Pe Merge Files
Pe Merge Files
Pe Merge Files
PHYSED IV
Physical Education IV
Prepared by:
0
TEAM SPORTS
PHYSED 4:
TEAM SPORTS
MODULE 1
Introduction of Volleyball
1
TEAM SPORTS
I. INTRODUCTION:
This module will reintroduce you to the brief history of volleyball, as well as
facilities and equipment used in the game. Volleyball is less physical as a team sport compare
to basketball and it also gained popularity here in the Philippines. One of the vital
developments of the sport that is the skill of set and spike was actually first introduced here in
the country. And ever since this game was played and loved by Filipinos. In this module, you
will be reintroduced to the brief history of volleyball, as well as facilities and equipment used
of the game.
2
TEAM SPORTS
Engage:
Activity #1
Instruction: Describe volleyball using the words inside the table below:
What is Volleyball?
Explore:
Activity #2
Instructions:
1. Watch the YouTube link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqON4EakBPI
2. After watching, answer the questions to explore the game
Volleyball.
Essential Questions:
1. What are the important developments in Volleyball?
2. What are the game characteristics and playing format of
Volleyball?
3. What are the specifications of volleyball facility and
equipment? 3
TEAM SPORTS
Explain:
Brief History of Volleyball
William G. Morgan an instructor in YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association)
invented Volleyball in 1895, at Holyoke, Massachusetts, USA.
"Mintonette" – the former name of “Volley Ball” (the action, or the act phase,
of the ball's flight) which is now spelled as Volleyball.
Governing Bodies:
FIVB – Federation Internationale de Volley Ball (International)
PNVF – Philippine National Volleyball Federation (National)
NOVA – Negros Occidental Volleyball Association (Province)
Interval – The time between sets. All intervals last for three minutes. The interval
between the second and the third set can be extended up to 10min.
by the competent body at the request of the organizer.
4
TEAM SPORTS
Replacement – This is the act by which a regular player leaves the court and the
libero takes his/her place.
Substitution – is the act by which a player, other than libero or his/her replacement
player, after being recorded by the scorer enters the game to occupy
the position of another player, who must leave the court at that
moment.
Interruption – are time-outs and substitutions. Each team may request a maximum of
two time-outs and six substitution per set.
Dimension
Playing Court – is rectangle measuring 18m x 9m; surrounded by free zone
which is a minimum of 3m wide in all sides.
Boundary Lines
2 Sidelines
2 Endline / Service Line
Center Line:
Divides the playing court into two equal courts measuring 9 x 9m each;
however, the entire width of the line is considered to belong to both courts
equally.
Attack Line
The line drawn 3m back from the center line.
Service Zone – is a 9m wide area behind the end line. The service zones
extends to the end of the free zone.
Libero Replacement Zone – is part of the free zone on the side of the
team benches, limited by the extension of the attack line up to the end line.
5
TEAM SPORTS
B. EQUIPMENT:
c. Antennae – are considered part of the net and laterally delimit the crossing
space.
6
TEAM SPORTS
d. Posts – supporting the net are placed at a distance 0.50-1.00m outside the side
lines. Height – 2.55m and preferably adjustable
e. Flag
Color – Red; 4 or 2 flags are used
Instructions: Using the insights you have gained from the lesson
notes, perform this activity:
1. Why are the equipment important in sport?
2. What do you think is the difference of volleyball compare to
Elaborate: other team sports?
3. Give two characteristics you find interesting in volleyball as a
sport?
4. Submit your work to LMS; and
5. Deadline will be on ___________.
7
TEAM SPORTS
overdone.
Sentence All sentences are well Most sentences are Most sentences Sentences sound
Structure, & constructed and have well-constructed and are well awkward, are
Spelling varied structure and have varied structure constructed, but distractingly,
length. The author and length. The they have a repetitive,
makes no errors in author similar structure or are difficult to
spelling. makes a few errors in and/or length. understand. The
spelling, but The author makes author makes
they do not interfere several errors in numerous errors in
with understanding. spelling that spelling that
interferes interfere with
with understanding.
understanding.
Total Score
Instructions:
Enumerate the important historical development in
volleyball using the table below.
Evaluation:
HISTORY OF VOLLEYBALL
YEAR HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
8
TEAM SPORTS
9
TEAM SPORTS
PHYSED 4:
TEAM SPORTS
MODULE 2
Basic Rules of Volleyball
Introduction
Understanding the rules of every game is very important. This will allow you to enjoy
the game and provide the rules to be observe while playing and violations or errors to avoid
while playing the game. Set of rules are implemented to ensure the harmony and conduct of the
game. Reintroducing to these rules will help understand the sport of volleyball better and can be
used as a part of recreation to engage to others and play the sport.
Engage:
Instruction: Identify the following common violations presented below. Write
you answer on the space provided.
Explore:
Instructions:
Out of the 15 words in the box, create a phrase to explain the rule in playing
Volleyball Rules:
Essential Questions:
1. What are the important rules in playing volleyball?
2. What are the different fouls and violations in volleyball?
3. How are fouls and other violations affects the game?
TEAM SPORTS
Explain:
I. BASIC VOLLEYBALL RULES
A. Playing Format
1. To Score a Point
A team scores a point:
• By successfully grounding the ball on the opponent’s court;
• When the opponent team commits a fault;
• When the opponent team receives a penalty;
• Fault – if team commits a fault by making a playing action contrary to the
rules (or by violating them in some other way). The referees judge the
faults and determine the consequences according to the rules.
• Rally and completed rally
Rally – is the sequence of playing actions from the moment of the service
hit by the server until the ball is out of play.
A completed Rally –is the sequence of playing actions which results in the
award of a point.
• If the serving team wins a rally, it scores a point and continues to serve.
• If the receiving team wins a rally, it scores a point and it must serve next.
2. To Win a Set
• A set (except the deciding 5th set) is won by the team which first scores 25
points with a minimum lead of two points. In case of a 24-24 tie, play is
continued until a two-point lead is achieved (26-24; 27-25;…
3. The Match
• The match is won by the team that wins three sets.
• In case of a 2-2 tie, the deciding 5th set is played to 15points with a
minimum lead of 2 points.
• If two or more players contact the ball at the same time, it is considered one play and
either player involved may make the next contact (provided the next contact isn't the
teams 4th hit)
• A player cannot block or attack a serve from on or inside the 10 feet line
• After the serve, front line players may switch positions at the net
• At higher competition, the officiating crew may be made up of Two Referees, Line
Judges/ Linesman, Scorer, and an Assistant Scorer.
C. Violations
• When blocking a ball coming from the opponent’s court, contacting the ball when
reaching over the net is a violation if both:
1) your opponent hasn't used 3 contacts AND
2) they have a player there to make a play on the ball
• When attacking a ball coming from the opponent’s court, contacting the ball when
reaching over the net is a violation if the ball hasn't yet broken the vertical plane of
the net.
• Crossing the court centerline with any part of your body. Exception: if it's the hand
or foot, the entire hand or entire foot must cross for it to be a violation.
• Serving out of order.
• Back row player blocking (deflecting a ball coming from their opponent), when at
the moment of contact the back row player is near the net and has part of his/her body
above the top of the net (an illegal block).
• Back row player attacking a ball inside the front zone (the area inside the 10-foot
line), when at the moment of contact the ball is completely above the net (an illegal
attack).
5. Libero – are defensive players who are responsible for receiving the attack or serve.
Liberos wear a different color jersey than their teammates.
B. Position of Players:
Front-Row Players – Positions: 4 (front-left);
3 (front-center); 2 (front-right)
Back-Row Players – Positions: 5 (back-left);
6 (back-center); 1 (back-right)
• Rotation of players on the court is done clockwise.
TEAM SPORTS
PHYSED 4:
TEAM SPORTS
MODULE 3
Volleyball Basic Skills
Learning Activity 2:
Instructions: Use the link given under each skill and write the
mechanics on how to perform the basic skill.
A. How to perform the following basic skills?
1.Forearm Pass
https://www.facebook.com/topflightvbc/videos/1015
6737913390577/
2.Overhand Pass / Toss
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFxs0EPD68Q
3.Underhand & Overhand Serve
Engage: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SnG7XJDunzs
Explore:
Activity 1: Fill in the blank letters to complete the skill or a player specialization.
Instruction: Fill in the lacking letters of the words inside the box about the Basic Skills in
Volleyball and the Specialization of players.
1. S__ T (second contact) 4. H I __ __ E R (other term for spiker)
2. A__ T __ __ K (other term for spike) 5. __ __ B E __ __ (defensive player)
3. B L __ __ K (to intercept the ball)
Essential Questions:
1. What are the different basic skills in volleyball?
2. How to execute the different basic skills in volleyball?
3.
