tension differential on either side of the belt or cylinder for
both flat and v-belts
Figure 9.5.3 With equal tensions on each side of the belt, the only interaction
force between the belt and pulley is a non-uniform distributed force.
If there were no friction between the belt and cylinder, if we were to increase
the tension on one side of the rope, it would begin to slide across the cylinder.
However, if friction is available between the rope and the surface, the friction
force will oppose the sliding motion (Figure 9.5.4)
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 266
Figure 9.5.4 With unequal tensions, a distributed friction force along the sur-
face of the belt opposes the impending motion of the belt due to the tension
differential. The distributed normal forces still exist but have been grayed-out
to highlight the equal and opposite friction forces Fbelt and Fpulley . Additionally,
the pulley needs a couple-moment M to remain static, resisting the effects of
Fpulley .
Figure 9.5.5 A flat belt pulley interacts with one surface of the belt. A Vee
shaped pulley allows the belt to wedge tightly in the groove, increasing friction
and torque transmission.
When analyzing systems with belts, we are usually interested in the range of
values for the tension forces where the belt does not slip relative to the surface.
Starting with the smaller tension force on one side TS we can increase the second
tension force TL to some maximum value before slipping. For a flat belt, the
maximum value for TL depends on the magnitude of TS , the static coefficient
of friction between the belt and the surface, and the contact angle between the
belt and the surface β given in radians.
There is no simplified rule for transferring cable angles over to the contact angle
β , but in general, extend radial lines from the center of the pulley out to the
belt’s tangential lines. Next, create right triangles with each radial line and work
to find all the angles which add up to the contact angle β.
Figure 9.5.6 In this interactive you can change the directions of the belts and
see the relation between the the angles they make with the vertical and the
contact angle θ.
Method 1: Draw free-body diagrams and sum tension along the cable.
Recall that friction always opposes the motion of the body you are evaluating,
thus if you can create a free-body diagram of the cable, you can sum forces along
the cable. This equation will verify which tension is larger/smaller.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 268
Figure 9.5.7 The mechanical system of a fixed axis pulley hooked to a motor
providing a rotational moment of M and a fixed belt designed to hold the pulley
static. Note that the wheel and belt are considered massless (thus do not have
a weight) in this example.
The first free-body diagram shows the following forces acting of the wheel:
• A distributed friction force ΣF acting along the surface of the wheel which
is opposing the moment M and thus the impending motion (I.M.) of the
wheel
The second free-body diagrams shows how the contact forces on the wheel
are transferred equal and opposite to the belt:
• A distributed friction force ΣF acting along the surface of the belt, which is
now opposing the relative impending motion of the belt (which is opposite
the absolute impending motion of the wheel).
ΣFaxial = 0
T2 − T1 − ΣFbelt = 0
T2 = T1 + ΣFbelt
Figure 9.5.10 Differential element of a flexible belt with applied normal force
dN , friction force dF , and internal tensions T and T + dT .
First, sum the forces in the x direction acting on the belt element in Fig-
ure 9.5.10.
X
Fx = 0
µ dN + T cos(dθ/2) = (T + dT ) cos(dθ/2) = 0
µ dN = dT cos(dθ/2)
X
Fy = 0
dN = T sin(dθ/2) + (T + dT ) sin(dθ/2)
dN = (2T + dT ) sin(dθ/2)
≈ 2T (dθ/2) + dT (dθ/2)
Where we have used the small angle approximation sin(dθ/2) ≈ dθ/2. Drop-
ping the second order differential term dT dθ as negligible, yields
dN = T dθ
Z TL Z β
dT
=µ dθ
TS T 0
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 271
TL
ln = µβ
TS
1. or by solving for TL we find
TL = TS eµβ ,
where TL is the larger tension pulling on the belt, TS is the smaller tension
pulling on the belt, e is the natural log base 2.718, µ is the friction coefficient
between the belt and pulley, and β is the contact angle between the belt and
pulley in radians.
Notice that the differential belt tension is independent of the surface size and
shape, provided the belt makes continuous contact.
Friction in V-belts
V-belts fit into a groove on a pulley and thereby increases the normal force of
contact with the pulley sides (see Figure 9.5.11 below). This increase in normal
force sequentially increases the contact friction. The belt must only contact the
sides and not the groove base to maintain this friction advantage.
Figure 9.5.11 A V-belt’s “enhanced” friction comes from the increased normal
forces, which are a function of the groove angle α. The sum of the normal force
vertical components is the same for a flat belt or V-belt. However, the horizontal
components of the normal forces in a V-belt, effectively pinch the belt, thereby
increasing the available friction force.
As we can see from the equation above, steeper sides to the groove (corre-
sponding to a smaller groove angle α ) result in an increased potential difference
in the tension forces. The trade-off with steeper sides, however, is that the belt
becomes wedged more firmly in the groove and requires a higher force to un-
wedge itself as it leaves the pulley. This unwedging force decreases the efficiency
of the belt-driven system. An alternate design choice would be a chain-driven
system which carries very high-tension differences more efficiently.
by the belt, we will need to consider each of the pulleys independently, under-
standing that slipping occurring at either the input or the output will result in
a failure of the power transmission.
Figure 9.5.12 A belt-driven set of fixed axis pulleys. Note that the direction
of the input moment is opposite that of the resisting output moment, but the
impending motion is the same for both pulleys.
The first step in determining the maximum moment (or torque) that can be
transmitted in the belt drive is to determine the maximum possible value for TL
before slipping occurs at either the input or output pulley. To start this process,
we you will need to start by solving for the resting tension. This resting tension
is the tension the belts prior to anything moving or power transfer (analogous
to the tension in your bike chain when it is at rest). Practically, if you wish
to increase or decrease the resting tension, many machines have adjustments
to increase or decrease the distance between the pulleys slightly. If we turn on
the machine and increase the moments on both pulleys, the resting tension TS
remains constant while the tension on the drive side TL increases.
If the pulleys are the same material (and therefore the same coefficients of
friction), it can be assumed that the belt will first slip at the smaller of the two
pulleys as the smaller pulley has a smaller contact angle β.
Once we have the maximum value for TL , we can use that to find the
maximum input and output moments. Next, to find the torque, we then find
the net moment exerted by the two tension forces, where the radius of the pulley
is the moment arm.
The maximum input torque Mi before slipping is
Mi = (TLmax − TS )rinput
The maximum output torque M_o before slipping is
Mo = (TLmax − TS )routput
To find the maximum power we can transfer with the belt drive system, we
will use the rotational definition of power, where the power is equal to the torque
times the angular velocity in radians per second. Unlike the torque, the power
at the input and the output will be the same, assuming no inefficiencies.
