Bridge Lecture Note Akewak

Fundamentals of Bridge Design Lecture Note
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction
A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle. The obstacle may be a river, valley,
road or railway. The passage may be for highway or railway traffic, pedestrian, canal or
pipeline.
As the saying “Build bridges and you will have a friend” goes, bridges have a unique attribute
of connecting different people. Rivers and mountains form physical barriers between people
to interact, trade with one another, live and work together. For Ethiopia this holds especially
true as the country is known as “The Water Tower of Africa” due to the high rainfall we receive,
which resulted in quite many big rivers dissecting the rough terrain and flowing deep in the
valleys. Consequently we are composed of people speaking about 82 different languages.
Transportation network is crucial for the development and prosperity of a country. Investment
by both nationals and foreigners is crucial for economic development of a country, and one of
the criteria that foreign investors weigh in their investment decisions in a country is the level
of development of the transportation network. Bridges provide essential links in highways and
railways at obstacles. The cost of bridges (and culverts) is a significantproportion of a highway
project.
Many cities and towns are established near rivers and bridges add to the beauty of cities and
towns. Bridges aid the social, cultural and economic improvements of the locations around
them.
Bridges also have military strategic importance. The mobility of an army at war is often
affected by the availability or otherwise of bridges to cross rivers. Military training puts special
emphasis on learning how to build new bridges quickly while advancing and destroy bridges
while retreating.
Bridge engineering is one of the fascinating fields in civil engineering calling for expertise in
many areas: structural analysis and design, geotechniques, traffic projection, surveying, runoff
calculation and methods of construction. A bridge engineer has to have an appreciation of
economics and aesthetics besides ability in analysis and design. The materials and procedures
involved in the construction of any sizable bridge are quite varied.
“From its foundations rooted in bed rock to its towering pylons and vaulting span, a bridge is
a thing of wonder and of poetry.” David B. Steinman
The following Fig. gives components of the most common type of bridge, slab-stringer type.
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First Semester 2021/22 A. Y.
1- Deck and overpass 2- Stringer(longitudinal beams) 3-Bearing 4- Pedestal

5-Footing 6- Piles 7-Underpass 8- Embankment 9- Live load
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types

Slab bridge: examples are most of ring road bridges
Cross section of solid slab bridge
Slab Stringer bridge: example is temcha river bridge
Photo of whole bridge
Part side view view from underneath

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Arch bridge:
Abay bridge on Goha Tsion – Dejen road
West Lilac overpass arch bridge, California, USA
Truss arch - New River Gorge bridge
Truss bridge:
New Orleans through truss bridge
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Cable stayed bridge:
Hidassie bridge
Suspension bridge:
Brooklyn bridge, Newyork city
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan Suspension bridge
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Movable Bridge: Tubular Bridge:
Four level directional interchange:
Interchange, San Diego California

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1.3 Historical Development
The History of development of bridges is closely linked with the history of human civilization.
Fig. 1.1 outlines the development of the various forms of bridges. Based on structural action,
bridge structures can be classified into four basic types: beam bridges, cantilever bridges,
suspension bridges and arch bridges.
Nature fashioned the first bridges. Tree fallen accidentally across a chasm or a stream was the
earliest example of a beam type bridge. Similarly, the natural rock arch formed by erosion of
the loose soil below was the earliest forebear of arch bridges. And creepers hanging from tree
to tree allowing monkeys to cross from one bank to the other were the forerunners of suspension
bridges. The ancient who felled tree deliberately across a stream so that it afforded him a
crossing was the first bridge builder. Since the primitive man was a wanderer in search of food
and shelter the first structures he built were bridged.
Around 4000 B.C men were settling to community life and were giving more thought to
permanence of bridges.
Between 200 B.C. and 260 A.D. the Romans build many magnificent stone arch bridges. The
arches were semi-circular using massive piers, so that, if one span got damaged in war, the
others would remain standing. Bridge construction was considered very important an ancient
Rome to rule the world.
The Chinese were building stone arch bridges since 250 B.C.
In the middle ages after the fall of Rome, the bridge building activity was mainly taken up by
the religious orders in Europe. The medieval bridges has decorative and defensive towers,
chapels, statues, shops and dwellings.
With the dawn of Renaissance, advances were made in theory, technical skill and mechanical
appliances. Bridges were regarded as civic works of art and the bridge builder was recognized
as a leader in progress and a creator of monuments. Stone masonry segmental arches were
predominantly used in bridges.
The eighteenth century ushered in the age of reason. The first treatise on bridge engineering
was published in 1714 by a French engineer Rubert Gautier. In 1716, the Corps des Ingenieurs
de Ponts et Chaussees was founded for the scientific advancement of bridge construction; and
in 1747, the Ecole de Ponts et Chaussees at Paris, the first engineering school in the world, was
founded, with Jean Perronet, “Father of modern bridge building”, as the first Director. Perronet
perfected the masonry arch and introduced slender piers, his best work being the Pont de la
Concorda at Paris built in 1791.
Though timber bridges have been built since early days, covered timber bridges of each form
were popular during the late eighteenth century. Wooden bridges were covered for protection
of the timber from the weather. A notable timber bridge was the “Colossus” bridge over the
Schuylkill River at Fairmount, Pennsylvania, with an arch span of 104m. This fine bridge, build
in 1812, was destroyed by fire in 1838.
The first iron bridge was built at Coalbrookdale in 1779 over the Severn in England by
Abraham Darby and John Wilkinson. It consisted of five semicircular arch ribs in iron, joined
together side by side to form a single arch span of 30m. In 1808, James Finley in
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Fig. 1.1. Development of Bridges
Pennsylvania patented a design for a suspension bridge with wrought iron chain cables and
level floor. Forty bridges of this design were built in the USA within the next eight years.
Thomas Telford completed the Menai Strait bridge in Wales in 1826, a suspension bridge
with wrought iron chains with a record-breaking span of 177m. George Stephenson built the
first iron railway bridge in 1823 on the Stockton-Darlington railway. The most famous of the
early iron railway bridge in 1823 on the Stockton-Darlington railway. The most famous of the
early iron railway bridges is the Britannia tubular bridge built by Robert Stephenson in 1850
across the Menai Strait. It consisted of twin wrought iron tubes, continuous over four spans of
70, 140, 140 and 70m. Wrought iron replaced cast iron in bridge constructionduring the
period 1840-1890. Many truss bridges of the form Howe, Pratt, Whipple, Bolman, Fink, and
Warren were built on railways during this period.
The failure of a number of wrought iron railway bridges, specially the Howe truss bridge of
Ashtabula, Ohio in 1877 and the Firth of Tay bridge in Scotland in 1879, resulting in serious
loss of life, led to a new era in bridge building – an era of specialization, research, careful
detailing, thorough inspection and a more durable and stronger material-steel.
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Steel was first extensively used in the Eads Bridge at St. Louis, Missouri, built in 1874 as a
steel arch bridge of three spans of 153, 158 and 153 m. The Eads bridge was also the first bridge
to use pneumatic caissons in USA, the first bridge to make extensive use of cantilever method
of erection, and the first to specify and test for elastic limit and ultimate strength for steel. The
first all-steel bridge was built at Glasgow, South Dakota in 1878. Steel was also used in the
cables and spans of Brooklyn Bridge during 1869-83.
With the introduction of steel, the earlier truss forms yielded place to more efficient forms such
as the Baltimore, Parker, Pennsylvania and K-truss types. The world‟s longest simple steel
truss bridge span is the suspended span of J.J. Barry bridge across Delaware river with a span
of 251 m.
The world‟s first modern cantilever bridge was built in 1867 by Heinrich Gerber across the
river Main at Hassfurt, Germany, with a main span of 129 m. The world‟s most famous
cantilever bridge is the Firth of Forth bridge in Scotland, with two main spans of 521 m, built
in 1889. The world‟s longest span cantilever bridge was built in 1917 at Quebec, over the St.
Lawrence river, with a main span of 549 m. The Howrah bridge over the Hoogly river at
Calcutta, built in 1943 with a main span of 457 m, has elegant aesthetics and possesses pleasing
proportions among the suspended span, cantilever arms and the anchor spans.
Inspired by the success of the Eads Bridge, many fine arch bridges were built. Notable among
these are the Hell Gate Bridge at new York with a span of 297 m built in 1971 and theSydney
harbor bridge at Sydney, Australia, with a span of 503 m built in 1932. The world‟s longest
arch bridge in the new River Gorge bridge in West Virginia built in 1976 using weathering
steel with a span of 519 m. The deck type arch span is aesthetically the most pleasing. The
Henry Hudson bridge built in 1936 with a span of 244 m and the Rainbow bridge at Niagara
Falls built in 1941 with a span of 290 m are outstanding examples of beautiful steel arch
bridges.
The first reinforced concrete bridge was built by Adair in 1871 as a 15 m span bridge across
the Waveney at Homersfield, England. Soon after, a 6m arch was built in 1889 at Golden Gate
Park in San Francisco and a girder bridge was built in 1893 by Hennebique as an approach to
a mill at Don, France. The adaptability of reinforced concrete to any architectural form and
the increased efficiency in concrete construction resulted in its widespread use in bridge
building. Maillart in Switzerland produced fine arch bridges in reinforced concrete, utilizing
the integrated structural action of thin arch slabs with monolithically cast stiffening beams. The
longest span concrete arch bridge is the Gladesville built in 1964 at Sydney, Australia, with a
span of 305 m.
The application of prestressing in concrete design opened new horizons in the use of concrete
since 1930. One of the early prestressed concrete bridges was the Mame bridge built by
Freyssinet in France. The Bendorf bridge over the Rhine in Germany with a main span of 208
m built in 1965 by Finsterwalder using the free cantilever method of construction and adopting
short high tensile bar tendons marked a breakthrough in prestressed concrete bridge
construction.
During the period following Fasiladas (after 1667) it is said that many bridges were constructed
in Gonder and Lake Tana area. Pankhrust listed the following: two arch bridges at Alata, one
at Sila, one on Gondar-Debretabor road, one on Angereb river, another at the junction of
Angereb and Keha.
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Many of the bridges built during the 17th and 18th centuries were destroyed during the civil war
in the Zemene Mesafint. The knowledge of bridge building was also lost during this period.
Emperor Theodros was much admired for his road building activities and built road from his
capital Debretabor to Gojjam, Maqdella and to the north. He supervised the road construction
in person. But most of these might have been temporary bridges.
The first modern bridges seem to have been built by the local chief of Gojjam, king Tekle
Haymanot in the years 1884-1885.
Like many other aspects of modernization, Menelik‟s period marks the revival of bridge
building in Ethiopia. During his many campaigns especially to the south, he felt the great
necessity of roads. The first bridge constructed was timber bridge on Awash river.
During and after battle of Adwa, and having seen the difficulty in the march to and back from
Adwa, the emperor was more than determined to construct roads. After the battle he had many
Italian prisoners working on road and bridge construction.
In Addis the first stone bridge was constructed on Kebena river in 1902 by a Russian engineer
after their compatriate staff was drowned. The second was Ras Mekonnen bridge built in 1908
by Ras Mekonnen.
In Jimma and Illubabor areas, fine timber bridges are reported to be constructed by the local
community.
After 1906 Menelik employed many foreign experts: Indians, Greeks, and Italians to construct
roads in the country, especially in the provinces for the first time. But these bridgeswere made
of timber and stone bridges were exclusively constructed in the capital.
On the eve of Italian invasion of 1935, road building program with the erection of numerous
bridges was initiated and constructed. This was carried out under Ministry of Public Works.
But these served the invaders only.
The years 1935-1941 were the years of occupation by Italians. The great program was
announced in which Italy tried to win Ethiopia and set a program of building major and minor
roads throughout the country.
The following roads were constructed by Italians during this period:

Assab-Serdo-Dessie road – 1504 minor and 80 major bridges constructed
288km road on of Asmara-Addis road upto Debre Sina – 606 minor and 24 major bridges
Road from Tekkezie to Tanna (431km)-686 minor bridges and culverts and 52 major bridges
Road from Gondar to Debretabor(168km), road from Addis to Mille(138km)-650 small and
50 major bridges. Most of the roads were built to connect Addis to the different parts:
Addis to Debre Sina, Addis to Debre Markos-Gondar-Axum, Addis to Lekemtie, Addis to
Recently, cable stayed bridges have gained popularity for long span bridges in the range of
about 200 m. One well known bridge in this category is the Marakaibo Lake bridge in
Venezuela built in 1963. Many bridges of this type have been built in Europe and in Japan.
The suspension bridge has come to stay as the type best suited for very long spans. In 1883 the
Brooklyn Bridge was completed with a main span of 486 m the longest bridge in the world at
that time. Other suspension bridges followed raising the record span. The Golden
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Gate bridge at San Francisco was completed in 1937 with a record span of 1280 m. In 1940,
the Tacoma Narrows bridge at Puget Sound, Washington, was opened to traffic. It had a span
of 853 m and stiffening truss only 2.4 m deep. The bridge collapsed the same year during a 68
kmph gale due to aerodynamic instability. This failure forcefully brought home the need for
consideration of aerodynamic effects on suspension bridges and triggered many theoretical
and experimental studies into the problem.
The next longest span bridge in the world is Humber Estuary Bridge at Humber, England. It
was built in 1981 with a main span of 1410 m. This great bridge is indicative of the irresistible
urge of man to continually thrust forward. According to D.B. Steinman, bridge spans as large
as 3000m are practically feasible and will be built in the future. The Akashi- Kaikyo Bridge in
Japan is now the longest span suspension bridge with a main span of 1990m.
The design of long span bridges always poses a challenge to the ingenuity and to the
perseverance of the designer. Every long span bridge brings in new problems in design
concepts and new construction details. The designer chooses his solution with full freedom of
decision, but with full responsibility for the success of the work. In fact, long span bridgesare
creative works, and serve as landmarks in the art of bridge building.
There are many bridges built 30-70 years back in transportation networks which require
maintenance, and some rehabilitation. From this experience, now many codes require
considering (inspectability and) maintainability during design and total cost comparison as
opposed to first cost comparison in bridge selection.
Historical Development of Bridge Construction in Ethiopia

Early travelers before the 16th century had recorded near complete absence of roads and river
crossings in the country. The rough terrain, deep gorges and fast and high floods during rainy
season that wash off everything are the main difficulties that hindered bridge construction.
Almeida first recorded about two crude but sturdy and useful bridges in the second half of the
16th century. One of these was on Blue Nile near Alata where thick log is placed across the
narrow rocky banks. The whole of emperor Susenyos‟ army often crossed by this crossing.
The second one was on river Zebes which is a wide and fast river. A long was placed across
and as people crossed it vibrated up and down.
Portugese mission which came to help the highlander dynasty from Muslim invaders of Harar
constructed the first stone masonry bridge using lime mortar as binder in 1626 near the old
bridge at Alata. Later Susenyos ordered construction of bridges, which was carried out by a
draftsman from India.
Jimma, Addis Ato Nazareth and Assela, Addis to Modjo and Shashemenie, and Addis to Dire
Dawa and Harar.
Bridges were also built to in the Ogaden and Southern Bale regions to connect Addis and
Jimma to their Somali colony. Totally 673 small bridges and culverts and 16 major bridges
were constructed. These were: road to connect Jimma to Indian ocean through Borena and Filtu
(Bale), road to connect Addis with Mogadishu through Ferfer and Shashemenie, and road
connecting Addis to Mogadishu through Ferfer and Harar.
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design – CENG 5501 Lecture Note
After 1941 the Ministry of Public works was mainly engaged in maintenance of bridges
destroyed in the liberation battles and construction of few new bridges, one of which is Abai
bridge near Dejen constructed in 1949.
An independent agency for road building was established as Imperial Highway Authority in
1951 with expatriate staff from the US Bureau of Public Roads.
This authority established district headquarters at Shoea, Gondar, Wello, Tigrai, Harar and
Sidamo. Since its establishment, the Authority set different highway maintenance at the
beginning and mainly construction programs. These are
First Highway Program (1951-1957) – this consisted of reconstruction and maintenance
Second Highway Program (1957-1965) – Constructed 1200km new roads and maintained
4500km all-weather roads. Many minor and major bridges were constructed. Abai bridge
near Bahir Dar was constructed in this program.
Third Highway Program (1965-1968) – new and improved standard bridge and culvert
plans were prepared during this program. Many minor and major bridges were constructed.
Fourth Highway Program (1968-1972) – two major road projects were completed during this
period: Lekemte-Ghimbi and Agaro-Bedele roads. Others: Bedele-Mettu, Awash- Tendaho,
Nazareth-Awash, Jimma-Agaro and Dilla-Moyalle projects. Many minor andmajor bridges
were constructed.
Fifth Higway Program (1972-1975) – During this period, local contractors began to take
major contract projects.
Sixty Highway Program (1975-) – Rural Roads Division established with in the Authority
to program and execute the construction of access roads, mainly in the drought affected areas.
Drought in the north, east and southern parts of the country initiated construction of low cost,
standard roads where in many small bridges were constructed. A notable bridge constructed
during the Derge regime is the one on Baro river with a total span of 305m, which was the
longest span in the country.
1.4 Elements of a Bridge Project
The design of bridges requires the collection of extensive data and from this the selection of
possible options. From such a review the choice is narrowed down to a shortlist of potential
bridge designs. A sensible work plan should be devised for the marshalling and deployment
of information throughout the project from conception to completion and through the design
period to the end of its life. Such a checklist will vary from project to project but a typical
example might be drawn along the following lines.
(b) foundation considerations;
i) Feasibility Phase:
(c) hydraulic considerations, flood, scour;
a) data collection;
(d) loading and design criteria;
b) topographical and hydrographical surveys;
(e) clearance height and width (such as for
c) hydrological information;
navigation or traffic);
d) geological and geotechnical information;
(f) criteria for gradients, alignment, etc,;
e) site investigation requirements for soil and
(g) hazards such as impact, accident;
rock evaluation
(h) proximity to other engineering works
f) Meteorological and aerodynamic data;
(i) functional requirements;
g) Assembly of basic criteria;
(j) transportation and traffic planning;
h) Likely budget
(k) highway and/or railway engineering aspects;
ii) Assembly of design criteria: (l) drainage requirements;
(a) data and properties on the material to be
used including steel, concrete, timber, 11
ii) Assembly of design criteria: iv) Construction phase:
(m)provision for services (water, sewage, power, (c) budget and financial control;
electricity, telephone, communications links) (d) quality control;
(n) design life and durability considerations. (e) supervision of construction;
(f) commissioning;
iii) Design phase:
(g) operating, inspection and maintenance
(a) choice of bridge:
schedules for each part of the work.
(b) detailed design of bridge including foundations,
substructure and superstructure;
iv) Performance phase:
(c) production of drawings and documentation,
(a) obligations of owner;
(d) preparation of quality assurance plan;
(b) management of facility;
(e) estimation of cost and program.
(c) inspection, maintenance and repair;
iv) Construction phase: (d) rehabilitation and refurbishment requirements
(a) contractual matters; (change of loading, widening, change of use
(b) construction methods; and durability aspects);
(e) decommissioning and demolition
Such a project list serves to highlight the various requirements of a bridge project
1.5 Design Objectives

The objectives in a bridge design are safety, serviceability, economy, constructability and
aesthetics.
Safety – the primary responsibility of the engineer is to ensure public safety in the design by
ensuring adequate structural safety (the philosophy of achieving structural safety is treated in
subsection 1.5)
Serviceability – consists of satisfying requirements of deformation, durability, inspect ability,
maintainability and ride ability.
Deformation – Bridges should be designed to avoid excessive deformations that cause
undesirable structural or psychological effects. Limits on deflection or minimum depth to
consider are given in codes (AASHTO 98, Articles 2.5.2.6.2 and 2.5.2.6.3 respectively).
Durability – contract documents specify quality of materials to be used and standards of
fabrication and erection of elements to ensure durability. Self protecting measures of the
structure from the effects of the weather will be taken during design and construction
Inspectability – inspection ladders, walkways, catwalks and covered access holes will be
provided where other means of inspection are not practical.
Maintainability – structural systems whose maintenance is expected to be difficult should be
avoided
Rideability – the deck of the bridge will be designed to permit smooth movement of traffic.
The number of deck joints will be kept to a practicable minimum.
Economy – structural types, span lengths and materials should be selected based on cost.
The cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the bridge should be
considered
Constructability – bridges should be designed in a manner such that fabrication and erection
can be performed without undue difficulty or distress and that construction force effects are
within tolerable limits
Aesthetics – Aesthetics aspect and space requirement of buildings are designed by architects.
Aesthetic, space requirement, hydraulic and structural aspects of bridges are designed by civil
engineers. Bridges should complement their surroundings, be graceful in form and present an
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First Semester 2021/22.
appearance of adequate strength. Because the major structural components are the largest parts
and are seen first, they determine the appearance of a bridge.
Oftentimes the most aesthetically pleasing bridge is also the least expensive. Sometimes a
modest increase in construction cost is required to improve the appearance of a bridge. Menn
states that the additional cost is about 2% for short spans and only about 5% for long spans in
California, USA. Public expenditures on improved appearance are generally supported and
appreciated. Given a choice, even with a modest increase in initial cost, the public prefers the
bridge that has a nicer appearance.
Although beauty in anything is somewhat subjective and undefinable, experience has shown
that there are some general guidelines which, if followed, will result in a structure of improved
appearance. Bearing in mind that a bridge may well serve for 100 years or more, the designer
should become familiar with the aesthetic techniques that may be used to improve the
appearance of a bridge so that the bridge will be a credit to its designer and to itself for many
decades to come. The following are some special areas of concern.
Proportions and Lines. All the members should bear a pleasing relationship to each other.
Columns should not be spindly nor superstructures too heavy. Span lengths should be chosen
carefully. Where there are no other constraints, and odd number is better that an even number,
with the longest span in the center – lines should be mainly horizontal so that the structure
seems to flow from end to end. Intermediate supports should be subdued to that they do not
break the dominant horizontal flow. This means pushing the bent caps up into thesuperstructure
or covering their ends with skirts to make the longitudinal lines continuous over the supports.
The bridge should look like it was designed as a whole, not as a lot of individual parts glued
together. Bridges using precast concrete or simple steel plate girders require special treatment
to conceal the caps and extend the horizontal lines over the supports. Giving the soffit lines a
slight arch, more than the normal camber, will often improve the overall appearance.
Pleasing Shapes – appearance can be enhanced by avoiding stereotyped round or square
columns and flat soffits. A column which may be adequate structurally will often be too small
to be good looking. Add enough size to make the proportions seem right. Columns, which are
smaller at the bottom than the top, will help make the structure seem lighter and more dynamic.
Make sure the columns are all the same type and size both for appearance and for reusability
of forms. Avoid large expanses of plain concrete. Break them up with ledges to create shadow
lines or use heavily textured panels. Slope the sides of box girders back under the bridge, and
give the bottom edge a large curved fillet to diminish its apparent depth.
Compatibility – make the bridge fit its surroundings. If it looks like it belongs there, it will be
a pleasing addition to its environment. If it is a misfit, it will be an eyesore forever. Even
industrial or utilitarian bridges need not be ugly. It is worthwhile to make every bridge have an
appearance of quality and careful craftsmanship.
Implementation of those features must be balanced with their effects on the structural adequacy
of the bridge as a whole.
Consequently, engineers should seek excellent appearance in bridge parts in the following
order of importance: horizontal and vertical alignment and position in the environment,
superstructure type (girder, arch, etc), pier placement, abutment placement and height,
superstructure shape (haunched, tapered depth), pier shape, abutment shape, parapet and railing
details, surface colors and texture and ornament.
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1.6 Design Philosophy
Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of safety,
serviceability, economy, constructability and aesthetics. Each component and connection
should be designed to satisfy equation 1-1 for each of the limit states: service, fatigue and
fracture, strength and extreme event limit states. A bridge for which any of these limit states
is exceeded is unfit for the intended function or use. This equation is the basis of the Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method, which will be used in this course. Factors obtained
from the theory of reliability based on current statistical knowledge of loads and structural
performances are used for both the loads and the resistances. Besides, ductility andredundancy
are important in ensuring safety.
. . . . . (1.1)
Where
i = load factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects
i = Resistance factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
i =Load modifier, a factor relating to ductility, redundancy and operational importance
Qi is force effect, Rn = nominal resistance and Rf = factored resistance = Rn
The different limit states may be defined now