Explain:
1.BASIC SKILLS:
A. Pass – Also called reception, the pass is the attempt by a team to properly handle the
opponent's serve, or any form of attack. Proper handling includes not only preventing
the ball from touching the court, but also making it reaches the position where the
setter is standing quickly and precisely.
*Instructional video:
1. Forarm Pass for Beginners – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XgHKbjP5mRI
2. How to Move the Feet – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kzZ_4mDQRIc
TEAM SPORTS
B. Set – Is usually the second contact that a team makes with the ball. The main goal of
setting is to put the ball in the air in such a way that it can be driven by an attack into
the opponent's court. The setter coordinates the offensive movements of a team, and
is the player who ultimately decides which player will actually attack the ball.
There is also a jump set that is used when the ball is too close to the net.
*Instructional video for Toss
1. How to Set – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AOwk2QN0PdM
2. Becoming a Better Setter – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFxs0EPD68Q
C. Service – the service is the act of putting the ball into play, by the back-right player,
placed in the service
zone.
Execution of service – the ball shall be hit with one hand or any part of the arm after
being tossed or released from the hand. Only one toss or release of the ball is allowed.
A serve is called an "ace" when the ball lands directly onto the court or travels outside the
court after being touched by an opponent.
TYPES OF SERVES:
1. Underhand – a serve in which the player strikes the ball below the waist instead of
tossing it up and striking it with an overhand throwing motion.
TEAM SPORTS
• Topspin - an overhand serve where the player tosses the ball high and hits it with
a wrist span, giving it topspin which causes it to drop faster
• Float - an overhand serve where the ball is hit with no spin so that its path
becomes unpredictable.
• Jump Serve - an overhand serve where the ball is first tossed high in the air, then
the player makes a timed approach and jumps to make contact with the ball,
hitting it with much pace and topspin.
• Jump Float - an overhand serve where the ball is tossed high enough that the
player may jump before hitting it similarly to a standing float serve. The ball is
tossed lower than a topspin jump serve, but contact is still made while in the air.
D. Attack – also known as the spike, is usually the third contact a team makes with the
ball. The object of attacking is to handle the ball so that it lands on the opponent's
court and cannot be defended. A player makes a series of steps (the "approach"),
jumps, and swings at the ball.
*Instructional video for Spike for Beginners:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vyk4K8R9CLM
Photo source:setupforvolleyball.com
E. Block – Block is the action of players close to the net to intercept the ball coming
from the opponent by reaching higher than the top of the net.
In blocking, the player may place his/her hands and arms beyond the net, provided
that this action does not interfere with the opponent’s play. It is not permitted to touch
the ball beyond the net until an opponent has executed an attach hit.
A block contact is not counted as a team hit. After a block contact, a team is entitled
to three hits to return the ball.
F. Dig – is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or
attack, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground.
Specific Techniques:
"Dive" – Throw his or her body in the air with a forward movement in an
attempt to save the ball, and land on his or her chest.
"Pancake" – When the player also slides his or her hand under a ball that is almost
touching the court.
a. Practice Skills in Passing, Set, Service, Block and Dig. Use the links posted on the
discussion as a guide for proper demonstration of the skills.
b. Record yourself activity. Kindly follow the instructions below.
Evaluation:
Name: ___________________________________________ Date: ____________ Course/Year
& Section: ________________________________ Score: ___________
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of your answer on the space provided before each number. 5
items for 2 points each, total of 10 point.
____ 1. In Volleyball, it is an overhand serve where the ball is hit with no spin so
that its path becomes unpredictable.
A. Top Spin C. Float
B. Jump Float D. Jump Serve
____ 2. This is usually the second contact a team makes with the ball.
A. Attack C. Pass
B. Block D. Set
____4. The main goal of these skill is to put the ball in the air in such a way that it
can be driven by an attack into the opponent's court.
A. Serve C. Pass
B. Block D. Set
____5. It is an overhand serve where the ball is first tossed high in the air, then the
player makes a timed approach and jumps to make contact with the ball,
hitting it with much pace and topspin.
A. Top Spin C. Float
B. Jump Float D. Jump Serve
OFFICIAL VOLLEYBALL RULES
2017-2020
GAME CHARACTERISTICS 7
1 PLAYING AREA.....................................................................................................................12
1.1 DIMENSIONS...............................................................................................................12
1.2 PLAYING SURFACE......................................................................................................12
1.3 LINES ON THE COURT.................................................................................................13
1.4 ZONES AND AREAS.....................................................................................................13
1.5 TEMPERATURE............................................................................................................14
1.6 LIGHTING....................................................................................................................14
2 NET AND POSTS...................................................................................................................14
2.1 HEIGHT OF THE NET....................................................................................................14
2.2 STRUCTURE................................................................................................................15
2.3 SIDE BANDS................................................................................................................15
2.4 ANTENNAE.................................................................................................................15
2.5 POSTS.........................................................................................................................15
2.6 ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT...........................................................................................16
3 BALLS...................................................................................................................................16
3.1 STANDARDS...............................................................................................................16
3.2 UNIFORMITY OF BALLS...............................................................................................16
3.3 FIVE-BALL SYSTEM......................................................................................................16
CHAPTER 2: PARTICIPANTS 17
4 TEAMS.................................................................................................................................17
4.1 TEAM COMPOSITION..................................................................................................17
4.2 LOCATION OF THE TEAM............................................................................................18
4.3 EQUIPMENT................................................................................................................18
4.4 CHANGE OF EQUIPMENT............................................................................................19
4.5 FORBIDDEN OBJECTS..................................................................................................19
5 TEAM LEADERS....................................................................................................................19
5.1 CAPTAIN.....................................................................................................................19
5.2 COACH......................................................................................................................20
5.3 ASSISTANT COACH.....................................................................................................21
2
CHAPTER 3: PLAYING FORMAT 22
8 STATES OF PLAY...................................................................................................................27
8.1 BALL IN PLAY..............................................................................................................27
8.2 BALL OUT OF PLAY.....................................................................................................27
8.3 BALL “IN”...................................................................................................................27
8.4 BALL “OUT”...............................................................................................................27
9 PLAYING THE BALL.............................................................................................................. 28
9.1 TEAM HITS..................................................................................................................28
9.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HIT...................................................................................28
9.3 FAULTS IN PLAYING THE BALL.....................................................................................29
10 BALL AT THE NET..................................................................................................................29
10.1 BALL CROSSING THE NET............................................................................................29
10.2 BALL TOUCHING THE NET...........................................................................................30
10.3 BALL IN THE NET.........................................................................................................30
11 PLAYER AT THE NET..............................................................................................................30
11.1 REACHING BEYOND THE NET.....................................................................................30
11.2 PENETRATION UNDER THE NET...................................................................................30
11.3 CONTACT WITH THE NET............................................................................................31
11.4 PLAYER’S FAULTS AT THE NET.....................................................................................31
12 SERVICE...............................................................................................................................31
12.1 FIRST SERVICE IN A SET...............................................................................................31
12.2 SERVICE ORDER..........................................................................................................32
12.3 AUTHORIZATION OF THE SERVICE...............................................................................32
12.4 EXECUTION OF THE SERVICE......................................................................................32
15 INTERRUPTIONS....................................................................................................................36
15.1 NUMBER OF REGULAR GAME INTERRUPTIONS...........................................................36
15.2 SEQUENCE OF REGULAR GAME INTERRUPTIONS........................................................36
15.3 REQUEST FOR REGULAR GAME INTERRUPTIONS.........................................................36
15.4 TIME-OUTS AND TECHNICAL TIME-OUTS....................................................................37
15.5 SUBSTITUTION............................................................................................................37
15.6 LIMITATION OF SUBSTITUTIONS..................................................................................37
15.7 EXCEPTIONAL SUBSTITUTION......................................................................................37
15.8 SUBSTITUTION FOR EXPULSION OR DISQUALIFICATION...............................................38
15.9 ILLEGAL SUBSTITUTION...............................................................................................38
15.10 SUBSTITUTION PROCEDURE........................................................................................38
15.11 IMPROPER REQUESTS..................................................................................................39
16 GAME DELAYS.....................................................................................................................39
16.1 TYPES OF DELAYS.......................................................................................................39
16.2 DELAY SANCTIONS.....................................................................................................40
17 EXCEPTIONAL GAME INTERRUPTIONS................................................................................. 40
17.1 INJURY / ILLNESS..........................................................................................................40
17.2 EXTERNAL INTERFERENCE...........................................................................................40
17.3 PROLONGED INTERRUPTIONS.....................................................................................40
18 INTERVALS AND CHANGE OF COURTS.................................................................................41
18.1 INTERVALS..................................................................................................................41
18.2 CHANGE OF COURTS.................................................................................................41
4
CHAPTER 6: THE LIBERO PLAYER 42
20 REQUIREMENTS OF CONDUCT.............................................................................................46
20.1 SPORTSMANLIKE CONDUCT.......................................................................................46
20.2 FAIR PLAY...................................................................................................................46
21 MISCONDUCT AND ITS SANCTIONS.....................................................................................46
21.1 MINOR MISCONDUCT................................................................................................46
21.2 MISCONDUCT LEADING TO SANCTIONS.....................................................................47
21.3 SANCTION SCALE.......................................................................................................47
21.4 APPLICATION OF MISCONDUCT SANCTIONS..............................................................48
21.5 MISCONDUCT BEFORE AND BETWEEN SETS...............................................................48
21.6 SUMMARY OF MISCONDUCT AND CARDS USED.......................................................48
PART 2 - SECTION 2: THE REFEREES, THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES AND OFFICIAL HAND SIGNALS 49
CHAPTER 8: REFEREES 50
PART 3: DEFINITIONS 80
INDEX 83
6
GAME CHARACTERISTICS
The object of the game is to send the ball over the net in order to ground it on
the opponent’s court, and to prevent the same effort by the opponent. The
team has three hits for returning the ball (in addition to the block contact).