Figure 9.6.1 (left) In a journal bearing like the one shown here with a vertical
force applied to the shaft, the contact point is located along the line of action of
the applied force. (middle) If a CW couple-moment MCW attempts to rotate the
shaft, then the contact point will move to the right as the friction force between
the shaft and bearing causes the surfaces to stick, and the shaft climbs up the
bearing until impending motion is reached. (right) If a CCW couple-moment
MCCW is applied, then the contact point will shift to the left as the friction force
between the shaft and bearing causes the surfaces to stick, and the shaft climbs
up the bearing until impending motion is reached.
Now that you have learned the underlying physical interaction between a
shaft and journal bearing, let us transition to the forces which support this
interaction. If we create free-body diagrams for the shaft in all three cases
presented in Figure 9.6.1 above, we see a combination of a normal force N and
a friction force F at each contact point (in Figure 9.6.2 below).
Figure 9.6.2 The shafts in the three journal bearings above can be turned into
free-body diagrams by replacing the bearing and contact point with the forces
which act through the contact point. Note in all three cases the normal force
N perpendicular to the tangential line of contact, which makes its line of action
a radial line through the center of each shaft. Additionally, (left) there is no
friction engaged, (middle) the friction resists the CW moment, and (left) the
friction resists the CCW moment. The friction circle (radius rf ) is explained in
the steps below.
The most straightforward process to accurately relate the normal and friction
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 275
1. First, assume for measured distances that the shaft and bearing opening
have the same radius, but always draw the shaft a bit smaller so you can
see its contact point with the bearing. Drawing them the same size will
make it look like the shaft and bearing are in contact all the way around,
which would violate our assumption of a single point of contact.
2. Next, combine the normal and friction forces into a single friction resultant
force (as presented in the first section of this chapter)
R = F + N.
4. Finally, draw a free-body diagram of the shaft (and/or bearing) with all
applied loads and the friction resultant R and then use your equations of
equilibrium to solve the problem.
Figure 9.6.3 Problem sketches (top) and free-body diagrams (bottom) for jour-
nal bearings with a fixed shaft and rotating bearing. The left set of drawings has
no moment applied. The middle set has a CW moment applied to the bearing,
and the right set have a CCW moment applied to the bearing.
Thinking Deeper 9.6.4 Finding the Direction of Shift for Contact
Point. If you are still struggling to determine the direction of the contact point
shift, try this rule:
The contact point always shifts in the direction of the impending
motion of the bearing.
The impending motion can be absolute (in the case of a fixed shaft and rotating
bearing) or relative (in the case of a fixed bearing). Remember, the relative
motion of the bearing is always opposite the absolute impending motion of the
shaft.
• Compute the possible moment the friction forces from disk friction can
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 277
resist.
Figure 9.7.1 This orbital sander rotates a circular sanding disk against a sta-
tionary surface. The disk friction between the sanding disk and the surface will
exert a moment on both the surface and the sander.
Figure 9.7.2 A collar bearing has a donut shaped contact area between the
rotating collar and the stationary surface. The shaft transfers the applied load
The friction force at any point in the contact area will be equal to the normal
force at that point times the kinetic coefficient of friction at that point. If we
assume a uniform pressure between the collar and the surface and a uniform
coefficient of friction, then we will have the same friction force exerted at all
points. This does not translate however into an equal moment exerted by each
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 278
point. Points further from the center of rotation will exert a larger moment than
points closer to the center of rotation because they will have a larger moment
arm.
Figure 9.7.3 The friction forces on any differential element are assumed to be
the same (due to a uniformly distributed normal force), yet elements along the
outside edge of the contact area will cause a larger moment than those in the
inside edge due to a greater radius.
To determine the total moment exerted by the friction forces, we will need
to integrate the friction from all elements of the contact area. The moment of
each element ( dM ) will be equal to the product of the kinetic coefficient of
friction ( µk ), the normal force pressure ( p ), the distance from that point to
the center of rotation ( r ), and the area of each element ( dA ).
dM = µk pr dA
The total friction moment can be found by integrating the moment of each
element over the contact area:
Z Z
M= dM = µk pr dA
A A
To simplify the equation we can move the constant coefficient of friction and
the constant normal force pressure term outside of the integral. We can also
replace the pressure term with the applied force on the bearing over the contact
area. Finally, so that we can integrate over the range of R values, we can
recognize that the rate of change in the area ( dA ) for the hollow circular areas
is simply the rate of change of the r dr term multiplied by the circumference of
the circle at r. These changes lead to the equation below.
Z ro
F
M = µk r (2πr) dr
π(ro2 − ri2 ) ri
Finally, we can evaluate the integral from the inner radius to the outer radius.
If we evaluate the integral and simplify we will end up with the final equation
below. 3
2 ro − ri3
M = µk F (9.7.1)
3 ro2 − ri2
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 279
Figure 9.7.4 An end bearing has a solid circular contact area between the
rotating shaft and the stationary bearing.
Figure 9.7.5 The contact area in disk brakes is often approximated as a circular
arc (inner radius ri and outer radius ro ) with a given contact angle ( θ )
However, disk brakes, due to their smaller contact area, have both smaller
area over which to exert friction force and also higher pressure for the same
applied force. In the end, these factors cancel each other out and we end up
with the same formula we had for the hollow circular contact area (independent
of θ ).
Brake pad on one side:
3
2 ro − ri3
M = µk F (9.7.3)
3 ro2 − ri2
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 280
Most disk brakes, however, have a pair of pads (one on each side of the
rotating disk), so we will need to double the moment in our equation for the
usual pair of pads.
Brake pads on each side:
3
4 ro − ri3
M = µk F (9.7.4)
3 ro2 − ri2
Moments of Inertia
281
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 282
Z
A= dA Area Subsection 7.7.2
A
Z
First Moment of Area
Qx = y dA Chapter 7
A
(with respect to the x axis)
Z
First Moment of Area
Qy = x dA Chapter 7
A
(with respect to the y axis)
Z
JO = r2 dA Polar Moment of Inertia Section 10.5
A
Z
Ix y = x y dA Product of Inertia Section 10.7
A
All of these properties are defined as integrals over an area A. These integrals
may be evaluated by double-integrating over x and y in Cartesian coordinates or
r and θ in polar coordinates. They can also be evaluated using single integration
using the methods demonstrated in Subsection 10.2.2.
None of these integrals can be evaluated until a specific shape is chosen.
When shape has been specified, the bounding functions and integration limits
can be determined and only then may the integral be solved using appropriate
integration techniques. If the shape is specified in general terms, say a rectangle
with base b and height h, then the result of the integration will be a formula for
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 284
10.1.1 Area
The total area of a shape is found by integrating the differential elements of
area over the entire shape. Z
A= dA. (10.1.1)
A
The limit on this integral is indicated with an A to indicate that the integration
is carried out over the entire area. The resulting value will have units of [length]2
and does not depend on the position of the shape on the coordinate plane.
Since the area formulas for common shapes are well known, you only need
to use integration in uncommon situations.