Strength limit state – is meant to ensure that strength and stability, both local and global, are
provided to resist the specified statistically significant load combinations that a bridge is
expected to be subjected to in its design life
Service limit state – is restrictions on stress, deformation and crack width under regular service
conditions
Fatigue and fracture limit state – the fatigue limit state is restrictions on stress range as a result
of a single design truck occurring at the number of expected stress range cycles. The fracture
limit state is taken as a set of material toughness requirements.
Extreme event limit states - this is taken to ensure the structural survival of a bridge during a
major earthquake or flood, or when collided by a vehicle, vessel, possibly under scoured
conditions.
Ductility – the structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme event
limit states prior to failure. Ductile structures give ample warning before they lose loadcarrying
capacity where as brittle structures collapse without giving warning.
Redundancy – multiple load path and continuous structures should be used unless there are
compelling reasons not to use them. Indeterminate structures survive overloads and extreme
events due to multiple load paths and redistribution of internal forces.
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Chapter 2
INVESTIGATION FOR BRIDGES
2.1. Introduction
The aim of the investigation is to select a suitable site from possible alternatives at which a
bridge can be built economically, at the same time satisfying the demands of safety, traffic, the
stream, and aesthetics. In this first stage of design the engineer identifies a preferred location
for the bridge and decides on the type, size and capacity of the structure. He/she reaches these
decisions on the basis of field surveys and information concerning:
 The proposed road alignment

 The local terrain and site conditions
 The required design life of the bridge
 The likely traffic volumes
 The resources available for the project
The local terrain and site conditions dictate the height, length and number of spans, and the
design of the substructure foundations. The required design life and the resources available to
construct the bridge will influence the choice of materials and construction methods. The traffic
predictions enable the engineer to determine the necessary width of the bridge.
The investigation for a major bridge project should cover studies on technical feasibility and
economic considerations and should result in an investigation report. The success of the final
design will depend on the thoroughness of the information furnished by the officer in charge
of the investigation.
The objectives in this chapter are to select a bridge site, determine the total span at a selected
site and the span sub divisions, and to discuss about site investigations required for detailed
bridge design.
2.2. Site selection
2.2.1 Preliminary Survey
The objective of the preliminary survey is to study more than one alternative bridge sites.
Usually the road plans are not prepared with contours at this early stage, which make it
necessary to use the topographic maps available in the country. Possible bridge sites are first
located on topographic maps. The Ethiopian Mapping Authority has prepared maps to scale of
1:250,000 for the whole country. In addition there are also maps to scale of 1:50,000 available
for large areas of the country shown in the current “Map Catalogue” published by the Ethiopian
Mapping Agency. These are especially suited for the planning stage to calculate catchment
areas, possible provisional road alignments, aggregate quarries, and other uses. After locating
the possible bridge sites on these maps, these sites are visited to collect certain preliminary data
required for thorough examination of alternative bridge sites from which the final site shall be
selected.
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2.2.2. Selection of Bridge Site
For the bridge engineer, rivers are the most common obstructions needing to be bridged.
Occasionally the engineer may be called upon to design a rail or road grade separated crossing.
These are relatively simple compared to river crossings because they involve considerations
only of height and span. The design of a river crossing has to also take hydraulic requirements
into account.
There are three initial considerations to bear in mind in selection of the site:
 a bridge site must offer appropriate vertical and horizontal alignments (skew angle
above 20o should be avoided due to increased bridge costs).
 its soils must be of sufficient strength to ensure the stability of the structure )the site
selection should if possible be made together with a soils engineer to minimize costs
and select the best site).
 the bridge and its associated works should not have an adverse impact on adjoining land
or buildings, or be susceptible to damage from/to the local environment.
For a river crossing it is important to identify the type of river to be crossed. There are two
types of rivers namely alluvial and incised.
Alluvial rivers are winding and they crode their tanks and scour their beds; they have flood
plains on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel banks to spread
across the flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and depositing materials on the
banks and transporting quantities of sediment. The main channels and any of the minor
channels can change position and islands can disappear in the course of a single major flood.
Incised river have relatively stable tanks and are generally narrower and deeper than alluvial
rivers. Some overtop their banks during flood, but the flow returns to the existing channel when
the flood subsides.
Steeply graded tributary streams flowing into a major river commonly exhibit abrupt changes
in channel width and bed gradient where they enter the main flood plain. These changes result
in the deposition of large quantities of sediment in the form of alluvial fans of gravel to clay
sized debris.
There is a wide range of sites for bridges in rural areas but the choice may be limited in urban
areas and for Passovers.
An ideal site for bridge crossing is one that:
is on a straight reach of the river. If the river is meandering the best crossing site will
be at the nodal points of the course, which are not affected by the meandering.
ihere the flow is steady without serious whirls and cross currents
is beyond the disturbing influence of large tributaries
has well defined and stable high banks above flood level
has uniform flow i.e. larger average depth compared to localized maximum depth
has reasonable straight approach roads and permits as a square a crossing as possible.
Curves should be avoided in the immediate approaches to the bridge. Skew crossing
may be acceptable if curved approach is required for square crossing. The approaches
should also be economical (not very high or long) and not liable to flank attack of the
river during floods.
has good foundation conditions
16
has short span (narrow channel)
does not require expensive river training work
does not require excessive underwater construction
A bridge aligned at right angles to the river results in the shortest superstructure. A skewed
bridge requires more material and is more complicated to design and construct. If a skew is
unavoidable, the angle should preferably not exceed 20O due to the increased cost.
Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the
channel flow within the bridge waterway opening.
The location of the bridge in relation to the alignment of the approaches may be decided as
below.
a) Total span <60m-The alignment of the approaches will govern.
b) 60m<Total span < 300m-Both the alignment and good bridge site govern.
c) Total span>300m-Good bridge site governs.
Selection of a suitable bridge site especially for major bridges is teamwork consisting of
highway engineer, bridge engineers, geologist and hydraulic engineer.
If all the requirements cannot be satisfied there may be some compromise for the less
important sites.
It is most common that two to five different alignments are compared and evaluated from
technical, economical, environmental, and other points of view, to select the most beneficial
alignment(s). This may be performed either by hand or by a computer program. The
preliminary cost of the bridges may be calculated by unit cost per m2 of bridge deck.
Several computer programs are available. An example is a computer program developed in

1993-98 by the Overseas Centre Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) in Berkshire, United
Kingdom is “RTIM3-Road Transport Investment Model”, which is widely used to carry out
cost- benefit analysis on road construction, upgrading and maintenance projects in developing
countries. The program runs on a microcomputer and operates as a series of linked compiled
spreadsheets for traffic flow, road deterioration, and vehicle operating costs and economic
analysis.
2.3. Site Investigation
Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he/she needs to obtain field
information on the catchment area and run off, local terrain, river conditions and water levels,
navigational (only for river Baro) and other clearance requirements, and soil information. Field
reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The most
complete survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for personal
inspection by someone experienced in bridge design.
There are several criteria that should be established before making the field visit. Does the
magnitude of the project warrant an inspection, or can the same information be obtained from
maps, aerial photos, or by telephone calls? What kind of equipment should be taken and most
important, what exactly are the critical items at the site under consideration?
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Factors that most often need to be confirmed by field inspection (see Form 4.1) are
High-water marks or profiles and related frequencies.

Selection of roughness coefficients,
Evaluation of apparent flow direction and diversions,
Flow concentration (main stream),
Observation of land use and related flood hazards, and
Geomorphic relationships and soil conditions
An actual visit to the site where the project will be constructed shall be made before any design
is undertaken. This may be combined with a visit by others, such as the roadway designers and
soil investigators, environmental reviewers, and local officials. The designer may visit the site
separately, however, because of interests which are different from theothers, and the time
required to obtain the data as warranted below.
It may not be possible to survey the entire watershed, therefore a sample area may have to be
studied.
2.3.1. Catchment Area and Run off Data

The extent of the river catchment area determines the area to be included in plans and sections,
and can be used to estimate flow volumes. Using maps or aerial photographs to an appropriate
scale, the catchment area can be marked and its size calculated, using transparent squared graph
paper or a planimeter. If soft copy of the topographic map is available, the area can easily be
calculated from this file.
The information which is of interest are: catchment size, catchment grade, catchment cover,
presence of any artificial or natural storage such as dams, lakes etc., possibility of any change
in the nature of the catchment due to forestation or deforestation, maximum recorded intensity
and frequency of rainfall in the catchment.
2.3.2 Drawings
a) Index Map – showing the proposed location of the bridge, the alternative bridge sites
investigated and rejected, towns and villages in the vicinity and the general topographic of
the area. Scale may be 1:50,000.
b) Contour Survey Plan of the river showing all topographic feature for a sufficient distance
on either side of the site to give indication of the features, which would influence the
location, and the design of the bridge and its approaches. Distances to be coveted by
contour plans are shown in Table 2.1.
c) Site plan – showing the details of the selected site and of the stream to a distance of 100
to 200m upstream and downstream of the selected site. This should show the crossing point
and alignment of approaches, location and reduced level of benchmark, location of cross
section and longitudinal sections of road and stream taken within area of the plan, and
location of buildings, rock outcrops and other possible obstructions to the road alignment.
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Table 2.1 Distance to be covered by contour plans

Catchment area (Sq.Km) Upstream Downstream
Up to 2.5 150m 150m
2.5 0 10.0 200 – 400m 150m
Over 10.0 400 – 500m 250m
d) Cross-section and longitudinal sections of the river – Cross-sections are taken at suitable
distances both upstream and downstream of the proposed bridge site. These should indicate
the distance from the centerline of the bridge and also the HFL, OFL,LWL and the bed
levels at suitable intervals along the centerline of the deep water channel.
e) Catchment area map – is prepared by tracing the ridge line of the water shed on the
topographic map of the area.
2.3.3. River Survey
Information required by the designer for analysis and design include not only the physical
characteristics of the land and channel, but all features that can affect the magnitude and
frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under study. These data may include
climatological characteristics, land runoff characteristics, and stream gauging records, high
water marks and the sizes and past performances of existing structures in the vicinity. The exact
data required will depend upon the methods utilized to estimate discharges, and frequencies.
The collection of flood data is a basic survey task in performing any hydraulic analysis. The
field collection will consist mainly of interviews with local people, maintenance personnel, and
local officials who may have recollection of past flood events in the area. In some cases, if a
stream gauging station is on the stream under study close to the crossing site and has many
years of measurements, this may be the only hydrologic data needed. These data should be
analyzed to ensure that stream flows have not changed over the time of measurement due to
watershed alterations such as the construction of a large storage facility, diversion of flow to
another watershed, addition of flow from another watershed, or development which has
significantly altered the runoff characteristics of the watershed.
High-water marks are often the only data of past floods available. When collected, these data
should include, when possible, the date and elevation of the flood event. In the search for marks,
local people could be of great help. The cause of the high water mark should also be noted,
often the mark is caused by unusual debris build up rather than an inadequate structure, and
designing roadway or structure to such an elevation could lead to an unrealistically
uneconomical design. High water marks can be identified in several ways. Small debris, such
as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant grass or similar matted down, mud lines on
stones or bridges, are all high water indicators. Beware however that grass, bushes, and tree
branches could be bent over during flood flows and spring up after the flow has passed, which
may give a false reading of the high water elevation.
The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are needed
for any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these
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characteristics can be found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey of
the basin. The size and configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the stream network,
storage, volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general geology and soils
of the basin can be found from maps.
Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage values,
and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values using different
methods outlined in Equations 2.1 to 2.4.
Rainfall records are available from the Ethiopian Meteorological Services Agency (Weather
Bureau). This data should be used to supplement, update, and refine the data developed and
presented in Drainage Design Manual prepared by Ethiopia Roads Authority.
Once the best site is selected, information is needed on the highest known flood level, the
ordinary flood level and the low water level at the proposed site. The design discharge also
needs to be determined.
The normal high water level, Ordinary Flood Level (OFL) – is the level to which the river
normally rises during the wettest season of the year.
The normal low water level, the Low Water Level (LWL) – is the level prevailing in the river
during dry weather. If there is little or no flow in dry weather, the period during which the
riverbed remains dry should be noted.
Highest know Flood Level(HFL) – is the highest level that the river is known to rise to
The bridge engineer is required to select Design Flood Level (DFL), design discharge and
design velocity on which to base calculations of waterway geometry, foundation depth, scour
protection and vertical clearance.
The design flood is the maximum flow that can pass through the bridge without
Causing unacceptable disruption to traffic
Endangering the pier and abutment foundations with scours
Damaging approach embankments
Causing flood damage on the upstream side of embankments
On important roads the bridge may be designed for a design flood occurring no more than once
every ten years and a high flood occurring once every hundred years(Refer drainage manual
for recent ERA recommendations)
A minor road may be served by bridges or low water crossings designed to be overtopped for
a few days every year.
In Ethiopia, hydraulic records are not available for most of the rivers and the DFL is taken as
the High Water Mark (HWM) which is obtained from silt marks left on banks or twigs left
adhering to nearby trees supplemented by inquires of people residing nearby the nriver at the
proposed bridge site.
The high flood is the rarely occurring flow that it is uneconomical to include in the design
flood, but which may be considered when stress designing the superstructure and piers of the
bridge.
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The maximum discharge may be determined by the following methods
Empirical Formula
Q=C*An, Q=C*A Ryve‟s formula …. (2.1)
Rational Formula
Q=C*1*A . . . (2.2)
Area-Velocity Method
Q=V*A . . . (2.3)
Unit Hydrograph
From any available records of the flood discharge at the bridge site or at any other site in the
vicinity
The design discharge may be taken as the maximum value obtained from at least two of the
methods mentioned.
2.3.4. Soil Investigation
Soil investigation is required to get soil profile, engineering property of the foundationmaterial
and foundation level for the abutments and piers for design of the foundations. This information
is obtained by analyzing samples taken from boreholes, test pits or geophysical surveying.
It is important to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc in co-operation with the soil
investigators. Samples of at least 2 kg each should be collected marking the station number
where they are collected.
In the preliminary survey state, the soil investigation could be very brief, since the final
alignment of the roadway is not yet decided. The most probable location should be investigated
to get a general view of the soil conditions.
If the conditions are complex or if there is only one possible bridge site, and for the selected
final bridge site, the investigations will be made thoroughly. This work should be made under
the guidance of a geotechnical engineer.
In has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate
water shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc including very rough
dimensions with approximate measurements.
As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream, and downstream from the site as well
as along the contemplated highway centerline in both directions. Details of the streambed and
banks should also be photographed along with any existing structures in the vicinity both
upstream and downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a scale or grid shall be taken
to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation.
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2.4. Span Determination
2.4.1 Economical Span
For a given lineal waterway the total cost of the superstructure increase and the total cost of the
substructure decrease with increase in span. The most economical span length is that for which
the cost of superstructure equals the cost of substructure, the point at which the total cost is a
minimum.
2.4.2 Hydraulic Requirements
Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design flood. When a bridge
structure and its associated embankments encroach upon the flow of the river in flood, there
is a risk to the structure, the embankments and the surrounding land. It is not economical,
however, to build a bridge to clear a wide flood plain. So lineal waterway that passes the design
discharge should be provided (plus free board) and the bridge be stress designed forthe high
flood.
When a river has a wide flood plain, the economical solution may be using short span bridge
with proper scour and erosion protection for the embankments, abutments and piers.
2.4.3 Location of Piers
Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the required lineal waterway
and navigational clearance. They should be located to cause a minimum of obstruction to the
flow. Piers should not be located in the river if there is boulder transport during flood. The most
economical spans should be adopted as far as possible. Piers and abutments should also be
located to make the best use of the foundation conditions available. If navigational or aesthetic
requirements dictate, the spans may be suitably modified.
The alignment of piers and abutments should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow
during maximum flood even for skewed and curved bridges, which may not be the sameas
during normal flow.
Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the flow
within the bridge water way opening.
2.4.4 Free Board
The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and the
floating debris carried on it. This should apply even after several years of sedimentation. The
free board allows for uncertainty in determining DFL also. The minimum free board
above the design water level is given in table below unless a refined hydraulic have been made.
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Table 2.2 Free Bard
Discharge(m3/s) Free Board(m)
0-3 0.3
3-30 0.6
30-300 0.9
>300 1.2
These clearance measurements should be increased for backwater effects when the flow is
restricted by short span bridge or when the river has a history of unusual large floating items
or in the case of the Baro River for navigational requirements. For arched structures the
clearance will be measured at quarter points of the span. The minimum clearance above
roadways shall be at least 5.1m. Light superstructures (timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc)
will have a minimum clearance height of 5.3m above roadways.
Underpasses for pedestrian and bicycles should not be less than 2.4m. For cattle and wildlife
underpasses should be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal plus 0.5m
and for horse riding, the clear height should not be less than 3.4m. Bridges above railways shall
have a clearance height of at least 6.1m if not otherwise stated to facilitate future electrification.
2.4.5 Grade Requirements
Often in mountainous areas the roadway grade is governed by capacity of heaviest vehicle to
climb, vertical curve and sight distance. These grade requirements may increase the bridge span
more that required by hydraulic design.
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Chapter 3
BRIDGE TYPES AND SELECTION
3.1 Types of Bridges
Bridges are classified according to their superstructure and superstructure may be classified
based on the following characteristics
Material Load path characteristics

Span length Usage
Structural form Position (for movable bridges)
Span types Deck type (for combination and double deck bridges)
By material of construction, bridges can be classified as steel, concrete, timber or aluminum

bridges. But this is not to suggest that these bridges are constructed from one type of material
exclusively. Often a combination of material predominantly used for the construction.
It is customary to identify bridges as short-span, medium-span, and long-span depending on

the span lengths. Presently there are not established criteria to define the range of spans for this
classification, and practices vary. However, the following guidelines have been suggested (N.
Taly)
1. Bridges in which the load effects are governed by a single actual vehicle on the span can
be considered as short-span bridges (up to 20m).
2. Bridges in which the maximum load effects are governed by a train of moving vehicles
can be considered medium-span bridges (20-125m)
3. Bridges in which the maximum load effects are caused by a train of stationary vehicles
with minimum headway distances can be considered long-span bridges (longer than
125m).
In the absence of any established criteria, a common practice is to classify bridges by span
length as follows (N. Taly):
Culverts <6m
Short – span bridges 6-38m
Medium-span bridges 28-120m
Long-span bridges over 120
For the purpose of comparison, typical span ranges are given for various types of
superstructures in Table 3.1.
3.1.1 Classification by Structural Form
From an engineering perspective, bridges are classified by their structural form. Onlycertain
type of structural form are suitable and economically viable alternatives for certain span
ranges.
Structural form refers to the load resisting mechanism of a bridge by which it transfers gravity
and lateral loads from the deck to the foundation. In different types of bridges loads
24
follow different paths as they are applied on the deck and finally transferred to the bearing
foundation soil below. From this perspective bridges can be classified as follows.
Table 3.1 Span lengths for various types of superstructures