The ball is put in play with a service: hit by the server over the net to the
opponents. The rally continues until the ball is grounded on the playing court,
goes “out” or a team fails to return it properly.
In Volleyball, the team winning a rally scores a point (Rally Point System).
When the receiving team wins a rally, it gains a point and the right to serve,
and its players rotate one position clockwise.
8
PART 1: PHILOSOPHY OF RULES AND REFEREEING
INTRODUCTION
Volleyball is one of the most successful and popular competitive and recreational sports in the
world. It is fast, it is exciting and the action is explosive. Yet Volleyball comprises several crucial
overlapping elements whose complimentary interactions render it unique amongst rally games.
VOLLEY
Service Rotation
PASSING
Explosive
Jumping Power
Action
DIVIDED
Attack TEAM GAME Defense
COURTS
In recent years the FIVB has made great strides in adapting the game to a modern audience.
This text is aimed at a broad Volleyball public – players, coaches, referees, spectators, commentators –
for the following reasons:
–– understanding the rules better, allows better play – coaches can create better team structure and
tactics, allowing players full rein to display their skills;
–– understanding the relationship between rules allows officials to make better decisions.
This introduction at first focuses on Volleyball as a competitive sport, before setting out to identify
the main qualities required for successful refereeing.
Competition taps latent strengths. It exhibits the best of ability, spirit, creativity and aesthetics.
The rules are structured to allow all of these qualities. With a few exceptions, Volleyball allows
all players to operate both at the net (in attack) and in the back of the court (to defend or serve).
William Morgan, the game’s creator, would still recognize it because Volleyball has retained certain
distinctive and essential elements over the years. Some of these it shares with other net/ball/
racquet games:
–– Service
–– Rotation (taking turns to serve)
–– Attack
–– Defense
Volleyball is, however, unique amongst net games in insisting that the ball is in constant flight
– a flying ball – and by allowing each team a degree of internal passing before the ball must be
returned to the opponents.
The introduction of a specialist defensive player – the Libero – has moved the game forward in
The concept of rotation is entrenched to allow for all-round athletes. The rules on player positions
must permit teams to have flexibility and to create interesting developments in tactics.
Competitors use this framework to contest techniques, tactics and power. The framework also
allows players a freedom of expression to enthuse spectators and viewers.
The essence of a good official lies in the concept of fairness and consistency:
This demands a huge element of trust – the referee must be trusted to allow the players to entertain:
Finally we can say that a good referee will use the rules to make the competition a fulfilling
experience for all concerned.
To those who have read thus far, view the rules which follow as the current state of development of a
great game, but keep in mind why these preceding few paragraphs may be of equal importance to you
in your own position within the sport.
Get involved !
Keep the ball flying !
10
PART 2
SECTION 1: GAME
See Rules
1 PLAYING AREA
The playing area includes the playing court and the free zone. It shall be 1.1, D1a, D1b
rectangular and symmetrical.
1.1 DIMENSIONS D2
The free playing space is the space above the playing area which is free
from any obstructions. The free playing space shall measure a minimum
of 7 m in height from the playing surface.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the free zone shall
measure 5 m from the side lines and 6.5 m from the end lines. The
free playing space shall measure a minimum of 12.5 m in height
from the playing surface.
1.2.2 On indoor courts the surface of the playing court must be of a light
colour.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, white colours are 1.1, 1.3
required for the lines. Other colours, different from each other,
are required for the playing court and the free zone.
1.2.3 On outdoor courts a slope of 5 mm per metre is allowed for drainage. 1.3
Court lines made of solid materials are forbidden.
12
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
1.3.1 All lines are 5 cm wide. They must be of a light colour which is different 1.2.2
from the colour of the floor and from any other lines.
Two side lines and two end lines mark the playing court. Both side lines 1.1
and end lines are drawn inside the dimensions of the playing court.
The axis of the centre line divides the playing court into two equal D2
courts measuring 9 x 9 m each; however the entire width of the line is
considered to belong to both courts equally. This line extends beneath
the net from side line to side line.
On each court, an attack line, whose rear edge is drawn 3 m back from 1.3.3, 1.4.1
the axis of the centre line, marks the front zone.
The service zone is a 9 m wide area behind each end line.
It is laterally limited by two short lines, each 15 cm long, drawn 20 cm 1.3.2, 12, D1b
behind the end line as an extension of the side lines. Both short lines are
included in the width of the service zone.
In depth, the service zone extends to the end of the free zone. 1.1
The substitution zone is limited by the extension of both attack lines up 1.3.4, 15.6.1,
to the scorer's table. D1b
The Libero Replacement zone is part of the free zone on the side of 19.3.2.7, D1b
the team benches, limited by the extension of the attack line up to the
end line.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the warm-up areas, 24.2.5, D1a,
sized approximately 3 x 3 m, are located in both of the bench- D1b
side corners, outside the free zone.
A penalty area, sized approximately 1 x 1 m and equipped with two 21.3.2.1, D1a,
chairs, is located in the control area, outside the prolongation of each D1b
end line. They may be limited by a 5 cm wide red line.
1.5 TEMPERATURE
The minimum temperature shall not be below 10° C (50° F).
1.6 LIGHTING
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the lighting on the 1
playing area should be 1000 to 1500 lux measured at 1 m above
the surface of the playing area.
2.1.2 Its height is measured from the centre of the playing court. The net 1.1, 1.3.2,
height (over the two side lines) must be exactly the same and must not 2.1.1
exceed the official height by more than 2 cm.
14
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
2.2 STRUCTURE
The net is 1 m wide and 9.50 to 10 m long (with 25 to 50 cm on each D3
side of the side bands), made of 10 cm square black mesh.
At its top a horizontal band, 7 cm wide, made of two-fold white canvas,
is sewn along its full length. Each extreme end of the band has a hole,
through which passes a cord, fastening the band to the posts for
keeping its top taut.
Within the band, a flexible cable fastens the net to the posts and keeps
its top taut.
At the bottom of the net there is another horizontal band, 5cm wide,
similar to the top band, through which is threaded a rope. This rope
fastens the net to the posts and keeps its lower part taut.
They are 5 cm wide and 1 m long and are considered as part of the net.
2.4 ANTENNAE
An antenna is a flexible rod, 1.80 m long and 10 mm in diameter, made
of fibreglass or similar material.
An antenna is fastened at the outer edge of each side band. The 2.3, D3
antennae are placed on opposite sides of the net.
The top 80 cm of each antenna extends above the net and is marked
with 10 cm stripes of contrasting colour, preferably red and white.
The antennae are considered as part of the net and laterally delimit the 10.1.1, D3,
crossing space. D5a, D5b
2.5 POSTS
2.5.1 The posts supporting the net are placed at a distance of 0.50-1.00 m D3
outside the side lines. They are 2.55 m high and preferably adjustable.
For all FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the posts supporting
the net are placed at a distance of 1 m outside the side lines and
must be padded.
2.5.2 The posts are rounded and smooth, fixed to the ground without wires.
There shall be no dangerous or obstructing devices.
3 BALLS
3.1 STANDARDS
The ball shall be spherical, made of a flexible leather or synthetic leather
case with a bladder inside, made of rubber or a similar material.
Its inside pressure shall be 0.30 to 0.325 kg/cm2 (4.26 to 4.61 psi) (294.3
to 318.82 mbar or hPa).
16
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
CHAPTER 2
PARTICIPANTS
See Rules
4 TEAMS
Only those listed on the score sheet may normally enter the Competition/
Control Area and take part in the official warm up and in the match.
