Writing

BES-144
Pedagogy of English
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Education
Block
4
TEACHING WRITING AND GRAMMAR
UNIT 15
Developing Writing Skills 7
UNIT 16
Different Types of Writing 21
UNIT 17
Assessing Writing Ability 48
UNIT 18
Teaching Grammar (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess 59
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. I. K. Bansal (Chairperson) Prof. Anju Sehgal Gupta
Former Head, Department of Elementary School of Humanities,
Education, NCERT, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Shridhar Vashistha Prof. N. K. Dash (Director)
Former Vice-Chancellor School of Education
Lal Bahadur Shastri Sanskrit IGNOU, New Delhi
Vidhyapeeth, New Delhi
Prof. Parvin Sinclair Prof. M. C. Sharma
Former Director, NCERT (Programme Coordinator- B.Ed.)
School of Sciences, School of Education
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Aejaz Mashih Dr. Gaurav Singh

Faculty of Education, (Programme Co-coordinator-B.Ed.)
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi School of Education
IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Pratyusha Kumar Mandal
DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
SPECIAL INVITEES (FACULTY OF SOE)

Prof. D. Venkateshwarlu Dr. Bharti Dogra
Prof. Amitav Mishra Dr. Vandana Singh
Ms. Poonam Bhushan Dr. Elizabeth Kuruvilla
DR. Eisha Kannadi Dr. Niradhar Dey
Dr. M. V. Lakshmi Reddy
Course Coordinator : Ms. Poonam Bhushan

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM
Course Writers Content & Language Editing
Ms. Sarita Manuja Prof. Anju Sehgal Gupta
Director, Center for Assessment Evaluation School of Humanities,
IGNOU, New Delhi
and Research (CAER), New Delhi
Ex Principal, Apeejay School, Format Editing
Sheikh Sarai, New Delhi
Ms. Poonam Bhushan
Dr. Aarti Mujumdar School of Education
Formerly with MS University, Baroda IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Shefali Ray Format Editing

Formerly with SCERT, New Delhi Ms. Poonam Bhushan
Ms. Gopa Majumdar School of Education
IGNOU, New Delhi
Deputy Director
Formerly with NIOS
PRINT PRODUCTION
Prof. Saroj Pandey Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam
Director Assistant Registrar (Publication)
SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
April, 2017
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2017
ISBN: 978-81-266-
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from
the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by the
Director, School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Laser Typeset : Rajshree Computers, V-166A, Bhagwati Vihar, Uttam Ngr. (Near Sec.-2, Dwarka),
N.D.59
Printed at :
BES-144 PEDAGOGY OF ENGLISH
Block 1 Instructional Planning in Teaching of English
Unit 1 Nature, Need and Objectives of English as a
Second Language
Unit 2 The Language Learner
Unit 3 Approaches, Methods and Techniques in
English Language Teaching
Unit 4 Daily Lesson Plans and Strategies for
Classroom Transaction
Unit 5 Monitoring Instruction - The Reflective Teacher
Block 2 Listening Comprehension and Speaking

Unit 6 Teaching Listening-I
Unit 7 Teaching Listening-II
Unit 8 Teaching Speaking Skills
Unit 9 Speaking Activities
Unit 10 Assessing Listening and Speaking
Block 3 Reading Comprehension

Unit 11 Reading Comprehension-I
Unit 12 Reading Comprehension-II
Unit 13 Teaching Literary Texts-I
Unit 14 Teaching Literary Texts-II
Unit 15 Teaching Vocabulary
Block 4 Teaching Writing and Grammar

Unit 16 Developing Writing Skills
Unit 17 Different Types of Writing
Unit 18 Assessing Writing Ability
Unit 19 Teaching Grammar (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classes
BLOCK 4 TEACHING WRITING AND
GRAMMAR
Block Introduction
Recent research on writing has provided us with an important insight: good
writers go through certain processes which lead to successful pieces of
written work. “They start off with an overall plan in their heads. They think
about what they want to say and who they are writing for. They then draft
out sections of the writing, and as they work on them, they are constantly
reviewing, revising, and editing their work”. (Hedge, 1988 p 9). It is
considered useful to enable out learners to engage in this ‘process’ rather
than worry about the ‘product’. For, they should learn how to go about the
process of writing, rather than what the end product should be. If the
process is proper, the product will take care of itself. The first unit discusses
the theme of writing as a process.
The second unit looks at specific types of writing, which are required to
teach at school. Research in writing is quite advanced today; interesting
materials on teaching composition are being published almost every other
day. With proper guidance, you could use them in your classes. They are
sure to make the classes lively and useful. The unit, looks at non-traditional
types of writing – diaries, form-filling, information transfer, etc. as well as
traditional types like paragraphs, essays and letters. We shall first discuss
the salient features, if any, of these types of writing and then present a few
samples of new types of tasks. You could try these tasks in your classes.
Later you could design similar tasks on your own. You could also use/adapt
tasks from the reference material noted at the end of this unit.
The comes out with the following implications for the teachers undertaking
assessment third unit focuses on assessment of writing and:
 A teacher has to play several roles as guide, facilitator, and vigilant
scorer.
 Not all writing work should be awarded grades or marks.
 Students feel motivated if they understand the basis on which marks are
awarded and are involved in the assessment procedure in informal
situations/daily classroom situations.
 A code of correction coupled with detailed comments can help motivated
learners.
 A range of tasks demanding different registers, language use, methods
of development should be used to assess students.
 No internal choice in items should be given while students are being
assessed.
 Specific situations, writing contexts and clear instructions should be
given with each and every writing task.
 Impressionistic and Analytic methods of marking have their own
advantages and disadvantages.
 Analytic marking, though time consuming, is more reliable.
The last Unit is on teaching grammar. Most of us do not have very pleasant
memories of grammar classes during our school days. Except for the few
gifted grammar ‘whiz kids’ who reveled in grammar, the average students
generally used to dread, if not hate grammar. Perhaps this is due to the
traditional approach to teaching grammar. The general pattern was to present
the rules of grammar first, followed by a number of exercises which were
mechanical and monotonous. Further, even if the students were able to do
all the exercises correctly, there was no guarantee that they would be able
to read and write English well solely based on their mastery of grammar. In
other words we can say that the emphasis was on teaching of formal grammar.
Formal grammar refers to theoretical grammar in which all the grammatical
rules are taught irrespective of the fact whether they are of wider application
or not. Emphasis is laid on learning definitions and in acquiring terminology.
Recently there has been a lot of rethinking on teaching of grammar and the
stress is more on functional grammar. In the last unit we discuss interesting
and enjoyable ways to teach grammar to advance learners.
Teaching Writing and Grammar
6
UNIT 16 DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS
Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction — What is Writing?
16.2 How is Writing Different from Speech?
16.3 Creating a Natural Learning Environment for Writing
16.4 Writing as Process
16.5 Writing as a Holistic Activity
16.6 Feedback Through Writing Conferences
16.7 Let Us Sum Up
16.8 Suggested Readings
16.9 Answers
16.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit is aimed at raising teachers’ awareness about:
 What is writing?
 How does it differ from speech?
 How do we assist students to write well?
 The need for students to go through the process of writing.
 Writing as a holistic activity.
16.1 INTRODUCTIONWHAT IS WRITING?

Learning to read and write is a process of experiencing language. Children
learn to talk in a language by participating in communicative interactions.
They receive feedback about what they have said. They discover whether
their meaning has been understood. They learn to refine their language to be
able to convey their meaning adequately to a particular audience. Once a
child has begun to communicate orally in a language, writing can be
introduced.
Writing is the physical expression of what you think. The close relationship
between writing and thinking makes writing valuable. As young children
struggle with what to put down next, or how to put it down on paper, they
often discover a new way of expressing an idea. Sometimes they rethink the
idea itself. It allows the writer time to look at, as well as reflect upon
thoughts, ideas, feelings or experiences. This is important since there is a
degree of permanence about writing. It is something you can go back to. The
child also begins to realize the power of written words, as vehicles which
communicate our thoughts to others. S/he discovers the real need to find the
right word or construct a correct sentence. Often it is indicative of a search
for meaning and reveals the amount the child knows. Thus writing is closely 7
Teaching Writing and Grammar related to the inner processes within a child’s mind i.e. the internal
manipulation of external experiences. In addition to this, writing reinforces
the grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary that we have been teaching
our children.
Most writing by young children can be considered as encoded speech i.e.
residual images of experiences are stored within a child’s mind and are
transformed into inner speech. This is then transliterated into a graphic
form which is writing. Initially children communicate their experiences and
ideas in a variety of ways such as through talking, through actions or through
drawings. Writing which is a sophisticated, abstract and complex symbol
system gradually gains importance, as the child grows older.
Check Your Progress 1

1. Why is writing thought to be a creative activity?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Discuss any two definitions of ‘writing’, as per your understanding.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3. What are the difficulties in teaching listening?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
4. What are the different ways parents and teachers can model good
listening behaviour to encourage children to listen?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
16.2 HOW IS WRITING DIFFERENT FROM

SPEECH?
Why is it that to a large number of students in India, writing in English
seems to pose great problems? Possibly for the same reasons that large
numbers of adult native speakers as well never achieve a high level of
expressiveness in writing their first language. It is partly to do with the
nature of writing itself. Harold Rosen (1981), writing about a school’s
curriculum project on writing in Britain, explained it in this way:
8
“The writer is a lonely figure cut off from the stimulus and corrective pressure Developing Writing Skills
of listeners. He must be a predictor of reactions and act on his predictions.
He writes with one hand tied behind his back, being robbed of gesture. He
is robbed too of the tone of his voice and the aid of clues the environment
provides. He is condemned to monologue; there is no one to help out, to fill
the silences, put words in his mouth, or make encouraging noises.”
As Rosen points out, the differences between writing and speech are:
 Writing is detached from the wide range of expressive possibilities
in speech.
 A writer is unable to exploit all the devices available to a speaker:
gesture, body movement, facial expression, pitch and tone of voice,
stress, and hesitations.
 A speaker can backtrack, or clarify and revise ideas as listeners
question or disagree. A writer has to compensate for all of those
disadvantages.
 Compared with speech, effective writing requires a number of things:
 a high degree of organization in the development of ideas and
information;
 a high degree of accuracy so that there is no ambiguity of meaning;
 the use of complex grammatical devices for focus and emphasis;
 and a careful choice of vocabulary, grammatical patterns, and
sentence structures to create a style which is appropriate to the
subject matter and the eventual readers.
It is these demands which present particular problems to foreign writers of

English, Even those who are proficient writers in their first language have
to acquire a wide language base from which to make these choices. They
may also find that confusing differences exist between the conventions of
writing in their first language and English. For example, the level of formality
or patterns of presenting information in letters may differ, or the accepted
method of setting out arguments in discursive writing may vary. We need to
be sensitive to all these factors when our learners attempt their writing tasks.
16.3 CREATING A NATURAL LEARNING

ENVIRONMENT FOR WRITING
If the writing process is to develop naturally, then it is important to allow
some mother tongue usage until such time as when a child has enough
mastery over the second language to not require the mother tongue. The
policy of “speak in English only” is not found to be conducive to learning
naturally. The transition is gradual, and if we do not allow children to use
the mother tongue we might completely block the children from being able
to express themselves. We need to facilitate the transition by providing
suitable vocabulary or structures, as well as motivating children by creating
a real need to communicate in the second language. This can be done by
providing a secure and stimulating natural environment for language learning. 9
Teaching Writing and Grammar In order to create a non-threatening and conducive atmosphere in the
classroom so that children feel free to express themselves, the following
guidelines may be useful.
Some suggestive guidelines:
 We need to build our writing programme and the classroom environment
around the child’s need to convey something to a recipient audience.
The primary drive for wanting to write comes from the need to
communicate or convey an idea. In the process of exchanging written
interactions, the child learns to understand other people’s writings.
 We need to understand the importance of experimentation and risk-
taking in the process of learning to write. In an environment where
children are not anxious about making mistakes, they explore the
language in various ways. Through invented spelling, imitation of adult
writing and their own inner drives, children step into unfamiliar language
areas. As they use the language, as they write and speak and read it,
they become better equipped - they acquire new linguistic abilities.
Their mistakes help a teacher to provide the formal instructions they
need.
 We need to understand that children progress in different ways and
at different paces. Each child brings to his/her writing a rich background
of experience. Whether a literate background at home supports this
experience, or whether the child comes from an oral tradition will
influence the child’s writing.
 We need to support children’s experiments with the new language,
watching for conventions as they creep into their writing. Children must
feel comfortable exploring the written form of the second language.
They must relate to it and feel a sense of ownership about their writing,
without being afraid to make mistakes. It is through this that each
learner discovers the strategies that allow him/her to be an effective
language user. Every time a teacher sets a topic, asks for a particular
rhetorical form or expects accurate spelling and punctuation to take
precedence over meaning, s/he is not giving children the opportunity
for experiencing and experimenting with the language.
 Children need to be gently led into the arena of writing in the second
language. Since most children-are reluctant to take risks and experiment
with an unfamiliar language, the teacher should design or mould writing
activities which begin within a structured framework. Gradually as the
child acquires competence over the lexical and syntactic structure of the
second language, more open-ended communicative activities should be
taken up. Use of the mother tongue should also be allowed with gradual
insistence on second language usage as the child becomes more confident.
 We need to recognize the importance of having audience respond to
what the child has written. Writing involves a constant sharing with
others; talking and sharing about ideas and getting a feedback on whether
those ideas have worked or not. Children need to write for many different
purposes. They need to write for a real audience - for themselves, for
the examiner, for both younger and older children, for adults they know
10 and for some general unknown audience as well.
 We need to provide demonstrations of what is involved in being a Developing Writing Skills
writer. In order to help children develop as writers, we need to share
in the writing process by being writers ourselves. By providing
demonstrations of writing in action, by being partners in their writing
process, we do more to help children figure out how to be writers in this
way than all our correcting of their mistakes can ever hope to do.

1. Which factors contribute to a conducive learning environment for
writing?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. What are the two most important features in learning to write? What
can a teacher do to promote an interest in the children to write?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
16.4 WRITING AS A PROCESS

Much of the research and academic work in the field of writing has begun
to recognize that writers follow a process when they work, just as scientists
follow a systematic method. When we begin to understand this process we
can help our students invent, use and adapt effective writing strategies (Murray
1982, Graves 1991). Yet in most of our language classrooms we tend to only
look at the end products of writing. We look at the end product in isolation.
It has very little to do with the child. We expect the child to produce a
perfect piece of writing in one sitting. We do not allow them the process of
revising, improving, rethinking about their writing. As adults we always
write a draft, then rework it, maybe once or twice, we ask for a feedback
from others. It’s only after this whole process that we produce a final piece
of writing. Removing the writing from the process of development does not
help children to become actively involved with their writing.
Theorists have defined the writing process as different steps or stages that
a writer goes through to produce a piece of writing. Broadly speaking these
are the stages of prewriting, writing and rewriting, editing and then producing
the final piece of writing. Murray refers to these as rehearsal, drafting,
revision and editing. Each stage is important. There are different skills
required at each stage, and children need to go through each stage under the
guidance of the teacher. The stages however do not occur in the linear order
given above, there maybe overlaps.
In brief, the process of writing contains a number of stages which can be
represented in the following figure:
Being Getting Planning Making Making Revising Editing and
motivated ideas and notes a first replanning getting ready for
to write together outlining draft redrafting publication
11
Teaching Writing and Grammar However, the figure oversimplifies matters because, although writing in
general involves these stages, the process of composition is not a linear one,
moving from planning to composing to revising and to editing. It would be
more accurate to characterize writing as a recursive activity in which the
writer moves backwards and forwards between drafting and revising, with
stages of replanning in between. As Shaugnessy (1977) describes it, it is ‘a
messy process that leads to clarity’.
The process of writing is often described as consisting of three major activities
or groups of activities:
Pre-writing
It involves two main areas of concern:
a. What is the purpose of this piece of writing?
The writer must know the purpose of his/her writing i.e. is s/he writing
a report for action? or is it a letter of invitation to some friend or a
formal letter to the Principal or a letter applying for job. Identification
of the purpose of writing would determine the choice of organization
and the style of the written piece.
b. Who am I writing for?
This question directly relates itself to the audience; the reader may be
an acquaintance or an intimately known friend or a group of colleagues
or an institutional head and so on. The information about the audience
helps the writer to determine what to say and how to present the writing
in the most appropriate style.
The good writer generally plans for writing at this stage, though the
amount of planning varies as per the following scale:
A letter of An academic
complaint to paper for
a manufacturer publication in
a journal
A post card A memo to

to a family a colleague
member or requesting
close friend action
Writing and rewriting

The second phase of activity is the writing itself and with good writers this
consists of making a first draft. But writing the first draft is often interrupted
as the writer stops to read over and review, to get an idea of how the text
is developing, to revise plans, and bring in new ideas or rearrange those
already expressed. There is a good deal of recycling in the process from
planning to drafting, reviewing, replanning, reviving, etc. Good writers tend
to concentrate on getting the content right first and leave details like correcting
spelling, punctuation, and grammar until later.
12
In summary, the drafting process focuses primarily on what the writer wants Developing Writing Skills
to say, while redrafting progressively focuses on how to say it most effectively.
Editing
The post writing stage consists of reading through and trying to apply a
reader’s perspective in order to assess how clearly readers might follow the
ideas. The editing process makes the final readjustments and checks accuracy
so that the text is maximally accessible to the reader. Some lazy writers tend
not to engage in editing but assume that their writing is clear to others
because it is clear to them. Alternatively, some writers may concentrate
throughout the whole writing process on accuracy in grammar, punctuation
etc., without considering whether or not the overall structure is clear. They
continually move from drafting to editing without any in-between stages of
rethinking and reorganization. It is a less-than-effective process that might
well be unwittingly encouraged by teachers whose strategy for marking is to
correct only minor problems on the surface of the writing without commenting
on any major problems in structure. This is an understandable strategy on
the part of teachers, given the amount of marking most of us have to do.
How can the teacher help?
 Teacher can help to raise awareness of the process of composition by
talking explicitly about the stages of writing as well as by restructuring
tasks to take account of this.
 Teacher can play a support role during the early stages of the writing
process by helping students to get their ideas together. This can be done
by talking about things to generate ideas, by pooling information, ideas,
or opinions in the class, by working from pictures, or by reading texts
of various kinds.
 Teacher can also provide good models for writing indirectly, by
encouraging good reading habits, but also directly, when appropriate, by
analyzing textual structure, particularly with some type of more formal
academic writing.
 Planned activities structured by the teacher can help students to develop
a sense of direction in their writing, though they should always be
encouraged to regard a plan as an enabling device or support rather than
as a rigid structure.
 Teachers can encourage the drafting process by creating a workshop
atmosphere in their classrooms, to the extent of providing rough paper,
scissors, paste, erasers, etc. And while monitoring writing in progress,
they can suggest that these are used for chopping and changing the
structure of the text. Teachers can support the drafting process in various
ways. They can intervene quietly, questioning and advising, in order to
help students get their ideas down on paper in English. Or they can
encourage students to read each other’s work and suggest restructurings
and revisions. Giving help during writing proves far more effective than
giving it afterwards. The advent of the word processor in institutions
that can afford the technology has great potential for encouraging students
to develop revision strategies. Rewriting is more motivating when it
can be done quickly, easily, and relatively painlessly by moving pieces 13
Teaching Writing and Grammar of the text around. Alternatives can be evaluated and improvements
immediately appreciated on the display screen.
 Students need opportunities to engage in writing as a holistic process of
composition. This means that they need practice in writing whole pieces
of communication, not just controlled exercises in sentence structure,
grammar, or bits and pieces of paragraph development. These activities
have their place, as students need to be accurate in their writing, but
they are not sufficient in themselves.
In summary, the classroom needs to provide an environment in which students
can experience being writers, thinking about the writing purpose and their
audience, drafting a piece of writing, revising it, and sharing it with others.