Structural Rang of
Material Maximum span in service
Type Spans (m)
Slab Concrete 0-12
Concrete 12-250 240, Hamana-Ko Lane
Girder
Steel 30-260 261, Sava I, Yugoslavia
Concrete girder 235, Maracaibo, Venezuela
Cable-stayed <250
Steel girder 856, Normandy
Truss Steel 90-550 550, Quebec, Canada (rail)
90-300 304, Gladsvile
Arch Concrete 240-500 510, New River Gorge, USA
120-360 365, Port Mann
1990 main span, 3910 total span,
Suspension Steel 300-1400
Akashi-Kaiko, Japan
a) Slab-Stringer Bridges
In a slab-stringer bridge, the deck is supported on stringers that are in turn supported on
abutments for single span or abutment and piers for continuous and multi-span bridges,
Fig.3.1.
Fig. 3.1 Temcha river bridge – T-girder precast stringers and cast-in-situ slab bridge
The deck is usually made of concrete unless timber is used. The stringers may be reinforced
concrete, pre stressed concrete, steel or timber. The concrete slab can be cast either
compositely or non-compositely with stringers of steel, reinforced concrete or pre stressed
concrete.
The slab-stringer system is most suitable for short span bridges. In medium and long span
bridges, the slab-stringer unit is supported on floor beams, which intrun transfer loads to other
main load-carrying elements such as arches, cables in cable-stayed bridges or suspension
cables through hangers in suspension bridges.
25
Other forms such as T- and box girder are designed as simple spans, where the slab is cast
monolithically with the beam. Although these bridges are generally suitable for short spans,
the pre stressed box girder can be built segmentally to medium spans.
Plate girder bridges are made of built-up steel beams and are economically suitable for spans
in the 60m range depending on whether they are simple spans or continuous.
b) Orthotropic Bridges
Orthotropic means having different elastic properties in two mutually perpendicular
directions. It evolved from steel deck plate in an effort to reduce the dead weight of highway
bridges during the post Second World War period. The most developed form consists of deck
plate stiffened by a shallow grid work of closely spaced welded ribs. The stiffened plate then
acts as the top flange of the stringers, Fig. 3.2.
Fig. 3.2 Orthotropic deck bridge
Orthotropic deck bridges are generally considered suitable for long span bridges.
c) Truss Bridges
Truss bridges are used for larger spans for which the depth of girder bridges is not practical
due to fabrication, erection and transportation limitation or due to economy in the case of
concrete girders. The maximum practical length of plate girders is in the 45m range. Truss
bridges provide the answer when a girder of large depth is required. By virtue of truss action,
members are primarily subjected to direct stresses only. Thus, they can carry large amounts of
force with small amount of steel.
Fig. 3.3 Through truss bridge

26
Trusses are hardly economical for spans less than 92m.
With their evolution, trusses were classified based on the arrangement of chords and direction
of diagonals as Pratt, Warren, and Howe (constant depth). The chords provide a couple that
resists the bending moments caused by the loads. For longer spans, to economically achieve
this couple the bottom and top chords must be spaced farther. The result is a truss with variable
depth along the span such as Parker truss. For greatest economy, the top chord profile should
approximate a parabola, which is the shape of bendingmoment diagram for a uniformly loaded
simple span.
Fig. 3.4 Constant depth truss bridges
Very long spans dictate truss depths that are too great and the slopes of their diagonals may
become unacceptable. For an economic design, the desirable slope of diagonals is between
45O and 60O. A solution to this problem is the k-truss.
Truss bridges are also described in relation to the position of the floor (or the deck) relative
to the upper or lower panel points. Bridges are deck-truss, through-truss and half-through-
truss bridges.
In deck truss, the floor is supported at the upper panel points. Because these types do not
obstruct the view of motorists, they are favoured for highway bridges. But these are less
common for railway bridges.
In a through type truss, the floor is supported at the lower panel points. The upper panel points
of the trusses are connected together laterally and diagonally, by sway bracing.Vertical and
diagonal members obstruct motorists, view that this type is not favored for highway. Clearance
and the practical necessity of providing suitable sway frames usually require through – trusses
to be at least 7.32m deep for highway bridges and at least 9.15m deep for railway bridges.
Trusses with smaller span require smaller depths, which makes it impractical to provide sway
bracing at the top. The result is half-through-truss.
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In earlier times, aesthetics was of little concern to bridge designers. As a result many entirely
functional but quite unattractive truss bridges were built. Often these bridges have heavy
sections of various sizes, and the truss members appear to lie in all possible directions,giving
an impression of complete disorder. This lack of aesthetics evident from many unattractive
truss bridges in existence is perhaps one of the reasons for their unpopularity. Always exposed
to the environment, steel trusses require regular periodic maintenance and painting to prevent
corrosion. Experience with steel truss bridges has shown that their life cycle costs are
prohibitively high – another reasons for their lack of appeal.
d) Rigid Frame Bridges
Rigid frame bridges consist of superstructures supported on vertical or slanted monolithic legs
(columns), and are economically suitable for moderate medium – span lengths. Both steel and
concrete is used to construct this type of bridge, the girder being T-or box – girder.
A slant – legged pre stressed concrete box girder bridge Spanning Gouritz River wascompleted
in 1977 with total span of 265m.
e) Arch Bridges
Arch bridges are the oldest types of bridges ever built. A true arch transfers loads to its
foundation by pure compression, however, the variable position of the live load always causes
super imposed bending.
Arches can be classified different ways

From design stand point – nature of their ribs as trussed arch or solid – ribbed arch (rib
consists of a girder)
Analytically – by degree of articulation as two-hinged or three-hinged arch
Position of deck –
28
Deck – arch bridge – arch is below deck. This is the most usual type of arch bridges. Load
transfer from deck to arch is by struts (or columns). These may be open or solid spandrel arch
types.
Through arch – arch is above deck (also called bowstring girders or langer girders) and the
load is transferred from deck to arch by tension hangers.
Half – through arches_ - are those for which some part of the deck is hanging from the arch
and some portion of the deck is above the arch.
Materials used may be concrete or steel
Arch bridges are economical for medium and long spans. The longest steel arch bridge ever
built is the 518m trussed, two – hinged deck type New River Georg Bridge in west Virginia,
completed in 1977.
The longest span concrete arch bridge is the 305m span Gladesville Bridge in Sydney,
Australia, Completed in 1964.
f) Cantilever Bridges
Cantilever bridges were the answer for long – span railway bridges in the late 1800s. They
displayed the strength, rigidity and sturdiness required to carry the heavy railroad traffic that
had caused large deflections in the truss bridges of earlier times.
Essentially, a cantilever bridge consists of two simple spans (anchor spans) with cantilever
on each side of either shore supporting a short suspended span in the middle of the stream or
river. This arrangement results in substantial reduction of moments or forces, in the suspended
span. Moreover, because a cantilever span can be erected without a false work, river navigation
is not impeded during construction.
The Quebec Bridge in Canada and Firth of Forth Bridge in Scotland are two of the longest and
most famous cantilever bridges.
The world‟s longest highway cantilever bridge is the Greater New Orleans Bridge, a 480m
span over the Mississippi at New Orleans, Louisiana, built in 1955 – 58. Another great
cantilever bridge is the 457m span Howrah Bridge in Calcutta, India opened to traffic in 1943.
g) Cable Stayed Bridges

Cable-stayed bridges represent the most innovative and dramatic development of the post –
World War II period. These bridges are very competitive economically for medium and
long spans. They can be built with girders of either steel or prestessed concrete. Cable- stayed
bridges are unique in that the superstructure is supported (or hung) at several intermediate
points by inclined cables, or stays, radiating from and continuous over the towers, instead of
being supported from underneath by conventional piers or bents.
Loads in cable-stayed bridges are transmitted by the inclined stays, which connect the deck
to the towers.
The various arrangements of radiating cables and the imaginative forms and shapes of towers
have made cable – stayed bridges one of the most aesthetically pleasing structures.
29
The longest span cable – stayed bridge is the Tatara Bridge in Ehime, Japan, having a 890m
main span. Most cable-stayed bridges are stationary. Only one movable 110m span swing
cable – stayed bridge with a swing radius of 55m has been built over the Sacramento River
at Meridian, California.
h) Suspension Bridges
Suspension bridges are recognized for spanning the longest distances and for their superior
aesthetics.
The principle of suspension bridges is simple. It consists of four essential parts: the towers,
the anchorage, the cables, and the deck. The deck usually supported on stiffening trusses is
hung from suspension cables. It consists of a central main span flanked on each side by a side
span that is separated from the main span by towers. The ends of the suspension cables are
secured at the anchorage, which are usually built of massive masonry or concrete.
Suspension bridges can be classified by the types of cable anchorage as either external or
internal. Self- anchored (internally anchored) suspension bridges are suitable for short to
moderate spans (122 to 305m) where foundation conditions do not permit external anchorage.
The longest span suspension bridge is the Akashi-kaiko Bridge (main span 1990m, total length
3910m) linking Akashi city with Awaji Island, Japan.
The distinction between cable-stayed and suspension bridges is the profile of the cable. In
suspension bridges the main cables are curved and continuous between the towers. The deck
and other vertical loading are suspended from these cables at relatively short intervals.Being
relatively flexible, the main cable develops funicular shape, which is a function of the
magnitude and position of the loading. On the other hand, in cable-stayed bridges, the cables
are straight and extend from one tower and connected to the deck directly at discrete points.
Being, taut, they furnish relatively inflexible support along the span at several points and
provide a bridge with relatively greater stiffness than that achievable in suspension bridges.
Both types of bridges rely on very high strength steel cables or tendons.
Both cable-stayed and suspension bridges provide the solutions needed for long – span bridges
which is made possible by the high strength tensile elements (cables) used.
Since modern cable stayed bridges evolved much later than suspension bridges, suspension
bridges were historically preferred over cable stayed types because their performance had been
proven and because builders had gained significantly greater knowledge are considered
feasible for long spans traditionally considered the domain of suspension bridges. Also, it is
believed that the greater stiffness provided by cable-stayed systems makes their limit span less
susceptible to wind-induced vibrations, compared to the limit span of suspension bridges.
Research continues to find new forms of towers (for suspension bridges) and pylons (for
cables stayed bridges), and more efficient cable arrangements to span yet longer spans. Some
examples of these new approaches are the hybrid cable-stayed suspension bridge system, the
hybrid double-cantilever suspension bridge system and the spread-pylon cable stayed bridge
system.
Deciding on the feasibility of a particular bridge type for long spans is difficult, and there are
no rules or criteria that provide a quick answer. While the cost is a major factor that may
30
dictate the choice between a suspension bridge and a cable – stayed bridge, there are many
other factors that may influence the selection process. These include aesthetics, traffic
capacity, and the need for future widening, structural stability, foundation conditions, erection
procedures, under clearance requirements and general civic requirements with respect to
location, financing and community values.
Classification by Span Types
Simple span bridges – are suitable for short spans

Multiple simple spans-used for medium or long span bridges, depending on the site conditions
and economy. Two end abutments and several piers are used as intermediate supports.
Continuous beams – advantage over simple spans include reduced weight, and greater
stiffness, smaller deflection, fewer bearing and expansion joints. Continuous spans also
provide redundancy and greater overload capacity than simple spans.
Classification by Load – Path Characteristics
One-dimensional systems – slab bridges. These are one-way slabs

Two-dimensional systems -slab- stringer bridges. The load transfer is form slab to stringers
and from stringers to abutments/piers.
Classification by Position for Movable Bridges
Most bridges are stationary. However, to provide sufficient vertical clearance to facilitate
navigation through spanned waterways, such as navigable rivers or channels, bridges are made
movable. A movable bridge may be necessary when topography dictates that the roadway must
be close to the surface of a navigable body of water to be spanned by the bridge.
Movable bridges first evolved in the form of drawbridges. Many drawbridges were built
during the Middle Ages by feudal lords to defend their castles, and not for navigational
purpose.
In general three kinds of movable bridges exist: the bascule bridge, the lift bridge and the
swing bridge.
Bascule Bridge – A motor driven pinion that engages rack opens or closes the span.
Lift bridge – moves vertically up and down as a whole. The operating mechanism is using
counter weight passing over pulleys at the two ends, the counter weight equaling the bridge
in weight.
This type is suitable for long spans where not much vertical clearance is required.
Swing Bridge – provides passage to ships by swinging or rotating horizontally.
Classification based on Life Span of Bridges
Permanent bridges – bridges that serve for a longer period of time
31
Temporary bridges – have a short service period. An example is military bridges (pontoon
bridges)
Combination and Double-Deck Bridges
Most common bridges have only one deck. There are some bridges having two decks, one
above the other. These can be for highway traffic only or a combination of highway and
railway.
3.2. Selection of Bridge Type
One of the key submittals in the design process is the engineer‟s report to the owner of the
type, size and location of the proposed bridge.
3.2.1 Factors to be considered in Selection
Selection of bridge type in general is related to economy, safety and aesthetics. The following
conditions will be evaluated with respect to economy, safety and aesthetics in the selection
process.
a) Geometric Conditions of the Site
The type of bridge selected will often depend on the horizontal and vertical alignment of the
highway route and on the clearances above and below the roadway. For example, one a curve
continuous box girder and slab bridges are good choice because they have a pleasing
appearance, can readily be built on a curve, and have a relatively high torsional resistance.
Relatively high bridges over navigable waterways will require a different bridge from that
required by a flood plain.
b) Subsurface Conditions of the Site
The foundation soil type and its bearing capacity determine whether or not piers and abutments
can be founded on spread footings or piles. If settlement is a problem, the bridge type selected
must be able to accommodate this. Surface and subsurface drainage conditions affect
magnitude of earth pressure, movement and stability of embankments. These influence choice
of substructure, which in turn influence type of superstructure selected. Forexample, rigid
frame bridge requires strong foundation material that can resist both horizontal and vertical
thrust. If the foundation material is weak, then another bridge type is more appropriate.
c) Functional Requirements
The bridge must function to carry not only present but also future volumes of traffic. Decision
must be made on the number of lanes of traffic to accommodate present and future volumes
of traffic, inclusion of sidewalks, future wearing surface, possibility of future widening and
the like.
32
In the case of stream and flood plain crossings, the bridge must continue to function during
flood and should not impose constriction to water or debris. Satisfaction of these requirements
will suggest some type of bridge over others.
d) Aesthetics
The fact that the highway bridge is out in the open means that it can be seen and reacted to
by whoever passes by. It should be the goal of the bridge designer to obtain a positive aesthetic
response to the bridge type selected.
e) Economics and ease of Maintenance
A general rule is that a bridge with the minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints, and
widest spacing of girders will be the most economical. Deck joints are high maintenance cost
items, so minimizing their number will reduce the life cycle cost of the bridge.
Generally concrete structures require less maintenance that steel structures. One effective way
to obtain the minimum construction cost is to prepare alternative designs or to allow the
contractors to propose alternative designs to take advantage of new construction techniques
to obtain less total project cost. Selection will be made based on total cost comparison.
f) Legal Considerations
The requirements of environmental laws and other applicable laws much be met.
3.2.2 Bridge Types for Different Span Lengths
Once a preliminary span length has been chosen, comparative studies are conducted to find
the bridge type best suited to the site. For each group of bridge spans (small, medium and
large), experience has shown that certain bridge types are more appropriate than others.
a) Small Span Bridges (up to 15m)
The candidate structures include: single or multi-cell culverts, slab bridges, T-girder bridges,
precast concrete box girder bridges and composite rolled steel girder bridges.
Culverts: are used for small spans through highway embankments. These are often the most
economical solution for short spans. They are constructed of steel, precast or cast in situ
reinforced concrete. Their structural form can be pipe, pipe arch, rigid frame box or slab box
culverts.
Slab Bridges: are the simplest and least expensive structures that can be built for small spans
up to 12m. These bridges can be built on ground supported false work or constructed of precast
elements.
T-Girder bridges: are generally economical for spans of 10-20m. These are usually
constructed on ground supported false work. Greatest use is for stream crossing provided
sufficient free board is provided to avoid damage of the stem of the T by floating debris.
Rolled steel Girder Bridges: wide flange beam bridges are simple to design and construct.
They can be economical up to 30m spans if the deck is made composite and cover plate is
33
used in maximum moment regions. Composite construction is recommended because that
results in an efficient structure. Shear connectors in the form of welded studs must be designed
to resist all forces tending to separate the steel and the concrete.
b) Medium Span Bridges (up to 50m)
The candidate structure types include: concrete and steel box girder, precast pre stressed
concrete box girder, composite rolled steel girder and composite steel plate girder bridges.
Precast Concrete Box Girder Bridges: as span lengths increase transportation and handling
presents a problem.
Composite Rolled Steel Girder composite construction can result in savings of up to 20-30%
for spans over 15m. Adding cover plates and providing continuity over several supports can
increase their economic range to spans of 30m.
Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridges: these can be built to any desired size. These are suitable
for spans of 25-50m and have been used for spans well over 100m. They have low dead load,
which may be of value when foundation conditions are poor.
Cast in – Situ Reinforced Concrete Box Girder these are used for spans of 15-35m and are
usually more economical than steel girders and precast concrete girders. Their appearance is
good. Their torsional resistance is also good which make them suitable for curved alignment.
Cast in Place post Tensioned Concrete Box Girder Bridges: these afford many advantages
interms of safety, appearance, maintenance and economy. These bridges have been used for
spans up to 180m. The number of piers can be reduced because longest spans can be
constructed economically. Dead load deflections are minimized due to the prestress.
Composite Steel Box Girder Bridges: are used for spans of 20-150m. These bridges are more
economical in the upper span ranges where depth may be limited. Because of much welding
and details where errors can give rise to fatigue failures, steel box girder should be used only
in very special circumstances.
c) Large Span Bridges (50-150m)

The candidate structures are: composite steel plate girder, cast in place post tensionedconcrete
box girder, post tensioned concrete segmental bridges, concrete and steel arch bridges, and
steel truss bridges.
Most of these are discussed in short and medium span bridges. Post-tensioned concrete
segmental construction may be discussed now. If cast in place construction is to be adopted, it
is common practice to use the balanced cantilever method of construction with travelling
forms. For precast construction also balanced cantilever method will be used by progressive
placement.
d) Extra Large (Long) Span Bridges (over 150m)
An examination of Table 3.1 shows that all of the general bridge types except slab, have been
built with span lengths greater than 150m. These are special bridges designed to meet special
circumstances.
34
Two of the bridge types, cable-stayed and suspension bridges are logical and efficientchoices
for long span bridges. These tension type structures are graceful and slender in appearance and
are well suited to long water crossings. Maintenance for both is above average because of the
complexity of the hanger and suspension systems. Construction is actually simpler than for
the conventional bridge types for long spans, because false work is not usually necessary.
3.2.3 Closing Remarks on Selection of Bridge Type

In the selection of bridge type, there is no unique answer. For each span length range, there
is more than one bridge type that will satisfy the design criteria. There are regional difference
and preferences because of available materials, skilled workers, and knowledgeable
contractors.
Because of the difficulties in predicating the cost offered by the construction industry at the
time of bidding. It is good practice to allow the contractor the option of proposing an
alternative design. This way, technical and practical matters can be catered for and advantage
of good, economical and new construction methods can be exploited.
35
Chapter 4
BRIDGE LOADING
4.1 Introduction
Bridges serve their function under different types of loads. Loads determine the safety and
serviceability of structures. The minimum loads to be taken for design are given in codes and
standards to insure safety and serviceability. These loads may be classified as dead, live,
environmental and other loads. Another way to classify these loads is as permanent or transient
based on the duration of their action. Any of the limit states should not beexceeded under the
most unfavorable combinations of these loads.
First will be treated the different types of loads acting on bridge superstructure and
substructure. Then will be discussed load combinations and the corresponding load factors
to be considered for the different limit states. Construction loads are not specified in here and
the designer should obtain pertinent information from the prospective contractors.
4.2. Type of Loads

The following permanent and transient loads will be considered for bridge design where
applicable. These may also be used for structural evaluation of existing bridges.
Permanent Loads Wind Loads
Dead Loads WL: wind on live load
DC: dead load of structural components and WS: wind load on structure
Nonstructural attachments Earthquake Load, EQ
DW: dead load of wearing Earth pressure due to live load surcharge, LS
Surfaces and Utilities Force effects due to superimposed deformations
EV: vertical pressure from TU: uniform temperature
Dead load of earth Fill TG: temperature gradient
Earth Loads SH: shrinkage
EH: horizontal earth pressure load CR: creep
ES: earth surcharge load SE: settlement
DD: down drag EL: accumulated locked-in effects resulting
Transient Loads From the construction process
Live Loads Friction Forces, FR
LL: Vehicular live load Vessel Collision, CV
PL: pedestrian live load
IM: vehicular dynamic load allowance
CE: vehicular centrifugal force
BR: vehicular braking force
CT: vehicular collision force
Water Loads, WA
Static pressure
Buoyancy
Stream pressure
Wave load
Change in foundation due to scour
36
4.3. Different Standards for Bridge Loading
Different countries have got different codes. Some of the most widely used codes are those
of:
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
DIN Standard (in Germany)
BS 5400 Code (British Standard)
IRC (Indian Roads Congress) Bridge Code
AASHTO is the code used in Ethiopia for highway bridge design. Ethiopian Roads Authority
(ERA) has developed Bridge Design Manual, mainly adopting the specificationsof ASHTO
98 to our local condition, which may be used for highway bridge design.
4.4. AASHTO – 2005 Load Specifications
4.4.1 Dead Loads: DC, DW and EV