Any Medical doctor or team therapist used in FIVB, World and D1a
Official Competitions must be part of the official Delegation
and accredited beforehand by the FIVB. However, for FIVB,
World and Official Competitions for Seniors, if they are not
included as members on the team bench, they must sit against
the delimitation fence, inside the Competition-Control Area and
may only intervene if invited by the referees to deal with an
emergency to the players. The team therapist (even if not on the 7.2.1
bench) may assist with the warm up until the start of the official
net warm up session.
4.1.2 One of the players, other than the Libero, is the team captain, who shall 5.1, 19.1.3
be indicated on the score sheet.
The benches for the teams are located beside the scorer's table, outside D1a, D1b
the free zone.
4.2.2 Only the team composition members are permitted to sit on the bench 4.1.1, 7.2
during the match and to participate in the official warm-up session.
4.2.4 During set intervals, players may warm-up using balls within their own 18.1
free zone. During the extended interval between sets 2 and 3 (if
used), players may use their own court as well.
4.3 EQUIPMENT
A player's equipment consists of a jersey, shorts, socks (the uniform)
and sport shoes.
4.3.1 The colour and the design for the jerseys, shorts and socks must be 4.1, 19.2
uniform for the team (except for the Libero). The uniforms must be
clean.
4.3.2 The shoes must be light and pliable with rubber or composite soles
without heels.
4.3.3.1 The number must be placed on the jersey at the centre of the front and
of the back. The colour and brightness of the numbers must contrast
with the colour and brightness of the jerseys.
4.3.3.2 The number must be a minimum of 15 cm in height on the chest, and
a minimum of 20 cm in height on the back. The stripe forming the
numbers shall be a minimum of 2 cm in width.
18
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
4.3.4 The team captain must have on his/her jersey a stripe of 8 x 2 cm 5.1
underlining the number on the chest.
4.3.5 It is forbidden to wear uniforms of a colour different from that of the 19.2
other players (except for the Liberos), and/or without official numbers.
4.4.2 to change wet or damaged uniforms between sets or after substitution, 4.3, 15.5
provided that the colour, design and number of the new uniform(s) are
the same;
4.4.3 to play in training suits in cold weather, provided that they are of the 4.1.1, 19.2
same colour and design for the whole team (except for the Liberos) and
numbered according to Rule 4.3.3.
4.5.3 Compression pads (padded injury protection devices) may be worn for
protection or support.
5 TEAM LEADERS
Both the team captain and the coach are responsible for the conduct 20
and discipline of their team members.
5.1 CAPTAIN
5.1.1 PRIOR TO THE MATCH, the team captain signs the score sheet and 7.1, 25.2.1.1
represents his/her team in the toss.
5.1.2 DURING THE MATCH and while on the court, the team captain is the 15.2.1
game captain. When the team captain is not on the court, the coach
or the team captain must assign another player on the court, but not
the Libero, to assume the role of game captain. This game captain
maintains his/her responsibilities until he/she is substituted, or the team
captain returns to play, or the set ends.
5.1.3.1 thanks the referees and signs the score sheet to ratify the result; 25.2.3.3
5.1.3.2 may, when it has been notified in due time to the 1 referee, confirm
st
5.1.2.1,
and record on the score sheet an official protest regarding the referee’s 25.2.3.2
application or interpretation of the rules.
5.2 COACH
5.2.1 Throughout the match, the coach conducts the play of his/her team 1.1, 7.3.2,
from outside the playing court. He/she selects the starting line-ups, the 15.4.1, 15.5.2
substitutes, and takes time-outs. In these functions his/her contacting
official is the 2nd referee.
5.2.2 PRIOR TO THE MATCH, the coach records or checks the names and 4.1, 19.1.3,
numbers of his/her players on the score sheet team roster, and then signs it. 25.2.1.1
5.2.3.1 prior to each set, gives the 2nd referee or the scorer the line-up sheet(s) 7.3.2, 7.4, 7.6
duly filled in and signed;
5.2.3.2 sits on the team bench nearest to the scorer, but may leave it; 4.2
5.2.3.4 may, as well as other team members, give instructions to the players 1.3.4, 1.4.5,
on the court. The coach may give these instructions while standing or D1a, D1b, D2
walking within the free zone in front of his/her team’s bench from the
extension of the attack line up to the warm-up area, without disturbing
or delaying the match.
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, the coach is restricted D1a, D1b, D2
to performing his/her function from behind the coach’s restriction
line throughout the entire match.
20
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
5.3.2 Should the coach have to leave his/her team for any reason including 5.1.2, 5.2
sanction, but excluding entering the court as a player, an assistant coach
may assume the coach's functions for the duration of the absence, once
confirmed to the referee by the game captain.
See Rules
6.1.1.1 by successfully landing the ball on the opponent’s court; 8.3, 10.1.1
6.1.2 Fault
6.1.2.1 if two or more faults are committed successively, only the first one is
counted;
6.1.2.2 if two or more faults are committed by opponents simultaneously, a 6.1.2, D11 (23)
DOUBLE FAULT is called and the rally is replayed.
A rally is the sequence of playing actions from the moment of the 8.1, 8.2,
service hit by the server until the ball is out of play. A completed rally 12.2.2.1, 12.4.4,
is the sequence of playing actions which results in the award of a point. 15.2.3,
This includes: 15.11.1.3,
19.3.2.1,
–– the award of a penalty 19.3.2.9,
–– loss of service for service hit made after the time-limit. 21.3.1
6.1.3.1 If the serving team wins a rally, it scores a point and continues to serve.
6.1.3.2 If the receiving team wins a rally, it scores a point and it must serve next.
A set (except the deciding 5th set) is won by the team which first scores 6.3.2
25 points with a minimum lead of two points. In the case of a 24-24 tie,
play is continued until a two-point lead is achieved (26-24; 27-25; etc.).
22
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
6.3.1 The match is won by the team that wins three sets. 6.2
6.3.2 In the case of a 2-2 tie, the deciding 5th set is played to 15 points with a 7.1
minimum lead of 2 points.
6.4.2 A team that, without justifiable reason, does not appear on the playing
court on time is declared in default with the same result as in Rule 6.4.1.
6.4.3 A team that is declared INCOMPLETE for the set or for the match, loses 6.2, 6.3, 7.3.1
the set or the match. The opponent team is given the points, or the
points and the sets, needed to win the set or the match. The incomplete
team keeps its points and sets.
7 STRUCTURE OF PLAY
7.1.1 The toss is taken in the presence of the two team captains. 5.1
EITHER
OR
7.2.3 In the case of consecutive official warm-ups, the team that has the first 7.1.2.1, 7.2.2
service takes the first turn at the net.
The team's starting line-up indicates the rotational order of the players 7.6
on the court. This order must be maintained throughout the set.
7.3.2 Before the start of each set, the coach has to present the starting line-up 5.2.3.1, 24.3.1,
of his/her team on a line-up sheet or via the electronic device, if used. 25.2.1.2
The sheet is submitted, duly filled in and signed, to the 2nd referee or the
scorer – or electronically sent directly to the e-scorer.
7.3.3 The players who are not in the starting line-up of a set are the substitutes 7.3.2, 15.5
for that set (except the Liberos).
7.3.4 Once the line-up sheet has been delivered to the 2nd referee or scorer, no 15.2.2, 15.5,
change in the line-up may be authorized without a regular substitution. D11 (5)
7.3.5 Discrepancies between players’ position on court and on the line-up 24.3.1
sheet are dealt with as follows:
7.3.5.1 when such a discrepancy is discovered before the start of the set, 7.3.2
players' positions must be rectified according to those on the line-up
sheet – there will be no sanction;
7.3.5.2 when, before the start of the set, any player on court is found not to be 7.3.2
registered on the line-up sheet of that set, this player must be changed
to conform to the line-up sheet – there will be no sanction;
7.3.5.3 however, if the coach wishes to keep such non-recorded player(s) on 15.2.2, D11 (5)
the court, he/she has to request regular substitution(s), by use of the
corresponding hand signal, which will then be recorded on the score
sheet.
7.3.5.4 Where a player is found to be on court but he/she is not registered on 6.1.2, 7.3.2
the team roster, the opponent’s points remain valid, and in addition
they gain a point and service. The team at fault will lose all points and/
or sets (0:25, if necessary) gained from the moment the non- registered
player entered the court, and will have to submit a revised line-up sheet
and send a new registered player into the court, in the position of the
non-registered player.
24
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
7.4 POSITIONS D4
At the moment the ball is hit by the server, each team must be positioned 7.6.1, 8.1, 12.4
within its own court in the rotational order (except the server).
7.4.1.1 the three players along the net are front-row players and occupy
positions 4 (front-left), 3 (front-centre) and 2 (front-right);
7.4.1.2 the other three are back-row players occupying positions 5 (back-left), 6
(back-centre) and 1 (back-right).