1. How would you define the Writing process?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Make a cyclic diagram to represent the different stages of the process
of writing.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
16.5 WRITING AS A HOLISTIC ACTIVITY

What needs to be done to make writing meaningful is to tap the children’s
natural urge to write. When we begin to work with inexperienced writers
like our students writing in their second language, our first concern is to get
them to produce written language. Frequent opportunity for writing is the
single most common recommendation for increasing the fluency of writers.
The more the children write, the freer they get, and the less they worry
about making spelling mistakes and errors.
To try and be able to do this in a class of forty to fifty children, with each
one demanding attention, is a very challenging task.
It is often a good idea to divide the students into smaller groups of four to
six students. The teacher must give clear instructions and then move from
group to group helping and supporting wherever required.
A calendar of experiences needs to be worked out and planned within the
timetable. The writing tasks can be linked up with other subject areas and
project work. In fact, to genuinely, achieve improvement in the writing
ability, a daily time slot of 45 minutes to one hour should be included in the
timetable and this should reach across the curriculum.
An example of students working together in a writing class is reproduced
below. Trial it in your class and work out your own observations on the
14 extent of success it meets or should meet.
Lesson outline — Collaborative Writing Developing Writing Skills
Introduction:
The purpose: This is not a model class to be emulated. It is only a trial of
an idea and is open to critical observation, analysis and discussion.
Lesson Outline
A B C
Stages Teacher instructions Remarks
I. Have you ever been annoyed/ Examples: fairly empty
(2 minutes) Have you ever been annoyed/ buses not stopping at
irritated by certain things bus-stops while you
around you? wait; inconsiderate
Can there be solutions to neighbours; loud-
these irritations? speakers at all times
Can you suggest some? speakers at all times
of the day and
night (invite initial
suggestions from
the class).
II. Get into groups. Individually Four or six (not more
(3 minutes) list the things (at least 3, but as than six members to
many as you want to) that have a group.)
always annoyed you deeply.
III. Share with the others in the
(3 minutes) group things that you have
listed. Listen carefully to one
another.
IV. Choose as a group: Two things
(2 minutes) that seem most serious, and for
which you need solutions.
V. Work in the group and write
(5 minutes) down two or three solutions
for each of these two problems
that you have chosen for your
group. Share each one of your
solutions and discuss their
merits. Which one of them
are the best solutions?
VI. Together as a group write out Facilitator to write on
(10 your group’s choice of Things the blackboard:
minutes) that annoy us as a short text 1. Problem: [One thing
under headings as given on the that annoys your group)
black board. 2. Examples:
[Samples from your
group’s experiences)
3. Your feelings about
this: (How strongly you
feel; how justified you
think you are)
4. Suggestions for
solving the problem. 15
VII. Exchange your draft with the Group A to Group B to
(5 minutes) group sitting next to you. Ask Group C to Group D to
them to read your draft, discuss Group A
and write comments about it in
the margin. In turn, comment on
the draft you have received from
the group next to you.
Group A to Group B to
VIII. Take back your draft and give Total 32 minutes with a
(2 minutes) your neighbour’s draft back. lee-way of eight minutes
Read the comments given on comments making up
your draft. Discuss. Are they for a forty minute class.
useful comments? Will they help
you re-draft?
IX. Write a second draft of your
(15 minutes) text incorporating what your group
thinks are valid comments received
from your peers. At the end discuss
who you will send this text to:
Letter to the newspaper? Any other
concerned party? A small snippet
for a newspaper?
16.6 FEEDBACK THROUGH WRITING

CONFERENCES
As the children work on their writings, the teacher discusses with them
either individually or in small groups (depending upon the class size) the
writing in progress. Through these discussions or “conferences” the teacher
discusses the organization of ideas, or s/he might help to extend the child’s
thinking about the topic. The teacher asks questions and makes comments
that encourage the child to keep on writing. The teacher might make comments
such as:
 Tell me more about what you are saying here.
 When you told me about your experience (journey, etc.) there were lots
of details, but you haven’t written very many of those details.
 Would you like to add anything?
 Are you happy with this part?
 What did you have in your mind when you wrote this sentence?
The questions the teacher asks, elicit an understanding in the child of his/
her own process. These would be questions like:
 How did you decide on this particular topic?
 Is there some other information you’d like to put in?
16  What else are you planning to put in?

 What questions do you think your readers might ask? Developing Writing Skills
 Do your readers have enough details to be able to feel, think?

 Are there places where you feel the reader might be misled?
 Have you chosen the most important aspects of your topic?
 How could you stress these and put other things into the background?
 What are you going to do next?
 Do you think the topic you have chosen is working?
 Where did it not work so well?
 Where did you have problems?
The teacher helps the child-author by asking questions which leave the final
decisions of what to do, how to change, where to rewrite, to the child. The
teacher helps children to become -conscious creators” of their writings. It is
useful for the teacher to sometimes have conferences with some children in
front of the whole class. As children watch the teacher discuss children’s
writings with them, they learn how to look at each other’s work and have
peer-conferencing. While conducting a conference, the teacher has an
opportunity to help the child consider what has been written and think of
ways to expand or improve the piece if desired. This is done best by focusing
on the meaning and clarity of the story rather than the mechanics of writing.
Another benefit of the writing conference is that the children begin to model
the same behaviour and questions that the teacher has demonstrated. Once
children have acquired a certain degree of functional competency say by
class five, they can begin to have peer conference or small group conference.
They read or listen to each other’s work for appreciation and to raise questions
for clarification or to make suggestions for improvement. It is amazing how
quickly some children learn to respond constructively and positively to one
other’s writings. There are however, always some classes where the group
dynamics and personality clashes take over, and children respond more on
the basis of personal likes and dislikes, rather than the actual writing itself.
These are all the ground realities that a teacher has to be ready for. Ultimately,
it is really for the teacher to decide whether the particular group of children
is ready to take up peer conferencing. In the beginning a child is satisfied
with what s/he has written and does not want to rewrite. As children go
through whole class writing and rewriting, they begin to absorb the process.
They want to apply it to their own writing. It is only when they have reached
this stage that ‘conferencing’ has a purpose. Most teachers improve their
conferencing techniques with experience. There is no “right way” since each
child and each teacher is different. Some children are very sensitive about
their writing and need to be treated carefully.
16.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we examined the various stages of the writing process. After
children have been equipped with the basic knowledge and techniques of
process writing, they will be ready to explore various forms of writing with
alacrity and confidence. We have taken you through a sample of how the 17
Teaching Writing and Grammar process approach can be transacted in the writing class. We have also looked
at the teacher’s role at each stage, and the kind of support the teacher needs
to provide. We are aware of the challenges of process writing in a large
class. It is ultimately the teacher’s own convictions and beliefs that become
the driving force of this programme.
16.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Krashen, S.D. Writing Research : Theory and Application. Oxford: Pergamon,
1984.
Hedge, Tricia. Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Murry, Donald M. Learning By Teaching. Upper Montclair, N.J:Boynton/
Look Publishers, 1982.
Write to Learn. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1984.
Graves, Donald H. Writing: Teachers and Children at Work. Portsmouth
NH: Heinemann Education Books, 1983.
Calkins, Lucy M.The Art of Teaching Writing. Heinemann Educational Books,
1986. Newman, Dr. Judith. The Craft of Children’s Writing. Scholastic
Professional Books, 1984. Smith, Frank. Writing and the Writer. New York:
Holt Rinehart and Winston. Elbow, Peter. Writing with Power: Techniques
for Mastering the Writing Process. New York: Oxford University Press,
1981.
16.9 ANSWERS
1. Writing is thought to be a creative activity because:
i) Writers processes information according to their experience
ii) It is a thinking process
iii) It is transliteration of thought process into graphic form
2. One possible definition:
Writing is an extended piece of work through which an individual
expresses, on paper, his/her thoughts or ideas in a logical sequence. A
written piece usually has a specific format to follow; it is written with
a purpose and with a reader in mind
1. Fluent and effective written communication can take place in an
environment where children can risk exposing their real lives. Where
the act of telling what one is really thinking and feeling is treated with
the utmost respect. Where children are not afraid and anxious about
making mistakes and are being constantly guided to learn from their
mistakes.
In such a writing environment there is –
18
 acceptance Developing Writing Skills
 open-communication
 absence of stress
 loads of stimulation through displays, activities, and meaningful
experience.
2. The two most important features are time and support.
Learning to write well requires time. It requires writing frequently,
preferably every day. Writing must have a chance to grow – to change,
to be revised. The ability to use standard grammatical forms and standard
usage does not develop in a day or two; it takes months and months of
constant usage. Good writing involves integrating thinking and language
with the purpose of writing.
Writing also requires support. Teachers can offer support in the following
ways –
i. Talking to children about the content of their writing — before, during
and after the actual writing has taken place. This helps children to
clarify their thoughts.
ii. Providing meaningful experience which stimulate ideas for writing.
iii. Providing a real audience as well as real reasons for writing. This
makes it worth while for students to improve their writing.
iv. Helping children choose topics, by getting them to write about things
they know and care about. This helps a child to discover his/her own
voice as a writer.
v. Relating the study of punctuation, spelling, language conventions to
language use. Standard usage and editing skills are best learnt when
their study relates to a communicative purpose.
vi. Sharing the excitement of writing. The teacher’s eagerness sparks the
children.
vii. Respecting children’s writings.
viii. Encouraging creativity.
ix. Providing a free and non-threatening environment in which children
can write without stopping to correct. Very often children’s ideas come
faster than their thoughts. They go back subsequently and revise, correct
and redraft the writing.
x. Finally caring about writing and using all possible resources, ideas,
materials to create a rich and stimulating writing environment.
1. Perhaps the most important insight that recent research into writing has
given us is that good writers go through certain processes which lead
to successful pieces of writing. They start with an overall plan in their
heads. They think about what they want to say and who they are saying 19
Teaching Writing and Grammar it for. Then they draft out sections of the writing, and as they work on
them, they are constantly reviewing, revising and editing their work. In
other words these writers have a sense of purpose, a sense of audience
and a sense of direction in their writing. Beginning writers are much
more haphazard in their writing. They need to be encouraged and guided
through a process of planning, drafting and organising, revising and
editing.
There is a tendency among teachers to look at the finished product of writing,
whether it is a paragraph, poem or letter. It is however, the process that went
into the creation of the child’s writing that gives real insights into how the
child is thinking. Whether the child has a sense of purpose and audience?
Is the child able to convey this appropriately in the written form? Is the child
able to structure these ideas in a logical sequence? The children acquire new
skills as the need arises. Through rewriting and checking the children become
more precise and gain independence.
20
UNIT 17 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITING
Structure
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Different Types of Writing
17.2.1 Filling of forms
17.2.2 Information Transfer
17.2.3 Picture Composition
17.2.4 Diaries
17.2.5 Dialogues
17.2.6 Letters
17.2.7 Emails
17.2.8 Paragraphs/Essays
17.2.9 Reports
17.3 Forms of Writing

17.4 Let Us Sum Up
17.5 Suggested reading
17.6 Answers
17.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will:
 familiarize you with the different types of writing useful for learners at
the secondary level;
 help you to distinguish salient features of each type of writing;
 help you to design tasks to teach different types of writing; and
 make you aware of different genres in writing.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit we have looked at the process of writing in general, how
the act of writing takes place in the writers’ / learners’ mind. We undertake
different types of writing in our daily life which we need teach to our
students. Each type of writing generally follows the same process that we
have learnt earlier but they are different in structure, content and use of
language. This means, letter writing is not the same as essay writing; writing
a paragraph by looking at a visual is not the same as writing a paragraph by
looking at a flow chart or a map. These types are distinct in their own ways.
The old dictum “the more you write the better you will write” still holds
good. But, we cannot give our students a task and ask them to write. They 21
Teaching Writing and Grammar require our support; we need to facilitate them so that they can write. It is
important therefore, to teach students the differences in the various
forms of writing, because understanding differences is meaning making,
helps them learn ‘how to write’. Let us together in this unit look into the
various forms of writing activity, which you can undertake in the classroom
to develop the writing skills of your students.
17.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITING

Let us undertake the study of some of the forms of writing, like, filling up
of forms, reading a map, understanding a visual, keeping diaries, writing
conversations/dialogues, letters, paragraphs/essays, reports etc. Together,
they constitute the traditional and the non-traditional forms of writing.
17.2.1 Filling of Forms

This is a common activity which each one of us has to do in our daily life,
whether it is to seek admission in school, college, reserving/cancelling a
berth on a train, or booking/cancelling a ticket on a flight, opening or closing
a bank account, depositing / transferring money etc. For numerous purposes
one has to fill forms. If the form is duly filled, it is likely to get accepted.
Therefore filling in forms is a very important activity.
What are its salient features?
To fill a form one does not need to produce a long piece of text running into
pages. You require factual information, which at the most are two - three
words. Or, if it is an address then it may be about two phrases/clauses at
the most. The important point to note is that the vocabulary used must be
accurate. The most common example of this type of writing is the label
that every book has, revealing the identity of the student or denoting the
ownership the book.
You can see from the example provided above, very accurate, but factual
information is required. More detailed information is required when you
wish to take membership of a swimming club. Look at another example:
22
In the above example, you can see that a lot of personal factual information Different Types of Writtng
is written. No extra information is provided apart from what is asked.
17.2.2 Information Transfer

This is another type of a writing activity in which a learner is required to
write a paragraph based on reading and interpreting a graph, a chart, table
or giving directions based on a map. This transfer of non-verbal skills to
verbal form (writing a paragraph or report) develops composing or writing
skills. If the writing activity is the reverse of the activity mentioned earlier,
the process also helps learners to develop comprehension skills. This is an
important study skill, which helps learners develop analytical faculties and
is useful to them in their study of subjects like Mathematics, Science,
Commerce, etc. In fact form filling is also another type of information
transfer.
Example: Read the following description of Rucha’s school and transfer the
information into a graphic form.
I study in Tejas Vidyalaya. In front of my school there is a park named
Atmajyoti Park and behind it is a huge playground where the Garba festival
is held. To the left of my school there is a huge supermarket, Big Bazaar,
and next to it is the Centre Square mall. On the right of the school is a big
building which houses the famous Meridian hospital.
The graphic prepared will look something like the picture drawn below.
Another example is given below:
You are visiting Baroda for the first time and have visited a number of
tourist places. Write a letter to your friend describing the beauty of the
places given in the following table.
Place of Interest Description of those places
Laxmi Vilas Palace Residence of the Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad
M.S.University Educational Institution
Champaner Heritage site
EME Temple Made of metal used for making

defense aircrafts
Aurobindo Ashram Place of Shri Aurobindo’s residence

1. Make a list of different forms, which children may have to fill up in
the course of their school and college life.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................. 23
2. Study the following table and write a paragraph on the stages in the
growth of a lion.
Stage Growth
1 At birth Blind
2 Six days eyes open
3 4-5 weeks play like kittens
4 Three months learn to hunt
5 Age of two begin to breed
6 5 years old fully grown
3. The flow chart given below depicts the process of making bread.
Write the process in about 100-150 words in the form of a paragraph.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
17.2.3 Picture Composition

Pictures are a great resource to develop the writing skills of learners from
the beginning to the advanced level. Andrew Wright lists a number of
advantages of the use of pictures:
 motivates learners by making them a part of the narrative
 brings the real world into the classroom and provides a context for
language learning
 helps in getting varied responses; can be interpreted or responded to in
various ways according to the level of learners
 provides information which could lead to conversation, discussion, story
telling and various other skills.
 provides scope for meaningful and authentic use of language
Though pictures can be found everywhere, in newspapers, magazines, comic
books, text books, story books etc., the most important point to note is that
all pictures are not suitable to all levels of learners. The intellectual level of
learners need to be kept in mind while selecting pictures and then tasks need
to be prepared based on the selected picture. Let us look at a couple of tasks,
based on pictures to help learners develop their writing skills.
Task 1
You can present a set of jumbled pictures to the students. Give a matching
sentence to each of the picture. The learners have to match the pictures and
sentences and rewrite the story in the correct order. This type of an activity
24 can be used for learners at the lower level.
Task 2 Different Types of Writtng
To adapt this task to the secondary level students, you can jumble the pictures
and ask them to reorder them and build a story around it. This could be an
individual or a group activity, where learners/groups perception(s) would
direct the trajectory the story would take.
17.2.4 Diaries
A diary is a personal record and hence diary entries are usually individualistic
and personal. We do not need to write complete sentences. Some words/
phrases in the form of notings are sufficient clues of what the writer wants
to note. Thoughts and feelings are often expressed in a disconnected manner
as they flash through the mind. More often than not, abbreviations are used
and hence in a diary entry one does not find complete sentences. At times
ambiguity or even disconnected thought process is observed. Let us set up
a task and further clarify this form of writing activity.
Task 1
This is a page from Shiela’s diary. Rewrite this diary entry in the form of
a continuous paragraph.
Woke up at 7 – mom not at home – granny says gone to the hospital –
worried – dad comes home at 8 – leaves me at school – I want to go to
hospital, dad says ‘no’ – evening dad picks me up from school – all smiles
– we go straight to hospital – how nice to see mom – oh! baby brother, so
soft, cuddly like a doll – I’ll call him JoJo – I am akka now – today happiest
day of my life.
Task 2
The principal of your school maintains a diary of his school engagements
every day. Can you complete his itinerary/ time-table on the Annual day
celebrations of your school? Then write a paragraph on his engagements for
the day.
Annual Day Celebrations
Time Activity undertaken

10 a.m. Meeting with all teachers
11 a.m. Inspecting all preparations undertaken
12 noon Receiving the Chief Guest
1 p.m.
16 p.m.- 4 p.m.
5 p.m.