As you can see, these equations are similar to the equations for the first
moment of area (10.1.2), except that the distance terms x and y are now squared.
In recognition of the similarity, the area moments of inertia are also known as
the second moments of area. We will use the terms moment of inertia and
second moment interchangeably. These two quantities are sometimes designated
as rectangular moments of inertia to distinguish them from the polar moment of
inertia described in the next section.
Like the first moment, the second moment of area provides a measure of the
distribution of area around an axis, but in this case the distance to each element
is squared. This gives increased importance to portions of the area which are far
from the axis. Squaring the distance means that identical elements on opposite
sides of the axis both contribute to the sum rather than cancel each other out
as they do in the first moment. As a result, the moment of inertia is always a
positive quantity.
Two identical shapes can have completely different moments of inertia, de-
pending on how the shape is distributed around the axis. A shape with most of
its area close to the axis has a smaller moment of inertia than the same shape
would if its area was distributed farther from the axis. This is a non-linear effect,
because when the distance term is doubled, the contribution of that element to
the sum increases fourfold.
Question 10.1.2 These three triangles are all the same size. Rank them from
largest to largest smallest moment of inertia with respect to the y axis.
A B C
moment of inertia is a vector quantity. Note that a shape can have multiple
centroidal moments of inertia, because more than one axis can pass through the
centroid of a shape. In this text, we will only the vertical and horizontal axes,
but they are not the only possibilities.
The centroidal moment of inertia is particularly important. We will see in
(10.3.1) that if we know a shape’s centroidal moment of inertia for some axis
direction, it is a simple process to calculate the moment of inertia of the shape
about any other parallel axis. The moment of inertia is used in Mechanics of
Materials to find stress and deflection in beams and to determine the load which
will cause a column to buckle.
We stated earlier that the centroidal moment of inertia is the minimum
moment of inertia, but by this we mean, the minimum moment of inertia for a
particular axis direction, for example horizontal. Other centroidal axes may may
have a different moment of inertia, either larger or smaller than the moment of
inertia about a horizontal centroidal axis. The centroidal axes which have the
absolute minimum and maximum moment of inertia are called the principle axes.
The principle axes are not necessarily horizontal and vertical.
Thinking Deeper 10.1.3 Beam bending. To get a feel for how moment of
inertia affects engineering design, find a ruler, a yardstick, or something similar:
long with a rectangular cross section.
Try to bend the ruler both when it’s flat and also when it’s turned on edge.
You will find that bending the ruler around the x axis while it’s flat is easy
compared to bending it the other way, around the z axis . Why is it easier to
bend the ruler one way than the other? It’s the same object, made of the same
material either way.
The answer has to due with the moment of inertia, and how it relates to the
bending axis.
bend a ruler one way than the other, we’d like to know how much harder?
For a 1/8 in thick ruler that is 1 in tall, the bending resistance about the z
axis is over 20 times more than the bending resistance the other way, about the
x axis.
To further see how the moment of inertia comes into play, consider the cur-
vature caused by applying opposing moments to the ends of a beam such as your
ruler. You will cause it to bend into an arc of a circle of some radius. A curious
engineer would like to know how the curvature of the beam is related to the
applied moment, the geometry, and the physical properties of the beam.
where:
Since E and I are in the numerator and L is in the denominator, a longer beam
is more flexible and larger values of E or I make the beam stiffer. With those
properties fixed, angle θ is directly proportional to the moment M .
The sag, or deflection, of a beam when supporting a load is also related
to these factors, and the placement of the load as well. For example, if a beam
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 288
is loaded with a concentrated force P at its center its maximum deflection δmax
will occur at the midpoint, with
P L3
δmax =
48EI
where x and y are defined as in Figure 10.1.1. Like the others, the units as-
sociated with this quantity are [length]4 . The name was chosen because the
distance squared term in the integral is the product of the element’s coordinates.
In contrast to the other area moments, which are always positive, the product
of inertia can be a positive, negative or zero.
dA = dx dy = dy dx. (10.2.1)
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 290
It would seem like this is an insignificant difference, but the order of dx and
dy in this expression determines the order of integration of the double integral.
We will try both ways and see that the result is identical.
Using dA = dx dy
First, we will evaluate (10.1.3) using dA = dx dy.
If you are not familiar with double integration, briefly you can think of a
double integral as two normal single integrals, one ‘inside’ and the other ‘outside,’
which are evaluated one at a time from the inside out. Our integral becomes
Z
Ix = y 2 dA
ZAZ
= y 2 dx dy
| {z }
dA
Z top Z right
2
= y dx dy
bottom left
| {z }
inside
| {z }
outside
The limits on double integrals are usually functions of x or y, but for this
rectangle the limits are all constants. The bottom and top limits are y = 0 and
y = h; the left and right limits are x = 0 and x = b. Note that the y 2 term can
be taken out of the inside integral, because in terms of x, it is constant.
Inserting dx dy for dA and the limits into (10.1.3), and integrating starting
with the inside integral gives
Z
Ix = y 2 dA
A
Z hZ b
= y 2 dx dy
0 0
Z h Z b
= y2 dx dy
0 0
Z h
= y 2 b dy
0
Z h
=b y 2 dy
0
h
y 3
=b .
3 0
Evaluating the limit gives the result
bh3
Ix = . (10.2.2)
3
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 291
This is the formula for the moment of inertia of a rectangle about an axis passing
through its base, and is worth remembering.
The boxed quantity is the result of the inside integral
times dx, and can be interpreted as the differential area
of a horizontal strip,
dA = b dy.
Using dA = dy dx
Now, we will evaluate (10.1.3) using dA = dy dx which reverses the order of
integration and means that the integral over y gets conducted first. Since the
distance-squared term y 2 is a function of y it remains inside the inside integral
this time and the result of the inside intergral is not an area as it was previously.
Inserting dy dx for dA and the limits into (10.1.3), and integrating gives
Z
Ix = y 2 dA
A
Z bZ h
= y 2 dy dx
0 0
Z b 3 h
y
= dy dx
0 3 0
Z b 3
h
= dx
0 3
Z
h3 b
= dx
3 0
bh3
Ix = .
3
As before, the result is the moment of inertia of a rectangle with base b
and height h, about an axis passing through its base. We have found that the
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 292
moment of inertia of a rectangle about an axis through its base is (10.2.2), the
same as before.
The boxed quantity is the result of the inside integral
times dx, and can be interpreted as the differential mo-
ment of inertia of a vertical strip about the x axis. This
is consistent our previous result. The vertical strip has
a base of dx and a height of h, so its moment of inertia
by (10.2.2) is
h3
dIx = dx. (10.2.3)
3
We will use these results to set up problems as a single integral which sum
the moments of inertia of the differential strips which cover the area in Subsec-
tion 10.2.3.
Example 10.2.2 Iy of a Rectangle.
Answer.