7.4.2.1 each back-row player must be positioned further back from the centre
line than the corresponding front-row player;
7.4.2.2 the front-row players and the back-row players, respectively, must be
positioned laterally in the order indicated in Rule 7.4.1.
7.4.3 The positions of players are determined and controlled according to the D4
positions of their feet contacting the ground as follows:
7.4.3.1 each front-row player must have at least a part of his/her foot closer 1.3.3
to the centre line than the feet of the corresponding back-row player;
7.4.3.2 each right (left) side player must have at least a part of his/her foot 1.3.2
closer to the right (left) sideline than the feet of the centre player in
that row.
7.4.4 After the service hit, the players may move around and occupy any
position on their court and the free zone.
7.5.1 The team commits a positional fault, if any player is not in his/her correct 7.3, 7.4, 15.9
position at the moment the ball is hit by the server. When a player is on
court through illegal substitution, and play restarts, this is counted as a
positional fault with the consequences of an illegal substitution.
7.5.2 If the server commits a serving fault at the moment of the service hit, 12.4, 12.7.1
the server's fault is counted before a positional fault.
7.5.3 If the service becomes faulty after the service hit, it is the positional fault 12.7.2
that will be counted.
7.5.4.1 the team is sanctioned with a point and service to the opponent; 6.1.3
7.6.2 When the receiving team has gained the right to serve, its players rotate 12.2.2.2
one position clock-wise: the player in position 2 rotates to position 1 to
serve, the player in position 1 rotates to position 6, etc.
7.7.1 A rotational fault is committed when the SERVICE is not made according 7.6.1, 12
to the rotational order. It leads to the following consequences in order:
7.7.1.1 the scorer stops play by the buzzer; the opponent gains a point and 6.1.3
next service;
If the rotational fault is determined only after the completion of the rally
which started with a rotational fault, only a single point is awarded to
the opponent, regardless of the result of the rally played.
7.7.1.2 the rotational order of the faulty team must be rectified; 7.6.1
7.7.2 Additionally, the scorer should determine the exact moment when the 25.2.2.2
fault was committed, and all points scored subsequently by the team at
fault must be cancelled. The opponent's points remain valid.
26
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
CHAPTER 4
PLAYING ACTIONS
See Rules
8 STATES OF PLAY
8.4.1 all parts of the ball which contact the floor are completely outside the 1.3.2, D11 (15),
boundary lines; D12 (2)
8.4.2 it touches an object outside the court, the ceiling or a person out of D11 (15),
play; D12 (4)
8.4.3 it touches the antennae, ropes, posts or the net itself outside the side 2.3, D3, D5a,
bands; D11 (15),
D12 (4)
8.4.4 it crosses the vertical plane of the net either partially or totally outside 2.3, D5a, D5b,
the crossing space, except in the case of Rule 10.1.2; D11 (15),
D12 (4)
8.4.5 it crosses completely the lower space under the net. 23.3.2.3f, D5a,
D11 (22)
(except Rule 10.1.2). The ball may, however, be retrieved from beyond
its own free zone.
A player may not hit the ball two times consecutively 9.2.3, 14.2,
14.4.2
(except Rules 9.2.3, 14.2 and 14.4.2).
Two or three players may touch the ball at the same moment.
9.1.2.1 When two (or three) team-mates touch the ball simultaneously, it is
counted as two (or three) hits (with the exception of blocking). If they
reach for the ball, but only one of them touches it, one hit is counted. A
collision of players does not constitute a fault.
9.1.2.2 When two opponents touch the ball simultaneously over the net and
the ball remains in play, the team receiving the ball is entitled to another
three hits. If such a ball goes “out”, it is the fault of the team on the
opposite side.
9.1.2.3 If simultaneous hits by two opponents over the net lead to an extended 9.1.2.2
contact with the ball, play continues.
Within the playing area, a player is not permitted to take support from a 1
team-mate or any structure/object in order to hit the ball.
However, a player who is about to commit a fault (touch the net or 1.3.3, 11.4.4
cross the centre line, etc.) may be stopped or held back by a team-mate.
9.2.2 The ball must not be caught and/or thrown. It can rebound in any 9.3.3
direction.
28
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
9.2.3 The ball may touch various parts of the body, provided that the contacts
take place simultaneously.
Exceptions:
9.2.3.1 at blocking, consecutive contacts may be made by one or more player(s), 14.1.1, 14.2
provided that the contacts occur during one action;
9.2.3.2 at the first hit of the team, the ball may contact various parts of the 9.1, 14.4.1
body consecutively, provided that the contacts occur during one
action.
9.3.2 ASSISTED HIT: a player takes support from a team-mate or any structure/ 9.1.3
object in order to hit the ball within the playing area.
9.3.3 CATCH: the ball is caught and/or thrown; it does not rebound from 9.2.2, D11 (16)
the hit.
9.3.4 DOUBLE CONTACT: a player hits the ball twice in succession or the ball 9.2.3, D11 (17)
contacts various parts of his/her body in succession.
10.1.1.2 at the sides, by the antennae, and their imaginary extension; 2.4
10.1.2 The ball that has crossed the net plane to the opponent's free zone 9.1, D5b
totally or partly through the external space, may be played back within
the team hits, provided that:
10.1.2.2 the ball, when played back, crosses the net plane again totally or partly 11.4.4, D5b
through the external space on the same side of the court.
10.3.2 If the ball rips the mesh of the net or tears it down, the rally is cancelled
and replayed.
11.1.2 After an attack hit, a player is permitted to pass his/her hand beyond
the net, provided that the contact has been made within his/her own
playing space.
11.2.2 Penetration into the opponent's court, beyond the centre line: 1.3.3, 11.2.2.1,
D11 (22)
11.2.2.1 to touch the opponent's court with a foot (feet) is permitted, provided 1.3.3, D11 (22)
that some part of the penetrating foot (feet) remains either in contact
with or directly above the centre line;
11.2.2.2 to touch the opponent’s court with any part of the body above the feet 1.3.3, 11.2.2.1,
is permitted provided that it does not interfere with the opponent’s play. D11 (22)
11.2.3 A player may enter the opponent's court after the ball goes out of play. 8.2
11.2.4 Players may penetrate into the opponent's free zone provided that they
do not interfere with the opponent’s play.
30
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
11.4.2 A player interferes with the opponent's play while penetrating into the 11.2.1
opponent’s space under the net.
11.4.3 A player’s foot (feet) penetrates completely into the opponent's court. 11.2.2.2,
D11 (22)
11.4.4 A player interferes with play by (amongst others):
–– touching the net between the antennae or the antenna itself during 11.3.1
his/her action of playing the ball,
–– using the net between the antennae as a support or stabilizing aid D11 (19)
–– creating an unfair advantage over the opponent by touching the net
–– making actions which hinder an opponent’s legitimate attempt to
play the ball,
–– catching/ holding on to the net
Any player close to the ball as it is played, and who is him/herself trying
to play it, is considered in the action of playing the ball, even if no
contact is made with it.
However, touching the net outside the antenna is not to be considered
a fault (except for Rule 9.1.3.)
12 SERVICE
The service is the act of putting the ball into play, by the back-right 1.4.2, 8.1,
player, placed in the service zone. 12.4.1
12.2.2 After the first service in a set, the player to serve is determined as 12.1
follows:
12.2.2.1 when the serving team wins the rally, the player (or his/her substitute) 6.1.3, 15.5
who served before, serves again;
12.2.2.2 when the receiving team wins the rally, it gains the right to serve and 6.1.3, 7.6.2
rotates before actually serving. The player who moves from the front-
right position to the back-right position will serve.
12.4.1 The ball shall be hit with one hand or any part of the arm after being
tossed or released from the hand(s).
12.4.2 Only one toss or release of the ball is allowed. Dribbling or moving the
ball in the hands is permitted.
12.4.3 At the moment of the service hit or take-off for a jump service, the 1.4.2, 27.2.1.4,
server must not touch the court (the end line included) or the floor D11 (22),
outside the service zone. D12 (4)
After the hit, he/she may step or land outside the service zone, or inside
the court.
12.4.4 The server must hit the ball within 8 seconds after the 1st referee whistles 12.3, D11 (11)
for service.
12.4.5 A service executed before the referee's whistle is cancelled and repeated. 12.3
32
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
13 ATTACK HIT
13.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATTACK HIT 12, 14.1.1
13.1.1 All actions which direct the ball towards the opponent, with the
exception of service and block, are considered as attack hits.
13.1.2 During an attack hit, tipping is permitted only if the ball is cleanly hit, 9.2.2
and not caught or thrown.
13.1.3 An attack hit is completed at the moment the ball completely crosses
the vertical plane of the net or is touched by an opponent.