1. What are the advantages of using pictures in the English classroom?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
25
2. Choose any picture and think of different techniques to teach
composition.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3. Ask your students to keep a diary to enter their reaction to the English
classes. Collect them after a week. What do they tell you about you
as a teacher?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
17.2.5 Dialogues
Dialogues fall under the category of spoken English. Nowadays writing
dialogues also forms a testing item in the English question papers. Due to
large classrooms, direct testing of spoken English is not practical, this language
item therefore forms a part of the Composition classroom. This is a highly
creative activity and if undertaken in the classroom from the primary level,
can help create a sense of the spoken form of the language. What are the
characteristics of a natural dialogue? A natural dialogue/conversation
 need not be in full sentences always.
 involves use of simple vocabulary, words which are in every day use.
 involves use of abbreviations and weak forms like can’t, don’t, am,
won’t, etc.
 involves use of colloquial expressions e.g. oops, wow! dad, tummy, etc.
The dialogues could be formal in nature, for example, a conversation between
a student and a teacher or a boss and an employee or it could be informal
for example, a casual conversation between a mother and a son, or between
two friends or cousins etc. The formality or the informality of the dialogue
depends upon the relationship between the speaker and the listener. A
dialogue involves a minimum of two people, the speaker and the listener or
it could involve three to four speakers as well. A conversation, which
involves more than three people, tends to be more of a discussion than a
mere casual conversation.
Example 1
Look at the following conversation between a mother and son:
Son: Mom, our class is going on an excursion to Shimla.
Mother: When?
Son: In May, during the summer holidays.
Mother: For how many days? Any teachers accompanying?
Son: For ten days. Yes. Two teachers are coming with us.
Mother: Charges?
Son: Not much – only Rs 2000 per head. Mom, can I go?
Mother: I think, you should. You’ll learn to stay independently.
26 Son: Thanks ma. You’re so cool!
Example 2 Different Types of Writtng
Look at the following conversation between a teacher and the Principal:

Teacher: May I come in Sir? Good morning Sir.
Principal: Yes, come in. Good Morning.
Teacher: I’ve come to request you to grant me leave for a few days.
Principal; For how many days? Where do you have to go?
Teacher: For a week sir. I’ve to go to Delhi to attend a wedding in the
family.
Principal: What about your classes? Internal tests are in fifteen days,
have you completed the course?
Teacher: Yes sir, I have.
Principal: Ok, then that’s fine. Enjoy the wedding.
Teacher: Thank you sir.
If you analyze both the conversations, you will see that the function of both
the conversations was to seek permission, the son seeking permission to go
on a study tour and the teacher seeking permission to go to Delhi. A tone
of informality is seen in the first dialogue while it is formal in the second.
The formality or the informality of the language used depends upon the
relationship between the speaker and the listener. The differences between
both conversations are tabulated below:
Differences between conversation 1 and Conversation 2
17.2.6 Letters
Conversation 1 Conversation 2
Relationship Informal, cordial, Formal, hierarchical,

between speaker intimate distant
and listener
Words used Coming, going (Words Sir, permission, grant,

of everyday use) request (words denoting
Mom, so cool hierarchy, distance)
May (Use of modals)
Sentence structure Direct- Can I go? Indirect – grant me leave

You should.
When, charges Where do you have to go?

Thanks ma For how many days?
(Use of single words Thank you sir.
loaded with meaning (Use of full sentences)
understood by the
listener)
Beginning of Direct beginning Begins with seeking

conversation permission to come in
Offers greetings
27
Add any other differences you can observe in both conversations.
Teaching Writing and Grammar All of us write letters for various reasons. We may write letters to our
friends, relatives or we may write letters to people whom we do not know,
yet with whom we want to communicate. Today, in the technological age,
even sending emails is a type of letter writing. The purpose of a letter is
to inform, invite, enquire, complain, congratulate, express sympathy, order
goods, etc. Every letter has a writer, a reader and a situation. Depending
upon the purpose, writing letters can be divided into two: formal and informal.
Formal letters are written for business purposes, for example complaint
letters, application for a job, ordering products, enquiring prices of products,
interview call letters, appointment letters, seeking permission etc. These
letters are usually written to people whom we do not know on a personal
level or whom we haven’t met at all or have met for business reasons or
those people who hold a higher designation than us. For example, a teacher
/ student writing to a principal/teacher of a school would write a formal
letter and not an informal one. Informal letters include all correspondence
between friends, members of the family, relatives etc. Emails are considered
both formal as well as informal mode of communication because they are
written for business as well as personal purposes. This will be dealt separately
in this unit.
Structure of Letters
Whether you write formal or informal letters there are certain aspects which
are common to both. The structure of formal and informal letters is given
below: Tabulate the differences between the two of them:
Structure of a Formal Letter
Structure of an Informal Letter
28
Different Types of Writtng
Not only are formal and informal letters structurally different, the language
of both types is also different. Consider the following examples and analyze
the language used in both of them. You can take cues for analyzing the
letters from the dialogue section of this unit.
Example 1
William O’Connor
7 November, 2011
Dear Rajesh,
Thanks for your letter and the wonderful photographs you sent with it.
Looking at them I was constantly reminded of the wonderful time we spent
together at Panchmarhi. It was a trek that I’ll never forget in my life.
Remembering the thick vegetation, the dense forests, the beautiful Silver
streak from the high mountains makes me wonder at the beauty of nature.
I also wish to see more of such India not tarnished by the mechanized world.
Thanks immensely for taking me into your group and helping me to see such
a beautiful place.
Next time you happen to arrange such a trip with friends, do count me in.
Yours affectionately,
William
Example 2
Rakshak Electric
45, M.G.Road
Nagpur.
440 010
November 7, 2011
Diamond Cables
25, Anne Besant Road
Worli, Mumbai 29
Teaching Writing and Grammar Subject: Prices of Cable wires-Enquiry
Reference: ——————————————————
Dear Sir/Madam,
We have heard from reliable sources that the cables you manufacture are of
a very high quality. Hardly any complaints have been recorded since its use
in many buildings.
We have secured a contract for electrifying a commercial complex in the
Surendranagar area of Nagpur. We wish to use the cables manufactured by
you for our project for which we require 100,000ft of cable wires. We
request you to quote your most competitive prices so that we could place an
order with you. Do also let us know your terms, conditions and the discount
you can offer on the product.
Hoping to hear from you soon.
Truly yours,
Rajesh Potdar
Materials Procurement Manager
Rakshak Electric
17.2.7 Emails
In this age of globalization, the fastest tool of written communication is
email and fax. Electronic mail, often abbreviated as e-mail or email, is a
method of exchanging digital messages. It has numerous advantages. It is
fast, cheap, simple, efficient, and environment friendly because it saves tons
of paper. It is also versatile because through email one can send pictures,
power points or other files. Another advantage of an email is that it is easy
to prioritize and filter. Unlike regular modes of written communication, one
does not need to read, review and scan all mails, and lastly, if the receiver’s
Email ID is correct, rarely does it go astray.
On the other hand, one of the biggest disadvantages of Email, like any
written tool of communication is, it can become impersonal and can thus be
misunderstood. Hence, it becomes necessary for the writer on Email to
know its format, structure, etiquette and language.
Structure of an Email
30
An email message consists of two components, the message header, and the Different Types of Writtng
message body, which means content. In the message header, along with the
receiver’s name there are names of people to whom copies of the message
are sent. They are called carbon copy (cc:) and blind carbon copy (bcc:)
fields. If there is an attachment to the mail, an icon representing the attachment
can be seen. The addresses in the ‘cc:’ field are of those people who need
to know about the subject but are not required to act on the contents. The
‘bcc:’ field is useful where carefulness is required. People in this field are
hidden away from other recipients in the ‘To’, ‘cc:’ and ‘bcc:’ fields.
In emails, the subject line plays a vital role in prioritizing mails. Hence, one
should take care in phrasing the subject line. The subject line should be brief
and should aptly provide a clue to the contents of the message. For messages
that are urgent, one can start the subject with the word ‘Urgent’ or if the
Email is an invitation or a request or a reply, one can start with the words
‘Inv’, ‘Req’ or a ‘Re’ respectively.
The structure of an Email is also known as the body of the message. It may
be very similar to that of an informal letter. The essential parts of a message
body are:
1. Greetings-Many people do not use a greeting/salutation in an Email. In
informal letters, it is advisable to use words like ‘Hi!’, ‘Hello’, ‘Dear’
followed by the receiver’s first name. ‘Dear’ can also be used in formal
letters.
2. Body- This is the main body of the letter. It includes the message that
the sender wants to tell the receiver. It is often developed into paragraphs
or short points.
3. Closing -There are three sub-parts to the closing of an Email, namely,
pre-closing, closing and identification. The pre-closing and the closing
must correspond with the degree of intimacy with the receiver.
Identification is necessary because at times, the sender’s Email ID doesn’t
reveal his/her name and the receiver might mistake the mail for spam
or junk mail. The following table shows how salutation should correspond
with pre-closing and closing.
Salutation Pre-closing Closing Identification

Hi Lekha See you soon Best wishes, Sender’s name
Hear from you soon All the best,
Tons of love Cheers, Sender’s name
Hello Mukesh I look forward to Regards Sender’s name
Dear Nilam Looking forward to Kind
hearing from you Regards
4. Signature - Default signatures should be used only in official

correspondence. They are not required in informal mails.
Language Used in an Email
Language use in an email may greatly vary according to different contexts,
the subject matter and even the senders. In formal contexts like job
applications, language may be more formal and similar to that of formal
letters. In informal contexts like chatting between friends, language use may
tend to be less formal and more intimate. 31
Teaching Writing and Grammar 1. Sentence structure – wide-ranging structures
2. Formality and accuracy – Though not necessary in informal code of
written communication, formal grammar and spelling may be followed.
3. Punctuation – Punctuation is sometimes used in an individual and
unconventional way in informal contexts.
4. Style – Shorthand, acronyms, abbreviations, colloquialisms, etc. are
quite common.
The following letter is an example of an informal invitation through Email:
Hi Everyone,
My suggestion is, let’s have a pot-luck dinner and bring snacks and soft
drinks……Please RSVP as soon as you can so that I can estimate how many
people will be here and what everyone will bring.
Eagerly waiting for your response…...
Amish
Etiquette in Email
In any mode of communication, certain code of conduct has to be maintained.
Since Email has now emerged as a popular and powerful tool for
communication, one must observe etiquette while using it. The following
are some pointers for Informal Emails:
1. Summarize your message in the subject line.
2. Keep your message precise and focused.
3. Avoid using all capital letters (Upper cases)- Use of capital letters is an
equivalent of shouting.
4. Do not write anything you would not like to say in public. These mails
can be forwarded easily and hence may put you in an embarrassing
situation.
5. Use a smiley or emoticons to make sure that your statement or comment
is not misunderstood.
6. Do not send or even respond to chain letters.
7. Abbreviation usage is quite widespread with e-mail. To save keystrokes,
users have traded clarity for confusion. Some of the more common
abbreviations are listed in the table below.
Means this Abbreviation
Laugh out loud LOL
By the Way BYW
For your information FYI
Talk to you later TTYL
Take care TC
Take your time TYT

For more abbreviations- go to: http://www.serveronfire.com/Internet_Guide/
32 abbreviations.htm
8. Avoid ‘flaming’. Flaming occurs when one sends messages with angry Different Types of Writtng
or aggressive content.
Formal emails more closely follow the style of formal letters.
You have read about handwritten letters, (formal/informal) and also about
emails. Given below is a table. Fill the blanks by writing the differences
between the two. Add more rows to complete the table.
Difference between handwritten letters and emails
1. They have a personal touch.
2. You can not admire the sender’s handwriting.
3. They take some time to reach.
4. They can be sent to many at a time.

1. The following is a part of a telephone conversation between Ahmed
and Sharif. Reconstruct the whole conversation.
A hmed:
Sharif:
A hmed: A nd you know the M aths teacher was also on leave today.
Sharif: So, you had two free periods? That means I didn’ t miss much
after all.
A hmed: Oh! we had a fabulous time! How I wish you had come to
school today! You and your flu!
Sharif:
A hmed:
Sharif:
A hmed:
Sharif:
2. On your way to school, you meet a stranger who asks you the directions
to the railway station. Write a dialogue between you and the stranger
directing him/her to the railway station.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3. Think of at least 5 contexts, which are common for communication

in school, for example, a teacher discussing a child’s progress.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
33
4. Identify at least five (5) occasions when a student has to write letters
(formal and informal)
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
5. Design one task each on:
i. Teaching dialogue
ii. Teaching letter writing
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
6. Suresh wrote the following letter to his Principal. But his Principal
was very angry when he read it. According to you why did the
Principal become angry? Can you help Suresh correct it?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
My dear principal,
Hope you are fine. I am not feeling very fine. Sorry, I can’t come to
school today. Please excuse me. Can I take leave for today.
Yours affectionately,
Suresh
7. Choose the correct option:
1. When writing an email message, paragraphs should:
a. be long
b. be indented
c. be short
d. be incomplete
2. When writing a Subject Line:
a. use something general, such as “Greetings” or “Hello.”
b. say, “If you don’t respond, I’ll be annoyed.”
c. use several sentences
d. be specific, but brief
3. The three sub-parts to the closing of an Email are:
a. Subject, Body, Greeting
b. Pre-closing, Closing, Identification
34
c. Structure, Punctuation, Body
d. Body, Complimentary close, Signature
4. ‘Flaming’ is:
a. sending sad messages
b. sending messages to old friends
c. sending angry messages
d. receiving wrong messages
8. It was your birthday yesterday and you did not receive birthday wishes
from your younger sister. Using the following format, draft an email
to your elder sister with a carbon copy to your brother and a blind copy
to your mother and father expressing your anger and unhappiness.
To:
Cc:
Bcc:
Subject
Body
17.2.8 Paragraphs/Essays
Paragraphs form a part of any continuous piece of writing in essays, reports,
letters etc. It is necessary to teach our students how to write good
paragraphs.
What are the characteristics of a good paragraph?
A paragraph is a well-organized network of sentences having a definite
plan. It has a topic sentence, which is supported by other sentences and
examples. The most important characteristics of a paragraph are unity,
coherence and emphasis.
Unity
A paragraph is usually built around a topic sentence – a sentence, which
states the main theme of the paragraph. The topic sentence should be
developed in an orderly manner and it usually occurs either at the beginning,
middle or at the end of the paragraph. There are several ways in which the
unity of the paragraph can be developed and maintained. Some of them
which students can use to develop their writing are given below. There is
no hard and fast rule of its use. The students can use it as it is or they are
at liberty to combine any techniques as long as their purpose of conveying
the intent is achieved.
Coherence
An effective paragraph requires more than a topic sentence and supporting
details; it must also be coherent. In a coherent paragraph the writer takes the
35
reader logically and smoothly from one idea to the next. In a paragraph
Teaching Writing and Grammar every sentence should logically follow from the one preceding it. Every
sentence should be linked to one another (with the one which goes before
and the one which is to follow after) in such a way that readers can follow
the flow of thought easily from sentence to sentence, paragraph to paragraph.
The linking of sentences is known as cohesion and linking of ideas is known
as coherence. This provides unity to the paragraph which can be achieved
with the use of cohesive devices like, pronouns, repetition, synonyms,
connectives, etc.
1. Pronouns – Use of pronoun serves as a reminder of the noun in the
earlier sentence, thus maintaining continuity of thought.
2. Repetition - Repetition of key words and phrases in a paragraph serves
as an emphasis on the writer’s point of view. Too much of repetition
can also be monotonous.
3. Synonyms – If use of the same word is causing monotony in the
paragraph then using synonym (words with similar meaning) is a good
variation.
4. Connectives – These are words or phrases which usually occur at the
beginning of a sentence to show the relationship between the new
sentence and the one preceding it. Some of the connectives commonly
used are: and, but, or, therefore, next, further, moreover, however,
etc.
5. Antonyms - Using the ‘opposite’ word, can also create sentence cohesion,
since in language, antonyms actually share more elements of meaning.
6. Parallelism – It is the repetition of sentence structures, clauses or phrases.
This technique is the oldest, most overlooked, but probably the most
elegant method of creating cohesion.
Emphasis
Emphasis means prominence; it means making important points stand out in
the paragraph. This is an important aspect of writing because when a person
reads a paragraph, the reader should at once know what the writer is writing
about. There are five devices, which help to give proper emphasis to
significant ideas in a paragraph.
Balance: Balance means to make various parts of the sentence parallel to
one another; that is equal importance to be given to two or more ideas in a
statement. It could involve single words, phrases, clauses or even whole
sentences.
Emphatic position: This device is used to give emphasis to the most
important idea in the paragraph. It is usually the last sentence of the paragraph.
Emphatic words: The use of certain words can also emphasize the writer’s
point of view.
Apart from the above devices, repetition, expansion of ideas and contrasting
are other tools, which can be used.
Compositions/Essays are written by writing two/three paragraphs on a given
36 topic. These could be guided, that is, learners are given support to develop
their content or they could be free, that is, no support is provided. Whatever Different Types of Writtng
they write, they have to write a connected piece of text separated in paragraphs
which have to adhere to the basic requirements of unity, coherence and
emphasis. The students should also keep in mind that all paragraphs need
to be interconnected and they should be directed towards the topic on which
they are writing. If any one of the paragraphs does not support the topic of
the composition/essay, then it can’t be a coherent whole. The reader will
lose the thread of reasoning and logic and will automatically lose interest in
that piece of writing. In order to bind the essay/composition into a coherent
whole, it is important that an introduction and a conclusion should also be
written. The techniques to write an introduction and a conclusion are discussed
in detail in the previous unit under “The Writing Process”. The points given
to write on a topic should depend upon the class level. An example of a
composition written with support is given below:
Task 1
Write a composition comparing and contrasting the town life with country
life using the points given. (not more than 100-150 words)
Town Life vs Country Life
Town life: Lack of green space that is, parks, gardens, concrete jungles on
the rise – plenty of amenities for entertainment – good public transport –
difficulty in making contacts – too crowded and claustrophobic and noisy
environment – good shopping complexes – good educational facilities
Country life: Open spaces and greenery – few social facilities – travel
necessary for entertainment – easy to establish social contacts – too quiet
and isolated – calm and quiet atmosphere for those who want it – friendly
people – small village market – children have to travel long distances to
attend school
Task 2
Using the points given below, write a story in not more than 150 words.
An old woman –eager to become young – goes to the forest – search of
magic fountain – long time – doesn’t return – husband worried – goes
searching - cannot find her – reaches the fountain – finds a baby crying –
clothes resemble his wife’s – understands the problem – wife drank too
much of water – fondly picks up the baby – goes home.
17.2.9 Reports
A report usually presents information in a logical, orderly and a precise
manner. The purpose of the report is to inform the reader about things that
they do not know hence all details need to be included. But at the same time
unnecessary details need to be avoided. This ensures completeness of the
report.
The report should be accurate. Hence any false information should be
avoided.
There should be clarity in the report. It should be clear enough for the
reader to understand and take action if necessary. The language should be
37
simple; jargon and technical language should be avoided.
Teaching Writing and Grammar The salient features of a report can thus be summarized as under:
A report is:
 brief, accurate, complete and clear
 usually written in third person
 includes only relevant details – there are no digressions
 avoids emotional overtones
 ideas are logically arranged
 language is simple, jargon is avoided