Dead loads include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities
attached to the bridge, earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays and planned widening.
The design of all bridge structural elements is based on a set of loading conditions which the
component of element must withstand.
In the absence of more precise information, the densities specified in Table 4.1 may be used
Table 4.1 Densities (acceleration of gravity, g=9.8066m/s2 for unit weight computation)
Density Density
Material 3 Material
(Kg/m ) (Kg/m3)
Bituminous wearing surface 2250 Cast iron 7200
Rolled gravel, macadam or ballast 2250 Soft clay 1600
Cinder filling 960 Steel 7850
Compacted sand, silt or clay 1925 Stone masonry 2725
Concrete, normal 2400 Fresh water 1000
Loose sand, silt or gravel 1600 Salt water 1025
4.4.2 Live Loads

a) Vehicular Live Loads
Design vehicular live loads on roadways of bridges consist of the combination of
Design truck or design tandem and
Design lane load
Design truck is given in Fig. 4.1. Except in some cases the spacing between the 145kN axles
will be varied between 4.3 and 9m to produce extreme force effects. The design tandem
consists of a pair of 110kN axles spaced 1.2m apart.
37
The design lane load consists of a uniform load of 9.3kN/m2, longer than the bridge in the
longitudinal direction, and distributed over 3m width in the transverse direction. This is to
represent vehicle live load on bridges moving slowly during traffic jam. Both the design truck
and the lane load occupy a design lane width of 3m in the transverse direction (number of
design lanes is the integer part of W/3.6 where W is clear roadway width between curbs in
meters).
Fig 4.1 Characteristics of the Design Truck
This live load model consisting of a truck or tandem coincident with a uniformly distributed
lane load was developed as a notional representation of the shear and moment produced by a
group of vehicles routinely permitted on highways.
b) Pedestrian Live Loads

A pedestrian load of 3.6kPa shall be applied to sidewalks wider than 0.6m and considered
simultaneously with the vehicular live load.
c) Multiple Presence of Live Loads

This accounts for the smaller possibility of simultaneous occurrence of maximum live loads
on the bridge. The extreme live load force effects will be determined by considering each
possible combination of number of loaded lanes multiplied by the corresponding factor
specified in Table 4.2. For the purpose of determining the number of lanes for determination
of multiple presence factor, M, when the loading condition includes pedestrian live loads, the
pedestrian live load combined with one or more lanes of vehicular live loads, the pedestrian
walkway may be counted as one loaded lane.
Table 4.2 Multiple presence factor of live loads, M

Number of loaded lanes 1 2 3 >3
Multiple presence factor, M 1.2 1.0 0.85 0.65
d) Dynamic Load Allowance: IM

Due to hammering effect of wheel assembly on riding surface discontinuities such as deck
joints, potholes, cracks and delamination or due to surface undulations such as that caused by
settlement of fills or due to resonance of vehicle and bridge vibration, a dynamic allowance
should be made. Field test carried out on the majority of bridges in the US show that the
dynamic component of the response does not exceed 25% of the static response to vehicles.
Table 4.3 gives dynamic load allowance, IM. IM shall not be applied to pedestrianlive loads,
to design lane load, to centrifugal and braking forces.
38
Table 4.3 Dynamic load allowance, IM
Component Deck joints – All limit states All other components for the following limit state
Fatigue & Fracture All other limit state
IM 7.5% 15% 33%
The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures in % shall be taken as
IM = 33(1.0 – 4.1 *10-4DE)>0%

Where DE is the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm).
Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to
Retaining walls not subjected to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and
Foundation components that are entirely below ground level du to damping
effect of the soil mass
e) Centrifugal Force: CE
Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on curved bridges at speed. It will be taken
as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem and the factor c givgn in
equation 4.1
2
4v
C= . . . . . (4.1)
3gR
Where:V is highway design speed (m/s)

G gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
R is radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)
Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a distance of 1.8m above the
roadway surface.
f) Braking Force: BR
Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform deceleration, the braking force
determined as a fraction „b‟ of vehicle weight is
2
b= 2ga v . . . . . . (4.2)
Where a is the breaking length (distance) of uniform deceleration.

Breaking forces shall be taken as 25% of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem per
lane placed in all design lanes headed in the same direction. This applies to truck or tandem
vehicles headed in the same direction because the reaction time can be the same and they can
brake in phase. This factor does not apply to lane load because the many vehicles during traffic
jam can break out of phase.
The braking force will be applied at 1.8m horizontally in the longitudinal direction. The
multiple presence factors apply here.
g) Vehicular Collision Force: CT

Unless protections are provided a horizontal force of 1800KN applied at a.2m above the
ground should be considered.
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4.4.3 Water Loads: WA
a) Static Pressure
Static pressure of water acts perpendicular to the surfaces retaining the water. It varies with
depth linearly.
b) Buoyancy
Buoyancy is an uplift force acting on submerged part of a structure. It equals volume of
water displaced by the structure multiplied by unit weight of water.
c) Stream Pressure
i) Longitudinal: The pressure of flowing water acting in the longitudinal directionof
substructures will be taken as
-4 2
P=5.14x10 CDV . . . . . . (4.3).
Where: P is pressure of flowing water (MPa)

CD is drag coefficient given in Table 4.4
V is design velocity of design flood (m/s)
The longitudinal drag force will be taken as the product of longitudinal stream pressure and
the projected area of substructure subjected to the force.
ii) Lateral
The lateral uniformly distributed pressure on a substructure due to water flowing at an angle
0 to the longitudinal axis of the pier as shown in Fig. 4.2 is
-4 2
CLVP=5.14x10 . . . . . . (4.4).
Where: P is lateral pressure (MPa)

CL is lateral drag coefficient given in Table 4.4.
Fig 4.2 Longitudinal and transverse water pressure on a pier
Table 4.4 CD and CL

Table for Drag Coefficient, CD Table for Lateral Drag Coefficient, CL
Type CD Angle 0 in Fig. 4.2 CL
Semi-circular nosed pier 0.7 00 0.0
Square ended pier 1.4 50 0.5
0
Debris logged against the pier 1.4 10 0.7
0
Wedge nosed pier, nose angle <900 0.8 20 0.9
>300 1.0
40
4.4.4 Wind Loads: WL and WS
a) Wind Pressure on Structures

Wind load on bridges is assumed to be uniformly distributed acting perpendicular to the
projected area of exposed components. The pressure specified here is for a base wind velocity
of 160Km/hr.
The design wind pressure on structures PD in MPa may be determined from
Where:PB is base wind pressure given in table 4.5

VDZ is design wind velocity at design elevation, Z(km/hr)
V10 is wind velocity 10m above low ground or design water level (km/hr)
VB is base wind velocity, 160km/hr
Z is height of structure at which wind load is calculated, >10m
V0 is friction velocity given in Table 4.6
Z0 is friction length of upstream fetch given in Table 4.6
Table 4.6 PB, V0 and Z0
Table for PB, MPa Table for V0 and Z0
Structural Component Windward Leeward Condition Open Suburban City
Pressure Pressure, Country
Trusses, columns, arches 0.0024 0.0012 V0,(km/hr) 13.2 17.6 19.3
Beams 0.0024 NA Z0,(mr) 0.7 1.0 2.5
Large flat surface 0.0019 NA
Equation (4.4) is based on boundary layer theory combined with empirical observations and
represents the most recent approach to define wind speed as used in metrology.
The wind load shall not be taken less than 4.4kN/m on the windward side and 2.2kN/m onthe
leeward side for trusses and arch components, and not less than 4.4kN/m on beam or girder
components.
The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied directly to the substructure shall be
calculated from an assumed base wind pressure of 0.0019Mpa. For skewed wind direction,
this force will be decomposed in to longitudinal and transverse components.
b) Wind Pressure on Vehicles: WL

It is possible for wind to blow when vehicles are on the bridge. Therefore, the design wind
pressure will be applied to both the structure and the vehicles. Win pressure on vehicles shall
be taken as a moving force with the vehicle of 1.46kN/m acting normal to and 1.8m above the
roadway.
41
c) Aerodynamic Instability
Aerodynamic force effects shall be taken in to account for bridges and components that are
wind-sensitive. A rough value of span to depth or width ration above which bridges become
wind-sensitive is 30.0.
Fig.4.3 Failure of Tacoma Narrows bridge under a gale of 67km/hr due to aerodynamic
instability
Flexible bridges such as cable-supported or very long spans of any type may require special
studies based on wind tunnel test.
4.4.5 Earthquake Effects: EQ
Earthquake forces are inertia forces due to mass of bridges when a sudden shaking of the
ground occurs. These are taken as horizontal forces obtained as the product of seismic
coefficient Csm and the equivalent weight of the structure. The equivalent weight is the
function of the actual weight and bridge configuration
. . . . . . . (4.7)
42
Where: Pe(x) is equivalent static earthquake loading
Csm is dimensionless elastic seismic response coefficient
P0(x) is a uniform load arbitrarily set to 1N/mm
Vs(x) is deformation corresponding to P0 (mm) (Fig.4.3)
W(x) is unfactored dead load of the bridge superstructure and tributary substructure
(N/mm)
Tm is period of vibration of the mth mode
A is acceleration coefficient which is the ratio of horizontal seismic ground
acceleration expected in an area to that of gravity, in EBSC8: 1995.
S is site coefficient given in Table 4.7
The factors have units of mm2, N-mm and N-mm2 respectively
Table 4.7 Sie coefficients

Soil type
Site coefficient I II III IV

S 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
Fig 4.3 Bridge deck subjected to assumed transverse and longitudinal loading
43
In locations where the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the soil
type or where the type does not meet any of the four types, the site coefficient for soil type II
shall be used.
Soil Types
Type I - rock or stiff soils where the soil depth is less that 60m, and the soil types overlying
the rock are stable deposits of sand, gravel or stiff clay.
Type II - stiff cohesive or deep cohesionless soil, with soil depth greater that 60m and the
soil type overlying the rock are stable deposits of sand, gravel or stiff clay.
Type III – soft to medium stiff clays and sands
Type IV – soft clays or silts greater that 12m deep
Seismic analysis is not required for single span bridges. Minimum design connection force
between the superstructure and substructure in the restrained direction greater that or equal to
the product of S, A and the tributary permanent load.
Seismic analysis is not required for bridges in areas with A 0.09.
It is uneconomical to design a bridge to resist large earthquakes elastically. Columns are

allowed to deform in elastically in which case smaller sections can be used. The force used to
design members can be obtained dividing force for elastic design by response modification
factor, designated R, given in Table 4.8
Table 4.8 Response modification factors

For Substructures For Connections
Importance cate.
Essentia R for
Critical Other Connection
l All
Substructure
Wall-type pier, 1.5 1.5 2.0 Superstructure to abutment 0.8
larger dimension
Single column 1.5 2.00 3.0 Expansion joints within a span of the 0.8
bents superstructure
Multiple column 1.5 3.5 5.0 Columns, piers to cap beam or 1.0
bents superstructure
Columns of piers to foundations 1.0
The basis of classification include social/survival and security/defense requirements. Essential

bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to emergency vehicles and for
security/defense purposes immediately after the earthquake, i.e., a 475-year return period event.
However, some bridges must remain open to all traffic after design earthquake and be usable
by emergency vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after a large earthquake,
e.g., a 2500 year return period event. These bridges should be regarded as critical structures.
4.4.6 Earth Pressure: EH, ES, LS and DD

Soil exerts lateral earth pressure on retaining walls. The magnitude of the earth pressure
depends on type and density of retained soil, soil – structure interaction, degree of compaction,
location of GWT, amount of surcharge and earthquake effects. Fig. 4.4 shows variation of
lateral earth pressure with movement of retaining walls. Movement required to
44
reach the minimum active or the maximum passive pressures is the function of wall height, H
and soil type. Table 4.9 gives approximate values of relative movement /H to reach the
minimum active or the maximum passive earth pressures.
a) Movement of soil surrounding model b) Effect of wall displacement

Retaining wall in a laboratory on lateral pressure
Fig 4.4
Table 4.9 Approximate values of /H required to activate

extreme active and passive earth pressures
Values of /H
Active Passive
Type of backfill
Dense sand 0.001 0.01
Medium-dense sand 0.002 0.02
Loose sand 0.004 0.04
Compacted silt 0.002 0.02
Compacted lean clay 0.01 0.05
Compacted fat clay 0.01 0.05
There are two earth pressure theories commonly used. These are Rankine and Coulomb earth
pressure theories.
i) Rankine Arth Pressure Theory – this assumes smooth and vertical wall surface. The
second assumption is that there is sufficient wall motion that the soil is in a plastic state of
equilibrium
The second assumption is satisfied if retaining walls move sufficiently to activate the active
and passive states, which is the case for free standing abutments.
The first assumption is not satisfied for masonry and RC abutments, in which case the result
obtained deviate significantly from the actual. Therefore, Coulomb earth pressure is give by
AASHTO.
For horizontal backfill, the magnitude of the resultant force does not differ greatly ascomputed
by Rankine and Coulomb methods, but the directions differ greatly.
ii) Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory – this is based on the concept of the sliding wedge
theory of a wedge bounded by the face of the wall and a failure plane passing through the
45
base of the wall. Wall friction is considered for this case. This does not account for
cohesion, and neglecting that adds to the safety because cohesion contributes favorably.
In literature, the pressure distribution is not given and only the resultant force is given. But
AASHTO gives a triangular distribution as shown in Fig. 4.5.
Fig 4.5
Basic earth pressure is assumed to vary linearly proportional to depth
P=K s gs
Where:
P is basic earth pressure in pascals

Kh is coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as K0 for at rest condition, Ka for walls
moving sufficiently away from backfill to reach minimum active earth pressure,
and KP for walls moving sufficiently against earth to activate maximum passive
earth pressure.
s is density of soil (kg/m3)
z is depth below the surface of earth (m)
g is gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
a) At Rest Pressure Coefficient K0

For normally consolidated soil, the coefficient of lateral earth pressure may be taken as
K0 = 1 - sin f . . . . . . . (4.12)
f friction angle of drained soil

For over consolidated soil, K0 may be assumed to vary as a function of the over
consolidation ration, OCR
K0 = (1 – sin f ) (OCR) sin f
a) Active Pressure Coefficient, Ka

Values for active earth pressure may be taken as
46
Ka=
Where is friction angle between fill and wall taken as specified in table 4.10
is angle of fill with horizontal as shown in Fg. 4.5, in degrees
is angle of back of wall with the horizontal in degrees
‟ is effective angle of internal friction in degrees
Table 4.10 Friction angle for dissimilar materials

Interface Materials Friction Angle, (deg)
Mass concrete or masonry on the following foundation materials:
Clean sound rock 35
Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, coarse sand 29 to 31
Clean fine to medium sand, silty medium to coarse sand silty or
clayey gravel 24 to 29
Clean fine sand, silty or clayey fine to medium sand 19 to 24
Fine sandy silt, non- plastic silt
Very stiff and hard residual or pre consolidated clay 22 to 26
Medium stiff and stiff clay and silty clay 17 to 19
Steel sheet piles against the following soils:
Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded
rock fill with spalls 22
Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixture, single-size hard rock fill 17
Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed with silt or clay 14
Fine sandy silt, non - plastic silt 11
Formed or precast concrete or concrete sheet piling against the
following soils
Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixture, well-graded rock fill with spalls 22 to 26
Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixture, single-size hard rock fill 17 to 22
Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed with silt or clay 17
Fine sandy silt, non plastic silt 14
Various structural materials:
Masonry on masonry, igneous, and metamorphic rocks
dressed soft rock on dressed soft rock 35
dressed hard rock on dressed soft rock 33
dressed hard rock on dressed hard rock 29
Masonry on wood in direction of cross grain 26
Steel on steel at sheet pile interlocks 17
c) Passive Pressure Coefficient, Kp

For non-cohesive soils, values of the coefficient of passive earth pressure may be taken from
Fig. 4.6 for the case of a sloping or vertical wall with a horizontal backfill or from Fig 4.7 for
the case of a vertical wall and sloping backfill. For conditions that deviate from those described
in Fig. 4.6 and 4.7, the passive pressure may be calculated by a trial procedure
47
based on wedge theory. When wedge theory is used, the limiting value of the wall friction
angle should not be taken larger than one-half the angle of internal friction, .
Fig. 4.6 Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Sloping Wall with
Horizontal Backfill
48
Fig 4.7 Computational procedure of passive earth pressure for sloping backfill
Surcharge Loads: Earth Surcharge (ES) and Live Load Surcharge(LS)

Where a uniform surcharge acts on a backfill retained by a wall, a constant horizontal earth
pressure will be added to the horizontal earth pressure.
P = Ksqs . . . . . (4.14)
Ks is coefficient of earth pressure, Ka for active case, K0 for at rest case and Kp
for passive pressure
qs is uniform surcharge applied to the upper surface of the active earth wedge
Lateral earth pressure due to live load surcharge has the distribution shown.
49
Live load surcharge will have to be considered for vehicular loads acting with in a distance of
the wall height behind the back face of the wall. The increase in pressure due to live load
surcharge may be estimated from
p=K sgheq . . . . . . . (4.15)
Where:
s is density of soil (kg./m3)
g is acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
heq Equivalent height of soil for the design truck, which may be taken from Table 4.11
Table 4.11 Equivalent height of soil for vehicular loading
Wall height (m) heq (m)

1.5 1.7
3.0 1.2
6.0 0.76
9.0 0.61
Downdrag
When soil surrounding piles settle, it applies a downward force. In case this occurs, this
force should be considered.
4.4.7. Force Effects due to Superimposed Deformations: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE
a) Uniform Temperature (TU) – when the surrounding temperature of a bridge rises or

falls, bridge materials expand or contract. Temperature deformation can be big for
bridges due to their size and exposure to temperature variations. The difference
between the lowest or the highest temperature and the base constructiontemperature
assumed in the design shall be used to calculate thermal deformation effects.
b) Temperature Gradient (TG) – Temperature rise can differ on the top and bottom
surfaces of a bridge because the top surface is subjected to direct solar radiation.
There is not data for Ethiopia but T1 may be taken 30OC and T2 7.8OC for lowlands,
and T1 as 25OC and T2 as 6.7OC for highlands in Fig. 4.8 for concrete
50
bridges and steel superstructures with concrete deck. T3 will be taken as 0OC. T1,
T2 and T3 are not absolute temperatures, but relative
A = 0.3m for concrete super structure with depth 0.4m and

A = depth – 0.1m for depth < 0.4m
Fig 4.8
c) Shrinkage (SH) and Creep (CR) – where appropriate, differential shrinkage strains
shall be considered. Creep should also be accounted for and force effects due to
creep depends on time and changes in compressive stress.
d) Settlement (SE) – Differential settlement causes internal forces in continuous
structures. Extreme values of differential settlements should be determined and used
to analyze for internal forces.
4.5. AASHTO – 2005 Load Factors and Load Combinations
In Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method, load factors are applied to the loads
and resistance factors to the internal resistances or capacities of sections. The value of a load
factor depends on the accuracy with which a load can be determined and the probability of its
simultaneous occurrence with other loads in a combination for a specific limit state.
Components and connections in a bridge shall satisfy Eqn (1.1) reproduced below for
convenience, for the applicable combinations of factored extreme force effects as specified at
each of the following limit states.
Where:
i = load factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects, specified in
Tables 4.12 and 4.13
= resistance factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
Qi = is force effect, Rn = nominal resistance and Rf – factored resistance = Rn
ηi = load modifier, a factor relating to ductility (ηD), redundancy (ηR), and operational
importance (ηI) as given in Eqns 4.16 and 4.17
For loads for which a maximum value of i is appropriate