14 BLOCK
14.1 BLOCKING
14.1.1 Blocking is the action of players close to the net to intercept the ball 7.4.1.1
coming from the opponent by reaching higher than the top of the net,
regardless of the height of the ball contact. Only front-row players are
permitted to complete a block, but at the moment of the contact with
the ball, a part of the body must be higher than the top of the net.
14.1.2 Block attempt
A block attempt is the action of blocking without touching the ball.
34
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
See Rules
15 INTERRUPTIONS
An interruption is the time between one completed rally and the 1st 6.1.3, 8.1, 8.2,
referee’s whistle for the next service. 15.4, 15.5,
24.2.6
The only regular game interruptions are TIME-OUTS and
SUBSTITUTIONS.
For FIVB, World and Official competitions for Seniors, the FIVB
may reduce, by one, the number of team and/ or Technical Time
Outs in accordance with sponsorship, marketing and broadcast
agreements.
15.2.2 However, a team is not authorized to make consecutive requests for 15.5, 15.6.1
substitution during the same interruption. Two or more players may be
substituted at the same time within the same request.
15.2.3 There must be a completed rally between two separate substitution 6.1.3, 15.5
requests by the same team. (Exception: a forced substitution due to
injury or expulsion/disqualification (15.5.2, 15.7, 15.8)).
15.3.2 Substitution before the start of a set is permitted, and should be 7.3.4
recorded as a regular substitution in that set.
36
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
For FIVB, World and Official Competitions it is obligatory to use D11 (4)
the buzzer and then the hand signal to request time-out.
15.4.2 For FIVB, World and Official Competitions, in sets 1-4, two 26.2.2.3
additional 60-second “Technical Time-Outs” are applied
automatically when the leading team reaches the 8th and 16th
point.
15.4.3 In the deciding (5th) set, there are no “Technical Time- Outs”; only 15.1
two time-outs of 30 seconds duration may be requested by each
team.
15.4.4 During all time-outs (including Technical Time Outs), the players D1a
in play must go to the free zone near their bench.
15.5 SUBSTITUTION
15.5.1 A substitution is the act by which a player, other than the Libero or his/ 19.3.2.1,
her replacement player, after being recorded by the scorer, enters the D11 (5)
game to occupy the position of another player, who must leave the
court at that moment.
15.5.2 When the substitution is enforced through injury to a player in play 5.1.2.3,
this may be accompanied by the coach (or game captain) showing the 5.2.3.3, 6.1.3,
corresponding hand signal. 8.2, 12.3, D11
(5)
15.6.2 A substitute player may enter the game in place of a player of the 7.3.1
starting line-up, but only once per set, and he/she can only be
substituted by the same starting player.
15.9.2 When a team has made an illegal substitution and the play has been 8.1, 15.6
resumed the following procedure shall apply, in sequence:
15.9.2.1 the team is penalized with a point and service to the opponent, 6.1.3
15.9.2.3 the points scored by the team at fault since the fault was committed
are cancelled; the opponent’s points remain valid.
15.10.2 A substitution shall only last the time needed for recording the 15.10, 24.2.6,
substitution on the score sheet, and allowing entry and exit of the 25.2.2.3
players.
15.10.3a The actual request for substitution starts at the moment of the
entrance of the substitute player(s) into the substitution zone, ready
to play, during an interruption. The coach does not need to make a
substitution hand signal except if the substitution is for injury or before
the start of the set.
15.10.3b If the player is not ready, the substitution is not granted and the team 16.2, D9
is sanctioned for a delay.
38
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
15.10.3c The request for substitution is acknowledged and announced by the 24.2.6
scorer or 2nd referee, by use of the buzzer or whistle respectively. The
2nd referee authorises the substitution.
15.10.4 If a team intends to make simultaneously more than one substitution, 1.4.3, 15.2.2
all substitute players must enter the substitution zone at the same time
to be considered in the same request. In this case, substitutions must
be made in succession, one pair of players after another. If one is illegal,
the legal one(s) is/are granted and the illegal is rejected and subject to
a delay sanction.
15.11.1.1 during a rally or at the moment of or after the whistle to serve, 12.3
15.11.1.3 for a second substitution by the same team during the same 15.2.2, 15.2.3,
interruption (i.e. before the end of next completed rally), except in the 16.1, 25.2.2.6
case of injury/illness of a player in play.
15.11.1.4 after having exhausted the authorized number of time-outs and 15.1
substitutions.
15.11.2 The first improper request by a team in the match that does not affect 16.1, 25.2.2.6
or delay the game shall be rejected, but it must be recorded on the
score sheet without any other consequences.
15.11.3 Any further improper request in the match by the same team constitutes 16.1.4
a delay.
16 GAME DELAYS
16.1.2 prolonging interruptions, after having been instructed to resume the game; 15
16.2.1.1 Delay sanctions remain in force for the entire match. 6.3
16.2.1.2 All delay sanctions are recorded on the score sheet. 25.2.2.6
16.2.2 The first delay in the match by a team member is sanctioned with a 4.1.1, D11 (25)
“DELAY WARNING”.
16.2.3 The second and subsequent delays of any type by any member of the 6.1.3, D11 (25)
same team in the same match constitute a fault and are sanctioned
with a “DELAY PENALTY”: a point and service to the opponent.
16.2.4 Delay sanctions imposed before or between sets are applied in the 18.1
following set.
17.1.1 Should a serious accident occur while the ball is in play, the referee
must stop the game immediately and permit medical assistance to
enter the court.
17.1.2 If an injured/ill player cannot be substituted legally or exceptionally, the 15.6, 15.7,
player is given a 3-minute recovery time, but not more than once for the 24.2.8
same player in the match.
If the player does not recover, his/her team is declared incomplete. 6.4.3, 7.3.1
17.3.2 Should one or several interruptions occur, not exceeding 4 hours in 17.3.1
total:
17.3.2.1 if the match is resumed on the same playing court, the interrupted set 1, 7.3
shall continue normally with the same score, players (except expelled
or disqualified ones) and positions. The sets already played will keep
their scores;
40
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
17.3.2.2 if the match is resumed on another playing court, the interrupted set 7.3, 21.4.1, D9
is cancelled and replayed with the same team members and the same
starting line-ups (except expelled or disqualified ones) and the record
of all sanctions will be maintained. The sets already played will keep
their scores.
18.1 INTERVALS
An interval is the time between sets. All intervals last three minutes. 4.2.4
During this period of time, the change of courts and line-up registrations 7.3.2, 18.2,
of the teams on the score sheet are made. 25.2.1.2
The interval between the second and the third set can be extended up
to 10 minutes by the competent body at the request of the organizer.
18.2.1 After each set, the teams change courts, with the exception of the 7.1
deciding set.
18.2.2 In the deciding set, once the leading team reaches 8 points, the teams 6.3.2, 7.4.1,
change courts without delay and the player positions remain the same. 25.2.2.5
If the change is not made once the leading team reaches 8 points, it
will take place as soon as the error is noticed. The score at the time that
the change is made remains the same.
See Rules
19.1.1 Each team has the right to designate from the list of players on the 4.1.1
score sheet up to two specialist defensive players: Liberos.
In FIVB, World and Official competitions for Seniors, if a team
has more than 12 players recorded in the score sheet, TWO
Liberos are mandatory in the team list.
19.1.2 All Liberos must be recorded on the score sheet in the special lines 5.2.2, 25.2.1.1,
reserved for this. 26.2.1.1
19.1.3 The Libero on court is the Acting Libero. If there is another Libero, he/
she is the second Libero for the team.
The Libero player(s) must wear a uniform (OR JACKET/BIB FOR THE RE-
DESIGNATED Libero) which has a different dominant colour from any
colour of the rest of the team. The uniform must clearly contrast with
the rest of the team.
The Libero uniforms must be numbered like the rest of the team.
42
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
19.3.1.4 A player may not complete an attack hit when the ball is entirely higher 1.4.1, 13.3.6,
than the top of the net, if the ball is coming from an overhand finger 23.3.2.3d, e,
pass by a Libero in his/her front zone. The ball may be freely attacked D1b
if the Libero makes the same action from outside his/her front zone.
They are unlimited but there must be a completed rally between two
Libero replacements (unless a penalty causes the team to rotate and
the Libero to move to position four, or the Acting Libero becomes
unable to play, making the rally incomplete.)
19.3.2.3 At the start of each set, the Libero cannot enter the court until the 2nd 7.3.2, 12.1
referee has checked the line-up and authorised a Libero replacement
with a starting player.
19.3.2.4 Other Libero replacements must only take place while the ball is out of 8.2, 12.3
play and before the whistle for service.