1. Undertake the following tasks:
A. Imagine that you are the editor of the school newsletter, “School
Times”. You have to report on the Independence Day celebrations.
Use the following hints and write a report.
15 August 2011, 7.00a.m. - all students in white - assembled near
flagpost – Chief guest – Police Commissioner to hoist at 7.30
a.m. – flag hoisted on time – guard of honour presented by NCC
cadets – address by chief guest – topic – Duties of Youngsters
towards India – vote of thanks proposed by Principal – Tea for all
students and chief guest – dispersed
B. Nitin telephones Suhani but she is not at home. Her sister, Rita
picks up the phone and the following conversation takes place:
Rita: This is 8265279
Nitin: Hello Rita, this is Nitin. Could I speak to Suhani?
Rita: Sorry Nitin, she’s gone out. Can I take a message for
her?
Nitin: Yeh sure. You see……we had planned to do a combined
study at your place this evening. But my mother is
down with fever and I have to take her to the doctor.
Can you please tell Suhani that I can’t come this evening?
Rita: Oh! I’m so sorry to hear about your mother. I shall
definitely explain the situation to her.
Nitin: Thanks Rita. Bye
Rita: Bye Nitin. Hope your mother gets well soon
Nitin: Bye.
Now write a message for Suhani reporting the conversation between
Rita and Nitin. Start the report as follows: “Your friend Nitin rang up
to say ________________”.
C. The student’s union met to discuss the farewell party for seniors.
38
The following items were discussed at the meeting
 date and venue
 budget
 items on the menu
 gift for seniors
 speeches
 entertainment
Using the above points write a report of the meeting to be presented
to the Principal.
2. Read this letter from Asha to her mother. Asha is describing her life
in the hostel. But the paragraphs are jumbled up. Put them in the
right order so that it becomes a cohesive whole.
At night we have chapatis for dinner and glass of milk too. We study
upto 10p.m. Then the lights have to be switched off. You know how
difficult it is for me. I always used to watch late night movies at home,
isn’t it?
In the hostel four of us share a room. Each has a bed, a table, a desk
and an almirah. My roommates are Sharmila from Kolkata, Sapna
from Delhi and Nandita from Kerela. I’m learning some Bengali and
Malyalam. We sit and chat for a long time in the nights. We always
do most of the things together.
Dear Mom, hope things are fine with you. You had asked me about
the hostel. I’m now going to bore you to death with my description.
Can you believe mom that your daughter now gets up at 5 in the
morning? Yes, staying in a hostel has changed me a lot. No bed tea/
coffee, only mad rush for the bathrooms. If we don’t reach the dining
hall by 8 a.m. no breakfast either! Don’t think that your daughter is
suffering. Mummy, I must tell you about my friends.
3. Collect at least 5 reports from newspapers, which you could use in
your class. Think of three different ways in which you can use
newspaper reports.
17.3 FORMS OF WRITING

The earlier section deals with different types of writing that we are required
to undertake in our daily life. The author can choose from different forms
to express his intent. The selection would depend upon what he/she wants
to convey. This purpose is informed if certain questions are answered like:
 Why is the writing task being undertaken?
 Is it for entertaining?
 Is it for informing readers?
 Is it for presenting one’s point of view?
 Is it for persuading the readers to accept one’s points of view? 39
Teaching Writing and Grammar Answers to the above questions influences the type of choices the writer
makes of the form he/she wants to adopt. This is a crucial decision the
writer needs to take depending upon how it is accepted by the readers. It
means that the writer has to choose the right manner to express his/her
intent. For example, the writer may have used the narrative form when
expository perhaps would have been more effective on a given topic, or, the
writer may have in a casual manner expressed his/her feelings when perhaps
a lyrical or a poetic way would have given a lot of pleasure to the readers.
Thus the writer has to choose the appropriate form of writing to write in
different genres: drama, poetry, prose, fiction, short story etc, depending
upon the intent and readers’ needs and expectations.
Each form has a unique structure and it is important to know the distinctions
between them. Let us look at some of them, which could be useful for our
students.
Descriptive Writing
Descriptive writing involves description of people, places, objects, or events
using appropriate details. An effective description usually contains sufficient
and varied elaboration of details which are usually sensory and selected to
describe what the writer sees, hears, smells, touches, and tastes. These paint
a picture in the minds of the readers so that they become an integral part of
the visual process. Word pictures created, makes writing more interesting,
easier to understand and contributes and supports the topic the writer is
describing. Use of these details also paint pictures of feelings and emotions.
How can students’ write an effective description? Some cues are given
below which could be taught to them.
 Establish the intent, that is, how does one want the reader to feel?
 Choose 2/3 details to help create the atmosphere one wishes them to
experience.
 Show! Don’t Tell! this can be done by replacing linking verbs (is, are,
were) with action verbs.
 Using figurative language such as analogies, similes, metaphors to make
real, but powerful comparisons.
 Choosing precise language, noting sensory details.
 Using specific adjectives, nouns and strong action words to give life to
the picture instead of general adjectives, nouns and passive verbs.
 Descriptive writing is well organized based on the foundation of
chronology, (time), space (location) and prioritization.
Example of descriptive writing
In the following paragraph, observe how the writer moves clearly from a
description of the head of the clown (in sentences two, three, and four), to
the body (sentences five, six, seven, and eight), to the unicycle underneath
(sentence nine). Notice also how the concluding sentence helps to tie the
paragraph together by emphasizing the personal value of this gift.
40
A Friendly Clown Different Types of Writtng
On one corner of my dresser sits a smiling toy clown on a tiny unicycle—

a gift I received last Christmas from a close friend. The clown’s short yellow
hair, made of yarn, covers its ears but is parted above the eyes. The blue eyes
are outlined in black with thin, dark lashes flowing from the brows. It has
cherry-red cheeks, nose, and lips, and its broad grin disappears into the
wide, white ruffle around its neck. The clown wears a fluffy, two-tone nylon
costume. The left side of the outfit is light blue, and the right side is red.
The two colors merge in a dark line that runs down the center of the small
outfit. Surrounding its ankles and disguising its long black shoes are big
pink bows. The white spokes on the wheels of the unicycle gather in the
center and expand to the black tire so that the wheel somewhat resembles
the inner half of a grapefruit. The clown and unicycle together stand about
a foot high. As a cherished gift from my good friend Tran, this colorful
figure greets me with a smile every time I enter my room.
Source: grammar.about.com/od/developingparagraphs/a/samdescpors.htm
Expository Writing
Exposition refers to an act of explaining something or making clear. The
aim of the writer in expository writing is not primarily to narrate or describe;
it is mainly to explain – facts ideas or beliefs. The writer has to assume that
the reader has no prior knowledge of the topic being described. Hence,
every little detail has to be written. This type of writing is distinct in terms
of purpose, design and function of language.
Techniques which can be used in the writing expository text are:
 explanation of a process
 use of examples
 reasons in support of a statement
 comparison and contrast
 classification
 restatement
 definition
 analogy
 cause and effect
 analysis
Expository writing involves different organizational patterns some of which
are graphically presented below. Look at an example of the text is presented
followed by the graphic, which would help learners to retain the form of the
different patterns.
Description
The Olympic symbol consists of five interlocking rings. The rings represent
the five continents – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and South America
41
Teaching Writing and Grammar from where athletes compete in the various events. The rings are coloured,
red, black, yellow, blue and green. At least one of these colours is found
in the flag of the countries whose athletes come to participate in the games.
Sequence
The Olympic games began as athletic festivals to honour the Greek Gods.
The most important festival was held in the valley of Olympia, to honour
Zeus, the kings of God. It was this festival that became the Olympic games
in 776 B.C. These games were ended in 394 A.D. by the Roman emperor
who ruled Greece. After that no Olympic games were held for 1500 years.
Then the modern Olympics began in 1896. Almost 300 athletes competed
in the first modern Olympics. In 1900, female athletes were allowed to
compete. The games have continued every four years since 1896, except
during World War II; and they will most likely continue for many years to
come.
1. .................................................................................................................
2. .................................................................................................................
3. .................................................................................................................
4. .................................................................................................................
5. .................................................................................................................
Comparison
The modern Olympics is unlike the ancient Olympic games. Individual events
are different. While there were no swimming races in the ancient games,
there were chariot races. No female athletes competed in the games while
all athletes were males. Of course, the ancient and the modern Olympics are
also alike in many ways. Some events like the javelin and discus throw are
the same. Today, people are of the opinion that cheating, professionalism
and nationalism in modern games are a disgrace to the Olympic tradition.
However, in the times of the ancient Greeks cheating, professionalism and
nationalism was also rampant. Human beings evidently haven’t changed.
42
Cause and Effect Different Types of Writtng
There are several reasons why so many people attend the Olympic games.
Or watch them on television. One reason is tradition. The name Olympics
and the torch and flame remind people of the ancient games. People can
escape the ordinariness of daily life by attending or watching the Olympics.
They like to identify with someone else’s individual sacrifice and
accomplishment. National pride is another reason an athlete’s or a team’s
hard earned victory becomes the nation’s victory. There are national medal
counts and people keep track of how many medals their country’s athletes
have won.
Problem and Solution

One problem with the modern Olympics is that it has become very big and
expensive to operate. The city or country that hosts the games often loses
a lot of money. Stadiums, pools and playing fields must be built for the
athletic events; housing is needed for the athletes who come from all over
the world. And all of these facilities are used for only 2 weeks! In 1984,
Los Angeles solved these problems by charging a fee for companies who
wanted to be the official sponsors of the games. Companies like McDonald’s,
paid a lot of money to be a part of the Olympics. Many buildings that were
already built in the Los Angeles area were also used. The Coliseum, where
the 1932 games were held was used again and many colleges and universities
in the area became playing and living sites.
One can thus see that expository writing along with its different organizational
patterns are being used in our daily life. Usually any article from a book,
magazine or newspaper is of an expository nature where the objective of the
author is to inform the reader of the topic being written. Even at schools,
students have to submit assignments, which usually are of an expository
nature. Therefore students need to be taught how to write this form of
writing.
Narrative writing
Narrative writing is an account of a sequence of events, usually in a
chronological order. It can take various forms including personal essay, 43
Teaching Writing and Grammar biographical sketches and autobiographies in addition to short stories and
plays. This type of writing could also be purely objective as in most scientific
and technical writing. It can be used by highly imaginative scientists, scholars
and historians. Many historians narrate historical events, bringing the past
to the present for the benefit of the readers.
Narrative writing helps us to ‘loosen up’ and write naturally. ‘Telling’ or
‘listening’ to stories is so enjoyable that learning to write down adds comfort
to the writer. But ‘telling’ a story is different from ‘writing’ a story. If the
narrator forgets certain points, he/she can always add them later on, but in
writing, the writer has to keep in mind the characters, theme, role played by
each character, expressions, tone of voice etc. Most importantly, the flow
of the story should be maintained while keeping the readers in mind. A
completely developed narrative fiction has a central theme that is introduced
at the beginning, followed by its development, an eventful middle and
memorable end.
Adopting this form of writing, the author needs to bring to life his subject
by
 using ‘Wh’ questions – who, what, where, when, why and how, which
would make the basic story structure realistic and exciting.
 using concrete vivid language to show readers what is happening.
 using visual elements to involve readers.
Persuasive Writing
This type of writing is all about trying to convince the reader to change their
opinions and sway them with logic, moral appeals, and emotional language.
The author places an argument and then tries to convince the readers of the
writer’s point of view. It also involves convincing the readers to perform an
action. Effective persuasion in the written form is accomplished through a
combination of a clearly expressed position that is supported by various
examples and evidence. The elements that can build an effective persuasive
paragraph are the following:
 establishing facts – to support an argument
 clarifying relevant values for the readers
 sequencing the facts and values
 forming and stating conclusions
 persuading readers that conclusions are based upon facts and shared
values
 having the confidence to persuade
Strategies to write persuasive writing are:
1. Using repetition
2. Using metaphors, analogies, similes to relate writing to something that
the reader can relate to, so that acceptance is immediate
44
3. Using a story or anecdote to make readers understand your point of Different Types of Writtng
view
4. Addressing objections
5. Quoting famous people
6. Using rhetorical questions
7. Using predictions or questions in conclusions so that readers thinking
is activated
Argumentative writing bears similarity to persuasive writing. But there are
distinct differences between the two, which are tabulated below:
Persuasive Argumentative
1 Objective – Objective –
 present a valid argument  to ‘win’ the reader
and allow the reader to over to the author’s side
adopt a position either
to agree or disagree with
the writer’s position
 accept it as another point
of view which merits
further thought and
discussion
Both side of the issue is Only one side of the issue is
presented – one to presented/debated
substantiate one’s own
position and the other to
refute the opposing
argument
Statement is made, In organization, basic essay
followed by claims format is followed
and counter claims
Use of first person is not advisable, but use of statistics, expert quotations
and other evidence can be used for supporting or for rebuttal.
The author thus has a repertoire of forms to choose from to express his/her
intent. However, the point that definitely needs mentioning is that these
forms are not ‘water tight compartments’ in which there is no space for other
forms to mingle and integrate. Just as to teach language a teacher cannot
afford to use only one approach/method, disregarding the others, similarly,
boundaries of these forms are porous, and a writer can use an eclectic
approach to convey thoughts and ideas. For example, a writer may choose
to write a narrative in which description of certain aspects highlights the
entire sequence of events. The narrative mode thus forms an outline in
which description becomes an integral component, each retaining its
distinctiveness and identity.
45
17.4 LET US SUM UP
1. Writing can and should be taught in the classroom.
2. We should teach our pupils what is relevant to their life.
3. We should teach traditional types and non-traditional types of writing.
4. Form filling is a basic writing skill, which demands accuracy and

develops confidence in children.
5. The skill of information-transfer helps children to study subjects other

than English.
6. Pictures offer interesting stimulus to develop various types of writing

skills.
7. Writing diaries helps children to express their emotions freely without

worrying too much about grammatical accuracy.
8. Dialogues offer an indirect means of training in spoken language.
9. Letters, (formal/informal) emails are useful for various purposes in life.

Each has a specific format.
10. Paragraphs and essays are examples of all good writing. A good
paragraph should have unity, coherence, good organization and emphasis.
11. Writing effective reports is also an important skill to be mastered by the

students.
12. Teaching students how to write in different genres would be helping

them to undertake different kinds of writing in their future life.
17.5 SUGGESTED READING

Achar, D. et al. (2011) English for Academic Purposes Book 1Choice Based
Credit System Undergraduate Program, Foundation Course in English:
Semester 1. Ahmedabad: Gujarat Granth Nirman Board.
Freeman, S. (1977). Written Communication in English, Madras: Orient

Longman.
Narayanswami, V.R., (1979) Strengthen your Writing (3rd Ed. 2005).

Hyderabad: Orient Longman Private Limited.
Wright, A. (1989). Pictures for Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.
Internet resources:
i) http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/help/HA010429671033.aspx
ii) http://www.101emailetiquettetips.com/
iii) http://iwillfollow.com/email.htm
46
17.6 ANSWERS
1. exam form, bus pass, library membership, gym membership form, railway
metro concession and reservation form etc.
2 & 3 Teacher should monitor language and content.
1. Motivation, catalysts for idea generation, objective/subjective responses
2&3. Answers are subjective. Teachers to monitor language and content.
1. We have given you the earlier part of the conversation. Try this
conversation activity in your classroom and notice the different types of
responses. Encourage the student to write in informal language.
Ahmed: So are you feeling better?
Sharif: Much better but I still have a fever. I hear you had a fun time
while I was away. I believe the Hindi teacher is on long leave.
3. teacher students planning an event – elocution/sports competition/annual
day
teacher seeking explanation for coming late/not coming for a couple of
days
student seeking permission to go home because of ill health
4. Requesting permission to attend a social function, letter apologizing for
misconduct, letter inviting chief guest for an event, thank you letters,
permission letters to use the playground for a non-academic event.
7. 1-c, 2-d, 3-b, 4-c.
2. 1. Dear mom……….
2. Can you …………
3. In the hostel……..
4. At night……….
47
UNIT 18 ASSESSING WRITING ABILITY
Structure
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Student Involvement in Assessment
18.3 Teacher correction of written work
18.3.1 Meaningful Feedback
18.3.2 Kind of Feedback
18.3.3 Time of Feedback
18.4 Devising a marking code

18.5 Let Us Sum Up
18.6 Suggested Reading
18.7 Answers
18.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of the unit is to enable you to:
 involve students in assessing their own written work;
 provide effective feedback on student writing; and
 devise a marking code to help learners understand teacher feedback.
18.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already read in the first unit how writing/composing is considered
both as a product as well as a process. In the classroom, a teacher has to
focus first on the process and then on the product. While focusing on the
process, the teacher provides maximum support in terms of helping students
generate and organize ideas, articulate them and once the ideas are encoded
in language, rethink, redraft and rewrite those parts which do not communicate
the intent of the learner/writer. This is followed by the support provided in
editing and proofreading the product, that is, the written piece of text. Next,
the focus of the teacher needs to shift on the product, which is of equal
importance because students are marked or given grades on what they write.
The teacher should provide effective and constructive feedback on student
writing so that they learn to express their intent communicatively. The teacher
also needs to devise a marking system, which the students can understand,
so that the feedback given by the teacher is easily comprehended by the
students.
The teacher needs to keep in mind certain aspects of student writing
before providing student feedback.
1. Writing is not a simple transition from the spoken to the written
48 language. Students have to learn to make the switch from the
Assessing Writing Ability
colloquial to the acceptable standard variety, from the spontaneous
use of language to planned language use, and from a known
audience to an unknown reader. In India, the transition becomes
more difficult because students tend to translate literally structures
and vocabulary from their mother tongue to the Target Language.
Their language also includes Indianisms and certain cultural
expressions.
2. Students do not learn features of the written language all at once
or even at a particular stage. Like all other skills, the ability to
write well develops slowly and gradually. Therefore, writing tasks
of various complexities should be given to students to undertake.
18.2 STUDENT INVOLVEMENT IN ASSESSMENT

Research studies reveal that when teachers involve students to diagnose
problems in their own text and rectify them, they feel motivated to improve
their own writing. Researchers like Brian Johnston (87) recommends that,
teachers should “encourage student involvement in arriving at assessments
by teaching students self assessment, peer group assessment skills, to specify
aspects of their work that they want responses to and teaching to negotiate
assessments”. Tricia Hedge advocates students’ involvement in the designing
of a grading scheme on the grounds that it raises, “students awareness of
what makes a good piece of writing” and “prevents misunderstanding about
the role of grading in writing classrooms”.
Self Assessment
When students develop a greater understanding of the writing process, it is
a good strategy to give them time to read through their written work and
diagnose the problems in what they have written. Constructive feedback
should be given on what they have written and they should be asked to apply
cognitive and affective strategies to develop the content and reader orientation
of their writing. (Details of cognitive and affective strategies are given in the
first unit ‘The Writing Process’ under Section D, Revising the Written Text).
The ability to identify problems in their own text, will help them write
effectively, with minimum errors.
Peer Comments
This is also another way of involving students in the assessment process.
The writing could be commented upon by their peers, which could lead to
further rewriting of the same task. Peer comments are usually suggestions
not commands hence learners are at liberty to incorporate suggestions, which
they feel are appropriate. This active interaction of learners with their peer
texts will help them to expand their own ideas resulting in a greater vision
of their own writing from different perspectives, which perhaps they may
not have thought about. In addition, peer suggestions may also have underlying
cultural connotations which may or may not appeal to the learners. This
would also foster independent thinking because they would learn to choose
and incorporate appropriate suggestions, which do not hurt the cultural
sentiments of the readers. This is an extremely sensitive but an important
issue because our classrooms are a microcosm of the larger pluri-cultural
society, heterogeneous in character, having learners from various linguistic
and cultural backgrounds. 49
Teaching Writing and Grammar Pair Work (Feedback) Editing – Students can work in pairs, correcting and
helping each other. They can write the first draft and exchange them with
their partners for comments. In case of doubts or certain clarifications, they
can seek the help of the teacher. However, teachers need to monitor the
feedback students give so that there is no negativity and leg pulling.
As pair work editing takes place immediately after writing, it makes it more
useful and meaningful. Students learn to recognize errors in their written
text and it also makes them think about clarity and acceptability of their
writing.
Negotiating Assessment - The teachers can prioritize the criteria for a
feedback. They could also discuss it with the students so that assessment
would be effective.
The following marking system has been adapted from Tricia Hedge’s
“Resource Book for Teachers: Writing”. What do you think is most important
in a composition? Can you place the various aspects in order of importance?
(1-10)
Tricia Hedge: Resource Book for Teachers: Writing 1988