51
ηi = ηD ηR ηI 0.95 .................................................................... (4.16)
For loads for which a minimum value of is appropriate
STRENGTH I – Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the bridge
without wind
STRENGTH II - Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA – specified
special design vehicles, permit vehicles, or both without wind
STRENGTH III - Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding
90 km/h. Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities.Therefore,
high winds prevent the presence of significant live load on thebridge.
STRENGTH IV - Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load forceeffect
ratios. For bridges with upto 180m spans, this load combination will
govern where the dead load to live load force effect ration exceeds 7.0.
STRENGTH V - Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind
of 90km/h (25m/s) velocity.
EXTREME EVENT I - Load combination including earthquake
EXTREME EVENT II - Load combination relating to ice load, collision by vessels and
vehicles, and certain hydraulic events with a reduced live load other
than that which is part of the vehicular collision load, CT
SERVICE I - Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with
a 90km/h wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also related to
deflection control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and
thermoplastic pipe and to control crack width in reinforced concrete
structures. This load combination should also be used for the investigation of
slope stability
Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using this

load combination.
SERVICE II - Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip of slip
critical connections due to vehicular live load.
SERVICE III - Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete structures
with the objective of crack control.
FATIGUE - Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational vehicular
live load and dynamic responses under a single design truckhaving the axle
spacing of 9m between the 145kN axles.
52
Table 4.12 Load combinations and load factors
Load Combination DC EV LL PL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE
DD ES IM LS CR
Limit state DW CE EL SH
EH BR
Strength I (unless noted) p 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Strength II p 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Strength III p - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Strength IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW p
- 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20
DC only 1.50
Strength V p 1.35 1.00 0.40 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE
Extreme Event I p EO 1.00 - - 1.00 - - -
Extreme Event II p 0.50 1.00 - - 1.00 - - -
Service I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE
Service II 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - -
Service III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE
Fatigue-LL, IM,CE only - 0.75 - - - - - - -
The load factor for temperature gradient, TG, and settlement, SE, should be considered on
a project specific basis. In lieu of project specific information, TG may be taken as 0.0 at the
extreme event limit states, 1.0 at the service limit state when live load is not considered, and
0.50 at the service limit state when live load is considered.
For segmentally constructed bridges, the following combination shall be investigated at the
service limit state:
DC+DW+EH+EV+ES+WA+CR+SH+TG+EL
Load Factors for Construction Loads
Load factors for the weight of the structure and appurtenances shall not be taken less than 1.25.
Unless otherwise specified by ERA, the load factor for construction loads, for equipment and
for dynamic effects shall not be less than 1.5. The load factor for wind shall not be less than
1.25. All other load factors shall be taken as 1.0.
The load factors presented here should not relieve the contractor of the responsibility for safety
and damage control during construction.
53
Table 4.13 Load factors for permanent loads, p
Load Factor
Type of Load Maximum Minimum
DC: Components and attachment 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing surface and utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal earth pressure
Active 1.50 0.90
At rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in erection stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical earth pressure
Overall stability 1.35 N/A
Retaining structure 1.35 1.00
Rigid buried structure 1.30 0.90
Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
Flexible buried structure other than
metal box culverts 1.95 0.90
Flexible metal box culverts 1.50 0.90
ES: Earth surcharge 1.50 0.75
For conventional construction, resistance factor shall be taken as
For flexure and tension of RC 0.9 For compression in strut-and-tie model 0.70
For flexure and tension of PSC 1.00 For compression in anchorage zones 0.80
For shear and torsion 0.90 For tension in steel in anchorage zones 1.00
For bearing on concrete 0.70 For resistance during pile driving 1.00
For axial compression with spiral or ties 0.75
For compression members with flexure, the value of may be increased linearly too the
value for flexure as the factored axial load resistance, Pn decreases from 0.10f‟ cAg to 0.
54
Chapter 5
SUPERSTRUCTURES
5.1. Introduction
An efficient design of bridge superstructure is essential to achieve overall economy in the

whole bridge structure in that the superstructure dead weight may form a significant portion
of the gravity load the bridge must sustain and transmit to the foundation. A light superstructure
is economical not only in material requirements of the superstructure but also requires smaller
size for substructure and foundations. A clear understanding of the structural behavior of
superstructures under loads is essential for efficient design.
A bridge superstructure is an integrated body of various members of reinforced concrete,

prestressed concrete, steel, composite, diaphragms, trusses, arches, etc. Determination of forces
in these components is essential for design purposes. The method of analysis may be static or
dynamic based on the response characteristics of the superstructure to variousloadings. Static
analysis will be used for structures that are relatively insensitive to dynamic action of moving
live loads and, wind and earthquake loads, and which undergo smalldeformations. Most
commonly constructed bridges of small and medium size fall under this category for which
small deformation theory is used (deformations are small and negligibleas not to affect force
effects). For these types of bridges, static analysis is used with dynamic magnification factor,
IM for vehicular live loads, to account for larger load effect that the same load applied
statically. However, for flexible bridges and long slender components, dueto their susceptibility
to vibration and their large deformations, dynamic analysis should be made. For these types of
bridges dynamic effects of moving live loads may exceed the allowance for impact, IM.
Dynamic analysis should be carried out not only for wind and earthquake loads but also for
moving live loads.
Analysis for internal actions will be followed by section analysis and design by the strength
design method.
Therefore, structural analysis and section design of different types of bridge superstructures
will be made in this chapter. Emphasis will be given to reinforced concrete bridges of small
and medium spans because these are the most commonly constructed types of bridges in
Ethiopia.
5.2. Reinforced Concrete
The two principal materials used in superstructure construction are steel and concrete.
Reinforced concrete bridges possess several advantages over steel bridges. The major ones are
the adaptability of concrete to a wide variety of structural shapes and forms, and low cost of
maintenance (less than 1% of construction cost per year). The other advantages are long life
and better resistance to temporary overloads and dynamic loads than steel bridges. Cast- in-
place reinforced concrete structureare continuous and monolithic, attributes, which translate
into easy construction, low cost and good seismic resistance. They can also begiven the
desired aesthetic appearance.
55
The disadvantages of concrete are large dead weight (which require larger foundation),
difficulty to widen or rebuild, longer construction time and that it requires formwork and
false work, which are expensive.
A bridge deck is the medium through which all bridge loads are transferred to other
components. Fig. 5.1 shows load path from bridge deck down to the supporting foundation soil.
Fig. 5.1 Load path from bridge deck down to foundation
Bridge live loads occupy partial area of the decks unlike live loads in buildings which is
taken uniformly distributed all over the floor area. Live load on bridges can occupy random
positions both longitudinally and transversely, and thus effect the live load shared by various
beams. This aspect of live load distribution is one of the primary concerns in the analysis of
bridge decks.
Influence lines will be used to determine load position for maximum effect and the magnitude
of these effects. Fig. 5.2 shows influence lines for shear and moment.
Fig. 5.2. Influence lines for absolute maximum shear and moment
There are various methods of deck analysis varying from hand calculation to computer
software, and the applicability of an analytical method to a bridge depends on the complexity
of its structural form and its behavioral characteristics. From this standpoint the mostcommonly
used type are the following:
56
1. Slab bridges
2. Beam and slab deck bridges (T-Girder Bridges)
3. Cellular deck bridges
4. Frame bridges
5.2.1 Slab Bridges

Slab bridges are most commonly used to span short spans up to 12m. The load carrying
mechanism is by plate action, i.e., by bending and twisting due to continuity in all directions,
as shown in Fig. 5.3. Application of a load on the portion make the slab deflect into a dish
shape locally, causing a two-dimensional system of bending and twisting moments, the
mechanism through which the load is transferred to the adjacent elements of the deck, which
are less severely loaded.
The governing equation for the vertical deflection of a loaded plate developed by S. D. Poisson
and boundary conditions modified by G.R Kirchhoff is
Z is the downward deflection of the plate

q is intensity of uniform load
D is flexural rigidity of the plate and h is thickness of slab, poisson‟s ratio
Fig. 5.3 Load carrying mechanism of slab bridge treated as a plate
In the absence of closed form solution to Eqn.(5.1), approximate methods are developed.
One method is the method of influence surfaces, which uses design charts. These charts have
been prepared by Pucher for slabs of various shapes and support conditions (1964), and by
Rusch and Heregnroder (1961) and Balas and Hanuska (1964) for simply supported skew slabs.
Another method is the grillage method. Some softwares are developed for this method.
57
Fig. 5.4 Grillage idealization of slab bridge
Yet another method is line solution technique, which reduces the partial differential equation
to their finite difference equivalents in one direction.
Another method is the strip method, which AASHTO recommends to use.

The equivalent width E of an interior longitudinal strip per lane for both shear and moment
with one lane loaded, (i.e., two lines of wheels) may be determined from
E = 250 + 0.42 . . . . . . (5.2)
The equivalent width E per lance with more than one lane loaded, may be determined from
E=2100 + 0.12
Where: E is equivalent width (mm)

L1 is the lesser of actual span or 18000mm, where actual span is c/c of
supports or clear span plus effective depth whichever is smaller
W1 is actual edge to edge width of bridge or 18000mm for multi lane loading or
9000mm for single lane loading, whichever is lesser.
W is physical edge to edge width of bridge (mm)
NL is the number of design lanes
For edge strip, the equivalent width E is [Art. 4.6.2.1.4]
E = distance from edge to face of barrier + 300mm + ½ interior strip width ≤ full strip
width of interior strip or 1800mm
AASHTO Art 9.7.4 requires that at lines of discontinuity, the edge of the slab deck shall either
be strengthened or be supported by a beam or other line component. The beam or component
shall be integrated with the deck.
Durability of deck slabs is a subject of universal concern. As riding surfaces of vehicular traffic
they must have durability against abrasion to repetitive cycles of loading The
other major durability problem is corrosion of reinforcing steel. This can be protected by
providing minimum cover to reinforcement.
58
Minimum reinforcement cover is given in Table 5.12.3-1 of AASHTO. For bottom
reinforcement of cast in place slabs for reinforcement of diameter 36mm or less, a cover of
25mm shall be provided.
Traditional minimum depth given in Table 1 will be began with for design, which will later be
checked for concrete strength.
Table 1: Traditional minimum depths for constant depth superstructures [AASHTO 2005,
Art. 2.5.6.2.3].
Section analysis for flexure follows
59
Fig. 5.5
The factor β1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths exceeding 28MPa, β1 shall be
reduced at a rate of 0.05 for each 7MPa of strength in excess of 8MPa, 1≥0.65 Art 5.7.2.2
Horizontal force equilibrium, C=T
0.85f‟ cab=Asfy a = Asfy /0.85fc‟b = pfyd/0.85f‟c
a = (Asfy – A‟sf‟y) / 0.85fc‟b for doubly reinforced sections
Moment equilibrium Mn = T(d-a/2) = Asfy (d-a/2)

Mu = Mn = Asfy (d-0.588pfy/f‟c)
Mu= [Asfy (d-a/2)-A‟sf‟y(d‟-a/2)+0.85f‟c(b-bw)βhf(a/2-hf/2)]
Limits for reinforcement [Art 5.7.3.3]

Maximum reinforcement is such that, c/d≤0.42, if c>0.42d, then the section is over
reinforced
Minimum:
5.2.2 T-Girder Bridges

T-Girders are used for bridges spanning from about 10-25m. These usually consist of equally
spaced beams (generally with spacing of 1.8 – 3.6m) spanning longitudinally between supports.
60
Fig. 5.4 T-girder RC Temcha bridge
The slab is structurally continuous across the top. The slab serves the dual purpose of
supporting the live load on the bridge and acting as the top flange of the longitudinal beams.
Diaphragms are provided transversely between the beams over the supports and depending on
the span, at midspan and other intermediate locations. The purpose of providing diaphragms
is to ensure lateral distribution of live loads to various adjacent stringers, the magnitude of the
share of each stringer depends on the stiffness of the diaphragms relative to the stringers and
on the method of connectivity.
Under loads, the response of a slab is characterized by longitudinal bending with the stringers
as top flanges accompanied by transverse bending as a continuous slab. The transverse bending
of the slab makes the remote beams to share load, which also causes twisting of beams for
compatibility of deformation as shown in Fig. 5.5. The participatory action of these remote
beams depends on the stiffness of the slab and its span, spacing and stiffness of beams.
The participatory action of remote beams and various superstructure components is referred
to as load distribution.
Design of T- girder bridges consists of deck slab analysis and design, and the T-girder analysis
and design.
Structural analysis of the deck slab involves taking a continuous strip perpendicular to the
girders (Art. 9.6.1) and analyzing by moment distribution or using design aid given by
AASHTO ILS for critical position of loads. Extreme positive moment at any point will be taken
to apply to all positive moment regions (Art 4.6.2.1.1). The width of equivalent interior
transverse strip over which the wheel loads can be considered distributed longitudinally in cast
– in – place concrete decks is given as [Table Art. 4.6.2.1.3-1]
61
Fig. 5.5 Deformation of slab and girders under loads
Overhang, 1140+0.833X
Positive moment, 660+0.55S
Negative moment, 1220+0.25S
Where X is the distance from the wheel load to centerline of support and S is the spacing of
the T-beams.
In the design of overhang deck slab, design forces acting on the barrier should be considered.
Table 5.1 Design forces for a performance level 2(PL-2) barrier
Direction Force Length

Transverse 240kN 1.07m
Longitudinal 80kN 1.07m
Vertical 80kN 5.00
These tables give classification of cross section of girder bridges
62
63
These tables give empirical load distribution factors to girders for moment and shear [Art.
4.6.2.2.2]
64
65
66
67
Section analysis and design is similar to slab bridges.
In T-girder analysis, transverse placement of lines of wheels that give maximum shear and
moment is one line on the beam and the other with in span if S>1.8m.
Placement of line load in the longitudinal direction for maximum effect is made using
influence lines.
68
Section analysis and design follows that for T-beams. The deck slab serves as the top flange
of the T-beam.
Design for Flexure
Mu= [Asfy(d-a/2)-A‟sf‟y(d‟-a/2)+0.85f‟c(be-bw)βhf(a/2-hf/2)
Where be - is effective width of the flange at span

A‟s – is compression reinforcement for doubly reinforced beams
hf – thickness of flange slab
The effective flange width for interior beams may be taken as the least of: [Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
One quarter of the effective span length
12 times the average depth of the slab plus the greater of the web thickness or
top flange of the girder
The average spacing of adjacent beams
For exterior beams, the effective flange width may be taken as one half of the adjacent
interior beam plus the least of: [Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
One -eighth of the effective span length
6 times the average depth of the slab plus the greater of one half the web
thickness or one quarter of the width of the top flange of the basic girder
The width of the overhang
This formula is a general one, which can be used for T-beams, rectangular singly reinforced
and rectangular doubly reinforced beams. Limits for reinforcement given for slabs apply here
also.
c/d≤0.42,
Minimum
Depth from deflection requirement is began with {Art. 2.5.2.6.3 Table 1}
D = 0.07L for RC T-beams of simple span
D = 0.065L for RC T-beams of continuous spans.
minimum slab thickness is 175mm Art. 9.7.1.1
minimum cover is as given in Table 5.1 [Art. 5.12.3]
End hook anchorage requirement of reinforcement bar is as given in Fig. [Art. 5.11.2.4]
69
Design for shear

The nominal shear resistance, Vn is
Vn=Vc+Vs
Vn=0.25 F‟cbwd
For which Vc – 0.083βbwd f‟c
Vs=[Avfyd(cot +cot )sin /S
For = 900‟ Vs=Avfyd cot /S
Where:
Vu= Vn
β=2.0 for sections containing at least minimum shear reinforcement or having

=450 overall depth less than 400mm
70
Minimum reinforcement (Art. 5.8.2.5)

Where transverse reinforcement is required, the minimum reinforcement is
Maximum spacing (Art. 5.8.2.7)
S ≤0.8d≤ 600mm if Vu<0.1f‟cbwd

S≤0.4d ≤300mm if Vu ≥0.1f‟cbwd
5.2.3 Box Girder Bridges
Concrete box girder bridges are economical for spans of above 25 to 45m. They can be
reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete. Longer span than 45m will have to be prestressed.
They are similar to T-beams in configuration except the webs of T-beams are all interconnected
by a common flange resulting in a cellular superstructure. The top slab, webs and bottom slab
are built monolithically to act as a unit, which means that full shear transfer must be provided
between all parts of the section.
Reinforced concrete box girders have high torsional resistance due to their closed shape and
are particularly suitable for structures with significant curvature. This construction also lends
itself to aesthetic treatment.
Concrete box girder bridges have several advantages over other types;
1. The relatively shallow depth of box girders is an advantage where headroom is limited like
in urban overpasses.
2. Monolithic construction of the superstructure and substructure offers structural as well as
aesthetic advantage. The pier caps for continuous box girders can be placed within the box,
facilitating rigid connection to the pier.
3. They provide space for utilities such as water and gas lines, power, telephone and cable
ducts, storm drains and sewers, which can be placed in the hollow cellular section.
71
4. The other advantages are, as mentioned previously, their torisional stiffness and
aesthetics.
Typical cross sections are shown in Fig. 5.6. While the interior webs are all vertical, the
exterior webs may be vertical, inclined or curved. When the exterior webs are inclined, their
slope should preferably be 1HL 2V.
Fig. 5.6 Typical box girder cross sections
Design Considerations
The structural behavior of box girders is similar to T-beams. Box girders are essentially T-
beams with transverse bottom flange resulting in a closed, torsionally stiff multi-cell
configuration.
The interior webs resist shear and often only a small portion of girder moments.
Consequently they are usually thinner than the webs of T-beams. This is so because, in the
case of continuous T-beams, the webs must resist the negative girder moments as well all the
shear, and contain all the reinforcement for positive moments.
The bottom slab (soffit) contains reinforcement for the positive moment and also acts as a
compression flange in the negative moment regions of continuous spans. The bottom slab also
affords a superstructure considerably thinner that a T-beam bridge of the same span and
permits even longer spans to be built.
Cross-sections are taken as shown in Fig 5.7 a and b for analysis for exterior and interior
girders respectively. The structural analysis is same as for T-beams. Section analysis is also
same except the compression bottom flange for continuous spans. The entire slab width is
assumed effective for compression.
72
a) Exterior girder b) Interior girder

Fig. 5.7 Box girder cross sections taken for analysis
Proportions
Depth - is dictated by deflection requirement
D = 0.06L for simple spans
D = 0.066L for continuous spans
D = 0.045L for precast, cast-in-pace prestressed, simple spans
D – 0.040L for continuous spans
Top slab thickness: minimum is 175mm

Bottom slab thickness has no requirement except 140mm thickness required for
placing concrete around reinforcement.
Webs
There are no provision in the AASHTO specifications governing the spacing and
thickness of webs (girders). Their primary purpose is to resist shear and only a small
portion of the moments. Optimum web spacing are suggested to be between 2.1 and 2.75m
for span up to 45m, and as much as 3.66 for longer spans. A web thickness of 200mm is
considered a desirable minimum for practical considerations for shear
reinforcement and concrete pouring. For prestressed concrete, a minimum of 300mm is

used for placement of tendon ducts.
5.2.4 Continuous Reinforce Concrete Bridges

Advantages
i- Less number of bearings than simply supported bridge since on line of bearings
are used over he piers.
ii- Reduced width of pier, thus less flow obstruction and less amount of material.
iii- Requires less number of expansion joints due to which both the initial cost and
maintenance cost become less. The rigidity quality over the bridge is thus
improved.
iv- Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports.
v- Better architectural appearance.
vi- Lesser Vibration and deflection.
Disadvantages
i- Analysis is laborious and time consuming.
73
ii- Not suitable on yielding foundations.
Fig. 5.8 Continuous RC girder bridge (Haunched)
The deck can be slab, T-beam or box section.
Fig. 5.9 Piccolo Abay continuous haunched RC girder bridge
Fig. 5.10 Abay bridge on Bure-Nekemt road, continuous haunched RC pre stressed box
girder bridge
74
Balanced cantilever method of construction is used for this bridge. Fig. 5.11 shows example
of this method of construction.
Fig. 5.11 Balanced cantilever method of construction with moving formwork
5.2.5 Reinforce Concrete Rigid Frame Bridges

In rigid frame bridges, the deck is rigidly connection to the bridge and piers. All the
advantages of a continuous span bridge are present here.
Additional advantages of rigid frame bridges over continuous ones are
i- More rigidity of the structure
ii- Less moments in deck being partly transferred to the supporting members
iii- Non bearings are required
iv- Better aesthetic appearance than the continuous span structure
As in continuous span bridges, these structures also require unyielding foundation materials.
The analysis is however, more laborious than the former.
The frames may be hinged or fixed at the base.
Hinged base
The moments carried over to the base rotate only the vertical supports thereby
reducing the moments very considerably and no moments are carried over to the footings.
Fig. 5.12 Rigid frame bridges

75
Only the vertical load and the moment caused by the thrust at the hinge level are to be
considered in designing the footings.
The moments at the base of supports and at the rafts are very small but the span moments
are greater than those of fixed frames.
Fixed base
The moments from the superstructure are carried over to the footings since the vertical
supports cannot rotate independently without rotating the footings along with them. This state
is achieved if the foundation rests on solid rock or unyielding foundation.
5.3. Steel Bridges
Steel bridge construction consists of rolled steel beams, plate girders or trusses with reinforced
concrete deck or steel plate deck-beam bridges.
Steel has got several advantages
It is a high quality, homogeneous, isotropic material that is perfectly elastic to its yield
point. It has high tensile and compressive strengths. Past the yield point it offers
considerable ductility to provide a large reserve of strength.
Steel bridges can be built faster than reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete bridge.
They can be erected with ease and this minimizing construction costs.
Steel superstructures are usually lighter than concrete superstructures wich translates into
reduced substructures costs, which can be significant when soil conditions are poor.
Steel superstructures can be designed with shallower depth than RC, which is an
important consideration when overhead clearance is required.
Steel bridges are easy and faster to repair than RC.
Steel bridges have some major disadvantages that make them much less favorable than RC or
PSC bridges
Corrosion of steel is the major drawback which requires prohibitively high maintenance
cost. Corrosion can reduce cross section of structural members and weaken the
superstructure also.
The second disadvantage is that steel fatigues under repeated loading (its strength
decreases under repeated loading at high number of cycles of loading)
The different types of steel bridges will now be treated one by one.
5.3.1 Rolled Steel Beam Bridges

This is the most common type of construction for short and medium span highway bridges.in
Europe and North America. This usually consists of equally speed rolled beams place parallel
to traffic to span between supports as shown in Fig 5.13. These are transversely spanned by
cast-in-place reinforced concrete slab that serves as bridge deck and providers lateral stability
to stringers. Diaphragms are provided at the ends and at intermediate points to provide lateral
stability.
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Fig. 5.13 Rolled steel beam bridge
Rolled steel beam and plate girder bridges can be classified as composite or non-composite
types. In a non-composite structure steel beams act independently of the deck slab in resisting
both the dead load as well as the live loads.
In composite construction, the dead loads are resisted by the steel beams alone (assuming
unshored construction), whereas the superimposed dead loads and live loads are resisted by
the composite action of the slab and the steel beam acting as a unit. Shear connectors are
required in this case in the form of studs or channels as shown in Fig. 5.10 or angles.
5.3.2 Plate Girder and Steel Box Girder Bridges