19.3.2.5 A Libero replacement made after the whistle for service but before the 12.3, 12.4, D9
service hit should not be rejected; however, at the end of the rally, the
game captain must be informed that this is not a permitted procedure,
and that repetition will be subject to delay sanctions.
19.3.2.6 Subsequent late Libero replacements shall result in the play being 16.2, D9
interrupted immediately, and the imposition of a delay sanction. The
team to serve next will be determined by the level of the delay sanction.
19.3.2.7 The Libero and the replacing player may only enter or leave the court 1.4.4, D1b
through the Libero Replacement Zone.
19.3.2.8 Libero replacements must be recorded in the Libero Control Sheet (if 26.2.2.1,
one is used) or on the electronic score sheet. 26.2.2.2
–– the Libero being replaced by a player other than the second Libero or 15.9
the regular replacement player.
i.e. should the illegal Libero replacement be noticed before the start D9
of the next rally, then this is corrected by the referees, and the team is
sanctioned for delay;
19.4.2.1 When only one Libero is available for a team according to Rule 19.4.1, 19.4, 19.4.1
or the team has only one registered, and this Libero becomes or is
declared unable to play, the coach (or game captain if no coach is
present) may re-designate as Libero for the remainder of the match
any other player (replacement player excepted) not on the court at the
moment of the re-designation.
19.4.2.2 If the Acting Libero becomes unable to play, he/she may be replaced by
the regular replacement player or immediately and directly to court
by a re-designated Libero. However, a Libero who is the subject of a
re-designation may not play for the remainder of the match.
If the Libero is not on court when declared unable to play, he/she may
also be the subject of a re-designation. The Libero declared unable to
play may not play for the remainder of the match.
19.4.2.3 The coach, or game captain if no coach is present, contacts the second 5.1.2.1, 5.2.1
referee informing him/her about the re-designation.
19.4.2.5 If the coach requests the team captain to be re-designated as the new 5.1.2, 19.4.1
Libero, this will be permitted – but the team captain must in this case
relinquish all leadership privileges.
19.4.2.6 In the case of a re-designated Libero, the number of the player re- 25.2.2.7,
designated as Libero must be recorded on the score sheet remarks 26.2.2.1
section and on the Libero control sheet (or electronic score sheet if
one is used.)
19.4.3.1 Where a team has registered on the score sheet two Liberos, but one 4.1.1, 19.1.1
becomes unable to play the team has the right to play with only one
Libero.
44
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
19.5 SUMMARY
If the Libero is expelled or disqualified, he/she may be replaced 19.4, 21.3.2,
immediately by the team’s second Libero. Should the team have only 21.3.3
one Libero, then it has the right to make a re-designation.
See Rules
20 REQUIREMENTS OF CONDUCT
In case of doubt, clarification may be requested only through the game 5.1.2.1
captain.
20.2.2 Communication between team members during the match is permitted. 5.2.3.4
46
PART 2 - SECTION 1: GAME
The first rude conduct in the match by any team member is penalized 4.1.1, 21.2.1
with a point and service to the opponent.
21.3.2.1 A team member who is sanctioned by expulsion shall not play for the 1.4.6, 4.1.1,
rest of the set, must be substituted legally and immediately if on court 5.2.1, 5.3.2,
and must remain seated in the penalty area with no other consequences. D1a, D1b
An expelled coach loses his/her right to intervene in the set and must 5.2.3.3
remain seated in the penalty area.
21.3.2.2 The first offensive conduct by a team member is sanctioned by expulsion 4.1.1, 21.2.2
with no other consequences.
21.3.2.3 The second rude conduct in the same match by the same team member 4.1.1, 21.2.1
is sanctioned by expulsion with no other consequences.
21.3.3.2 The first physical attack or implied or threatened aggression is sanctioned 21.2.3
by disqualification with no other consequences.
21.3.3.3 The second offensive conduct in the same match by the same team 4.1.1, 21.2.2
member is sanctioned by disqualification with no other consequences.
21.4.2 The repetition of misconduct by the same team member in the same 4.1.1, 21.2,
match is sanctioned progressively (the team member receives a heavier 21.3, D9
sanction for each successive offence).
48
PART 2
SECTION 2:
THE REFEREES,
THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES
AND OFFICIAL
HAND SIGNALS
See Rules
22.1 COMPOSITION
The refereeing corps for a match is composed of the following officials:
–– the 2 referee,
nd
24
–– the scorer, 25
22.2 PROCEDURES
22.2.1 Only the 1st and 2nd referees may blow a whistle during the match:
22.2.1.1 the 1st referee gives the signal for the service that begins the rally; 6.1.3, 12.3
22.2.1.2 the 1 or 2 referee signals the end of the rally, provided that they
st nd
are sure that a fault has been committed and they have identified its
nature.
22.2.2 They may blow the whistle when the ball is out of play to indicate that 5.1.2, 8.2
they authorize or reject a team request.
22.2.3 Immediately after the referee’s whistle to signal the completion of the 22.2.1.2, 28.1
rally, they have to indicate with the official hand signals:
22.2.3.1 if the fault is whistled by the 1st referee, he/she will indicate in order:
50
PART 2 - SECTION 2: THE REFEREES, THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES AND OFFICIAL HAND SIGNALS
22.2.3.2 If the fault is whistled by the 2nd referee, he/she will indicate:
c) the team to serve following the hand signal of the 1st referee. 12.2.2
In this case, the 1 referee does not show either the nature of the fault
st
D11 (2)
or the player at fault, but only the team to serve.
22.2.3.3 In the case of an attack hit fault or blocking fault by back row or Libero 12.2.2, 13.3.3,
players, both referees indicate according to 22.2.3.1 and 22.2.3.2 13.3.5,
above. 19.3.1.2,
23.3.2.3d, e,
D11 (21)
22.2.3.4 In the case of a double fault both referees indicate in order:
The team to serve next is then indicated by the 1st referee. 12.2.2, D11 (2)
23 1st REFEREE
23.1 LOCATION
The 1st referee carries out his/her functions standing on a referee's D1a, D1b, D10
stand located at one end of the net on the opposite side to the scorer.
His/her view must be approximately 50 cm above the net.
23.2 AUTHORITY
23.2.1 The 1st referee directs the match from the start until the end. He/ 4.1.1, 6.3
she has authority over all members of the refereeing corps and the
members of the teams.
He/she may even replace a member of the refereeing corps who is not
performing his/her functions properly.
23.2.2 He/she also controls the work of the ball retrievers, floor wipers and 3.3
moppers.
23.2.3 He/she has the power to decide any matters involving the game,
including those not provided for in the rules.
23.2.4 He/she shall not permit any discussion about his/her decisions. 20.1.2
If the game captain does not agree with this explanation and chooses 5.1.2.1,
to protest against such decision, he/she must immediately reserve the 5.1.3.2,
right to file and record this protest at the conclusion of the match. The 25.2.3.2
1st referee must authorize this right of the game captain.
23.2.5 The 1st referee is responsible for determining before and during the Chapter 1,
match whether the playing area equipment and the conditions meet 23.3.1.1
playing requirements.
23.3 RESPONSIBILITIES
23.3.1 Prior to the match, the 1st referee:
23.3.1.1 inspects the conditions of the playing area, the balls and other Chapter 1,
equipment; 23.2.5
a) the faults of the server and of the positions of the serving team, 7.5, 12.4, 12.5,
including the screen; 12.7.1, D4, D6,
D11 (12,13)
b) the faults in playing the ball; 9.3,
D11 (16, 17)
c) the faults above the net, and the faulty contact of the player with the 11.3.1,11.4.1,
net, primarily on the attacker’s side; 11.4.4,
D11 (20)
d) the attack hit faults of the Libero and back-row players; 13.3.3, 13.3.5,
24.3.2.4, D8,
D11 (21)
e) the completed attack hits made by a player on a ball above net 1.4.1, 13.3.6,
height coming from an overhand pass with fingers by the Libero in his/ 24.3.2.4,
her front zone; D11 (21)
f) the ball crossing completely the lower space under the net; 8.4.5, 24.3.2.7,
D5a, D11 (22)
52
PART 2 - SECTION 2: THE REFEREES, THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES AND OFFICIAL HAND SIGNALS
g) the completed block by back row players or the attempted block by 14.6.2, 14.6.6,
the Libero. D11 (12)
h) the ball that crosses the net totally or partly outside of the crossing D11 (15)
space to the opponent’s court or contacts the antenna on his/her side
of the playing court.
i) the served ball and the 3rd hit passing over or outside the antenna on D11 (15)
his/ her side of the court
23.3.3 At the end of the match, he/she checks the score sheet and signs it. 24.3.3,
25.2.3.3
24 2nd REFEREE
24.1 LOCATION
The 2nd referee performs his/her functions standing outside the playing D1a, D1b, D10
court near the post, on the opposite side of and facing the 1st referee.