1. Developing which aspect of writing would you give importance to
 at the primary level
 at the secondary/higher secondary level
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
50
Assessing Writing Ability
2. According to you, should writing tasks be given marks or should they
be graded? State at least 2/3 reasons.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3. What problems do you foresee in your classroom in involving students
in the assessment process? How would you solve them?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4. Devise tasks for your students to involve them in assessing their own
written work.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
18.3 TEACHER CORRECTION OF WRITTEN

WORK
An issue that continues to remain at the forefront of developing writing
skills in learners is teachers’ response to student writing. Marking
compositions is the most widely used method of evaluating student writing.
Teachers and researchers alike acknowledge that pronouncing judgment on
a piece of L2 writing is very important, yet very difficult. Difficult because
there is little agreement among teachers or researchers about how teachers
should respond to student writing. Griffin (1982) noted that “the major
question confronting any theory of responding to student writing is where
we should focus our attention.” Today also, much of the conflict over teacher
response is whether teacher feedback should focus on ‘form’ (grammar,
mechanics) or ‘content’ (organization, amount of detail, cohesion, coherence
etc). L2 research studies on teacher responses on student composition have
focused both on form and content. In studies focusing on ‘form’ it was
observed that providing the correct form did not have any significant effect
on writing proficiency, while studies of Robb, Ross and Shortreed (1986)
found that showing location of errors improved accuracy. Students who
received feedback did make more improvement on the writing task than
those who did not receive feedback.
Zamel, (1985) examined the way the teachers provided feedback on ‘content’.
She found that ESL teachers’ (Teachers teaching English as second language)
comments on content were vague and contradictory. She observed that
students responded to comments on form and ignored those on content
because these lacked clarity.
Now let us turn our attention to the English teachers in India, and what they
generally focus on while marking compositions. It is generally observed that 51
Teaching Writing and Grammar teachers focus more on ‘form’ than on ‘content’. The general way of
responding is by underlining spelling errors, wrong grammatical constructions
and inappropriate use of lexis. Hardly any teacher, or very few teachers write
comments in the margins for students to understand and incorporate. If
teachers do not clearly and precisely write comments, then how are the
learners going to interpret the red line? How would they know that the word
is wrongly used, or whether it is a wrong grammatical construction or whether
the question mark means that the meaning is unclear (Mujumdar, 2005).
Therefore, it is very important to devise a feedback system, which can be
easily understood by the students. But the primary question remains how
should teachers respond to student writing?
We have seen that writing is a cyclical process (Vanikar and Mujumdar
1995). Today, when communication of meaning is considered most important
along with accuracy of form, it becomes extremely essential that teachers
focus attention on both, the process as well as the product, that is, form as
well as content.
Researchers like Taylor (1981); Zamel (1987); Raimes (1985) have suggested
that teachers should look at errors in the linguistic features only after the
ideas or the content of the task has been fully developed. Keeping these
trends in the frame of reference, it is important that teachers help learners,
through their feedback, transform their “writer based structure” into a “reader
based” one (Flower 1979). In order to make this transformation at first, it is
important to undertake writing as a class room activity (in almost all schools
and colleges it is given as home work) in which learners go through the
process of multiple–drafting (Huff 1983), and then teachers should provide
“meaningful feedback” on what the students have written.
‘Meaningful Feedback’
What does ‘meaningful feedback’ mean? It means the
 kind/type of feedback provided on student writing, and
 time of feedback provided on student writing.
This is diagrammatically represented below:
52 Mujumdar, 2005
Teachers, need to develop an appropriate and a timely response system Assessing Writing Ability
depending upon the draft, which the child is writing. As Purves (’84) suggests,
“ the need is to train teachers to consciously adopt all kinds of roles, either
in isolation or in combination, depending on the stage at which the writing
is ready – one of the early drafts, a revision or the final product”. It means
that the teacher should adopt the roles of a “common reader, proof-reader,
editor, reviewer, gate keeper, critic, linguist /psychologist and diagnostic/
therapist” (ibid.’84: 261). Teacher development lies in assuming and
adopting each of these roles depending on the situation in which the
writing is being produced. Unconsciously, teachers tend to adopt the role
of the proofreader or the editor at the beginning of the writing task, which
may create a negative impact on many students and produce an apprehension
about writing. It is important to adopt those roles, but preferably at the final
stages of writing.
Kind/Type of Feedback
At the first and second draft stage, (Refer to the above diagram) teachers
should adopt a role which is a combination of a common reader and an
editor. As a reader issues of consistency, content, style and organization
should be raised. At this stage, teachers should respond in terms of raising
questions, seeking clarifications, reflecting on confusions in thought, noting
places in the text where meaning is not clear, supporting the points with the
help of examples. Comments made should point out to breaks in logic,
disruptions in meaning, and missing information. The basic objective of
commenting on these aspects in the early drafts is to engage students with
issues, which they want to communicate and help them to clarify the purpose
of their writing. Further, teachers need to prioritize their responses to the
drafts and the subsequent rewrites. As editors, they can respond at locations
where concern for audience is required because the role of an editor is to act
as surrogates for common readers or reviewers. By responding in this manner
they can develop a working relationship with the student. As editors, their
judgments would usually be proximate, not final. Once this is achieved, in
later and in subsequent drafts, the teacher should act as proofreaders and
comment on language–based problems, which are also equally important
to communicate meaning effectively. Participating in this meaning making
activity would mean that teachers no longer present themselves as
authoritarians, judges or evaluators, but act as interested readers, guides,
counselors, “consultants, assistants and facilitators” (Zamel ’85:96). This
collaborative relationship between the teacher and the student writing would
go a long way in helping to negotiate “ways to bring actual effect (on the
reader) as closely in line with the desired intention (of the writer) as possible”
(Brannon and Knoblauch ’82: 162).
Timing of the Feedback
Equally important is the timing of the feedback. As mentioned earlier, it
should not be offered to writers at the end of the writing activity; post
correction feedback merely notes changes in the language items and at best
helps learners to replace some words and phrases at discrete points in the
text. Feedback on student writing is best offered when learners are in
the process of constructing and producing their text. The input provided
while the text is being written would allow writers to replace inadequate
53
Teaching Writing and Grammar expressions with more appropriate ones, which would prove more effective
in conveying their intended meaning. It would also engage students in
producing language through rewrites as a consequence of self-evaluation
and self-adjustment.
18.4 DEVISING A MARKING CODE

Students’ confidence in exploration of ideas and the manner of presentation
is best nurtured in a “helpful, non-threatening atmosphere, where experiments
in language are not only acceptable but encouraged”. Their writing work
definitively needs to be marked but they should not get a copy marked with
red ink with absolutely no inkling of what is amiss leaving no scope for self
correction. It is important therefore to devise a marking system which students
are aware of. Also detail commenting, though time consuming, at the end
on their writing is especially beneficial to motivate students who like to
monitor their own development. Both, commenting and devising a marking
system is likely to have a lesser negative impact on their writing. The
following is a marking system, which teachers can follow and also give it
to the students for their reference:
agr agreement problem: circle the word and state whether it is subject-
verb, pronoun antecedent etc.
art add an article or change the article used
cap use capital letter
no cap use small case
? unclear - either handwriting illegible or meaning unclear
^, del something missing. add the omitted word/phrase, something
more needs to be added
frag sentence fragment. Add something to make the sentence complete
Indent. Leave spaces at the beginning of the line
Join the sentence
Neg negation. Used incorrect form of negative. Change to correct
form.
N.I. not idiomatic. Use a more idiomatic word.
ns. Non standard usage. Use a more formal expression.
#, n number problem. Change to singular or plural as necessary
// begin a new paragraph
no // no new paragraph. Continue the sentence in the previous
paragraph
pos position shift. Circle the word and show the position with an
arrow
prep Preposition. Use /a different preposition
54
pro Pronoun. Use subjective or objective form as necessary Assessing Writing Ability
red redundant. Repeated ideas / delete unnecessary sentences

p punctuation – change/correct / or leave put punctuation
RO Run – on – sentence. Joined two clauses or sentences incorrectly.
Separate them or add punctuation to join them.
sp spelling. Check dictionary if necessary
t verb-tense. Used wrong verb tense. Change to convey meaning
wc, wu word choice. Incorrect word used. Change to convey meaning
wf word form. Change word form may have used verb instead of
noun etc
wo word order. Rearrange the words to be meaningful.
Source: Teaching ESL Compositions Principles and Techniques, Hughey,
Wormouth etal, 1969.
The above marking system is an example, which you can use. The teachers
are at complete liberty to devise a new marking system, which your students
can understand. Certain comments written in the margins could be something
as given below:
1. Repetition, a good transition strategy
2. Show contrast
3. This would be better placed in the first paragraph
4. Use one paragraph to explain the definition/concept
5. You need a formal outline to organize your main points
6. Use a transition marker
7. Extend paragraph 2
8. Add a concluding sentence
9. Rewrite the introductory paragraph keeping the topic in mind.
10. Correct the number problems
11. Improve organization of points.
12. Add specific details to support the point
Such and many such comments can help learners rectify their own mistakes.
Conclusion
In conclusion, as teachers, we need to respond to their writing in such a way
that the learners do not consider writing drafts a “laborious process”. Instead,
they should view writing in terms of responding to the feedback and
restructuring ideas. This is particularly important for ESL students because
as English is a learnt language, it is possible that they may have limited
vocabulary, incomplete mastery of grammatical structures or they may use 55
Teaching Writing and Grammar incorrect mechanical devices. Teachers, while responding, should take into
consideration the language resources of the learners. The cultural meanings
that manifest in their writing should not be ignored because it forms an
important part of the non-native variety which they learn and use. Teacher
responses therefore, should help them to look beyond lexical level concerns
towards global concerns so that they can make the transition from the “writer
based structure” (mental mode) to a “reader oriented one” (Flower 1979).

The following is a report written by students on “The Children’s Day”
celebrations in Chhetrasaal Stadium. Devise your own marking scheme
based on the given report.
Delhi: 14 November. HT Corr: Yesterday, the day of children’s the 14th
November was celebrated with great pomp and show at Chhatrasaal
Stadium at 4 p.m. The Chief guest was chief minister Shiela Dixit. The
childrens looked like flowers in their dresses of different colours. The
fancy dress competition was held. The prizes were distributed to the
winners. A dance programme was organized by std. XI students. The
small children of II class showed ribbon drill. After this, sweets were
distributed among the children. At 6 p.m. the occasion ended. The
children went to their homes with their parents. The school staff came
to see of the chief guest.
18.5 LET US SUM UP

1. As teachers, we have to play several roles - guide, facilitator, counselor,
editor, proofreader
2. Students feel motivated and involved if they understand the basis on
which marks are awarded.
3. Students should be involved in the assessment procedure in informal/
classroom situations.
4. A marking pattern coupled with detailed comments motivate students to
develop their writing.
5. Holistic and analytical scheme of marking have their own advantages
and disadvantages.
6. In-writing feedback should be provided to students.
7. Teachers should decide on the kind of feedback to be provided to
students.
8. Teachers should provide feedback while students are developing content
of their writing.

Brannon,L. and Knoblauch, C.H. 1982. “On Student’s rights to see their
own texts: a model of teacher response”. College Composition and
56 Communication 33/2: 157-166.
Fathman, A.K. and Whalley, E., 1985 “Teacher Response to Student Assessing Writing Ability
writing”. In Barbara Kroll (Ed.) Second Language Writing Research insights
for the classroom. Cambridge University Press Cambridge 178-190.
Flower, L., 1979. “Writer-based prose. A cognitive basis for problems in
Writing”. College English 41/1: 19-37.
Griffin,C.W., 1982. “Theory of Responding to Student Writing: The State
of Art”. College Composition and Communication 33/3. :290-310.
Hedge, T. 1988Writing. ELBS. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Huff, R., 1983. “Teaching Revision: A model of the Drafting Process”.
College English 45/8:800-816.
Hughes, A. 1990. Testing for Language Teachers, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Hughey, J. Wormouth, D. etal, 1969.Teaching ESL Compositions Principles
and Techniques, Rowley Massachusettes: Newbury House Publishers.
Lalande,J.,1982. “Reducing composition errors: An experiment”. Modern
Language Journal, 66, 140-149.
Johnston, Brian., 1987. Assessing English, Milton Keynes: Open University
Press.
Mujumdar, A.R. 2005. Reader based Response: Non-Native Student Writing.
Proceedings of International Conference on Non-Native Phenomena of
English, Institute of Advance Studies in English, Aundh, Pune.
_______________ 1999. Mapping Cognition: A Study of Revision Strategies
in an ESL Context. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation submitted to
M.S.University of Baroda, India.
Purves, A.C. 1984. “The teacher as reader: an anatomy”. College English
46/3: 259-265.
Raimes,A.,1985. “What unskilled ESL Students do as they Write: A Class-
room study of Composing”. TESOL Quarterly 19/2, 229-258.
Robb,T.Ross,and Shortreed,I.,1986. “Salience of feedback on error and its
effect on EFLwriting quality. TESOL Quarterly, 20,83-93.
Taylor, B.,1981. “Content and Written Form. A Two Way Street”. TESOL
Quarterly 15/1 5-13.
Vanikar, R. and Mujumdar, A. 1995. “Materials from within: Learners as
material designers”. The Journal of English Language Teaching (India)
Vol.XXX No.6 Nov-Dec.: 147-158.
Zamel, V. 1987. Recent Research on writing”. TESOL Quarterly, 21: 697-
715.
_____________1985. “Responding to student Writing”. TESOL Quarterly
19/1: 79-101.
57
18.7 ANSWERS
1. Primary level – mechanics of writing needs to be developed: handwriting,
punctuation, spelling, grammar
Secondary Level – originality of ideas, cohesion, coherence, range of
vocabulary, syntactic structures
2. Judicious use of marks and grades – low grades and low marks
demotivate students. Grades may not be interpreted correctly by students,
hence sometimes giving marks helps.
3. Interpersonal rivalry and group dynamics to be taken into account. Pairs
need to be changed frequently - feedback should be constructive. Teachers
should monitor feedback given by students
4. Tasks can be devised in the areas learners encounter difficulty. You can
refer to the preparation of tasks in the Unit on The Writing Process and
Different Types of Writing.
1. Open ended answer. Teacher to monitor depending on the marking
scheme devised.
58
UNIT 19 TEACHING GRAMMAR (TO
ADVANCED LEARNERS) IN
HIGHER CLASSES
Structure
19.0 Objectives
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Understanding Forms and Functions in English Language
19.3 The Use of Tenses in English
19.4 Probable Hard spots for ESL Learners
19.5 Inter-language – Causes and Effects
19.6 Error Corrections – Ways and Means
19.7 Discussion
19.8 Let Us Sum Up
19.9 Key Words
19.10 Suggested Reading
19.11 Answers
19.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit and completing the exercises you would be able to:
 explain the significance of grammar in meaning-making when learning
a language;
 distinguish between forms and functions of /similar or dissimilar
sentences (with suitable examples) and establish the relationship (or the
lack there of) between these two aspects;
 revisit and review a few selected aspects of English grammar i.e. tenses,
conditional clauses and passive constructions;
 explain inter-language and enumerate the factors that lead to this
situation; and
 discuss (with examples) the advantages and disadvantages of self
correction; peer correction and individual and whole group (error)
correction by the teacher in a classroom.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
“Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves.
The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the
meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language.” (David
Crystal, 2004, In Word and Deed, TES). As Julio Foppoli argues 59
Teaching Writing and Grammar (www.esaudio.net/spanish/onlineclasses.html.) that as a train cannot move
without railways, you won’t be able to convey your ideas to their full extension
without a good command of underlying grammar patterns and structures of
the language.
As classroom teachers we are often faced with a very peculiar and
contradictory situation. While we have a set of students who do very well
in discrete item grammar tests, they are incapable of speaking fluently or
writing accurately for long. On the other hand, there are a few who have
very little awareness of grammar jargon and terminology, although they
make pretty good use of the language. As teachers, we want to prepare
learners who actually engage in communicative situations using appropriate
language and patterns. We are not interested in their explaining to us or
making a list of all the grammar uses that a certain pattern has or reciting,
parrot like (from memory) , the rules or exceptions which are associated
with different grammatical elements. Students in higher classes have several
years of studying the language under their belts. This is a great resource for
us as teachers, because we can help them with what they already know and
expand upon it. We can help them with a “deeper understanding of the
nuances of the language.” The time in class must be used for providing
learners with as many communicative situations as possible, rather than
making them focus on drills and patterns that they could easily practice on
their own.
19.2 UNDERSTANDING FORMS AND

FUNCTIONS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
In other units of the block, you must have come across two oft – repeated
terms:
Forms of language
Functions of language
Before we proceed to discuss the relationship between forms and functions
in English language, let us quickly review the two concepts.
The forms of language include the types of sentences (structures/patterns)
used i.e. declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory. (These
structures that make up the grammar of the language include such things as
the present simple. (e.g. She reads) or the past continuous (e.g. He was
driving) or adjectives of comparison (Pari is taller than Ruby) or numbers
of nouns (I found a little child crying on the road and a few older children
talking to her).
On the other hand, language functions refer to its purposes; its use and what
it does when we use language to communicate. These are:
Informative Language Functions: Communicating information such as facts,
comparing and contrast, cause and effect relationship, summarising,
sequencing, questioning, answering techniques, etc.
Expressive Language Functions: Reporting feelings or attitudes or evoking
these feelings in the reader or listener (e.g. persuasion, agreeing / disagreeing,
apologizing, expressing enthusiasm/disappointment, dealing with anger,
60 sadness, indifference, etc.)
Directive Language Functions: Using language to cause or prevent actions, Teaching Grammar
such as commands or requests (e.g. inviting some of your friends to dinner, (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
giving directions to reach the restaurant, how to make soft rotis,) etc.
As teachers what we must make our learners in higher levels comprehend
and appreciate is the fact that there is no one to one match between
grammatical form and communicative functions. For example, The room is
quite warm (declarative sentence in simple present tense) might be used in
different contexts as informative (an observation); expressive (how one feels
at the moment) or directive (to switch on the air-conditioner). Hence, your
students must realize that a context often determines the purpose of an
utterance. Similarly, if we wish to invite someone we use the language of
inviting. For example, we might say,
Are you free this Saturday? Would you like to come to the picnic we are
planning to have?
We will be very happy if you come to the picnic with us this Saturday.
How about coming to the picnic on Saturday?
Hence for every function there is a number of different ways to express it.