1
Iy = hb3
3
Solution 1. Following the same procedure as before, we divide the rectangle
into square differential elements dA = dx dy and evaluate the double integral for
Iy from (10.1.3) first by integrating over x, and then over y.
Z
Iy = x2 dA
A
Z hZ b
= x2 dx dy
Z h Z b
0 0
2
= x dx dy
0 0
Z h b
x3
= dy
0 3 0
Z h
b3
= dy
0 3
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 293
b3 h
= y
3 0
b3 h
Iy =
3
The formula for Iy is the same as the formula as we found previously for Ix
except that the base and height terms have reversed roles. Here, the horizontal
dimension is cubed and the vertical dimension is the linear term. In all moment
of inertia formulas, the dimension perpendicular to the axis is cubed.
Solution 2. This solution demonstrates that the result is the same when the
order of integration is reversed. This time we evaluate Iy by dividing the rec-
tangle into square differential elements dA = dy dx so the inside integral is now
with respect to y and the outside integral is with respect to x.
Z
Iy = x2 dA
Z b Z h
A
2
= x dy dx
0 0
Z b
= x2 h dx
0
Z b
=h x2 dx
0
b
x3
=h
3 0
3
hb
Iy =
3
□
y y′
b/2 b/2
Use integration to find the moment of inertia of a
h/2 (b × h) rectangle about the x′ and y ′ axes passing
through its centroid.
x′ Indicate that the result is a centroidal moment of
inertia by putting a bar over the symbol I.
h/2
Answer.
1
I¯x′ = bh3
12
1
I¯y′ = hb3 .
12
Solution. We can use the same approach with dA = dy dx, but now the limits
of integration over y are now from −h/2 to h/2.
Z
¯
I x′ = y 2 dA
A
Z b Z h/2
= y 2 dy dx
0 −h/2
Z b h/2
y3
= dy dx
0 3 −h/2
Z
h3 b
= dx
12 0
bh3
I¯x′ =
12
Notice that the centroidal moment of inertia of the rectangle is smaller than
the corresponding moment of inertia about the baseline.
The solution for I¯y′ is similar. □
Thinking Deeper 10.2.4 Stresses in a Rectangular Beam. To provide
some context for area moments of inertia, let’s examine the internal forces in a
elastic beam. Assume that some external load is causing an external bending
moment which is opposed by the internal forces exposed at a cut.
When an elastic beam is loaded from above, it will sag. Fibers on the top
surface will compress and fibers on the bottom surface will stretch, while some-
where in between the fibers will neither stretch or compress. The points where
the fibers are not deformed defines a transverse axis, called the neutral axis.
The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the beam’s cross section.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 295
The change in length of the fibers are caused by internal compression and
tension forces which increase linearly with distance from the neutral axis. The
internal forces sum to zero in the horizontal direction, but they produce a net
couple-moment which resists the external bending moment.
Find the moment of inertia of the (b × h) right triangle with respect to the
x and y axes?
Answer.
bh3 b3 h
Ix = Iy = (10.2.4)
12 4
Solution. As we did when finding centroids in Section 7.7 we need to evaluate
the bounding function of the triangle. The bottom are constant values, y = 0
and x = b, but the top boundary is a straight line passing through the origin
and the point at (b, h), which has the equation
h
y(x) = x. (10.2.5)
b
By inspection we see that the a vertical strip extends from the x axis to the
function so dA = y dx.
Since vertical strips are parallel to the y axis we can find Iy by evaluating
this integral with dA = y dx, and substituting hb x for y
Z
Iy = x2 dA
A
Z b
= x2 y dx
Z b
0
h
= x2 x dx
0 b
Z
h b 3
= x dx
b 0
b
h x4
=
b 4 0
hb3
Iy = .
4
Similarly we will find Ix using horizontal strips, by evaluating this integral
with dA = (b − x)dy
Z
Ix = y 2 dA.
A
hb3
Iy = .
12
□
y23 y13 1
dIx = − = (y23 − y13 )
3 3 3
This approach is illustrated in the next example.
Example 10.2.7 Moment of Inertia for Area Between Two Curves.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 300
y1 = x2 /2 and,
y2 = x/4.
Answer.
Solution.
1. Set up the integral.
The area is bounded by the functions
y2 = x/4 y2 = x2 /2
By equating the two functions, we learn that they intersect at (0, 0) and
(1/2, 1/8), so the limits on x are x = 0 and x = 1/2.
The differential area dA for vertical strip is
x x2
dA = (y2 − y1 ) dx = − dx.
4 2
2. Find Iy .
For vertical strips, which are parallel to the y axis we can use the definition
of the Moment of Inertia.
Z
Iy = x2 dA
Z 0.5
x x2
= x 2
− dx
0 4 2
Z 1/2 3
x x4
= − dx
0 4 2
4 1/2
x x5
= −
16 12 0
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 301
!
(1/2)4 (1/2)5
= −
16 10
1 1 1
= −
64 4 5
1
Iy = = 7.81 × 10−4 cm4
1280
3. Find Ix .
For vertical strips, which are perpendicular to the x axis, we will take
subtract the moment of inertia of the area below y1 from the moment of
inertia of the area below y2 .
Z Z
Ix = dIx − dIx
A2 A1
Z 1/2 Z
1/2 3
y23 y1
= dx − dx
3 3
0
Z " 0
2 3 #
1 1/2 x 3 x
= − dx
3 0 4 2
Z
1 1/2 x3 x6
= − dx
3 0 64 8
1/2
1 x4 x7
= −
3 256 56 0
1
Ix = = 3.49 × 10−6 cm4
28672
JO = I x + I y
JO πr4
x I¯x = I¯y =
2
=
4
. (10.2.10)
x
Similarly, the moment of inertia of a quarter circle is half the moment of
inertia of a semi-circle, so
y y′
πr4
x′ Ix = Iy =
16
. (10.2.12)
x
In these diagrams, the centroidal axes are red, and moments of inertia about
centroidal axes are indicated by the overbar. We will see how to use the parallel
axis theorem to find the centroidal moments of inertia for semi- and quarter-
circles in Section 10.3.
of this approach is that you need to set up and compute a double integral. Iden-
tifying the correct limits on the integrals is often difficult.
If you would like to avoid double integration, you may use vertical or hori-
zontal strips, but you must take care to apply the correct integral. If you use
vertical strips to find Iy or horizontal strips to find Ix , then you can still use
(10.1.3), but skip the double integration. When the entire strip is the same
distance from the designated axis, integrating with a parallel strip is equivalent
to performing the inside integration of (10.1.3).
As we have seen, it can be difficult to solve the bounding functions properly
in terms of x or y to use parallel strips. In this case, you can use vertical strips to
find Ix or horizontal strips to find Iy as discussed by integrating the differential
moment of inertia of the strip, as discussed in Subsection 10.2.3.