Plate girder and steel box girder bridges are built up sections made of plates by welding,
bolting or riveting. The decks are made of RC. They are suitable for medium to long span
bridges. Additional plates can be bolted, riveted or welded to the plate girder to provide added
strength at sections of maximum moment as in Fig 5.11a and c
Fig 5.14 Steel deck with shear studs in a composite steel beam
77
Fig 5.15 Fig. 5.16
Due to high depth-to-thickness ratio of their webs (h/tw), webs can buckle under compression.
These are overcome by stiffening as in Fig 5.12. Lateral braces should also be provided as
shown in Fig. 5.13 to resist wind force that can act over their large exposed area.
Fig. 5.17
Composite steel box girder constructions are used for medium to long spans. Fig 4.12 shows
various type of composite box girder bridges. This can be used for curves and superelevations.
Fig 5.18
5.3.3. Steel Truss Bridges
Steel truss bridges are used for medium to long span crossings. The problem with steel is it
requires a prohibitively high maintenance cost. The other problem with steel is fatigue.
78
Fig 5.15 shows typical steel truss bridge types.
Fig. 5.19 Variable depth through truss Fig. 5.20 Constant depth truss bridges
bridges
5.3.4 Plate Deck – Stringer Bridges
Orthotropic plate deck and steel plate deck box girder bridges are commonly used for long span
bridges in girder bridges or with trusses and girders in cable-stayed and suspension bridges.
Fig 5.16 shows typical orthotropic deck.
Fig 5.21 Typical orthotropic deck
5.4 Special Bridges
5.4.1 Arch Bridges
Arches are generally characterized by the development of inclined rather than vertical reactions
under vertical loads.
Cross-sections are designed for thrust, moment and shear, with magnitudes depending on the
location of the pressure line as shown in fig. 5.17. If the pressure line coincides with the axis
of structure (as in a uniformly loaded parabolic arch), all cross sections will be subjected to
compression, with no moment or shear. If the pressure line falls with in the kern, there will not
be tension. But if shape of structure and pressure line differ, moment may become dominant.
Fig. 5.18 shows parts of arch bridges.
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Fig. 5.22 Fig. 5.23 Different parts of an arch bridge
Fig. 5.24 Abay deck concrete arch bridge on Goha Tsion – Dejen road
Compared to the girder bridges, arch bridges are economical because the dead load moments
in arch bridges are almost absent when the arch is properly designed.
The loads on the arch are carried by the arch ribs mainly through direct axial thrusts, the
bending moment and shear forces being small compared to girder bridge which requires larger
section. This is due to the hogging moment which balances the sagging moment created by the
horizontal force, H, at the support.
80
Fig. 5.25 Through arch bridge at Finote Selam
The main parameter of an arch is the rise to span ration, r/1 91/6 to 1/10)
From economic point of view it is attempted to coincide the center of pressure of a given load
with center of line of the arch.
M=M1 - H.V
Where M=arch moment
M1 = moment considering the arch as simply supported
H = horizontal force
V = vertical ordinate
The center of pressure in the arch is thus M=0
V=
Types of arch bridges

Based on
a) Location of deck with respect to the arch rib
i) –Deck
ii)-Through
iii)-Semi-through
81
First Semester 2021/22
Fig 5.26
b) Structural arrangement of arch rib

i) - Two hinged
ii) - Three hinged
iii)-Fixed arch
iv)-Tied arch or bow string
Fig 5.27
Fixed Arch
Needs absolute un-yielding foundation because forces and moments in fixed arches change
both due to rotation and displacement of the supports.
Two-hinged Arch
Structure is not_affected due to rotation of the abutments but is affected due to the
displacement of the same.
-may be designed with small displacement of the supports.
Three-hinged Arch
Even with rotation and small displacement of the foundation or unequal settlement of the
foundations, the thrust and moments are not significantly affected in three-hinged arch bridges.
82
Fig 5.28 Truss arch bridge
Masonry and Concrete Arch Bridges
Stone masonry arch bridges were dominant in Ethiopia prior to the 1950s. If made from granite
or similar hard stone they may withstand any standard highway loading. In Europe several 2000
year-old bridges are still in use. This type of bridge may still be preferred where weather-
resistant rocks may_be obtained, provided that the ground will not allow any horizontal sliding
between the footing and the soil, and that skilled masons are to be found.
One should however be cautious that even outside of earthquake zones failures may occur. In
England some old bridges have suddenly fallen apart. Research has commenced, but we still
do not know why some stone masonry arch bridges fail, believed to be dependent on the
movements of the fill on the arches. Until further results are presented it is recommended to
use stone rubble, or similar material that does not move easily, instead of gravel fill.
Granites can be found mainly west of Nakemte, in Tigray, in the southwestern regions, south
of Dodola where however there are very few bridges. For most small and medium sized bridges
(below 50 m length) the hardest types of basalt stone, sandstone and limestone can also be used,
and therefore nearly the whole country could make use of stone masonry bridges. Hard burned
clay stones (called clinker) could also be utilized for this type of bridge.
5.4.2 Cable Stayed Bridges
Cable stayed bridges are ideal for spanning natural barriers of wide rivers and deep valleys
because they can provide long spans unobstructed by piers.
a) Span proportions
The most popular span arrangements are:
1. Two span (symmetrical or asymmetric)
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Fig. 5.21
b) Stay arrangements
The arrangement of the cable stays is one of the fundamental items in the design of cable-
stayed bridges. It influences, in fact, not only the structural performance of the bridge, but
also the method of erection and economies.
Transverse cable arrangement

Single plane ----- usually for pedestrian bridges
Double plane ----- majority of existing structures.
Multiple plane ---- for urban areas where the number of lanes are many
Longitudinal cable arrangement

i) Radiating (converging)-Fan because the cables are at maximum angles of inclination to the
girders, the cables take maximum component of DL & LL loads.
ii) Harp – It causes bending moment in the tower.

- The harp pattern is not the best from the static of economic point of views
- It is superior aesthetically
84
iii) Fan /Modified fan/ - Combination of radiating and harp types and combining the
advantages of both.
Large number of cable-stayed bridges have been built using this
iv) Star – Aesthetically pleasing
No staging or false work is required for the construction of Cable-Stayed bridges.

The cables from deck of a cable-stayed bridge are connected to the main tower by aut and
inclined but straight cables.
5.4.3 Suspension Bridges
The twin main cables from the tower of a suspension bridge from a catenary from which the
hangers are suspended and fixed to the deck.
Sag ratio for cables should be L/9 L/13
Suspension bridges are economical when the span exceeds 300m. Suspension bridges consist
of one main span and two side spans.
L1/L = 0.17 to 0.50
The cables being very flexible do not take any bending moment and are subjected only to tensile
forces. The stiffening truss stiffens the deck and distribute the live load of the deck on to the
cables. Otherwise the cables would be subjected to local sag due to action of concentrated live
load and thus causes local angle change in the deck system.
The stiffening trusses are hinged at the towers and suspended at node points from suspender,
which are usually high tensile cables.
85
Vertical suspenders have been used in many bridges but diagonal suspenders have the
advantage of increasing the aerodynamic stability.
1) Simple suspension bridge
Akashi-kaiko suspension bridge
86
CHAPTER 6
SUBSTRUCTURE
Substructure is part of a bridge that supports the superstructure and transmits all loads to the
foundation soil. It consists of the following elements:
Abutments - are earth-retaining structures which support the superstructure at the beginning
and end of a bridge. These are retaining walls with the additional function of
supporting vertical permanent and transient loads.
Piers - are substructure elements that support the superstructure at intermediate points
between abutments for bridges with two or more spans.
Backwall - is the primary component of the abutment on which the superstructure structural
members are supported.
Wingwall - is a side wall of the abutment that assist in supporting loads and in confining earth
behind the abutment under the approach roadway.
The minimum height of piers and abutments is governed by requirements of accessibility

for maintenance of the superstructure and bearings, of protection against spray for bridges over
water and vertical clearance requirements for floating debris for river bridges and vertical
clearance requirements for bridges over traveled ways. There is no upper limit for pier heights
except that imposed by economy.
6.1. ABUTMENTS
Abutments are structural elements of a bridge located at the ends of a bridge which
provide the basic functions of
supporting the one end of the first or last span
retaining earth under the approach road way and
supporting the approach road way or slab if necessary
A variety of abutment forms are in use to serve the above functions. Selection of type
depends on the magnitude of loads supported, depth to suitable bearing soil, scour depth, facing
appearance and ease and cost of construction.
6.1.1 Type of Abutments

a) Gravity Abutment – resist horizontal earth pressure with its dead weight and
dead weight of retained soil for abutments with inclined back face. These may
be constructed of stone masonry or concrete masonry (mass concrete). These
are used for abutments of small height.
b) Cantilever Abutment – derive lateral resistance through embedment of the

stem by cantilever action. These are constructed of reinforced concrete.
87
c) Counterfort Abutment – this is similar to cantilever abutment with the
difference that ties called counterforts are provided to tie the stem to the footing.
This is used for larger heights for which cantilever abutments will be
uneconomical
a) Gravity retaining wall b) Cantilever retaining wall c) Counter fort retaining wall
Fig. 6.1 Retaining walls of abutments with preliminary dimensions (Alemayehu Tefera)
d) Stub Abutment – is a relatively short abutment which is used at the top of an

embankment or slope. Unless rock foundation exists at the site, stub abutment
is supported on piles.
e) Spill Through Abutment – this utilizes two or more columns with a cap beam
at the top. The cap beam supports the superstructure. The fill is allowed to spill
through the open spaces between the columns and only a portion of the
embankment is retained. The approach slab is supported on the abutment.
88
Fig. 6.2 Spill through abutment
e) Reinforced earth Abutment – consists of modular facing units that retain the soil
which are tied in to the fill by roads, strips or bars. The ties are in tension and are
kept in position by friction forces on their surfaces. This is not used so far in
Ethiopia. It is being used in many parts of the world, and is preferred for its low cost
and aesthetics.
Fig. 6.2 Reinforced earth abutment
6.1.2 Design of Abutments

a) Loads on Abutments
An important load acting on abutments that need not be considered for piers is
earth pressure as discussed in chapter 4
For seismic areas, seismic forces should be considered for the back face of the
wall due to inertia of the retained soil mass. AASHTO recommends to use the
Mononobe – Okabe method, which is an extension of Coulomb‟s slidingwedge
theory. This method gives horizontal and vertical inertia forces KhWs and KvWs
Fig 5.3a, where Kh and Kv are horizontal and vertical seismic coefficients
respectively given as a function of bed rock acceleration ration,and Ws is the
weight of soil mass in the wedge. Kh and Kv are given by:
Kh = o/2 and
0.3Kh Kv ≤ 0.5Kh
89
For free standing abutments
o - is bedrock acceleration ratio given by EBCS8:1995.
If horizontal displacement is restrained like for abutments supported on batter piles
Kh = 1.5 o
The Mononobe – Okabe method applies for cohesionless bakfill soil, which is usually the
case.
= tan „[Kh/(1-Kv)]
Unlike static active pressure force which acts at H/3 from the base, the seismic active
pressure force is found to act at a larger distance from the base which may be taken as 0.6H.
b) Design Criteria
The length of abutment backwall is determined by the bridge width. For a given trial
position the length of the wingwalls is dictated by terrain height of the bridge deck above
ground and level of the HWM.
Fig. Typical dimensions of gravity retaining wall
Abutment retaining walls will be dimensioned to ensure stability against possible modes of
failure by satisfying the following criteria for factors of safety (AASHTO Art. 5.5.5). The
usual practice is to assign tentative dimensions and check for overall stability.
Overturning
Sliding
90
If factor of safety against sliding could not be obtained, shear key may be used at the
bottom. Passive pressure will be considered for the key. The other alternative is to slope
the footing (slope ≤100)
Table 5.5.5B can be used as a guide to get friction coefficients
Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soil
Max ≤ all
Location of resultant X from the toe is:
B/3 ≤ X ≤ 2B/3 for base on soil

B/4 ≤ X ≤ 3B/4 for base on rock
After stability checks, cantilever and counterfort retaining walls will be designed for
internal forces. The stem and footings of a cantilever are designed as cantilever. The stem
and footing portion of a counterfort are designed as continuous one-way slab supported on
the counterforts. The footing portion at the front is designed as cantilever. If the section
of the footing portion is uneconomically thick buttresses can be used to reduce to section.
Finally, it should be pointed out that it is important to provide drainage facilities as show
in Fig. 6.2
Fig. 6.2
6.2. PIERS
Piers are structural elements, which sustain superstructure dead and live loads, at
intermediate points, carry their own weight and transmit all loads to the foundation soil.
They are constructed of masonry or reinforced concrete.
There are different types of piers. The selection of type greatly depends on the form and
size of the superstructure. Aesthetics and economy are other factors to be considered in
selection of pier type.
91
The arrangement and shape of piers should be such as to cause minimal obstruction to
flow of water or traffic under the bridge.
6.2.1. Type of Piers

a) solid Wall Pier – is a continuous wall pier that extends from the foundation footing
or piles to the superstructure. This is constructed with pedestals at the top on which the
superstructure structural elements rest. Solid wall piers are often used at water crossings
since they can be constructed to proportions that are both slender andstreamlined, which
has a minimal resistance to flow. An advantage of a solid wall pier is that it is not
prone to accumulation of debris unlike multiple column piers.
b) Hammer Head Pier – consists of one or more columns with a pier cap in the shape
of hammer. This is constructed with pedestals at the top (Fig 6.3c -5 pedestals) on which
the superstructure structural elements are supported. The columns can have different
shapes: rectangular, polygonal or circular. These are used for high piers. These are
predominantly used in urban areas because they are attractive and occupy minimum
space providing relatively large clearance for underpass traffic.
This is constructed with pedestals at the top on which the superstructure structural
elements rest.
a) Solid wall pier b) Single column c) Double column

Hammer head pier hammer head pier
92
Fig. 6.3 Solid wall and Hammer head piers
c) Column Bent Pier – consists of a cap beam and supporting columns in the form of a
frame. Column beni piers are made of RC and are supported on either footings or piles.
The cross sections of the columns are predominantly circular, but rectangular and
polygonal cross sections are also common.
a) A column bent pier b) A pile bent pier
Fig 6.4 Column bent and Pile bent piers
93
d) Pile Bent Pier – is similar to column bent pier but the columns are replaced by piles
extending from bearing strata to cap beam. These are common in marine environment.
The end piles are generally battered in the transverse direction.
6.2.2 Design of Piers
a) Loads on Piers
Loads to be considered in the design of piers are:

a) Dead load of superstructure and the pier itself. In stability analysis the possibility of one
spam loaded by superstructure dead load while the other is not yet constructed should
be considered.
b) Live load on bridge, AASHTO standard truck and land loading
c) Impact effect of live loads. According to AASHTO highway live loads shall be
increased to allow for dynamic, vibratory and impact effects for piers excluding
footings and portions below the ground. For pile bents also impact shall be considered
for portions above the ground. To simplify the work, impact is usually considered for
the stem of masonry piers, and for frame of column bent and hammerhead piers. Impact
is excluded for the design of footings.
d) Wind load acting on superstructure and on live load will be transferred to the
substructure.
e) Wind load acts directly on exposed areas of piers (abutments also). This will be
decomposed in to transverse and longitudinal components for skewed wind direction.
f) Buoyancy shall be considered for submerged parts. This can be neglected if the pier is
anchored to rock by dowels.
g) Forces of stream current due to flowing water
h) Longitudinal forces due to attractive effect and breaking of vehicles is given as 5% of
the live load in all lanes headed in one direction. The load used the lane load with the
concentrated force for moment. The point of application of this force is 6ft above the
floor slab and to be transmitted to the substructure through the superstructure. To this
should be added longitudinal force due to resistance in bearings. In order to reduce the
net longitudinal force in bearings, it is common to make bearings of two spans located
on a pier of the same type, i.e., expansion bearings or fixed bearings. Still a variation
of about 10% in the friction coefficients of sliding bearings may be assumed.
i) Centrifugal forces should be considered for curved bridges.
j) In regions where earthquakes are anticipated, bridges shall be designed to resist
earthquake motions by considering the relative location of the site from active faults,
seismic response of the soil at the site, and the dynamic response of the total bridge.
For simple bridges, the equivalent static force method can be used to determine seismic
loading. The factors that are dependent on locality cannot be adopted from AASHTO.
The specifications of EBCE: 8, 1995 shall be used for these.
k) Force due to collision of barge in navigable water during storms and foggy weather for
piers for which fenders are not provided should be considered.
94
95
2. Piers on a single row of piles are planned at the pile connections to the footing.
3. Piers on spread footings with an allowable foundation pressure of more that 317-633 Kpa
= 30% fixed at the bottom of the footing.
4. Piers on spread footings with an allowable foundation pressure of more than 633-950
KPa = 40% fixed at the bottom of the footing.
5. Piers on spread footings with an allowable foundation pressure of more than 950 KPa
(competent rock) = 100% fixed at the bottom of the footing.
Table 6.1 Foundation fixity parameters

GB
1.5 Footing on rock anchored
3.0 Footing on rock not anchored
5.0 Footing on rock soil
1.0 Footing on piles (add 3.05m to the effective length)
EI
for columns
L
GB -
EI
L
Many structures are detailed el eliminate deck joints. One technique removes abutment
backwalls and compacts the approach embankments against the superstructure end beams. The
AASHTO specifications specify that an accurate secondary analysis be used to account for
“the influence of axial loads and variable moment of inertia on member stiffness and fixed end
moments, the effect of deflections on moments and forces, and the effects of the duration of
loads.” These secondary effects can be approximated by the moment magnifier method.
The moment magnifier equation can b derived by examining Feg. 6.6. It is important to note
that this equation is intended only to magnify pier moments that result from lateral loads, in
spite of which most designers magnify the total pier moment conservatively.
By examining Fig. 6.6 we obtain the primary deflection Δ1caused by the end moments M1:
Fig. 6.6
96
The moment magnifier procedure, as first derived, assumes columns with pinned ends, single
curvature, equal and moments, and no side sway. Therefore each pier design must be modified
by an effective length factor k to correct it to an equivalent pin ended column with single
curvature and no side away. The value of k is used to determine reasonable column dimensions
for stability and to compute the critical bulking load Pcr.
97
The variation in effective length factors can be large as the end conditions change and as the
degree of bracing against side sway varies.
Effective length factors can be determined from Fig. 6.7 or for framed structures from the
Jackson-Moreland Charts shown in Fig. 6.8. These charts use the parameter
Fig. 6.7 Effective length factors K Fig. 6.8 Alignment charts for effective length of
Columns in continuous frames a) sidesways
prevented b) sidesway permitted
98
The same parameter can be applied in the equations suggested by Cranston for braced
columns, where
k = 0.7 + 0.05(GA + GB) ≤1.0
k = 0.85 + 0.05(Gmin) ≤1.0
(use the smaller of the two value) and four unbraced columns, as suggested by Furlong for
Table 6.1 lists the value G to be used for various foundation conditions.
Another important influence on the effective length factor k is bracing against side sway.
Presently k can be determined only for braced and unbraced conditions; therefore the unbreaced
condition for bridge pier design is recommended. A braced condition should be considered
only in a case similar to a row of columns in a bent strutted by a large drift wall with
considerable stiffness against lateral movement in the transverse direction.
E1 = EcIs/2.5 is extremely inaccurate for high percentages of reinforcement and

EI = EcIg/5 + EsIs is somewhat inaccurate for low percentages. Therefore it is recommended
that EI=EcIg/2.5 be used for the design of piers with 2% reinforcement or less and EI = EcIg/5
+ EsIs in the design of piers with reinforcement of more than 2%. Again these values are to be
applied only in the computation of critical buckling loads. These specification formulas also
give bukling loads for a constant moment of inertia. If the columns are tapered,the critical
bukling loads can be computed by referring to other references.
The formulas for EI contain the expression I +βD, which accounts for the effect of creep due
to sustained loads. The value of 1 + βD decreases EI and thereby increases the moment
magnification. The specifications defined βD as the ratio of maximum dead load moment to the
maximum design total load moment (always positive), which means that βD is the ratio ofdead
load moment to the sum of all moments neglecting signs.
Section Analysis
In the analysis of a pier section, subjected to the most critical loading conditions, compilation
of stresses for serviceability and capacity for maximum loads is involved. Modern aesthetics
often require that an analysis be made for irregular and nonsymmetrical shapes. In addition to
vertical reinforcement, it is essential to evaluate the requirements for lateral reinforcing (hoops,
ties, and spirals).
In general, bridge pier sections are governed by moment and not load. Therefore the most
critical loading of all the many possible loadings on a pier will be the one that produces the
largest moment about the weakest pier axis. When two loads produce similar moments, with
variations in load, the load producing the maximum eccentricity will normally control.
99
The AASHTO design specifications indicate that biaxial bending and direct load should be
analyzed at ultimate load, based on stress and strain compatibility, or, as an alternate, by one
of the following approximate formulas:
According to Furelong, it is reasonable to use the elliptic equation
It should be noted that two inaccuracies occur in the biaxial bending and direct load analysis:
1. An approximation of the true shape of the compression block with a rectangular block
over a portion of the compressive area tends to underestimate the capacity.
2. Experimental data show that in some cases a strain value of 0.4% is reasonable as a
limiting value before the concrete deteriorates.
These inaccuracies are on the conservative side and are accepted by most designers.
The ultimate strength analysis of irregular and unsymmetrical shapes involves problems similar
to those encountered in ultimate biaxial bending analysis; however, minimal research has been
conducted in pier analysis. Marin has performed some mathematical modeling of L type of
section, but experimental tests are required to verify his work. The designer should therefore
be cautious when designing this type of sections. In particular adequate shear and lateral
reinforcement across thin wall portions must be examined.
There is considerable variation in thought in regard to the requirements for hoops, ties, and
spirals. It is known that lateral reinforcement does little to enhance structural performance
before initial concrete deterioration, after which the action of lateral reinforcement is
significant. Appropriate details and design can be the difference between catastrophic failure
and safety. Experience has shown that spirals perform better than hoops and ties. This is
probably due to the closer spacing provided by spirals and to the better confining capabilities
of the circular hoop tension they develop. Studies have shown that column ductility can be
greatly improved by using closely spaced hoops, ties, and spirals in potential plastic hinge
areas. Ductility in these areas can serve as a means of energy dissipation under extreme
dynamic earthquake loadings. Ductility in these areas can serve as a means of energy
dissipation under extreme dynamic earthquake loadings. Ductility is measured by what is called
the ductility factor (µ), which is defined as the ratio of the maximum displacement under the
design earthquake to the theoretical yield displacement. According to studies performed in New
Zealand, the design value of µ can be reasonably set at 6.
100
6.3. Scour Protection