1. Match each of the questions 1-6 from the list (a) with a function from
the list (h).
Question:
a) What is your plan for the evening?
Is that a suspension bridge or a cantilever bridge?
What sort of ring was Rini wearing?
Would you mind holding this packet for a minute?
What do you think of the English teacher?
Why does she always ask such stupid questions?
h) Function:
Asking someone to distinguish between alternatives.
Asking for information.
Asking for help.
Asking for a description.
Asking for opinion.
Expressing surprise.
Asking for details.
Expressing irritation.
(The purpose of this item is to make you observe and understand that
although each and every item in the first part has the same form, i.e. the
interrogative; the questions posed have different functions.)
61
2. What is your plan for the evening? – Asking/confirming availability
(before making a request)
i. Is that a suspension bridge or a cantilever bridge? – Distinguishing
between two alternatives.
What sort of ring was Rini wearing? – Asking for description.
Would you mind holding this packet for a minute? – Asking for
assistance.
What do you think of the English teacher? – Asking for opinion
Why does she always ask such stupid questions? – Expressing irritation
ii. What is common in the following sentences – form or function?
Do that and you’ll be in trouble.
You’d better not do that.
If you do that, you’ll be in trouble.
I wouldn’t do that, if I were you.
Mind you don’t do that.
All the sentences are warning couched in different structures.
iii. Besides the informative, expressive and directive language functions
mentioned in this Section, we have the ceremonial language use,
performative utterances and phatic expressions. Browse the web to
find the different functions that such language performs and give
examples of the same.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
19.3 THE USE OF TENSES IN ENGLISH

The concept of time, tense and aspect of a verb is an important area which
demands our attention. But before we proceed further, comment on the
following statements.
The verb form is the main marker of time in an English sentence.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
62 ................................................................................................................
Present tense is always used to express present time in English. Teaching Grammar
(To Advanced Learners)
................................................................................................................ in Higher Classess
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
There is no future tense in English.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Now read the following.
1. The verb phrase is usually the time marker in most cases but is
reinforced in the form of a time adverbial. The term tense is traditionally
used to refer to the way the verb changes its endings to express this
meaning. For example -
My husband loves gardening. Come winter and he is busy with his
petunias, lobelias, dahlias, chrysanthemums and what not. He is now
water ing the plants.
Indian Super League defending champions Atletico de Kolkata is all set

to train for a month in Spain.
I had viral fever last week. I still feel very weak.
2. Usually the present tense indicates present time e.g. I’m awfully busy
right now. Don’t disturb me.
I have a severe headache.
But the simple present tense can also indicate future time e.g.
I fly to Trivandrum next week. (fixed plan)
Pari, my granddaughter, wants to be a Tennis Champion. It is her dream
to play in the courts of Wimbledon. Pronoy, my grandson, on the other
hand, dreams of being an airplane pilot. Childhood ambitions!!(indefinite
future plans)
3. There is no separate tense marker in English to indicate future tense.
(e.g. – s at the end of verb with the third person singular subject indicating
simple tense, for example,
 Mummy gets up early in the morning to pack our lunch boxes.
Or the inflection -ed with regular verbs to indicate the past tense or a
change in spelling in irregular verbs – slept/ran.
I walked the whole distance as there was an auto-strike.
Therefore, English has two tenses. Traditional grammarians call these tenses
present and past. More modern names for these are Actual and Remote.
(Side by side, Book Four). However, there are five ways of expressing future
time, for example: 63
Teaching Writing and Grammar Taru will be admitted to the hospital tomorrow. (will / shall)
She is going to have a baby. (going to)
My daughter is coming next week to spend a day with us. (Simple present
continuous)
Ask her to call me when she leaves the house. (Simple present)
I’m about to complain to the Resident Welfare Association President about
our neighbour’s noisy late night parties. (about to)
We would like to draw your attention, very briefly, to the point that it is
possible to use the same form (i.e. present or past tense) to talk of different
points of time. In the words of David Crystal we can say that, ‘…there is
no identity between tense and time. Present and past tenses can be used to
refer to all parts of a time line,’ i. e. past time, present time (includes now)
and future time. This you can easily understand if you read the following
sentences carefully. All these sentences express habitual or routine actions.
What are the different ways in which the function is realized?
Mr. Misra is a chain-smoker. (Verb in simple present tense)
Pushpa is a very efficient assistant (use of adjective and noun, verb in simple
present tense.)
Ashish used to drink. (used to drink in the past, has now discontinued the
practice)
Pratyush cannot sleep at night without reading a few pages from a story
book. (Use of modal auxiliary verb- - can with the negative not- and simple
present tense –sleep to indicate habitual activity / inability to do without
something.)
Avantika is always spilling food on the floor. (Present continuous tense to
show repeated action.)
As the tense of the verb form indicates the time (at which an action takes
place), the aspect of the verb refers to how the time of action is regarded
– i.e. whether it is complete, in progress or showing duration. You have
already learnt in the earlier classes that the present continuous (progressive)
aspect is used to express an event in progress at a given time. The present
continuous tense is formed by combining the verb ‘be’ (is, am, are) with
the –ing ending to indicate an event in present time. The usual implication
is that the activity is taking place over a limited period and the situation is
temporary. For example:
- Shilpi is working from home today.
- Don’t make noise. The baby is sleeping.
- The children are playing in the park.
On the other hand, if we want to talk of an action that started in the past
and is seen in relation to a later event or time, we usually use the present
perfect tense, e. g.
64 He has been in prison for fifteen years. (He is probably still there.)
I have lived in Delhi for five years. (I still do.) Teaching Grammar
The perfective aspect is formed by using the verb ‘have’. For example: in Higher Classess
The train has arrived. It is on platform number four.
Suhas and Aditi have finished washing the dishes.
I have worked for three hours at a stretch.
She has been ill for quite some time.
Students of English as a Second Language find it difficult to decide when

to use the Present Perfect aspect and when to use the Past tense. Remember
to recapitulate whenever you are reviewing the verb forms in the present and
past tense, the Past tense means ‘past-happening-related-to past time’; i. e.
the happening is related to a definite time in the past, e.g.
We went to Srinagar in 1986.
My father was 86 when he passed away last year.
The definite time in the past is usually identified by a past time adverbial
in the same sentence or the preceding language context.
In contrast, the perfect aspect is used for a past happening which is seen in
relation to a later event or time. Thus the present perfect means ‘past-
happening-related-to-present-time’, e.g.
We have eaten all the curd-rice for lunch. (There aren’t any left.)
Have you completed the project proposal? (You are expected to submit it
now.)
Different kinds of adverbials are associated with the past tense and the
present perfective, e.g.
I saw Tara a week ago.
I have not seen Shefali since December.
Using the wrong adverbial is a common error made by English learners,
As teachers you must be conscious of the fact that the verb is the central
element of a sentence. We would like to remind you here that you have to
learn all about tense and aspect of verbs because a good knowledge of verbs
is important to infer and comprehend the signification of the relationship of
the different sentences that are chosen for assessing your comprehension
skills. You would also need verbs to express your ideas in any kind of
advanced level writing tasks — be it descriptive, expository, discursive or
narrative or even a simple task like letter writing or answering questions
based on reading texts. For transformation exercises which are set in your
examination question papers you would need a thorough knowledge of the
correct form of the verb.
The two other sub-topics that we have selected to discuss in this unit –
conditional clauses and passive constructions — are also verb related. But
we will discuss more of it later. 65
Consult any grammar book to list the different functions that a verb in the
simple present tense performs. Now identify the functions of the verb
forms in the sentences given below.
1. Water boils at 100 degree centigrade. …………………………….
She plays the piano really well. ……………………………………
The easiest way to go to Delhi Haat is to take the Metro from Model
Town………………..
Separate the egg whites and the yolks and keep them in two separate
bowls. Beat the whites stiff till they stand in peaks …………
…………………..
2. Saurav Ganguly wins the toss and decides to bat first ………
………………….
Rani plans to join her new job in September. She wants to rest for two
weeks before taking up the new assignment …………………
……………………
3. The following sentences are in the present continuous tense. But how
does the meaning differ in each sentence?
Air pollution is becoming worse day by day.
The government is planning to allow even and odd number cars on
alternate days on the road.
I’m going to attend a mono-acting programme on Kabir by Shekhar
Sen.
It is snowing in Simla.
I’m forever looking for my room keys.
4. What is the difference in the set of sentences given below?
i(a) The sun rises in the east.
(b) The sun is rising over the horizon. What a beautiful sight.
ii(a) In summer, it always rains in the evening in this place.
(b) It is not raining but is pouring now. How can you think of going
out?
iii(a) Joy reads a lot of books.
(b) He is reading the Glass Palace by Amitava Ghosh now.
iv(a) There was an explosion at the crowded Sarojini Nagar Market
before Diwali.
(b) There has been an explosion at Sarojini Nagar market. Many
people have lost their lives.
v(a) The Mughal Gardens at Rashtrapati Bhavan have been opened
for public.
Have you ever been there?
(b) We went to the Mughal Gardens at Rastrapati Bhavan last week.
It is opened for public viewing only for a fortnight.
66
Teaching Grammar
5. (a) Underline all the verbs in the simple present and put a circle (To Advanced Learners)
round all the verbs in the present continuous. in Higher Classess
(b) Comment on the utility of this kind of an exercise in higher
classes.
The day is mild. A filmy diffusion pales the blue of the sky and
gives a soft extra light. A gentle breeze touches the moving sea.
Here and there the surface breaks in a pattern of light, struck by
a shower of needles. Schools of sauries, each holding a million
fish, break and boil to the top. Their sides are gleaming iridescent
silver, their backs are metallic blue green. The Little Calf and his
mother, along with seven other females, the harem bull, and a
young male, are lazily following the fish, feasting as they go…
Even the Little Calf, though nursing, is swallowing the fat, tasty,
ten inch fish.
(Adapted from Collins Cobuild English Grammar Exercises)
We will end this section with a few observations from a study conducted by
R. K. Agnihotri, A. L. Khanna and Aditi Mukherjee on Undergraduate
Students of Delhi University. (Implicational Order of Difficulty in the Use
of Tenses in English – by R. K. Agnihotri, A. L. Khanna and Aditi Mukherjee).
They suggest that “the teaching of tenses should be incorporated in the
teaching curriculum in three distinct stages. The verbal forms which the
majority of our population finds difficult to handle and which are acquired
later…should be introduced only in the last stage of teaching of tenses. It
may not be particularly damaging to introduce these forms early at the
receptive levels but to insist on their productive control in the early stages
may result in disturbing the natural stages involved in learning. In natural
language acquisition a silent period generally intervenes between reception
and production…” Their findings underscore the need for contrasting the
present indefinite (simple present) and the present continuous as also the
simple past with present perfect. They have also highlighted the necessity to
introduce the simple present for general truths and for habitual actions at the
early stage. They also proposed the use of the simple present for future
references in the Second Stage and the present continuous for future action
as one of the ways to indicate future time. The researchers/authors also feel
that the more difficult areas in tenses, i.e. the past perfect and the perfect
continuous tenses should be taken up in the later stages. In brief, “the formal
devices evolved to express different aspects of time and activity constitute
one of the most critical aspects of any language and an adequate control over
the verbal forms and the associated adverbials is necessary to use language
meaningfully.’’
19.4 PROBABLE HARD SPOTS FOR ESL

LEARNERS
Students of English, who are no longer beginners but are not yet fully
proficient – face problems in different grammar areas. Contemporary
grammarians and authors like Penny Ur and John Eastwood have identified
a few topics viz. the conditional clauses, the use of passive constructions,
phrasal verbs, the meaning of different verb forms, prepositions and so on
as probable hard-spots for ESL learners. 67
Teaching Writing and Grammar In this section we would briefly touch upon (the major pitfalls in understanding
and using) Conditional Clauses and Passive Constructions.
19.4.1 The Conditionals
“Conditional clauses (in complex sentences) are related to (adverbial) reason
clauses; they discuss the consequence of something which may or may not
be a real event.” Usually, the second language learners are taught three types
of conditionals (although it is the third conditional that the students find
difficult to grasp and use effectively.)
The first conditional is an open condition i.e. what is said in the condition
is possible and refers to either present or future time). For example:
If we hurry, we will get the tickets for the morning show.
Syntactical Structure
Conditional Clause; main clause
If + present tense; will + infinitive + consequence
If I hear any news, I’ll ring you.
If he does not come on time, we’ll go without him.
If my father gets to know about this, he will be very upset.
If I save enough money, I’ll go on a Mediterranean Cruise.
The second conditional is an unreal or improbable situation also known as
a hypothetical condition. The tense of the verb in the conditional clause is
in the simple past tense and the verb in the main clause is would or should.
If I had more time, I would visit my friends more often.
If I walked for at least twenty minutes every day, my blood sugar would be
more controlled.
If Shalini didn’t know what to do, she should have asked you.
Although the main clause often has would, we can also use could or might.
If I had a camera, I could take a few photographs.
If you had a calculator, we could finish the calculations faster.
In second conditional clauses, we sometimes use were instead of was,
especially in the clause - if I were you. Examples:
If I were you, I would ask a doctor for some advice.
If I were you, I would settle the dispute as early as possible.
Please note: Although we are using the past tense, the time that we are
talking about is the present = NOW; e.g. If I knew the name of the author,
I would tell you.
Conditional Clause Main Clause
68 If +Past Tense could/would + infinitive
If I had money, I would buy a house in Kasauli. Teaching Grammar
If you needed an invitation to the Opening Ceremony, I could get you in Higher Classess
one.
Third Conditional
In these types of sentences we are talking of hypothetical or unreal conditions,
and imagining the result of the situation. (Unreal /hypothetical conditions
are those where something had not happened in the past and therefore the
result is being imagined.)
If you had studied harder throughout the term, you would have done much
better in the examinations.(But you didn’t work hard and therefore you did
not do well.)
If you had told me that you were interested in seeing the play The War
Horse, I would have booked your ticket along with ours. (But you didn’t tell
me earlier, and so I didn’t buy a ticket for you.)
Conditional Clause Main clause
If + past perfect, ... would/
could/might + have + past participle
The Third Conditional Clause, talks about the past. It is used to describe a
situation that did not happen in the past, and so the result of this situation
is unreal (imaginary).
If I hadn’t eaten so much, I wouldn’t have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and
so I did feel sick).
If you had taken a taxi, you wouldn’t have missed the train.
Mummy wouldn’t have been so tired, if she had gone to bed earlier.
Ronnie would have been on time for the interview, if he had left the house
at quarter past eight.
Remember — We DO NOT normally use will or would in the conditional
clause, but only in the main clause. But there are exceptions. We can use
will in the if clause, when we make a request.
If you’ll just hold on for a minute, I’ll ask mother to take your call.
(If you want to learn more about tenses in conditional clauses you can refer
to Collins Cobuild English Grammar or a Communicative Grammar of
English by Leech and Svartvik.)

1. Complete the sentences given below.
i If my daughter comes tomorrow,……………………..
ii We will all be very happy if……………………..
iii If I have enough money, …………………….
69
iv I could take your photo if…………………
v ……………………, I would buy a house in Kodaikanal.
vi If you had a dictionary,………………………
vii Sheila would build up a well-stocked children’s library, if only the
School Principal……………..
viii If I were you, ……………………
ix I wouldn’t have caught a cold, if ………………..
x We wouldn’t have missed the train if ……………….
xi If we had taken the earlier train,………………….
xii If we had taken leave for a few more days, we……………….
2. What does the speaker mean?
i Riya could have worn her new dress, if only the tailor had altered
it on time.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
ii If you had told me before, I wouldn’t have shared our Sunday
plans with Prateek.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
iii Fever for over a week should not be neglected. If I were you, I
would have gone to the doctor by now.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
iv If Tina had asked me, I would have suggested wearing something
warmer.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
v If only Gopal was not so short-tempered, his colleagues would
have liked him better.
3. Which of these utterances might apply to (a) a good student (b) a lazy
student and (c) an ex-student?
i If he worked hard, he would pass.
ii If he had worked, he would have passed.
iii He’ll pass if he works hard.
70 (From: Discover English… Rod Bolitho and Brian Tomlinson)

Teaching Grammar
4. Match the clauses given in Columns I and II to make meaningful (To Advanced Learners)
sentences. in Higher Classess
Column I Column II
If you have lost money a you’ll stay slim.
If I went to Germany b you must take the call.
If you don’t eat too much c the holiday would have been
miserable.
If she liked spaghetti, d contact the police.
If David phones, e I would buy a bigger car.
If the weather had not f she must have been Italian.
changed,
If I were as tired as you, g I would visit Berlin.
If I had enough money, h I should take a holiday.
If you can’t sleep i I would visit London first.
If I went to England, j take some sleeping tablets.
(From: Exploring Grammar in Context – Robert Carter, Rebecca Hughes &

Michael McCarthy)
5. Construct as many sentences as you can from the substitution table
given below.
passed would studied had Jack

failed he worked Jill
bad in have wouldn’t driven Bob
accident she slowly hadn’t
been late. taken
a taxi Marie
(From: Teach grammar … Scott Thornbury)
In their study of Delhi University Undergraduate students, R. K. Agnihotri,

A. L. Khanna and A. Mukherjee noticed that ‘the control over the use of
different tenses in the conditional clauses is generally poor…. The use of the
conditional clauses involves an understanding of whether the if clause assumes
something to be a fact or whether it imagines a non-fact to be an actual fact
(Close 1962)”. Because the concept of hypothetical past tense (unreal
condition) is fairly difficult to understand and the sentence structure is fairly
complex, The students find it very difficult to internalize conditional clauses,
specially the third conditionals. In fact, the researchers in their study
recommended that conditional clauses ‘….should be taught only at advanced
stages.’ Thus it may be assumed that the advanced learners would find the
review, reinforcement and recapitulation of conditional clauses in the higher
classes quite useful.
71
Teaching Writing and Grammar 19.4.2 Passive Constructions
Understanding the meanings, uses and functions of the passive voice is
another difficult area for ESL learners and this has been reported by many
ESL/EFL teachers. As passive constructions are fairly frequent in academic
and scientific writings, advanced learners are often required to use passive
forms in documenting experiments or reports of significant events of their
institutions.
As beginners and at intermediate levels, learners are usually required to

identify the tense and voice of the verb at the sentence level or in very short
passages for transformation exercises. However, many students often fail to
differentiate between transitive and intransitive verbs. Hence they fail to
grasp that intransitive verbs which are not normally followed by direct objects?
and cannot be used in passive constructions, For example:
Shoubik and Mandira have a nice house. (cannot be changed to)
Similarly,
My dresses don’t fit me any more (cannot be changed to)
My sister lacks tact (cannot be changed to)
They walked into the room (cannot be changed to)
We often choose to use passive structures when we want to talk about

an action, but are not interested in saying who or what does it. For
example: Honey is squeezed from the comb and is sold in the comb cut from
the hive.
In this section we will briefly touch upon the situations in which passive
constructions are more appropriate than pseudo-passives. But before we go
into those details, let us revise how passives are formed – although we know
that you are familiar with it.
Passive forms consist of an appropriate tense of the verb be followed by a

past participle of the verb. For example:
His friend was shot in the chest and he died on the spot.
(In this sentence the subject is— His friend and the passive construction is
formed by using be (was) + shot (past participle). What according to you
is the difference between the sentences –
a) His friend was shot in the chest and he died on the spot. (passive)
b) The robbers shot his friend in the chest and he died on the spot. (active)
In the second sentence, we obviously want to draw your attention to the

robbers, “the doer/or the agent of the action instead of -‘his friend’—the
person or thing affected by the shooting. Thus there is a shift of emphasis.
This transformation from active sentence (b) to passive sentence (a) is possible
because the verb shot is used as transitive verb and has a distinct object.
However, there are a number of exceptions. Active verb forms cannot be
passivised when
72
a) The object is a reflexive, reciprocal or possessive pronoun. For example: Teaching Grammar
She hurt herself in the darkness. (Reflexive) in Higher Classess
During the floods in Chennai, the neighbours helped each other.