Table 10.2.8 Moment of Inertia Integration Strategies
Element dA dI
dA = dx dy dIx = y 2 dA
x
or
y dA = dy dx dIy = x2 dA
dIx = y 2 dA
x
dA = (a − x) dy (a3 − x3 )
y dIy = dx
3
a
x y3
dIx = dx
y dA = y dx 3
dIy = x2 dA
a
10.3.1 Derivation
We will use the defining equation for the mo-
ment of inertia (10.1.3) to derive the parallel dA
axis theorem.
The diagram shows an arbitrary shape, and
y′ C x′
two parallel axes: the x′ axis, drawn in red,
passes through the centroid of the shape at y
C, and the x axis, which is parallel and sep-
arated by a distance, d. The shape has area
A
A, which is divided into square differential d
elements dA. The distance from the x axis
to the element dA is y, and the distance from x
the x′ axis is y ′ .
By (10.1.3), the moment of inertia of the
shape about the x and x′ axes are Figure 10.3.1 Definitions for
Z Z the parallel axis theorem.
Ix = 2
y dA Ix′ = (y ′ )2 dA
¯
A A
The first is the value we are looking for, and the second is the centroidal
moment of inertia of the shape. These two are related through the distance
d, because y = d + y ′ . Substituting that relation into the first equation and
expanding the binomial gives
Z
Ix = (d + y ′ )2 dA
ZA
′ 2
= (y ) + 2 y ′ d + d2 dA
ZA Z Z
′ 2 ′ 2
= (y ) dA + 2d y dA + d dA.
A A A
You should recognize these three integrals. The first is the centroidal moment
of inertia of the shape I¯x′ , and the third is the total area of the shape, A. The
middle integral is Qx′ , the first moment of area (10.1.2) with respect to the
centroidal axis x′ . So we have,
Ix = I¯x′ + 2dQx′ + d2 A.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 306
Furthermore, Qx′ is exactly zero because the x′ axis passes through the cen-
troid, meaning that elements of area above and below the centroidal axis exactly
balance and cancel each other out. After dropping the middle term we get the
version of the parallel axis theorem which you should remember,
I = I¯ + Ad2 . (10.3.1)
The subscripts designating the x and x′ axes have been dropped because this
equation is applicable to any direction of parallel axes, not specifically horizontal
axes.
This equation says that you find the moment of inertia of a shape about
any axis by adding Ad2 to the parallel centroidal moment of inertia. You can
consider the Ad2 term as ‘correction factor’ to account for the distance of the
axis from the centroid. This term is always positive, so the centroidal moment of
inertia is always the minimum moment of inertia for a particular axis direction.
The next example show how the parallel axis theorem is typically used to
find the moment of inertia of a shape about an axis, by using then centroidal
moment of inertia formulas found in Subsection 10.3.2.
Example 10.3.2 Circular Ring.
y y′
Use the parallel axis theorem to find the
moment of inertia of the circular ring
a
about the y axis.
The dimensions of the ring are Ri =
30 mm, Ro = 45 mm, and a = 80 mm.
Answer.
Iy = 57.8 × 106 mm4
Solution. To apply the parallel axis theorem, we need three pieces of informa-
tion
1. The centroidal moment of inertia of the ring, Iy ,
2. the area of the ring, A,
3. the distance between the parallel axes, d.
The area of the ring is found by subtracting the area of the inner circle
from the area of the outer circle. The centroidal moment of inertia is calculated
similarly using (10.2.10). The distance between the y and y ′ axis is available
from the diagram. Inserting these values into the parallel axis theorem gives,
Iy = Iy + Ad2
π 4 2
= ro − ri4 + π ro2 − ri2 a + ro
|4 {z } | {z } | {z }
I¯y A d2
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 307
π
= 454 − 304 + π 452 − 302 (80 + 45)2
4
= 2.58 × 106 mm4 + 55.2 × 106 mm4
Iy = 57.8 × 106 mm4
It is interesting that the ‘correction factor’ is more than 20 times greater than
the centroidal moment of inertia of the ring. This indicates the importance of
the distance squared term on the moment of inertia of a shape.
You may feel like the answer to this problem is “too big”. Large answers are nor-
mal in problems like this because the moment of inertia involves raising lengths
the fourth power.
If it really bothers you, you can convert the results from mm4 to m4 , but
then the number will probably feel “too small” to you. It’s best not to worry
about it.
□
The parallel axis theorem can also be used to find a centroidal moment of
inertia when you already know the moment of inertia of a shape about another
axis, by using the theorem ‘backwards’,
I = I¯ + Ad3 → I¯ = I − Ad2 .
Example 10.3.3 Centroidal Moment of Inertia of a Triangle.
y y′
x
b/2
Answer.
bh3
I¯x =
36
b3 h
I¯y =
36
Solution. For the triangle the moment of we have the following information:
Ix = bh3 /12, A = bh/2, and d = ȳ = h/3.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 308
I¯x′ = Ix − Ad2
2 2
π 4 πr 4r
= r +
8 2 3π
π 8
I¯x′ = + r4
8 9π
□
Example 10.3.5 Interactive: Rectangle. This interactive allows you to
change the location and size of the grey rectangle. Try to compute both the
centroidal area moment of inertia I¯x′ and I¯y′ and the area moment of inertia
about the system axes Ix and Iy
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 309
1 1
h x′
I¯x′ = bh3 Ix = bh3
C
(b/2, h/2) 12 3
1 1 3
I¯y′ = b3 h Iy = b h
O x 12 3
b
y y′
1 1 3
h I¯x′ = bh3 Ix = bh
x′ 36 12
(b/3, h/3)
C 1 1
x I¯y′ = b3 h I y = b3 h
O
36 12
b
y y′
r
x′ π 5π 4
C
(r, r) I¯x′ = I¯y′ = r4 Ix = Iy = r
4 4
x
O
y y′
I¯x′ =
π 8
r − r4
x′ 4r 8 9π π 4
C r, Ix = Iy = r
x 3π I¯x′ ≈ 0.1098 r4 8
O
π
I¯y′ = r4
8
y y′ ¯
I x′ =
1 π 8
r − r4
C x′ 4r 4r 2 8 9π π 4
, Ix = Iy = r
x 3π 3π I¯x′ ≈ 0.0549 r4 16
π
I¯y′ = r4
8
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 311
• About which point do you find the smallest area moments of inertia? What
is it about this point that is so special?
In this section we will find the moment of inertia of shapes formed by com-
bining simple shapes like rectangles, triangles and circles much the same way we
did to find centroids in Section 7.5.
The procedure is to divide the complex shape into its sub shapes and then
use the centroidal moment of inertia formulas from Subsection 10.3.2, along with
the parallel axis theorem (10.3.1) to calculate the moments of inertia of parts,
and finally combine them to find the moment of inertia of the original shape.
x x
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 312
Which of the arrangements will be the stiffest, and what is the ratio of the
two moments of inertia?
Answer.
The I-beam has more than 3.6 times the stiffness of the sandwich beam!