Scour is the erosive effect of water flow on river bed or banks.
When a bridge structure and its associated embankment encroach upon the flow of river during
flood there will be a risk to the structure, the embankments and the surrounding land upstream.
It is not economical, however, to construct a bridge to clear a wide flood pain because bridge
works cost more than earth embankments.
Approximately half of the river bridge failures are due to scour. Bridge works may alter the
scour pattern by restricting the free flow of water and/or causing turbulence. Therefore it is
important to protect bridges from scour.
Fig. Effect of scour on a wall pier
Fig. 6.9b shows a wide flood plain in which both the pier and abutment foundations are below
the DFL(HWM). Where a small river has a wide flood plain (Fig. 6.7c), the most economical
solution may be a relatively small bridge with approach embankments. Relief culverts are used
to prevent flood water from rising high on the u/s side while river training works channel the
flow through the main channel and some protection provided for the embankments. Scour
protection is required for the abutment due to restriction of flow.
There are four types of scour

natural scour and channel shifting on alluvial rivers – this can be combated by river
training
scour caused by changes to the river channel u/s or d/s
general scour caused by reduction in the channel width at bridge site
local scour at the base of piers, abutments and river training works due to turbulence
101
Estimates are required for depth of general scour and local scour at a bridge site. Some
methods and empirical formulae are developed and will be discussed subsequently.
Fig. 6.9 Bridges for different flood widths Fig. 6.10 Adjustment of waterway to
Accommodate general scour
 Scour Depth
a) General Scour
This is caused by reduction in channel width and the flow area due to piers and abutments.
There are many formulae developed to predict depth of general scour, all of which assume
fairly simple channel geometry. The two most common methods will be discussed here.
i) The Area – Velocity Method

In this method the flow through the structure is assumed to be equal to the unrestricted flow
calculated on the basis of velocity measurement or estimates made. It involves drawing a
probable scour line as shown in Fig. 6.8a, determining the flow area A and wetted perimeter
P and determining the velocity from
V- is velocity of flow in m/s, A – is area of flow, S – is bed slope and

n – is manning‟s rogosity coefficient
Then V.A will be checked against Qunrestricted. This process is repeated until V.A = Qunrestricted.
102
ii) The Competent Velocity Method
The competent velocity (Vc) is the largest velocity that will not cause scour to the river bed.
In this method a probable scour line is drawn and area of flow increased (by As) as shown in
Fig. 6.10a until the resulting mean velocity of flow is reduced to Vc. Vc is obtained from the
following table for cohesive bed material and from Fig. 6.11 for non-cohesive bed material.
Depth Competent mean velocity, Vc

of Low values Averages High values
flow (easily erodiblevaloes (resistant
(m) material) material
(m/s) (m/s)
1.5 0.6 1.0 1.8
3 0.65 1.2 2.0
6 0.7 1.3 2.3
0.8 1.5 2.6
Fig. 6.11 Competent velocity chart for non – cohesive
a) Local Scour
In addition to general scour discussed previously, there will be local scour of the bed
material due to turbulent flow around obstacles such as pier and abutments.
i) Local Scour at Piers
Angle of Length-to-width
attack ratio of pier
4 8 12
0o 1.00 1.00 1.00
5o 1.17 1.40 1.65
10o 1.33 1.70 2.12
15o 1.50 2.00 2.50
20o 1.67 2.25 2.83
25o 1.83 2.50 3.17
30o 2.00 2.75 3.50
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Fig 6.12 Curves for estimating local scour at bridge piers
Table. Multipliers for estimating scour depth at abutments and training works
Nature of location Multiplier
Nose of groynes or guide banks 2.0 to 2.75
Flow impinging at right angles on 2.25

bank
Flow parallel to bank 1.5 t 2.0
6.3.2 Protection
Scour protection is required when some restriction is made to the flow of design flood at a
bridge.
Protection can made be by: riprap, gabion, reno mattresses, aprons or revetments, groynes,
piled walls or vegetation. These protective measures must not protrude in to the design
waterway at the crossing.
In here will be dealt with materials and methods of protection
a) Materials
i) Riprap
Is carpet of loose stones, which protects the loose bed material for bed protection and loose
bank or embankment material from erosion by water current. The stone elements must be heavy
enough not to be carried away by water. Fig. 6.13 gives recommended riprap nominal stone
size for different velocity of water. A stone with good grading is effective. The thickness will
be equal to the largest stone size and about twice the nominal median diameter. Riprap should
not be installed in a way that reduces area of flow.
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Fig 6.13 Riprap stone size Fig 6.14 Gabion basket and Reno
mattresses
ii) Gabion and Reno Mattresses

The standard gabion is a rectangular basket made of steel wire mesh with sizes of 2m, 3m and
4m long by 1m wide by 0.5m or 1m high. Reno mattress is a mattress – shaped version of the
gabion for use when the gabions height and bulk are not needed as in lining river beds and
banks. Their standard size is 6m length, divided in to 6 compartment of 1m width. After
assembly on site, the mattresses are wired together and filled to form a continuous blanket or
lining. Table below gives minimum thickness of reno mattresses for different bed soil types
and maximum water velocity.
iii) Filter Blankets

If the river bed and bank materials are non – cohesive and fine, they may be washed away
through the space between the voids in riprap or gabion lining. This can be prevented by using
textile filter or using gravel filter. The thickness of the gravel filter will be half of that of the
riprap.
iv) Vegetation
Many plant types can be used to protect river banks against erosion. The most successful ones
are almost always those found growing naturally along the river being bridged.
b) Protection Methods
i) Pier and Abutment Foundations Mass concrete foundations set on erodible soils need
protection against local scour, though they should be unaffected by general scour if the sizeof
the water way
Table 6.2 Minimum Reno mattress thicknesses

Bed soil type Maximum Minimum
Water Mattress
Velocity Thickness
(m.sec) (mm)
2 170
(a) Clays and heavy
3 230
cohesive soil
4.5 300
105
2 230
(b) Silts and fine sands
3 300
3.5 170
(c) Shingle with gravel 5 230
6 600
Is adequate. Fig 6.6 indicates the recommended position for riprap. The top of the protective
layers must not protrude above the lowest general scour level, is determined by the calculations
outlined previously. The engineer may select a suitable stone size from Fig 6.13,remembering
that local velocities can be as high as 1.5 times the mean calculated velocity through the
waterway opening.
If stone of the required size for rip rap is too expensive, gabions or Reno mattresses may be
used. The appropriate mattress thickness can be read from Table
ii) Bank protection The same guidelines apply to rip rap stone size for bank protection as
for substructure foundations. The local velocity against the slope of a bank aligned more or less
parallel to the flow may be taken as 0.7 times mean flood velocity where the channel is straight.
The local velocity at the outer bank on a severe bend may be as high as 1.5 times mean velocity.
Reno mattresses, laid with their longest dimension up the bank, provide effective protection
against bank erosion and scour in a similar manner to rip rap. Both methods may be used with
a launching apron, as shown in Fig. 6.15. Apron length la should be 1.5 times the total scour
depth as. On most river banks, grasses and shrubs grow up between the stones of rip rap and
mattresses, their roots protected by the revetment whichthey in turn help to stabilize.
Steep banks are better protected by gabion walls with the from face vertical or raked back at a
slope of about 1 in 10 (fig 6.16a) or raked back at a slope of 1:10 as shown in Fig. 6.16b
Fig 6.15 Slope revetment with a launching apron
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Fig. 6.16 Gabion Walls
6.4. Guide Walls
On meandering and braided rivers, whose widths are greater than necessary to take the flood
discharge, guide walls can be used:
- to confine the flow to a single channel – to control the angle of attack on piers and
prevent meanders encroaching on and eroding the approach roads.
A single guide wall may be sufficient when the stream can be confined to one side of a valley
possessing a natural in erodible bank (fig. 6.15a). Two guide banks are necessary when the
waterway opening is in the middle of a flood plain. The minimum width between guide walls
is the width necessary to provide the required waterway opening through the bridge. A greater
width may be preferable because it is more difficult and expensive to place an earth
embankment in flowing water than to construct it on dry land or in still water. The guide walls
should extend upstream by about three quarters of the waterway opening and downstream by
about one quarter, unless a longer length is necessary to prevent an upstream meander working
behind the guide wall and breaching the approach embankment (fig. 6.17b).
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CHAPTER 7
BEARINGS AND RAILINGS
1. Bearings
7.1.1 Introduction
Bearings are structural devices that transmit superstructure loads to the substructure and allow
for movement of the superstructure. These functions should be served without bearing stresses
in the bearings, piers / abutments and superstructure exceeding permissible stresses.
Bearings are important components of bridges and call for care in design, skill in execution,
and regular attention in maintenance. Faulty design or malfunctioning bearings due toclogging
by debris have often resulted in collapse of bridges due to the high stresses induced due to
restrained motion.
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On certain major bridges bearing cost is as high as 10-15% of the total cost. It is worth
designing carefully and inspecting regularly for maintenance.
Movements should be accommodated properly and these result from

a) longitudinal movement due to temperature changes – reversible
b) rotation due to deflection of girders – live load deflection is reversible
c) vertical movement due to settlement of supports – irreversible
d) movement due to shrinkage, creep or prestressing – irreversible
Bearings are categorized in to two as

a) Fixed bearings – fixed against translation, but free to rotate
b) Expansion bearings – free to translate and rotate
Selection of the type depends on the type of superstructure, type of substructure supports and
the length of the span
1. a simply supported span requires fixed bearing at one and expansion bearing at the
other
2. a continuous girder require fixed bearing at one and expansion bearings at all other
supports
3. a two span girder will have fixed bearing at the center support and expansion bearings
at the two abutments
7.1.2 Types of Bearings

For slab bridges no special bearings are provided because the translational movement is very
small. Edges of supports are beveled to allow for rotation.
The following are the different types of bearings for girder bridges
- Sliding plate bearing – is the simplest type of bearing. This utilizes one plate sliding
on another. This type is used for bridges up to 30m span. Flat plates were common but
due to freezing and high frictional forces the surface of the upper plate is slightly curved
as shown in Fig. 7.1a.
- Roller bearing – in this type rotation is accommodated by the pin and translation by the
use of a roller or a group of rollers (fig. 7.1b). This is used for spans of moderate length.
- Rocker bearing – this is used for longer spans and is used to accommodate large live
load deflections. (Fig. 7.1c0.
In seismic areas suitable guide should be provided to prevent the roller and rocker
components from being displaced off abutments and piers during earthquakes.
- Elastomeric bearing – is made of a polymeric substance called eleastomer. This can be

reinforced with steel plates, which is usually the case, or may be unreinforced
(Fig.7.1d). This is very strong in compression and relatively week in shear, thus
allowing horizontal displacement. This has shown good weathering performance and
so incur low maintenance cost. This type is favoured for bearings. This is used for
medium to large spans.
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- Lead rubber bearing – is an elastomeric bearing equipped with lead core (Fig.7.1e)
and is used in highly seismic areas.
7.2 Railings
Railings are provided along edges of bridges for protection of traffic and pedestrian. There
are three types of railings.
Traffic railings
Pedestrian railings
Combination railings
The following guideline indicate the application of various types of rails
Traffic railings is used when a bridge is for the exclusive use of highway traffic
A combination railing in conjunction with raised curb and sidewalk is used on low-
speed high ways.
On high-speed highways the pedestrian path should have both an out board pedestrian
railing and an inboard combination railing
Aesthetics and freedom of view from passing vehicles should also be taken in to
consideration.
7.1.2 Traffic Railings

The primary purpose of traffic railings is to contain and redirect errant vehicles. Specifically
they serve the purposes of
Primarily containing the average vehicle
Protecting the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing
Protecting other vehicles near the collision
Protecting people and property on roadway and nearby areas under neath
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a) Lead rubber bearing
Fig. 7.1 Bearings
A traffic railing should provide a smooth and continuous face on the traffic side. Steel and
concrete post should set back from the face to the rail.
hmin = 0.61m
hmin = 0.685m for concrete parapet wall
7.2.2 Pedestrian Railings

material: concrete metal, timber
hmin = 1.06m, opening ≤150mm
A pedestrian walkway should be separated from roadway by a barrier curb, traffic railing or
combination railing
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a) Traffic railings b) Pedestrian walkway
Fig. 7.2 Railings
CHAPTER 8
CULVERTS AND LOW LEVEL WATER
CROSSINGS
8.1 CULVERTS
Culverts are cross drainage works used to drain rain run off collected by side ditches from
one side of the highway to the other. In any highway or railway project, the majority of cross
drainage works fall under this category.
Where the waterway opening is less than about 15m2, and particularly where the road
crosses the waterway on a relatively high embankment, a culvert will usually be cheaper than
a bridge.
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In addition to providing culverts at the lowest point, it is good practice to install culverts
for cross drainage at regular intervals down a long grade. This avoids the necessity of building
a large culvert at the bottom of the grade and may also provide the opportunity for safer
dispersal of water in smaller mitre drains on the lower slope. The appropriate frequencyof these
cross drains is best decided on the basis of local experience and depends on gradient, soil
characteristics, intensity of rainfall and related factors. As a general rule, there should be at
least one culvert every 300m, unless the road follows a ridge. Therefore, cost of culverts
account for a significant proportion of the project cost.
Culverts may be constructed using a variety of materials from vitreous clay to glass
reinforced plastics, but the most common and cheapest forms of construction are:
- Precast concrete joined pipes
- Single or multi-cell reinforced concrete boxes, prefabricated or built in situ.
- Corrugated steel pipes made of prefabricated panels
Single precast concrete pipe culverts are commonly used for small openings up to 2m2, while
multiple concrete pipes with common headwalls cater for larger areas. Alternatively, reinforced
concrete pipes with common headwalls cater for larger areas. Alternatively,reinforced concrete
box culverts are used with internal box sizes up to 4m x 3.5m. Twin or multiple boxes may be
required for larger waterway openings. In difficult ground conditions either by increasing its
structural strength or by segmenting the culvert along its length to allow it to flex. In theory
such a solution may appear to be satisfactory, but the provision of water tight joints to permit
flexing to occur can be costly and the satisfactory performance of the joints cannot always be
guaranteed. Leakage from culverts, particularly those carrying embankments, can have serious
consequences, since weakening of the embankment material may lead to an embankment
failure. If properly constructed, a reinforced concrete culvert is likely to have a service life in
excess of 60 years and will almost certainly be more durable and require less maintenance that
a steel pipe, culvert, well protected against corrosion by plating and bitumen coating, can be
expected to have a working life in the order of 30 to 40 years in a non-aggressive environment.
It is usual to design culverts to last the life of the highway. Despite the best efforts of the
engineer, it must be expected that some culverts will become silted or obstructed by debris. For
this reason, pipes of internal diameter less then 0.6m are not recommended since they are
difficult to clean.
CULVERT HYDRAULICS
Like bridges, culverts are designed to be large enough to pass the design flood without
damage to the embankment or surrounding land. In practice this usually means limiting the
height of the flood on the upstream side. The required size of the culvert is found by calculating
the area required to permit a flow that will maintain the upstream head of water below the
critical level. The head downstream is taken to be either the design flood level before the
embankment is built or the top of the culvert, whichever is the higher.
The operating head H is defined as hu – hd
Where hu is the upstream head and hd is the downstream head.

The head, H, can then be said to equal the sum of the losses at the culvert, i.e
H=he + hf + ho
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Where he is the loss on entry, hf is the friction loss and ho is the loss at the outlet.
These losses are estimated using the velocity head:
he = ke.V2
2g
ho = ko.V2
2g
hf = F.L.V2
D.2g
Where V = flow velocity (m/sec)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/sec2)
L = culvert length (m)
D = culvert internal diameter (m)
The coefficients Ke and f depend on the entry size and shape
ko = 1.0 for all pipes
ke = 0.15 for concrete box culvert
ke can be as high as 0.9 for corrugated steel pipes projecting from the fill
ke = 0.5 for corrugated steel pipes with head walls
f = 0.016 for concrete pipes
f = 0.075 for corrugated steel pipes
EROSION CONTROL
Highway drainage ditches collect general run-off water which is cross drained using
culverts. This concentration of flow is almost certain to cause erosion damage to many types
of soil. Before or at the entrance to culverts it is important to control the flow velocity,
particularly since an abrupt change in direction of flow may occur at these point making erosion
damage more likely. Control may be achieved by reducing the gradient, installing check-drains
(Fig. 7.1b) or by building a drop inlet (Fig.7.1c). It is also important to control the velocity of
flow at the outlet, because erosion damage to the road embankment or surrounding farmland
occurs more frequently at the discharge end. For this reason, where gradients are steep, the
arrangements shown in Figs 7.1b and 7.1c are preferred to that shown in Fig. 7.1a. A curtain
wall is often necessary at the outlet of a culvert carrying more than a minimal flow, in order to
prevent scour undermining the structure. A concrete or rip rap apron may be required to
dissipate the energy of the discharge, or it may be necessary to contain the flow in a paved
channel until the natural gradient becomes small enough not to induce fast flows with
consequential depending of the channel(Fig. 7.3). Fig. 7.2 shows the most common failure of
culverts installed in soft soils, due to erosion and undermining which progress, if not checked,
to the point of embankment collapse.
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Fig. 8.1 REDUCING WATER VELOCITY THROUGH CULVERT FIG 8.2 TYPICAL
EROSION IN SOFT SOIL
115
Fig 8.3 Details of culvert with aprons and head walls
LOCATION AND ALIGNMENT
The proper location of each culvert is important because it affects the drainage pattern and
hence the strength of the surrounding soils, the area of waterway, ditch and culvert
maintenance, and erosion damage.
There are four rules concerning location and alignment of culverts

- Where a road crosses a valley, the lowest point requires a vent, whether there is an
established stream or not
- Where there is an established stream, the culvert should follow the existing alignment,
unless the alignment can be improved (Fig. 7.4)
- The gradient of the culvert should be the same as the gradient of the stream.
- Measures may be necessary to ensure that the watercourse does not move. This could
cause severe damage and the consequent change of location of the culvert would be
expensive.
The gradient of the culvert is important because it affects future maintenance. If it is too
steep, it will encourage erosion at the outlet. If it is less steep than the stream, there is likely to
be a sediment problem. A gradient of 2 to 4 per cent is advisable where silts are carried in the
flow; a minimum of 0.5 per cent is recommended for clear water. It is also important to set the
culvert invert at the same level as the natural stream bed. Culverts are frequently set low to
avoid humps in the road above, which results in silting and a consequent reduction in the
waterway. Where the road embankment is not high enough to provide adequate clearance above
the pipe, the ditch has to be lowered on both sides of the road or the embankment raised. This
may necessitate widening the side slopes and demonstrates the importance of detailing
drainage structures early in the design of a road. Where an established stream ismet at an
angle to the road alignment, it is usually better to follow the line of the stream witha skewed
culvert, even though the construction cost will be increased by the greater length. An abrupt
change in the direction of flow at the inlet and outlet of square crossing may be accommodated
without problem for most of the year, but when heavy rains cause maximum flow the change
of direction can result in severe erosion or wash-out. It may also be necessary to stabilize a
shifting channel or even move it to improve the geometry where stream and road interact. The
principal objectives here are:
- to avoid a bend at either end of the culvert if possible

- if a bend is unavoidable, to place it at the outlet
Any change of stream channel must be constructed so that there is no possibility of the
stream regaining its original course. Fig. 7.4 illustrates these principles.
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Fig. 8.4
HEADWALLS
Headwalls retain and protect the embankment at the ends of a culvert and helpto
counteract the dislocation of jointed pipes due to the spreading forces at the base of large
embankments. They also divert debris from falling into the waterway, reduce seepage of water
into the embankment and prevent small animals from burrowing alongside the pipe. Where
conditions favour erosion, headwalls should incorporate deep curtain walls and side slope
protection in the form of gabions or hand-pitched stone.
Since large headwalls are expensive to build, it is advisable initially to make the
culvert pipe long enough to reach the toe of the embankment and to monitor the effects for a
year: a small headwall may be adequate, provided that side slopes are shallow enough not to
need retaining, embankments are relatively low or one-piece pipes are employed, and there is
no build-up of water. Headwalls are usually made of masonry or concrete.
Concrete Pipe Culverts

On most road constructions, sections of concrete pipe are butted together and
connected by mortar, and the embankment material is compacted around them. This is cheap
and often serves for several years. A far better quality culvert is obtained by surrounding the
pipe with concrete. If the sub grade is likely to settle under the weight of the embankment, the
concrete surround should be reinforced to take tensile stresses.
All soft clay material and rock should be excavated from below the pipe to a depth
of at least 200mm and replaced with good granular material, well compacted.
FLEXIBLE STEEL CULVERTS
These are made from pre-formed corrugated sections bolted together to form a
circular or elliptical tube. They can accept a certain amount of longitudinal or radial
deformation without sustaining damage and so are better suited to unstable conditions than
rigid concrete structures. They are also easier to transport and faster to construct than the
equivalent size of pre-cast pipe culvert, but require specialist manufacture.
All soft unstable material should be excavated and back filled to foundation level
with gravel mixture, crushed stone or other suitable material. In the case of rock foundations,
the rock should be excavated to at least 250mm below the foundation level and
117
wide enough to prevent the pipe resting directly on rock at any point. It should then be back
filled to provide a cushion for the pipe.
Back filling will be made in layers of approximately 200mm, loading each side
evenly and fully compacting each layer before placing the next. The inside shape may need
to be protected by strutting as the fill is built up on each side and eventually above the pipe.
All the fill material should be of good quality, extending to a distance roughly
equal to the pipe diameter each side and above, or up to the road base if this distance is less.
The degree of protection against corrosion required to extend the working life of
a corrugated steel pipe structure is determined on the basis of:
- the importance of the structure and its required working life