(Reciprocal)
b) Verbs in the active sentence like resemble or lack. For example:
I lack patience.
My brother resembles my mother.
You already know that we prefer to choose a passive construction when
it is preferable not to mention the performer or when we do not know
who the performer is. For example:
Our house was burgled when we had gone abroad for a holiday.
In situations of social and historical significance the passive form is
used.
The Agra Fort which was earlier a brick fort was held by the Chauhan
Rajputs. Later it was rebuilt in red sandstone during the reign of Akbar.
The Fatehpur Sikri was also constructed during this period in honour
of the great Sufi Saint Salim Chishti.
Passives are used to:
 To describe a process:
To make methi parathas, wheat flour is mixed with besan and sieved.
Finely chopped methi leaves are mixed into the flour mixture and
kneaded.
 For classifying:
Based on the components and size of the participles, soil is classified
into different types, namely sandy, clay, silt, loamy, peat, and chalky
soil.
 For making proposals:
The abacus project proposed for children between the ages of four to
fourteen would be used not only to promote better numeracy skills but
also to stimulate visual memory for faster mental operations.
 For warning:
Driving should be avoided after too many (alcoholic) drinks at a party.
 For defining:
A delta, or an area of low flat fertile land, is shaped like a triangle.
Deltas are formed where the river splits into several branches before
entering the sea. They are formed in the regions of low tides and coastal
plains.
 For offering suggestions:
Don’t you think that contractual staff who have been in this office for 73
more than ten years should be regularized?
1. Explain the contexts of the following sentences (the first one is done
for you.) Why is the agent not mentioned?
i The litmus paper is placed in the liquid.
Example: (Scientific experiment) The Person is a scientist / teacher/
student / researcher. Therefore, the doer of the action is taken for
granted.
ii The chicken breasts are cleaned, washed and then cut into half
inch broad strips………………………
iii The order to Public Works Department (PWD) to carry out
patchwork on Delhi roads was revoked…………………….
iv A cricketer, who was acquitted of match fixing charges, was banned
for five years. ……………………..
v Common sleep disorders that rob many people from a good night’s
sleep can be classified in four categories. ……………….
2. Rewrite the following headlines using a passive construction. Provide
an agent if you think would add to the meaning.
i 1000 strong Police Personnel deployed amid security fears.
ii Despite outcry, Japan to resume whaling.
iii Teen abducted, hidden at school.
iv Projects planned to decongest city traffic points.
v New method for ice-free preservation of tissues discovered.
3. Use the information boxes to write a paragraph on how biscuits are
made. Use the passive voice and appropriate sequencers. (First, after
that, finally, next, then)
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4. As a Newspaper Correspondent, write a brief report of the programme
that you covered. Remember to add relevant details to the main
programme.
5 Identify the voice used in the following sentences from a newspaper
item.
A New Material to Make Roads Ice Proof
London: Driving in winters would soon become easier and safer, thanks
to a new material invented by scientists, that could ‘de-ice’ snow
covered, slippery roads potentially for years.
The new material delays the formation of ice compared to conventional
materials, researchers said. Every winter, when weather forecasters
predict snow or icy conditions, local governments deploy trucks that
dust roads with salt, sand or other chemical mixtures to help prevent
ice build – up.
74
19.4.3 Pseudo – passives Teaching Grammar
Read the following sentences. in Higher Classess
I got kicked in the football match.

She had the plaster cast removed yesterday.
Expressions, such as ‘I had my hair cut’ or ‘I got my leg stuck’ are called
pseudo-passives. They are not formed in the same way as passives, (i.e. a
form of the auxiliary verb be + followed by the -ed participle) but they are
passive actions in that subjects have things done to them or for them. Unlike
standard passives, both get and have passives involve a subject.
My friend got robbed.
My uncle had his house flooded.
However, the subjects are not involved in the action described. Rather there
is a strong sense of helplessness on the part of the subject, particularly in the
case of get passives. For example:
got killed; got charged; got criticized for no fault of his; got beaten; got
intimidated.
Get – passives are avoided in formal style, and even in informal style are
much less frequent than be- passives. Get passives are a little more informal
than have passives and are more often used in speech (spoken form) rather
than in written form. They are normally used without an agent. For example:
Our house got broken into last night.
I had my hair cut but it was too expensive.

1. What is the difference in meaning in the two sentences of the same
set?
i a He just had his car repaired.
b He’s just repaired his car.
ii a He’s just had three teeth out.
b Three of his teeth have just been taken out.
iii a Do you clean your car yourself?
b Do you have your car cleaned?
2. Complete the sentences with appropriate get/have passives.
i. Do you stitch your own dresses or………………..?
ii. Do you plant the seedlings yourself or…………………….?
3. Number the sentences in the paragraph. Identify the passive
constructions in the paragraph. Are agents mentioned in all the
sentences? Why? Why not?
75
i. The 459 passengers and 14 crew on board Flight AF463 were
evacuated using the emergency slides after the plane landed at
2136 GMT. The device was retrieved from the aircraft by
explosives experts from the navy and DCI (Directorate of Criminal
Investigations) a police officer tweeted.
ii. Nepal’s second largest city and its leading tourist hub Pokhara is
built on massive debris deposits which are associated with strong
medieval earthquakes, a new study has found. Three quakes in
1100, 1255 and 1344, triggered large scale collapses, mass wasting
and initiated the redistribution of material by catastrophic debris
flows on the mountain range.
‘The passive is infrequent in speech. In writing, it is more common in

informative than in imaginative prose, especially in contexts which demand
an objective, impersonal style, such as scientific publications and news
reporting. ...Today, there is a strong Plain English movement in both Britain
and the United States campaigning for the use of simpler, clearer and more
direct English in official forms and publications of all kinds…(The supporters
of Plain English) are opposed to the over-use of the passive. But passives
cannot be dispensed with entirely’ as is evident from scientific writings and
write-ups of scientific experiments. (Rediscover Grammar with David
Crystal.)
19.5 INTER LANGUAGE–CAUSES AND EFFECTS

“The process of learning a second language (L2) is characteristically non-
linear and fragmentary, masked by a mixed landscape of rapid progression
in certain areas but slow in others. Such a process results in a linguistic
system known as inter-language (a term used by Selinker, 1972) which to
varying degrees approximates that of the target language. In the earliest
conception, interlanguage is metaphorically a half-way-house between the
first language (L1) and the target language (L2), hence the term interlanguage.
The L1 is purportedly the source language that provides the initial building
materials to be gradually blended with materials from the target language
resulting in new forms that are neither in the L1, nor in the L2. As David
Crystal defines in A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (1997)…
‘Interlanguage reflects the learners evolving system of rules, and results

from a variety of processes, including the influence of the first language,
contrastive interference from the target language and the over
generalization of newly encountered rules’. Interlanguage can be
applied to language learners phonology (sound system or the way a
learner pronounces, uses the stress patterns etc. while speaking),
morphology and syntax (which make the learner’s system of grammar
reflected in the learner’s knowledge of word formation, word order,
syntactical structures, etc.) and lexicon (vocabulary).
Before we proceed further, let us quickly look back to our own days of
learning English (which is L2 for most of us) and recollect instances of over
generalization of rules learned and mother tongue interference. Most
common, as you might have noticed, pertain to making plurals for example,
adding the extra –s to the word children; using the definite article the with
76 names, for example: The Gopal is very hard working(x) (in line with—The
Roys have gone to Ranikhet for a holiday – referring to the family as a Teaching Grammar
whole); use of –ed to indicate past tense e.g. buyed (x), sinked (x), etc. (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
Interference of the mother tongue is most noticeable in pronunciation and
stress patterns —(giving rise to comedy films and plays in all Indian
languages); use of wrong word order which is typically modelled on the
mother tongues the learners ; absence of inversion in interrogative sentences
or the indiscriminate use of isn’t it (?) in question tags; deviation from
grammatically correct subject –verb agreement rules –-to name only a few
areas where Indian ESL learners frequently go wrong. You can keep your
ears and eyes open and compile a list of errors your learners make.

1. Given below is an answer written by a class X student. Rewrite the
answer after making necessary corrections.
“The hungry victims could not eat anything. It is right to say. The
atom bomb on Hiroshima badly effected it. It erase 1,35,000 people
from the city and destroyed eight percent building of the city. But the
aftermaths of the atom bomb were equally serious. Pregnent women
aborded and never conceive again. Men and women lose the capability
of producing babies. The wounds close and for no reason opened.
The hair started break. There was started a teeth deaealt. The blood
started coming from the gums. Atom bomb effected the whole people
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki badly. The aftermaths were very serious
and people are not well till now. They are badly effected and till now
they cannot recover themselves from these bad aftermaths of the
atom bomb certainly. This was the worst unfortunate in the world
history.
2. Read the answer written by the student once again. For the time
being, let us ignore the words that have been spelt wrongly. Now
write the sentences under two broad categories – mother tongue
interference and overgeneration.
Mother Tongue interference Overgeneration
…………………………………. ………………………………….
…………………………………. ………………………………….
However, we are not trying to tell you or convince you that L1 interference/
transfer and overgeneralization on the basis of incomplete rule learning,( i.e.
not knowing the exceptions of a particular rule) are the only two reasons
why the target language is not adequately mastered by a learner. There are
factors – both internal and external— like age, diminishing motivation,
waning interest, lack of self confidence, anxiety, insufficient learning
opportunities, dearth of proficient language teachers – all of which contribute
to create a situation in which “incorrect linguistic features become a permanent
part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Thus, if we think of
interlanguage as a continuum of gradually approaching the target language,
it can stop developing in any stage and the learner is unable to acquire total/
absolute proficiency. This freezing of the transition between native language
(L1) and the target language (L2) is termed fossilization of interlanguage. 77
Teaching Writing and Grammar This phenomenon occurs mostly in adult second language learners. This
interlanguage fossilization or a permanent cessation of progress toward the
target language shows up as error-reappearance (those language phenomena
whereby repeatedly corrected language errors occur again and again resulting
in language competence fossilization (viz., fossilization of pronunciation,
syntactic structures and vocabulary).
We would like to conclude this section on interlanguage and

interlanguage fossilization by re-iterating the following:
 The temporary and changing grammatical system, which is
constructed by the learner, approximates the grammatical system of
the target language in the process of second language acquisition.
Interlanguage continually evolves into an ever-closer approximation
of the target language and ideally becomes equivalent or nearly
equivalent to the target language.
 Interlanguage that become entrenched and permanent (or fossilized)
can only be eliminated with considerable effort. Language experts
have wondered why a majority of second language learners fail to
overcome fossilization. Is it because of the diminishing motivation
(to achieve native like competence) because complacency set in
after the learners begin to communicate effectively enough (even if
not impeccably)? Is it because learners tend to avoid complicated
rules and make their expression simple and rapid?
 In the process of teaching a language, teachers should not only
stress the correct form and grammar of the target language, but also
direct students to use appropriate communicative strategies (like
paraphrasing, borrowing, word coinage or avoidance).
 For the advanced learners, teachers should encourage students to
use new and advanced expressions while simultaneously acquainting
them with the culture and society of the target language. Only in this
way can students be encouraged to decrease fossilization to a certain
extent and approximate L1 proficiency and elevate their own
communicative competence. The significant role of the teacher in
learning has always been recognized and the model that a teacher
provides affects the learner in a big way.
19.6 ERROR CORRECTIONS–WAYS AND MEANS

Is there any difference in meaning between the two words – errors and
mistakes? What do you think? As a teacher what should you be more worried
about – errors or mistakes? Are you becoming puzzled? Confused? Irritated?
Please, don’t be.
Let us look at the dictionary definitions of these two oft-repeated words:
An error is something you have done which is considered to be incorrect or
wrong, or something that should not have been done or which have been
done wrong. However, if you make a mistake, you do something which you
did not intend to do, which produces a result that you did not want. Think
of the expressions – silly mistakes, careless mistakes and compare them
78 with expressions like common error or fatal error or errors of judgment.
Although all of us have suffered at different points of time – more in the Teaching Grammar
form of less marks than anything else – mistakes are inevitable. “When a (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
learner makes a mistake, s/he breaks the rules of the language as a result of
non-linguistic factors. Thus a pupil might normally use a particular item
correctly in discrete item grammar tests but when writing a composition, s/
he might use it wrongly because s/he is careless, tired, sick, bored, writing
very quickly or thinking ahead.
“Mistakes thus should not worry the teacher as they can usually be
corrected by the learner himself/herself (Ellis and Tomlinson: 1980).
On the other hand, when a language learner unconsciously breaks the

unwritten rules of the target language as a result of faulty learning, s/he
makes an error. In a second language learning situation the learner’s errors
are often habitual and recur despite repeated corrections. The errors are
frequently reinforced by similar errors made by peers and the mass media.
Thus students often have faulty language habits which they are unaware of.
Such errors are indicative of learning problems and make the teachers aware
of the areas to concentrate on when they decide to re-teach/revise to help
their students. As Julian Edge remarks in his book – ‘Mistakes and
Correction’—“….Correction doesn’t mean making everything absolutely
correct; correction means helping people learn to express themselves better.”
The same author remarks elsewhere.. “It is very depressing for a student to
get back any piece of written work with lots of teacher correction on it. We
know that students often just took at the mark they have been given, put the
paper away and forget about it.” Have we all not done the same in our own
school days? So what should we, now that we have become teachers, do
when our students make mistake and errors? One answer is to ignore mistakes
and treat them as positive evidence of learning steps (in their attempts to
make meaning) and encourage them in such risk taking to put into use
whatever language they have learnt. Another answer/way is involving learners
in judgments about correctness which help them become more accurate in
their own use of the language.
A large number of studies by cognitive linguists and first language acquisition
researchers developed the notion that second language learners could be
viewed as actively constructing rules from the data they encounter and by
adapting rules in the direction of the target language. (Refer to the section
on Interlanguage – Causes and Effects). We have already referred to the
evolution from the first attempts to the near perfect use of language as a
continuum and presumably every stage of the development is marked by
influence from the source language. The process of second language learning
“represents an accretion (the process of growth/accumulation) of elements
from the target language.” So as teachers we must allow the students to edit
and (self) correct their own writing. A teacher can choose a particular grammar
area e.g. the present perfect tense or the use of reflexive pronouns (depending
on the writing task) and ask his/her students to spot and rectify as many
mistakes as they can. (We do exactly this when we revise the answers before
submitting the answer-script in an exam but here the teacher restricts the
focus purposely so that students get an opportunity for self correction.) Or
a teacher can point out the mistakes (without correcting them) and then give
the students time to correct them as much as possible, on their own. Self 79
Teaching Writing and Grammar correction attempts raise the awareness level of the students and make them
capable of editing their own work.
Peer correction is another way of error correction where students work together
on correcting each other’s work. The obvious advantage is that students can
discuss with/consult each other if in doubt. Also in case one fails to see his/
her own mistakes, the other person can always help with it. However, the
spirit of co-operation has to pervade pair work.
(Also both self correction and peer correction find support in the constructivist
theory of teaching grammar. We have touched upon this in an earlier Unit
on different methodologies of teaching grammar.)
If we think that a mistake needs to be corrected, the student who made the
mistake or another student can correct it. In this case teacher intervention is
not required. But if the particular student or any other classmate is unable
to come up with the correct answer, then obviously the teacher needs to
intervene to stop wasting available class time.
Error correction by teachers for the whole class can be either hot (the teacher
makes the correction the moment the learner uses a wrong form/pronounces
a word wrongly— then and there) or cold (delayed response/correction at a
later point of time).
What do you think would be advantages or disadvantages of both forms of

correction?
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
If you have written something like too many interruptions to correct mistakes
make the students hesitant and inhibited – you are right. Students would
never use new expressions / words / syntactical patterns and fall back on
safe, simple, repetitive expressions which they know are correct (albeit
overused and / or boring). Hence, language experts who look upon mistakes
as evidence of learning or learning steps, suggest that teachers should not
correct mistakes unless there is a breakdown in communication. In a delayed
correction scenario, a teacher can quietly collect samples/instances of wrong
usage, grammatical errors while going through students’ written work and
choose one or two items for re-teaching. Even if the teacher thinks that he
or she has taught a particular item but the students are still incapable of self
correction or no one in a class can correct a particular mistake, then obviously
80 it needs to be taught again in a different way.
Teaching Grammar
Check Your Progress 7 (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
1. Given below are a few incorrect expressions used by learners in their
English examination answer scripts. Write the correct version in the
space provided. Identify the grammar elements which the learners are
confused with.
Expressions used by Attention needed in Correct version
learners teaching grammar
area
Taked a lot of photograph
Spended lot of money
Was crampt in the

Economy class of
the plane
Joint family more better

than nuclear family.
We take rest and freshed

up ourselves
19.7 DISCUSSION
Learning a language is a complex process. Hence, nothing is learnt at one
go. Our understanding of the meaning-making role of grammar also grows
gradually over a period of time. Reviewing, re-using what we have learnt
earlier and reinforcing what we know or have learnt help gradually.
All languages are rule governed. But as we have said earlier, only knowing/
learning the rules do not suffice. Learners need to use the language learnt
fluently, accurately and last but not the least appropriately. While we have
referred to these concepts in an earlier lesson, we would like to remind you
of these three important strands in language use in passing. In this Unit we
have tried to focus on form vs. functions to make you aware of the facts that
grammatically similar sentences may be used in quite different ways while
sentences being used in similar way may be grammatically quite dissimilar.
In other words, the uses to which a sentence might be put cannot be
ascertained from an analysis of its consistent parts, and a learner who knows
what all the words and structures in the language signify, does not necessarily
know how to use language correctly and appropriately.
Like a first rate driver goes through the physical operations of driving a car
automatically and yet follows all traffic rules, keeps an eye on other car
drivers on the road, driving at same time that he is, is mentally alert to his
surroundings and yet carries on a conversation / argument with his co-
passengers – all at the same time. Similarly, a proficient language user gains
automatic control over complex mental routines and sub-routines. This
comparison may be a little cliché / overused, yet we think the most apt.
81
Teaching Writing and Grammar Learning of a language does not occur in a linear sequence. It is an organic
process characterized by back sliding, leaps in competency, interaction
between grammatical elements, etc.
“Researches have demonstrated the complexity of the processes involved in
learning a second language. We now have data which show that it takes
much longer than we once thought to move from one developmental stage
to another… There seems to be little support for an approach in which all
explicit grammatical instruction is eschewed. However, the questions of
when, how and how much focus to place on grammar has not been settled.
In this Unit we have tried to explain that “structures are not learned in
isolation, but they interact with each other. Eisenstein et al (1982) investigated
the development of progressive and simple forms and came to the conclusion
that the problem of learning closely related verb structures is that while each
has its own job to perform, it is also interconnected with other structures.
This makes it difficult for the learner to determine where the boundaries are
and therefore, to know when it is appropriate to use one structure rather than
another. Eisenstein et al. point out that ultimately the challenge of learning
closely related verb structures is probably that they have to be integrated into
the semantic and grammatical system in such a way that each marks off its
own meaning domain, i.e. in the case of verbs, its own portion of time.
(Language Teaching Methodology, David Nunan, 1998)
Apart from internalizing complex grammar rules and using them automatically
and appropriately, another important focal point of this Unit is the fossilization
of inter language and the resultant, errors that show up in the productive
skills of speaking and writing. As most of us teachers are unwilling to accept
the errors as inevitable in second language learning and give sufficient time
to outgrow them at a later stage of learning. We think we can fully agree
with R. K. Agnihotri and A. L. Khanna when they suggest, ‘Nothing causes
more anxiety to teachers, parents, examiners and society in general than the
errors that a learner makes while learning a language. In fact, we often treat
errors as if they were diseases which need immediate treatment. The truth
is that making errors is a necessary part of a learning process.” They have
also pointed out that the rules of grammar are “created by those who use it.
And we all know languages keep changing all the time… It is possible that
today’s errors may become tomorrow’s rule.” Isn’t the comment thought
provoking and deserving some consideration? Think and ponder.
19.8 LET US SUM UP