Solution. Given: b = 1.5 in, h = 5.5 in.
In case 1 the centroids of all three rectangles are on the x axis, so the parallel
axis theorem is unnecessary.
X
3
(Ix )1 = I¯ + Ad2
i=1
bh3
=3
12
(1.5)(5.5)3
=
4
(Ix )1 = 62.4 in4
This value is the same as the moment of inertia of a (4.5 in × 5.5 in) rectangle
about its centroid.
In case 2, the parallel axis theorem must be used for the upper and lower
rectangles, since their centroids are not on the x axis.
X
3
(Ix )2 = I¯ + Ad2
i=1
bh3 1 3 2
= +2 hb + (bh)(h/2 + b/2)
12 12
(1.5)(5.5)3 (1.5)3 (5.5)
= +2 + (1.5 × 5.5)(3.5) 2
12 12
= 20.8 in4 + 2 1.547 in4 + 101.6 in4
(Ix )2 = 226 in4
20 mm
Find the moment of inertia of the T shape
about the x and y axes.
60 mm
x
30 30 30
mm mm mm
Answer.
Ix = (Ix )1 + (Ix )2 = 11.04 × 106 mm4
Iy = (Iy )1 + (Iy )2 = 8.64 × 106 mm4
Solution.
1. Strategy.
Divide the T shape into a 30 mm × 60 mm vertical rectangle (1), and a
90 mm × 20 mm horizontal rectangle (2) then add the moments of inertia
of the two parts.
Ix = (Ix )1 + (Ix )2 Iy = (Iy )1 + (Iy )2
The moment of inertia of the entire T shape about the x axis is the sum
of these two values,
Ix = (Ix )1 + (Ix )2 = 11.04 × 106 mm4 .
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 314
□
Example 10.4.3 Fillet.
y 3 in
3 in
3 in
9 in x
Answer.
Ix = 1350 in4
Solution.
1. Strategy.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 315
y
First, divide the area into four parts: 3
4 in
(a) a 9 in × 3 in rectangle
4
(b) a 6 in × 3 in rectangle 2
3 in
Then set up a table and apply the parallel axis theorem (10.3.1) as in the
previous example. Since the quarter-circle is removed, subtract its moment
of inertia from total of the other shapes.
The distance from the top edge of the quarter-circle down to its centroid
4r
is = 1.273 in, so the distance from the x axis to its centroid is
3π
d = 6 − 1.27 = 4.727 in.
□
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 316
Answer.
Solution.
1. Strategy.
Organize all the necessary information into a table, then total the moments
of inertia of the parts to get the moment of inertia of the whole shape.
Remember that the hole is removed from the shape, so its contribution to
the total moment of inertia is negative.
2. Table.
3. Total.
(Ix )1 = I¯x + Ad2y 1 = 2427 in4 (Iy )1 = I¯y + Ad2x 1 = 9147 in4
(Ix )2 = I¯x + Ad2y 2 = 1093 in4 (Iy )2 = I¯y + Ad2x 2 = 11253 in4
(Ix )3 = I¯x + Ad2y 3 = −318.1 in4 (Iy )3 = I¯y + Ad2x 3 = −1449 in4
X X
Ix = (Ix )i = 3202 in4 Iy = (Iy )i = 18951 in4
Alternately, you could find the moments of inertia by adding the sums
of the columns, since you are adding the same values together, just in a
different order.
X X X X
Ix = I¯x + Ad2y = 3202 in4 Iy = I¯y + Ad2x = 18951 in4
□
Example 10.4.5 Interactive: Composite Rectangles. This interactive
shows a composite shape shape consisting of a large rectangle with a smaller
rectangle subtracted. You can change the location and size of the rectangles by
moving the red and blue points.
Use the interactive to see how changes to the rectangles affects the moments of
inertia of this shape about the system x axis. Notice that for two-part shapes like
this, the centroid of the composite shape is on the line connecting the centroids
of the two parts.
For calculations, it is convenient to collect all the needed information in a
table as is done here.
below. These include universal beams and columns (W, S), structural channels
(C), equal and unequal angle sections (L), Tee shapes (T), rectangular, square
and round hollow structural sections (HSS), bar, rod, and plate. All are available
in a range of sizes from small to huge. Steel sections are manufactured by hot
or cold rolling or fabricated by welding flat or curved steel plates together.
Figure 10.4.7 AISC Standard Sections: Left to right -- Wide-Flange (W), Amer-
ican Standard (S) , Channel (C), Equal Angle (L), Unequal Angle (L), Structural
Tee (T), Rectangle (HSS), Square (HSS), Round (HSS).
Designers and engineers must select the most appropriate and economical
section which can support the potential tension, compression, shear, torsion and
bending loads. Tables of properties of Standard Steel Sections are published
by the American Institute of Steel Construction, and are used to simplify the
process. The tables contain important properties of the sections, including di-
mensions, cross sectional area, weight per foot, and moment of inertia about
vertical and horizontal axes. An abbreviated subset of the AISC tables are
available in Appendix D.
In this section we will use the information in the AISC tables to find the mo-
ments of inertia of standard sections and also of composite shapes incorporating
standard sections.
The top and bottom pieces of an I-beam are called
flanges. The middle portion is referred to as the web.
ne
The flanges take most of the internal compression r al
pla
u t
and tension forces as they are located the furthest Ne
from the neutral axis, and the web mainly acts to depth
Neutral Axis
support any shear forces and hold the two flanges
apart. The transverse axis through the centroid of
the cross section is called the neutral axis, and cut-
ting plane through the beam at the neutral axis is
called the neutral plane, or neutral surface. This sur- Figure 10.4.8 Beam
face does not lengthen or shorten during bending. Nomenclature
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 319
Solution.
1. Strategy.
Determine the properties of the sub shapes with respect to the x axis, and
then use them to find the neutral axis.
Use the parallel axis theorem to find the moment of inertia of the parts
with respect to the neutral axis.
Take advantage of the fact that the two angles are identical and positioned
similarly.
2. Find the neutral axis.
For one L8 × 4 × 1/2 angle, from Section D.1
AL = 4.75 in2
ȳL = 1.98 in
I¯L = 17.3 in4 .
The moment of inertia of the built up beam about the neutral axis
X
I x′ = (Ix′ )i
= 2(Ix′ )L + (Ix′ )R
= 2(23.4 in4 ) + 15.16 in4
Ix′ = 61.98 in4 .
The polar moment of inertia describes the distribution of the area of a body
with respect to a point in the plane of the body. Alternately, the point can be
considered to be where a perpendicular axis crosses the plane of the body. The
subscript on the symbol j indicates the point or axis.