- the corrosive nature of the environment in which is exists.
Durability studies indicate that metal loss associated with corrosion usually
originates on the interior surface of the structure and progresses towards the exterior or buried
face. The conclusion is that protective treatment to the exposed surfaces should generally be
superior to that applied to the buried surfaces. All corrugated steel structures should be hot-
dipped galvanized or treated with alu-zine and hot coated with bitumen on the inside.
Bituminous paving to the invert of the pipe will also help extend the life of the structure.
REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS
Reinforced concrete box culverts may be constructed either as a monolithic box

or as a U section with a simply supported top slab propping the sidewalls. Twin or multiple cell
box culverts are used where the horizontal opening is more that about 4m. These too may be
constructed with monolithic top slab and walls or with a separately cast lid. Culverts with
separately constructed top slabs are simpler to construct because they require lesscomplicated
steel reinforcement and, though containing more material, they generally offer a more
economical form of construction. Owing to reversal of bending moment in the wall andbottom
slab, reinforcement to both faces of these elements is required but the top slab of a single cell
culvert requires only bottom reinforcement.
For a twin box culvert with a separately cast top slab, the outer walls are again
propped apart and the centre wall may be positively located to the top slab by the provision of
dowel bars. The top slab of a twin box culvert is designed as a two span continuous beam
spanning over the central wall and requires top reinforcement in the region of the central
wall.
8.2 Low Level Water Crossings
In favourable conditions, low level water crossings can provide economical and
relatively simple alternatives to conventional bridges. These are of two basic types:
- fords and bed-level causeways
- vented causeways and submersible bridges.
Both types are appropriate for sites where traffic volumes are low or where a reasonably
short detour provides access to an all-weather bridge. For most of the year the maximum depth
of water over the carriage way should be less than 150mm. The success of
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service life of the structure will depend considerably on its hydraulic design. Fords and bed-
level causeway, like conventional bridges, will be constructed so that they cause little
interference with the design flood. Vented causeways and submersible bridges inevitably
disrupt river flow, and so are liable to sustain damage or indirectly cause scour to the river bed
or banks, which in turn may affect the road approaches to the crossing.
Since fords and bed-level causeways are overtopped by any water flowing in the river
channel there is no reason to raise the road surface above the stream bed.
Vented causeways and submersible bridges usually present a dry carriage way for ordinary
flows and are overtopped during the design flood.
The best location for a low level crossing is similar to that recommended for a
conventional bridge, with the exception that a broad, straight stretch of river will provide slower
and shallower water as well as easier road approaches. The maximum gradient for motor traffic
should be 10 per cent, and for animals 5 per cent. The change of gradient should be gradual
to prevent the underside of vehicles touching the road and to preserve long sight distances.
Equal cut and fill construction of the approach roads requires less work than the cut and remove
spoil, but the placing of the spoil in the river channel may cause scour problems during a flood.
On roads where speeds are naturally slow and where the horizontal curve on the approach side
is clearly visible, steep approaches may be relieved by diagonal descent of the river bank. Even
where the road is a single track, it is advisable to make the crossing and its approaches two
lanes in width, so as to allow traffic to pass any vehicle, which breaks down or fails to mount
the gradient.
8.2.1 Fords
Fords are the simplest form of river crossing at places where the stream is wide, shallow
and slow, the approaches gentle, and the surface firm. Improvements to the approaches are
usually confined to reducing the gradient. The running surface in the stream can be
strengthened and made more even using stones brought in and burjed just below the surface.
Alternatively, if stones are carried in the flow, these may be trapped by barriers made of
boulders, gabions or piles.
a) Boulders
Large stones placed across the river bed at the downstream side of the crossing are
claimed to filter the flow of water and retain gravel and sand, which eventually form a more
level and even surface for vehicles. However, if the stones are too large or for too high a wall
(>300mm), scour may result; if they are not heavy enough, they will be washed away at the
first flood. Fig 7.5a shows a typical cross section of a ford with downstream boulders.
b) Gabions
A more durable improvement may be made to the running surface by replacing the
boulders with gabions as shown in Fig. 7.5b. It is important that the gabions protrude no more
than 150-300mm above the natural bed level of the river, otherwise they will act as a weir and
cause heavy scour downstream of the crossing. The gabion baskets are wired together and
dropped into a prepared trench. The central gabion is filled first and, using that as an anchor,
the line of gabions is pulled taut and straightened by a chain attached to a truck or winch. This
tension is maintained while the remaining baskets are fukked. When filling iscomplete, final
adjustments are made to the top course of rock and the baskets are closed. Asan alternative to
conventional gabions, a tube basket can be made from a roll of fencing meshlaid across the bed
of the stream and filled with rock. During filling, the edges are raised and bent over at the top
to form a tube and then tied. Finally a wire tope is attached as shown in
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Fig 7.5c and securely anchored at each end. Tube baskets need to be installed in a previously
excavated trench approximately half the depth of the basket, ie 0.2 to 0.3m. After installation,
sand and gravel transported by the stream is tapped behind the basket, building up a fairly level
surface suitable for the passage of vehicles.
c) Piles
Where gabions are unobtainable, timber piles driven into the river bed with or without
stone protection make an acceptable cut-off wall (Fig. 7.5d). To be fully effective, timber piles
should have a length of about 2m, and should be placed at no more that 0.6m centers. Ifthe
river is fast flowing a continuous line of piles may be necessary. A curtain wall may be required
on the upstream as well as the downstream side if the roadbed is erodible.
Fig. 8.5 Ways of improving the running surface at a ford
8.2.2 Bed Level Causeways

Where the type of traffic or the lack of a nearby all-weather crossing justifies the
expense, a pavement may be laid on the riverbed. A paved ford is also called a bed-level
causeway. Fig. 7.6 illustrates three common designs.
To protect the pavement from scour damage, curtain walls are usually required on both sides
of the roadway and these must continue up the approaches to the height of the design flood.
It is recommended that curtain walls should be 1m deep on the upstream side and 2m deep on
the downstream side, unless rock is reached before that depth. If the bed is in erodible, the
causeway need not have curtain walls but the bed on both the upstream and downstream sides
of the crossing should be trimmed flat to reduce turbulence.
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Fig. 8.6 Bed level causeways
Fig. 8.6a shows a section through a basic bed level causeway suitable for light traffic and
maximum water flows below 2m/sec. The crossing shown in Fig. 86b requires good concrete
technology and may sustain damage to the apron that is difficult to repair. Fig. 8.6c shows a
design employing a good combination of concrete pavement with flexible protection.
Generally, a 1:2:4 concrete, by volume, is used and slabs are jointed using crack inducers every
5m.
8.2.3 Vented Causeways

Vented causeways are built where the river flow is too great for too many days in the
year to allow the traffic to cross a ford or bed level causeway. Structures like he one depicted
in Fig. 87 are designed for a design flood less than the annual flood, provided it is acceptable
that the carriageway may be overtopped for a few days each year during the annual high flood.
Since these structures present a considerable obstacle to the free flow of both an ordinary flood
and the design flood, they must be built sufficiently massive to withstand water pressure and
debris impact. They must also have scour protection where the bed is erodible, and market
posts.
121
Fig. 8.7
The vents are usually concrete or corrugated steel pipes from 0.6m to 1.0m diameter,
set in a block of concrete or masonry. Where pre-cast concrete pipes are unavailable, vaulted
masonry tunnels have proved successful. Concrete or masonry retaining walls and aprons are
needed to channel the flow and prevent.
To prevent blockage of the stream by debris or silting the pipes must be set level with
the streambed and at the same slope.
8.2.4 Submersible Bridges

Where are traffic density justifies a dry crossing of a substantial ordinary flood and
the annual high flood is much greater, a submersible bridge designed to pass the ordinary flood
but to be overtopped by the high flood will be considerably cheaper than a high level,all
weather bridge. Submersible bridges have the advantage of being able to pass a larger flow
that the vents of a causeway of the same height, but are more susceptible to damage by the
river. The overturning moment at the pier foundation becomes very large unless the piers are
kept short, and the horizontal and vertical forces on the decks require solid restraint. Because
of these difficulties submersible bridges are not recommended for any foundation other than
rock, and even then a vented causeway or conventional bridge is likely to be a more durable
alternative.
CHAPTER 9
ELEMENTS OF BRIDGE PROJECT AND
CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES
Any bridge project comprises of the following after the need for it is felt.
Appraisal
Feasibility Study
Design
Construction
After construction, there should be regular follow up, monitoring and maintenance of bridges.
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9.1. Appraisal and Feasibility Study
9.1.1 Appraisal
Is the first investigation in the project design. It consists of highway planning, site selection,
preliminary surveys, gathering general hydrological information and geological information.
From this information, the possible alternative bridge types and size can be decided.
9.2.2 Feasibility Study

Is a more detailed extension of the appraisal. The objectives of feasibility study are selection
of the final bridge site and preliminary estimates of cost for the different alternative bridge
types. It means that more details are necessary for the finally chosen bridge site. These are site
survey, hydrographic data, geotechnical data, environmental report and other pertinent
information about the selected bridge site.
a) Site Survey
Topographic profile along the center line of the bridge is required. Determination of high,
medium and low water levels is also required.
b) Hydrographical Data
This data extending over many years should be available (e.g. peak velocity of the river water).
For undeveloped area you make hydraulic study of the entire region.
c) Geotechnical Data
One or two soil borings may be sufficient at this stage. In the final design stage borings will be
made at each abutment and at each pier.
d) Environmental Report
The impact of the bridge on the landscape, and on the natural ecology should be assessed and
reported.
e) Other Data
Such patient information as the location of aggregates for concrete, the cement supply, the type
and condition of access roads, the availability of water for concrete in the vicinity of the bridge
site are important information which have a direct bearing on the cost of construction.
f) Feasibility Report
The data gathered and study made at the feasibility stage will be reported as a feasibility report.
This report help several important decisions to be made such as selection of the most suitable
bridge site, cost evaluation, comparison of different bridge types and selection of the best,
evaluation of the environmental impact of the bridge construction, and assessment of special
loads or environmental hazards.
9.2.3 Design
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Design consists of structural analysis, section design and satisfying stability requirements of
the structure and its structural components. This culminates in producing structural drawings
and material specifications.
For design additional subsoil investigations (boring at each abutment and pier location),
additional research work (like wind tunnel test for suspension bridge, aerodynamic
investigations), studies on the earthquake response of the bridge, and special connections and
bearings are required.
9.3. Construction
In the construction stage, what is on the design drawings will be put into the physical structure.
Design drawings, material and technical specifications and bill of quantities make up a contract
document that will be issued to contractors for bidding. Then the contractorthat wins the
bid will take the job. The contractor may use a construction method stipulated while preparing
the bill of quantities (of materials and tasks) or he may use his own method that may be cost
effective and that require shorter construction time. Well, this requires the approval of the
client‟s engineer.
The contractor has to carry out detailed analysis and design of the components of thestructure
(and prepare his own detailed working drawings) to avoid failure due to fabrication, handling
and erection stresses.
Before construction begins the contractor is required to prepare his work schedule andsubmit.
Bar chart may be used for small bridges and network methods (CPM or PERT) for big and
complicated bridge projects.
In carrying out the construction, human and non-human resources will be so managed so that
the construction activities conform to the schedule or the plan. The quality of the work will
be attended and approved by the client‟s engineer.
9.4. Inspection and Maintenance

9.4.1 Inspection
The construction of bridges represents a very substantial national investment, and their use
involves public safety. The service life expectancy of a bridge is 100 years. If the maintenance
is faulty and if the structures are inadequate for present day traffic and loading, the useful life
may be drastically reduced.
Though the importance of proper maintenance cannot be over-emphasized, the practice of

maintenance of bridges leave much to be desired in most cases. The obligation of assuring
bridge safety and the conservation of the national investment on bridges rests with the public
agencies that operate and maintain these bridges. In order to meet this responsibility, it is
essential to evolve and implement suitable inspection and evaluation procedures. The objective
of bridge inspection comprises the monitoring and the evaluation of the performance of each
bridge structure throughout its service life so that any deficiency in performance could be
detected and corrected early. Each State Highway Department or Railway Zonal
Administration should preferably have a separate cell for bridge inspection under the control
of an experienced bridge engineer, capable of inspecting and pinpointing any trouble area that
could cause the abandonment, replacement or repair of a bridge. Thecell should maintain
individual files on each bridge in its jurisdiction containing structural drawings, and particulars
of first construction repairs, maintenance works, inspections, etc.
124
The inspections could be classified as: (i) routine inspection; (ii) in-depth inspection and (iii)
special inspection. The routine inspection is particularly applicable to short span bridges. It
usually involves a general examination of the structure, conducted on a regular basis, to look
for obvious outward physical evidence of distress that might require repair or maintenance
attention. An in-depth inspection requires a detailed visual examination of all superstructure
and substructure elements. This is particularly necessary in the case of old bridges and
structures of major proportions where structural failure could result in catastrophic
consequence. The in-depth inspection may be scheduled once in three to five years. The special
inspection is undertaken after special events such as earthquake, cyclone or passage of
unusually heavy loads.
The common locations of deficiencies are related to foundations, bearings, floor systems, and
connections and truss members. In general, the trouble spots to be checked are: (a) deterioration
and cracks in concrete; (b) evidence of foundation settlement and movement; (c) metalwork
cracks; (d) loose connections; (e) damaged members; (f) poorly farmed structural details; (g)
indiscriminate past repairs; (h) excessive vibrations; (i) distress near expansion joints; (j)
inoperative expansion bearings; and (k) areas which have shown problems on other similar
structures.
One of the common defects in road bridge maintenance is the periodical addition of surface
dressing resulting in dead loads much in excess of original design. Other areas of neglect
include the bearings and expansion joints, which are often inoperative due to defective
maintenance. Painting of steel bridges should be attended to properly. In case of every major
bridge, the inspecting engineer should perform a Structural Integrity Examination at least once
in five years to evaluate the performance and adequacy of the entire foundation and the
structural system. In addition, the inspecting engineer should personally inspect the bridge
on the following schedule: (a) once a year for a complete inspection from foundation up; (b)
after each major flood, in case of river bridge, to examine effects of scour and changes in stream
bed and banks; (c) during one high temperature period and one low temperature period each
year to check the bearings for proper movement and joints for performance; and
(d) after each accident on the bridge, to check for damages with a view to initiate immediate
repairs.
MAJOR CAUSES
The bridge engineer should take every possible precaution to avoid failures, as seriousfailures
of bridges will often result in loss of lives, interruption of vital traffic and costly repairs. Every
bridge engineer would do well to study the circumstances leading to any bridge failure that he
may come across, so as to learn lessons from such failures. The failure may be, partial or
complete. Complete failures generally attract attention. But partial failuresalso merit careful
study to avoid recurrence of the defects.
Based on a study of 143 bridge failures that occurred throughout the world between 1847 and
1975, Smith has categorized the causes of failures as in Table below. About sixty percent of
the bridge failures listed were due to natural phenomena, i.e., due to flood, earthquake and
wind.
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FLOOD FAILURES
Almost half of the failures listed in the following table were due to floods. The precaution
BARGE IMPACT
Damages to bridges across navigable river caused by barges or ships are on the increase. The
vessels may be adrift or may hit the piers under power. The damage to the bridge can be
minimized by providing properly designed protective fendering. When potential damage due
to barge impact exists, it is prudent not to use pile foundation with exposed piling above the
river bed. In such cases, sturdy well foundation with protective fendering will bedesirable.
There is scope for research study into the distribution of the energy due to impact causing
damage to the vessel, the protective fendering and the bridge.
FALSEWORK FAILURES
Failures of false work can result in loss, injury, death and interruption to traffic as much as
bridge collapse. The problem of avoiding false work failures is not easy to solve because of
many economic and administrative problems. Falesework is a temporary structure designed
and erected to last long enough to support the final structure during construction. Traditionally,
this has been left to the contractor and as an economic necessity, the formwork construction
needs to use secondhand materials to the extent possible, thus lacking the finesse of a finely
designed structure. With increased spans of our bridges, falsework design has become more
complicated. The bridge falsework design should be prepared by a competent engineer, should
be checked by the governmental engineers and its erection should be under proper supervision.
Immediately prior to and during the placing of concrete, the constructed falsework should be
carefully checked for joint fits, bracing, stiffness, overturning
126
possibilities, and foundation settlement and general adequacy. By improved methods of
construction and constant vigilance, we can avoid falsework failures.
DESIGN WEAKNESSES
Bridge failures due principally to design weakness are relatively few. According to Silby and
Walker, failures due to weakness in design follow a 30-year cycle, as evidenced by the
following examples: Dee bridge (1847), Tay bridge (1879), Quebec bridge (1907), Tacoma
Narrows bridge (1940) and the steel box girder bridges including West Gate bridge (1970).
In each of these cases, a factor, which was originally of secondary importance, became with
increasing scale, of primary importance and led to failure.
EARTHQUAKE FAILURES
Several types of failures have been noticed during earthquakes. A common failure way by slab
shortening. As abutments and piers moved together, some decks buckled, some were crushed
and some collapsed. Another type was the horizontal displacement of piers due to movement
of piles in liquefied soils subjected to lateral loading. A third type involved differential
settlement of piers and abutments due to differences in soil characteristics due to liquefaction.
Column failures by crushing of concrete due to ex-treme torsion have been noticed. In some
cases, decks slid off their supports due to violent shaking. Liquefaction of approach fills have
resulted in settlement of fills in relation to abutments, causing accidents tomotor vehicles by
impact against the abutment backwall.
Several preventive measures have been suggested. Heavier and closer spaced spiral
reinforcement should be provided for columns. Such reinforcement would retain the concrete
in the core and prevent collapse. Restraint should be provided at expansion joints and
articulations such that ordinary expansion due to temperature is permitted but larger
movements under earthquake are restrained. No splices are to be allowed in columns of less
than 9m height, as lapped splices of column bars have been found to be useless under
earthquakes. Approach slab with one end resting on abutment should be provided to permit a
smooth transition in case of settlement of approaches due to liquefaction of the fill.
FAILURES DUE TO WIND

Bridge failures have occurred due to wind. Major examples include the collapse of the Tay
bridge in 1879, and Chester bridge over Mississippi in 1944. Tay bridge failed due to aerostatic
instability, as the design did not include provisions for wind forces.
Tacoma Narrows first bridge failed in 1940 due to aerodynamic instability. The recurrence
of these type of failures is avoided in recent designs through streamlining the deck and adequate
stiffening. Chester bridge was blown off into the river during a tornado. While very little can
be done to save a structure from the attack of a severe tornado the damage can be minimized
by providing proper anchorage of the deck with the substructures.
FATIGUE AND CORROSION
127
Fatigue may be defined as the gradual weakening of a structure due to repetitive loading and is
accompanied by spreading of crack. If the steel is corroded at the tip of the crack, progression
of the crack is accelerated. An example of fatigue failure is the collapse of the Point Pleasant
bridge (eye bar suspension bridge) in 1957 due to fracture at the pinhole of a single eye bar.
Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete bridge may lead to spalling of concrete and may render
the bridge unsafe for modern traffic. Potential damage due to corrosion in a backwaterarea can
be prevented only by careful attention to concrete cover to reinforcement, by proper placement
and compaction of concrete to avoid honeycombing, and by proper curing with potable water.
Special care should be devoted to grouting prestressing cable soon after stressing so as to avoid
corrosion of the prestressing tendons. Delayed grouting and inadequate grouting of tendons
may contribute to the failure of prestressed concrete bridges.
128

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Fundamentals of Bridge Design Lecture Note

1.1 General Introduction

1- Deck and overpass 2- Stringer(longitudinal beams) 3-Bearing 4- Pedestal

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types

Cross section of solid slab bridge

Slab Stringer bridge: example is temcha river bridge

Photo of whole bridge

Part side view view from underneath

Abay bridge on Goha Tsion – Dejen road

West Lilac overpass arch bridge, California, USA

Truss arch - New River Gorge bridge

New Orleans through truss bridge

Brooklyn bridge, Newyork city

Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan Suspension bridge

Four level directional interchange:

Interchange, San Diego California

Fig. 1.1. Development of Bridges

The following roads were constructed by Italians during this period:

Historical Development of Bridge Construction in Ethiopia

1.4 Elements of a Bridge Project

1.5 Design Objectives

The different limit states may be defined now

 The proposed road alignment

2.2. Site selection

2.2.1 Preliminary Survey

Several computer programs are available. An example is a computer program developed in

2.3. Site Investigation

High-water marks or profiles and related frequencies.

2.3.1. Catchment Area and Run off Data

Table 2.1 Distance to be covered by contour plans

2.3.3. River Survey

Q=C*An, Q=C*A Ryve‟s formula …. (2.1)

2.3.4. Soil Investigation

2.4.1 Economical Span

2.4.2 Hydraulic Requirements

2.4.3 Location of Piers

2.4.4 Free Board

2.4.5 Grade Requirements

Material Load path characteristics

By material of construction, bridges can be classified as steel, concrete, timber or aluminum

It is customary to identify bridges as short-span, medium-span, and long-span depending on

3.1.1 Classification by Structural Form

Table 3.1 Span lengths for various types of superstructures

Fig. 3.2 Orthotropic deck bridge

Fig. 3.3 Through truss bridge

Fig. 3.4 Constant depth truss bridges

d) Rigid Frame Bridges

Arches can be classified different ways

g) Cable Stayed Bridges

Classification by Span Types

Simple span bridges – are suitable for short spans

Classification by Load – Path Characteristics

One-dimensional systems – slab bridges. These are one-way slabs

Classification by Position for Movable Bridges

Classification based on Life Span of Bridges

Permanent bridges – bridges that serve for a longer period of time

Combination and Double-Deck Bridges

3.2. Selection of Bridge Type

3.2.1 Factors to be considered in Selection

a) Geometric Conditions of the Site

b) Subsurface Conditions of the Site

e) Economics and ease of Maintenance

Q=CAn, Q=CA Ryve‟s formula …. (2.1)