We cannot ignore grammar in language as it directly influences the
effectiveness and meaning of what we would like to convey. Language and
grammar both goes side by side, we cannot separate one from another and
we should teach grammar combining it with language in a communicative
way.
Although students can successfully complete form-focused grammar exercises,
they cannot always transfer this knowledge of rules to sustained writing
tasks.
Forms of languages tell us about different sentence patterns and the inflections
82 of nouns (for indicating number/ gender), adjectives (for degrees of
comparison), verbs (for time, tense and aspect), pronouns (person, number, Teaching Grammar
gender) etc. all contribute to the overall meaning of a sentence, paragraph, (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
discourse. Students gradually learn the significance of all these components
in adding to the shades of meaning/nuances of language.
Language functions are more about communication and can be informative,

expressive, directive, phatic, ceremonial or performative.
There is no one to one correlation between grammatical form and

communicative function. The same expression may convey different meanings
in different contexts.
The time marker in most sentences is the verb phrase which in most cases
is corroborated by an adverb. There are two tenses in English language –
present and past tense – while future time is indicated in a variety of ways.
The aspect of the verb tells us whether the action is in progress (continuous)
or if an action is continuing up to the present (perfective).
While it is desirable to visit different areas of grammar in different classes

– it has been noticed by researchers that the proper uses of tenses, the
conditional clauses and passive constructions are some of the areas of
grammar where students make a lot of errors.
Language learners, especially second language learners go through different

phases of transition. Language one transfer/interference and overgeneralization
often result in what is known as interlanguage. A learner’s interlanguage
changes frequently as he or she becomes more proficient in the target
language. The term interlanguage draws attention to the fact that the learner’s
language system is neither that of his mother tongue nor that of the second
language.
Interlanguage fossilization is a phenomenon of second language learners

developing and retaining a linguistic system which falls short of total
approximation of the target language. Thus those aspects of interlanguage
that become entrenched and permanent are said to be fossilized. This happens
more with adult language learners.
While learning a language, learners are bound to make mistakes. Those

mistakes which learners are able to correct themselves (on their own or
when pointed out) are indicative of their attempts to take the desired learning
steps. However, despite repeated corrections or providing ample support,
students continue making errors. These may be caused by several different
processes:
 Borrowing patterns from mother tongue;
 Extending patterns from the target language; and
 Expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already
known.
 There are two kinds of error correction techniques
 Hot (correction – as soon as we notice a student making an error);

83
Teaching Writing and Grammar  Cold (not to interrupt the activity in progress but take up the mistakes
made after words).
We should encourage self correction first and then follow it up with peer
correction, if needed. Teachers can concentrate on re-teaching certain areas
where all/most learners make errors.
19.9 KEY WORDS

Structures: Sentences are identical in structure and display the same pattern
because they all contain examples of the same grammatical categories which
are arranged in a certain order according to a set of grammatical rules e.g.
I’d like to go to Paris/Swaziland
Or
I’d like to go home/read a book etc.
Forms (of sentences) include different types of sentences like declarative,

negative, exclamatory sentences/or the different forms of verb – present/
past, weather a noun is singular or plural / countable or unaccountable.
Function(of sentences) – The purpose of an utterance/sentence; whether it

is an order, a request or a prayer.
Verb It is the central element in a sentence indicating what is happening or

the state of things.
Tense – refers to the time of action: present, past and future.
Aspect – Tells us whether the action denoted by the verb is complete or

incomplete e.g. She is cooking (action in progress at the time of speaking);
She has finished cooking. (action complete).
Conditional (clause): expresses a condition usually starting with if or unless

e.g. If you do not have your meals regularly, you will fall sick.
Passive Sentences: refers to the verb phrase in a sentence in which the

person or thing effected by the verb because the subject, e.g. the thief was
caught.
Pseudo Passives – (often with have or get) are common in informal English.
They have subjects which have things done for them, to them or which
happen to them e.g. I had my car washed.
Interlanguage: is the type of language produced by second and foreign

language learners who are in the process of learning a language. In language
learning, learner errors are caused by several different processes, i.e. borrowing
patterns from mother tongue, extending patterns from target language,
expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known.
Interlanguage has a structurally intermediate use between native and target
language.
Fossilization of Interlanguage: Second language learners develop and retain

84 a linguistic system, (interlanguage) that is different from both the learner’s
first language and the target language. This interlanguage continually evolves Teaching Grammar
into an ever closer approximation of the target language. But at some point (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
there is a permanent cessation of progress toward the target language.
Interlanguage then becomes enchanted and permanently which is then termed
Fossilization of Interlanguage.

Agnihotri, R. K. and A. L. Khanna. 1996. English Grammar in Context:
Ratnasagar Pte. Ltd. Delhi.
Agnihotri, R. K. and A. L. Khanna (ed). 1994. Second Language Acquisition:

Socio-Cultural and Linguistic Aspects of English in India. Sage Publications,
New Delhi.
Bannerjee, A. 1986. Side by Side, Book Fouor. Abhishek Publishers. Calcutta.
Carter, Ronald, Rebecca Hughes and Michael McCarthy. 2000 Exploring

Grammar in Context. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Collins Cobuild English Grammar. 1990. Rupa and Co.
Crystal, David. Rediscover Grammar. Longman, U. K.
Eastwood, John. 1999. Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford University Press.

Oxford.
Ellis, Rod and Brian Tomlinson. 1980. Teaching Secondary English, Longman
Group Ltd. England.
Leech, Geoffrey and Jan Svarvik. 2000. A Communicative Grammar of

English. Pearson Education Asia Private. Ltd. NOIDA.
Nunan, David. 1998. Language Teaching Methodology. Pearson Education

Limited, Edinburgh.
Swan, Michael. 1995. Practical English Usage. Oxford University Press,

Oxford.
Thornbury, Scott. 1999. Teach Grammar: Pearson Education Ltd. England.
Ur, Penny. 1988. Grammar Practice Activities. Cambridge University Press.

Cambridge.
Websites Consulted/Referred to
Error Correction in classrooms.
First, Second and Third Conditionals.
Fossilization of Interlanguage.
Interlanguage
Grammar for Advanced Learners. 85

19.11 ANSWERS
3. Performative utterances: Language which performs the action it reports,

e.g. “I do” in marriage ceremony, or words like promise, apologize or
congratulate. The words denote an action which is performed by using
the version the first person.
Ceremonial (or ritual language use) e.g. Dearly beloved, we are gathered
here together to writers the holy matrimony of …(different from simply
mixing expressive and directive language because performative aspects
are also included).
Phatic language – Conversations accomplishing a social task or even a
nod or a wave of hand to greet somebody.
1. Water boils at 100 degree centigrade. Universal truth
She plays the piano really well. Habit (repeated action)
The easiest way to go to Delhi Haat is to take the Metro from Model
Town. Giving suggestions/advice
Separate the egg whites and the yolks and keep them in two separate
bowls. Beat the whites stiff till they stand in peaks. Instructions
2. Saurav Ganguly take to section wins the toss and
decides to bat first. Present event (commentary)
Rani plans to join her new job in September. She
wants to rest for two weeks before taking up
new assignment. Plans (proposed) for a future time
3. Air pollution is becoming worse day by day. (Progressive change)
The government is planning to allow even and
odd number cars on alternate days on the road.
(Proposed plans for future time)
I’m going to attend a mono-acting programme
on Kabir by Shekhar Sen.(fixed) (Plan for future time)
It is snowing in Simla. (Event happening at
the time of talking)
I’m forever looking for my room keys. (Habitual action that
takes place regularly).
4. Difference in the set of sentences given below:
i(a) The sun rises in the east. (Universal truth. True for all times)
(b) The sun is rising over the horizon. What a beautiful sight!
(Temporary event happening at the time of speaking)
ii(a) In summer, it always rains in the evening in this place.
(Frequent action)
86
(b) It is not raining but is pouring now. How can you think of Teaching Grammar
going out? (Temporary event happening at the time of (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
speaking)
iii(a) Joy reads a lot of books. (Regular action)
(b) He is reading the Glass Palace by Amitava Ghosh now. (Event
in progress but definitely for a limited period)
iv(a) There was an explosion at the crowded Sarojini Nagar Market
before Diwali. (Event happened in the past)
(b) There has been an explosion at Sarojini Nagar market. Many people
have lost their lives. (Past event but the effects (result) can be felt
in the present time).
v(a) The Mughal Gardens at Rashtrapati Bhavan have been opened for
public.
Have you ever been there? (Event in a period leading up to present
time)
(b) We went to the Mughal Gardens at Rastrapati Bhavan last week.
It is opened for public viewing only for a fortnight. (Event took
place in past time)
5. is, pales, gives, touches, breaks (sides) are, (are) (lazily) (following) is
swallouring
1. Completed sentences:
i If my daughter comes tomorrow, we will go to The Garden of Five
Senses to see the exhibition.
ii We will all be very happy if you spend the weekend with us.
iii If I have enough money, I will buy a small house in Ooty.
iv I could take your photo if I had a camera/A mobile with a good
quality camera.
v If my husband agrees, I would buy a house in Kodaikanal.
vi If you had a dictionary, you could have checked the pronunciation
or the meaning of the word in the given context.
vii Sheila would build up a well-stocked children’s library, if only the
School Principal had agreed to her proposal.
viii If I were you, I would never neglect such high fever for many days.
ix I wouldn’t have caught a cold, if I had taken my umbrella with me
in the morning.
x We wouldn’t have missed the train if we had not been held up in
the traffic jam.
xi If we had taken the earlier train, we could have visited the Titanic
House in the afternoon. 87
Teaching Writing and Grammar xii If we had taken leave for a few more days, we could have stayed
here for a few more days. This is such a quiet and peaceful place
2. i Riya could not wear her new dress because the tailor did not do the
alterations on time.
ii I shared our Sunday plans with Prateek because you never told me
not to./ I did not know it was to be kept secret.
iii Go visit a doctor. The fever may be indicative of more serious
illness than you think.
iv Tina is wearing something very light which is not very warm. (She
may feel cold later.)
v Gopal becomes angry very quickly. His colleagues do not like him
much.
3. i If he worked hard, he would pass. (b) a lazy student
ii If he had worked, he would have passed. (c) an ex-student.
iii He’ll pass if he works hard. (a) a good student
Check Your Press 4
1. i The litmus paper is placed in the liquid. The Person is either a
scientist / teacher/ student / researcher. Therefore, the doer of the
action is taken for granted.
ii The chicken breasts are cleaned, washed and then cut into half inch
broad strips.
Recipe/ instructions for making a chicken dish.
How to cook is more important than who the author of the cookbook
is.
iii The order to Public Works Department (PWD) to carry out
patchwork on Delhi roads was revoked.
Newspaper Report. Obviously the administrative authorities /
government in power.
iv A cricketer, who was acquitted of match fixing charges, was banned
for five years.
News report/Newspaper report. The Cricket Regulatory body alone
has such powers.
v Common sleep disorders that rob many people from a good night’s
sleep can be classified in four categories.
An article in a magazine or any text book chapter on sleep disorder.
Impersonal style is more acceptable in scientific writings.
2. These are suggested answers. Your answers may be different.
i The State Government has been compelled to deploy Police force
fearing arson and violence by the rioters.
ii Although the environmentalists are protesting vehemently, the
Japanese government is known to have given permission to kill
88 whales for sale in markets.
iii Classmates have abducted one of their teen-aged friends and have Teaching Grammar
hidden him in the empty school premises over the weekend. (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
iv Detailed proposals would be submitted in the forthcoming council
meetings suggesting alternative measures to avoid regular traffic
jams.
v New methods were discovered by medical researchers to preserve
tissues without the use of ice.
3. All clues given. Write the procedure using the passive voice and linkers
indicating sequence. (Open ended-but do not change order of the boxes
given.
4. Open ended.
5 Although a newspaper item, simple present, simple past, past tense of
modals will (would), can (could) have been used. Thus the active voice
has been used in this news item because the focus is as much on the
‘Doer’ as the action.
1. i(a) The car was repaired by some one else (e.g. a mechanic in a garage.)
(b) He himself repaired the car.
ii(a) The teeth came out on their own (may be because of age/accident)
(b) The dentist extracted three of his teeth.
iii(a) A direct question to the owner of the car.
iii(b) Does somebody else (other than the owner) clean the car?
2 (i) get them stitched?
(ii) a gardener does it for you?
3 i. were evacuated (agent not mentioned, understood – the cabin crew)
was retrieved (agent mentioned – (by) explosive experts from the
navy and DCI. Specialized trained agents because not everybody
can deactivate explosives.
ii. (a) is built (b) are associated (agent – strong earthquakes)
a The hungry victims
b It is right to say. What? - sentence incomplete.
or
The incomplete sentence can be combined with the next sentence.
c All the “effected” (used three times) should be written as affected.
The word effect which means ‘result’ is usually used with words like
have an effect, produce an effect or take affect. The word affect is used 89
Teaching Writing and Grammar if a person or thing is influenced or changed in some way (because of
something)
d Some others are spelling mistakes:-
pregnant - should be pregnant
aborded - should be aborted
deaealt
e It erase - it erased/killed
aftermaths - is wrong because the word aftermath
(result) is used as a singular noun
never conceive again - should be corrected as never conceived
again or could never conceive again.
lose the capability - should be – lost the ability to have babies.
The wounds close - can be written as - wounds closed and
opened for no reason.
The hair started break - The hair started to break or hair started
breaking.
There was started a - use of passive voice is inappropriate. A gum
teeth deaealt. disease spread.
the whole people - should be corrected to the people of
they cannot recover themselves - should
be rewritten as till now they have not
recovered from the aftermath of the atom
bomb (certainly to be deleted).
This is world - should be rewritten as This is the most
unfortunate unfortunate event in world history.
(Spelling, grammar, world, order difference between two closely similar
words, not known to the student. The student language use is poor and needs
remedial teaching in many areas.)
Mother tongue interference Overgeneralization
Lose the capability of producing babies Effected
The hair started break Aftermaths (like results)
The blood started coming from They cannot recover

the gums themselves (like you cover
yourself with a blanket) (you
recover from illness, loss, etc.
The whole people of Hiroshima
The worst unfortunate in world history
90
Check Your Progress 7 Teaching Grammar
Grammar for re-teaching Correct version Expression used in Higher Classess
by learners?
Past tense of irregular

verbs Took Taked
Past tense of irregular Spent Spended

verbs
Past tense of irregular Cramped Crampt

verbs and Spelling
Degrees of adjectives Better More better
Phrasal verb Freshened up Freshed up
3. i) (b) a lazy student (ii) (c) an ex-student (iii), (a) a good student
4. Match the clauses:
If you have lost money, contact the police.
If I went to Germany I would visit Berlin.
If you don’t eat too much you’ll stay slim.
If she liked spaghetti, she must have been Italian.
If David phones, you must take the call.
If the weather had not changed, the holiday would have been miserable.
If I were as tired as you, I should take a holiday.
If I had enough money, I would buy a bigger car.
If you can’t sleep take some sleeping tablets.
If I went to England, I would visit London first.
5. A few examples are given here. You can try and make more.
i If Jack had studied, he would have passed.
ii If Jill had driven slowly, she wouldn’t have had an accident.
iii If Maria had taken a taxi, she wouldn’t have been late.
iv If Bob had worked he wouldn’t have failed.
(You could construct more meaningful sentences)
91

Writing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Writing

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Writing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BES-144

Prof. Aejaz Mashih Dr. Gaurav Singh

SPECIAL INVITEES (FACULTY OF SOE)

Course Coordinator : Ms. Poonam Bhushan

Dr. Shefali Ray Format Editing

Block 2 Listening Comprehension and Speaking

Block 3 Reading Comprehension

Block 4 Teaching Writing and Grammar

16.1 INTRODUCTIONWHAT IS WRITING?

Check Your Progress 1

16.2 HOW IS WRITING DIFFERENT FROM

It is these demands which present particular problems to foreign writers of

16.3 CREATING A NATURAL LEARNING

Check Your Progress 2

16.4 WRITING AS A PROCESS

A post card A memo to

Writing and rewriting

Check Your Progress 3

16.5 WRITING AS A HOLISTIC ACTIVITY

16.6 FEEDBACK THROUGH WRITING

16  What else are you planning to put in?

 Do your readers have enough details to be able to feel, think?

16.7 LET US SUM UP

16.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

17.2.2 Information Transfer

17.2.3 Picture Composition

17.3 Forms of Writing

17.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITING

17.2.1 Filling of Forms

17.2.2 Information Transfer

Place of Interest Description of those places

Laxmi Vilas Palace Residence of the Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad

M.S.University Educational Institution

Champaner Heritage site

EME Temple Made of metal used for making

Aurobindo Ashram Place of Shri Aurobindo’s residence

Check Your Progress 1

2 Six days eyes open

3 4-5 weeks play like kittens

4 Three months learn to hunt

5 Age of two begin to breed

6 5 years old fully grown

17.2.3 Picture Composition

Time Activity undertaken

Check Your Progress 2

Look at the following conversation between a teacher and the Principal:

Relationship Informal, cordial, Formal, hierarchical,

Words used Coming, going (Words Sir, permission, grant,

Sentence structure Direct- Can I go? Indirect – grant me leave

When, charges Where do you have to go?

Beginning of Direct beginning Begins with seeking

Structure of an Informal Letter

Salutation Pre-closing Closing Identification

4. Signature - Default signatures should be used only in official

Take your time TYT

2. You can not admire the sender’s handwriting.

3. They take some time to reach.

4. They can be sent to many at a time.

Check Your Progress 3