There is a particularly simple relationship between the polar moment of
inertia and the rectangular moments of inertia. Referring to the figure, apply
the Pythagorean theorem r2 = x2 + y 2 to the definition of polar moment of
inertia to get
Z
JO = r2 dA
ZA
= (x2 + y 2 ) dA
ZA Z
2
= x dA + y 2 dA
A A
JO = I x + I y . (10.5.2)
Unlike the rectangular moments of inertia, which are always positive, the
product of inertia may be either positive, negative, or zero, depending on the
object’s shape and the orientation of the coordinate axes. The product of inertia
will be zero for symmetrical objects when a coordinate axis is also an axis of
symmetry.
If the product of inertia is not zero it is always possible to rotate the co-
ordinate system until it is, in which case the new coordinate axes are called
the principle axes. When the coordinate axes are oriented in the principle
directions, the centroidal moments of inertia are maximum about one axis and
minimum about the other, but neither is necessarily zero. The principle direc-
tions determine the best way to orient a beam to for maximum stiffness, and
how much asymmetrical beams, like channels and angles, will twist when a load
is applied.
T = Iα.
This formula is the rotational analog of Newton’s second law F = ma. Here,
the I represents the mass moment of inertia, which is the three-dimensional
measure of a rigid body’s resistance to rotation around an axis. Mass moment
of inertia plays the same role for angular motion as mass does for linear motion.
Mass moment of inertia is defined by an integral equation identical to (10.1.3),
except that the differential area dA is replaced with a differential element of
mass, dm. The integration is conducted over a three dimensional physical object
instead of a two dimensional massless area.
The units of mass moment of inertia are [mass][length]2 , in contrast to area
moment of inertia’s units of [length]4 .
Mass moments of inertia are covered in more detail and used extensively in
the study of rigid body kinetics in Engineering Dynamics.
Notation
Notation refers to the symbols we use to represent physical quantities and vari-
ables in mathematical expressions. Notation is a tool for communication and
the symbols themselves carry meaning. You will find it easier to understand the
contents of engineering textbooks if you are familiar with the notation used, and
can pronounce the symbols to yourself when studying the equations.
325
APPENDIX A. NOTATION 326
Symbol Notes
Vectors are written in a bold serif font. For hand-
F, or F⃗ written vectors, a superimposed arrow is used.
Magnitudes and other scalar values are rendered in
F an regular italic serif font. F is the magnitude of F.
Vertical bars indicate absolute value. The absolute
|F| value of a vector is its magnitude.
Vector component of F in the x and y directions.
Fx , Fy Subscripts are used to distinguish different related
values.
Scalar components of vector F in the x and y direc-
tions. These are signed numbers, not vectors. To-
Fx , F y gether, the sign and subscript define a vector com-
ponent.
An ordered pair of scalar components enclosed in
⟨Fx , Fy ⟩ angle brackets defines a vector.
An ordered pair of magnitude and direction sepa-
(F ; θ) rated with a semicolon defines a vector.
Unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions. Pro-
i, j, k nounced ‘i hat’, ‘j hat’, etc.
F = ⟨Fx , Fy ⟩
= Fx + Fy
= Fx i + Fy j These are all equivalent representation of vector F.
= (F cos θ) i + (F sin θ) j
= F (i cos θ + j sin θ)
= |F|⟨cos θ, sin θ⟩
Figure A.0.1 Notation used in this book
Appendix B
Useful Mathematics
Given two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) the distance between them is:
p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 . (B.1.1)
327
APPENDIX B. USEFUL MATHEMATICS 328
The relationship between the sides and angles of a right triangle are given by
the three basic trig relations which may be recalled with the mnemonic SOH-
COH-TOA.
−1 opposite −1 adjacent −1 opposite
θ = sin θ = cos θ = tan
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
Facts. The following statements regarding the trig functions and triangles are
always true, and remembering them will help you avoid errors.
• sin, cos and tan are functions of an angle and their values are unitless
ratios of lengths.
• The inverse trig functions are functions of unitless ratios and their results
are angles.
• The sine of an angle equals the cosine of its complement and vice-versa.
• The sine and cosine of any angle is always a unitless number between -1
and 1, inclusive.
• The sine, cosine, and tangent of angles between 0 and 90° are always
positive.
• The inverse trig functions of positive numbers will always yield angles
between 0 and 90°
• The legs of a right triangle are always shorter than the hypotenuse.
• Take care that your calculator is set in degrees mode for this course.
• Always work with angles between 0° and 90° and use positive arguments
for the inverse trig functions.
• Following this advice will avoid unwanted signs and incorrect directions
−a a a −a
caused because = , and = and the calculator can’t distin-
b −b b −b
guish between them.
The Law of Cosines is used when you know two sides and the included angle
(SAS), or when you know all three sides but no angles (SSS). In any other
situation, use the Law of Sines.
If one of the angles is 90◦ the Law of Cosines simplifies to the Pythagorean
Theorem since cos(90°) = 0.
Appendix C
Propeties of Shapes
331
APPENDIX C. PROPETIES OF SHAPES 332
h x′
C
A = bh b/2 h/2
O x
b
y y′
h
x′
bh
b/3 h/3
C 2
x
O
b
y y′
a
h (a + b)h a2 + ab + b2 h(2a + b)
C x′
2 3(a + b) 3(a + b)
x
O
b
y y′
r
x′
C
πr2 r r
x
O
y y′
r
x′ πr2 4r
C r 1
x 2 3π
O
y y′
r
C x′ πr2 4r 4r
x 4 3π 3π
APPENDIX C. PROPETIES OF SHAPES 333
1 1
h x′
I¯x′ = bh3 Ix = bh3
C
(b/2, h/2) 12 3
1 1 3
I¯y′ = b3 h Iy = b h
O x 12 3
b
y y′
1 1 3
h I¯x′ = bh3 Ix = bh
x′ 36 12
(b/3, h/3)
C 1 1
x I¯y′ = b3 h I y = b3 h
O
36 12
b
y y′
r
x′ π 5π 4
C
(r, r) I¯x′ = I¯y′ = r4 Ix = Iy = r
4 4
x
O
y y′
I¯x′ =
π 8
r − r4
x′ 4r 8 9π π 4
C r, Ix = Iy = r
x 3π I¯x′ ≈ 0.1098 r4 8
O
π
I¯y′ = r4
8
y y′ ¯
I x′ =
1 π 8
r − r4
C x′ 4r 4r 2 8 9π π 4
, Ix = Iy = r
x 3π 3π I¯x′ ≈ 0.0549 r4 16
π
I¯y′ = r4
8
4r
1
See Example 7.7.14 for proof. ≈ 0.424 r
3π
334
APPENDIX D. PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS 335
Appendix D
D.1 Angles
D.1.1 Angle Section-US
Description W A b d t x̄ ȳ I¯xx I¯yy
d× b× t lb/ft in2 in in in in in in4 in4
L6×6×1 37.4 11 6 6 1 1.86 1.86 35.4 35.4
L6×6×7/8 33.1 9.75 6 6 0.875 1.81 1.81 31.9 31.9
L6×6×3/4 28.7 8.46 6 6 0.75 1.77 1.77 28.1 28.1
L6×6×5/8 24.2 7.13 6 6 0.625 1.72 1.72 24.1 24.1
L6×6×9/16 21.9 6.45 6 6 0.563 1.7 1.7 22 22
L6×6×1/2 19.6 5.77 6 6 0.5 1.67 1.67 19.9 19.9
L6×6×7/16 17.2 5.08 6 6 0.438 1.65 1.65 17.6 17.6
L6×6×3/8 14.9 4.38 6 6 0.375 1.62 1.62 15.4 15.4
L6×6×5/16 12.4 3.67 6 6 0.313 1.6 1.6 13 13
L6×4×7/8 27.2 8 6 4 0.875 1.12 2.12 27.7 9.7
L6×4×3/4 23.6 6.94 6 4 0.75 1.07 2.07 24.5 8.63
L6×4×5/8 20 5.86 6 4 0.625 1.03 2.03 21 7.48
L6×4×9/16 18.1 5.31 6 4 0.563 1 2 19.2 6.86
L6×4×1/2 16.2 4.75 6 4 0.5 0.981 1.98 17.3 6.22
L6×4×7/16 14.3 4.18 6 4 0.438 0.957 1.95 15.4 5.56
L6×4×3/8 12.3 3.61 6 4 0.375 0.933 1.93 13.4 4.86
L6×4×5/16 10.3 3.03 6 4 0.313 0.908 1.9 11.4 4.13
L6×3-1/2×1/2 15.3 4.5 6 3.5 0.5 0.829 2.07 16.6 4.24
L6×3-1/2×3/8 11.7 3.44 6 3.5 0.375 0.781 2.02 12.9 3.33
L6×3-1/2×5/16 9.8 2.89 6 3.5 0.313 0.756 2 10.9 2.84
L5×5×7/8 27.2 8 5 5 0.875 1.56 1.56 17.8 17.8
L5×5×3/4 23.6 6.98 5 5 0.75 1.52 1.52 15.7 15.7
L5×5×5/8 20 5.9 5 5 0.625 1.47 1.47 13.6 13.6
L5×5×1/2 16.2 4.79 5 5 0.5 1.42 1.42 11.3 11.3
L5×5×7/16 14.3 4.22 5 5 0.438 1.4 1.4 10 10
L5×5×3/8 12.3 3.65 5 5 0.375 1.37 1.37 8.76 8.76
L5×5×5/16 10.3 3.07 5 5 0.313 1.35 1.35 7.44 7.44
L5×3-1/2×3/4 19.8 5.85 5 3.5 0.75 0.993 1.74 13.9 5.52
L5×3-1/2×5/8 16.8 4.93 5 3.5 0.625 0.947 1.69 12 4.8
L5×3-1/2×1/2 13.6 4 5 3.5 0.5 0.901 1.65 10 4.02
L5×3-1/2×3/8 10.4 3.05 5 3.5 0.375 0.854 1.6 7.75 3.15
L5×3-1/2×5/16 8.7 2.56 5 3.5 0.313 0.829 1.57 6.58 2.69
L5×3-1/2×1/4 7 2.07 5 3.5 0.25 0.804 1.55 5.36 2.2
L5×3×1/2 12.8 3.75 5 3 0.5 0.746 1.74 9.43 2.55
L5×3×7/16 11.3 3.31 5 3 0.438 0.722 1.72 8.41 2.29
L5×3×3/8 9.8 2.86 5 3 0.375 0.698 1.69 7.35 2.01
APPENDIX D. PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS 336
D.2 Channels
D.2.1 Channel Section-US
Description W A d bf tw tf x̄ I¯xx I¯yy
d× W lb/ft in2 in in in in in in4 in4
C15×50 50 14.7 15 3.72 0.716 0.65 0.799 404 11
C15×40 40 11.8 15 3.52 0.52 0.65 0.778 348 9.17
C15×33.9 33.9 10 15 3.4 0.4 0.65 0.788 315 8.07
C12×30 30 8.81 12 3.17 0.51 0.501 0.674 162 5.12
C12×25 25 7.34 12 3.05 0.387 0.501 0.674 144 4.45
C12×20.7 20.7 6.08 12 2.94 0.282 0.501 0.698 129 3.86
C10×30 30 8.81 10 3.03 0.673 0.436 0.649 103 3.93
C10×25 25 7.35 10 2.89 0.526 0.436 0.617 91.1 3.34
C10×20 20 5.87 10 2.74 0.379 0.436 0.606 78.9 2.8
C10×15.3 15.3 4.48 10 2.6 0.24 0.436 0.634 67.3 2.27
C9×20 20 5.87 9 2.65 0.448 0.413 0.583 60.9 2.41
C9×15 15 4.4 9 2.49 0.285 0.413 0.586 51 1.91
C9×13.4 13.4 3.94 9 2.43 0.233 0.413 0.601 47.8 1.75
C8×18.75 18.75 5.51 8 2.53 0.487 0.39 0.565 43.9 1.97
C8×13.75 13.75 4.03 8 2.34 0.303 0.39 0.554 36.1 1.52
C8×11.5 11.5 3.37 8 2.26 0.22 0.39 0.572 32.5 1.31
C7×14.75 14.75 4.33 7 2.3 0.419 0.366 0.532 27.2 1.37
C7×12.25 12.25 3.59 7 2.19 0.314 0.366 0.525 24.2 1.16
C7×9.8 9.8 2.87 7 2.09 0.21 0.366 0.541 21.2 0.957
C6×13 13 3.82 6 2.16 0.437 0.343 0.514 17.3 1.05
C6×10.5 10.5 3.07 6 2.03 0.314 0.343 0.5 15.1 0.86
C6×8.2 8.2 2.39 6 1.92 0.2 0.343 0.512 13.1 0.687
C5×9 9 2.64 5 1.89 0.325 0.32 0.478 8.89 0.624
C5×6.7 6.7 1.97 5 1.75 0.19 0.32 0.484 7.48 0.47
C4×7.25 7.25 2.13 4 1.72 0.321 0.296 0.459 4.58 0.425
C4×6.25 6.25 1.84 4 1.65 0.247 0.296 0.453 4.19 0.374
C4×5.4 5.4 1.58 4 1.58 0.184 0.296 0.457 3.85 0.312
C4×4.5 4.5 1.34 4 1.52 0.125 0.296 0.473 3.53 0.265
C3×6 6 1.76 3 1.6 0.356 0.273 0.455 2.07 0.3
C3×5 5 1.47 3 1.5 0.258 0.273 0.439 1.85 0.241
C3×4.1 4.1 1.2 3 1.41 0.17 0.273 0.437 1.65 0.191
C3×3.5 3.5 1.09 3 1.37 0.132 0.273 0.443 1.57 0.169
APPENDIX D. PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS 338