24.2 AUTHORITY
24.2.1 The 2nd referee is the assistant of the 1st referee, but has also his/her 24.3
own range of jurisdiction.
Should the 1st referee become unable to continue his/her work, the 2nd
referee may replace him/her.
24.2.2 He/she may, without whistling, also signal faults outside his/her range 24.3
of jurisdiction, but may not insist on them to the 1st referee.
24.2.4 He/she supervises the team members on the team bench and reports 4.2.1
their misconduct to the 1st referee.
24.2.6 He/she authorizes the regular game interruptions, controls their 15, 15.11,
duration and rejects improper requests. 25.2.2.3
24.2.7 He/she controls the number of time-outs and substitutions used by 15.1, 25.2.2.3
each team and reports the 2nd time-out and 5th and 6th substitutions to
the 1st referee and the coach concerned.
24.2.8 In the case of an injury of a player, he/she authorizes an exceptional 15.7, 17.1.2
substitution or grants a 3-minute recovery time.
24.2.9 He/she checks the floor condition, mainly in the front zone. He/she 1.2.1, 3
also checks, during the match, that the balls still fulfil the regulations.
24.3 RESPONSIBILITIES
24.3.1 At the start of each set, at the change of courts in the deciding set and 5.2.3.1, 7.3.2,
whenever necessary, the 2nd referee checks that the actual positions 7.3.5, 18.2.2
of the players on the court correspond to those on the line-up sheets.
24.3.2.1 penetration into the opponent's court, and the space under the net; 1.3.3, 11.2,
D5a, D11 (22)
24.3.2.2 positional faults of the receiving team; 7.5, D4,
D11 (13)
24.3.2.3 the faulty contact of the player with the net primarily on the blocker’s 11.3.1
side and with the antenna on his/her side of the court;
24.3.2.4 the completed block by back row players or the attempted block by 13.3.3, 14.6.2,
the Libero; or the attack hit fault by back row players or by the Libero; 14.6.6,
23.3.2.3d, e, g,
D11 (12, 21)
24.3.2.5 the contact of the ball with an outside object; 8.4.2, 8.4.3,
D11 (15)
24.3.2.6 the contact of the ball with the floor when the 1st referee is not in 8.3
position to see the contact;
54
PART 2 - SECTION 2: THE REFEREES, THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES AND OFFICIAL HAND SIGNALS
24.3.2.7 the ball that crosses the net plane totally or partly outside of the 8.4.3, 8.4.4,
crossing space to the opponent’s court or contacts the antenna on his/ D5a, D11 (15)
her side of the court.
24.3.2.8 the served ball and the 3rd hit passing over or outside the antenna on D11 (15)
his/ her side of the court.
24.3.3 At the end of the match, he/she checks and signs the score sheet. 23.3.3,
25.2.3.3
25 SCORER
25.1 LOCATION
The scorer performs his/her functions seated at the scorer's table on D1a, D1b, D10
the opposite side of the court from and facing the 1st referee.
25.2 RESPONSIBILITIES
He/she fills in the score sheet according to the rules, co-operating with
the 2nd referee.
25.2.1.1 registers the data of the match and teams, including the names and 4.1, 5.1.1,
numbers of the Liberos, according to the procedures in force, and 5.2.2, 7.3.2,
obtains the signatures of the captains and the coaches; 19.1.2,
19.4.2.6
25.2.1.2 records the starting line-up of each team from the line-up sheet (or 5.2.3.1, 7.3.2
checks the data submitted electronically.)
If he/she fails to receive the line-up sheets on time, he/she immediately 5.2.3.1
notifies this fact to the 2nd referee.
25.2.2.2 controls the serving order of each team and indicates any error to the 12.2
referees immediately after the service hit;
25.2.2.3 is empowered to acknowledge and announce requests for player 15.1, 15.4.1,
substitutions by use of the buzzer, controlling their number, and 15.10.3c,
records the substitutions and time-outs, informing the 2nd referee; 24.2.6, 24.2.7
25.2.2.4 notifies the referees of a request for regular game interruption that is 15.11
out of order;
25.2.2.5 announces to the referees the ends of the sets, and the scoring of the 6.2, 15.4.1,
8th point in the deciding set; 18.2.2
25.2.3.2 in the case of protest, with the previous authorization of the 1st referee, 5.1.2.1,
writes or permits the team/game captain to write on the score sheet a 5.1.3.2, 23.2.4
statement on the incident being protested;
25.2.3.3 signs the score sheet him/herself, before obtaining the signatures of 5.1.3.1, 23.3.3,
the team captains and then the referees. 24.3.3
26 ASSISTANT SCORER
26.2.2.2 notifies the referees of any fault of the Libero replacement, by using 19.3.2
the buzzer;
56
PART 2 - SECTION 2: THE REFEREES, THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES AND OFFICIAL HAND SIGNALS
26.2.2.6 if necessary, updates the reserve score sheet and gives it to the scorer. 25.2.1.1
26.2.3.1 signs the Libero control sheet and submits it for checking;
27 LINE JUDGES
27.1 LOCATION
If only two line judges are used, they stand at the corners of the court D1a, D1b, D10
closest to the right hand of each referee, diagonally at 1 to 2 m from
the corner.
Each one of them controls both the end line and side line on his/her
side.
They stand in the free zone at 1 to 3 m from each corner of the D10
court, on the imaginary extension of the line that they control.
27.2 RESPONSIBILITIES
27.2.1 The line judges perform their functions by using flags (40 x 40 cm), to D12
signal:
27.2.1.1 the ball ”in” and “out” whenever the ball lands near their line(s); 8.3, 8.4,
D12 (1, 2)
27.2.1.2 the touches of "out" balls by the team receiving the ball; 8.4, D12 (3)
27.2.1.3 the ball touching the antenna, the served ball and the third hit of the 8.4.3, 8.4.4,
team crossing the net outside the crossing space, etc.; 10.1.1, D5a,
D12 (4)
27.2.1.4 any player (except the server) stepping outside of his/her court at the 7.4, 12.4.3,
moment of the service hit; D12 (4)
27.2.1.6 any contact with the top 80 cm of the antenna on their side of the court 11.3.1, 11.4.4,
by any player during his/her action of playing the ball or interfering D3, D12 (4)
with the play;
27.2.2 At the 1st referee's request, a line judge must repeat his/her signal.
28 OFFICIAL SIGNALS
The referees must indicate with the official hand signal the reason for
their whistle (the nature of the fault whistled or the purpose of the
interruption authorized). The signal has to be maintained for a moment
and, if it is indicated with one hand, the hand corresponds to the side
of the team which has made the fault or the request.
The line judges must indicate with the official flag signal the nature of
the fault called, and maintain the signal for a moment.
58
PART 2
SECTION 3:
DIAGRAMS
2m
Delimitation Fence
Photographers‘ Positions VIS Photographers‘ Positions
Relevant Rules: 1, 1.4.5, 1.4.6, 4.2.1, 4.2.3.1, 15.4.4, 19.3.2.7, 21.3.2.1, 21.3.3.1, 23.1, 24.1, 25.1, 26.1
Photographers‘ Positions
the parquet in the control
min. 3 m (5 m)
Ball Retriever Ball Retriever Ball Retriever
area and around tribunes
20 cm
Free Zone
Photographers‘ Positions
5 cm
1.75 m
– Thermometer 20 cm
– Clock or Chronograph 6m 3m
1m
– Manual Scoreboard
– 2 rubber wheel trolleys
– Net measuring rod
– 6x1m long mops
Team Statistician
– 8 absorbent towels
– 4 Linejudge‘s red or
yellow flags 40x40cm
– Pressure gauge
– Ball measuring devices
Advertising Boards
– TV Replay light
– 1 set of post pads
– 1 reserve net
VIS
VIS
9m
9m
– 1 pair of reserve antennae
(...) Values are valid for FIVB, World and Official Competitions
Photographers‘ Positions
20 cm
15 cm
Positions
Photographers‘ Positions
1.75 m
Net Camera
Alternate replay light
min. 3 m (5 m)
Blue or black carpet to cover
Photographers‘
4.50 m
Court Announcer 1.30m Players Chairs Cover 5.8 m
appr. 3m
Competition Control Area Match Balls Reserve ref./linejudge Competition Control Area
TV Commentator*
Warm-Up Therapist/doctor Penalty 150x45x70 Control Committee Penalty Therapist/doctor Warm-Up
Area 300x90x70 150x45x70 Area
Area Area
Ball Trolley Organiser *To be located on the Ball Trolley
Riser 360x180x20 Media Tribune if possible
First-tier Event Branding Cover 3.6m First-tier Event Branding
2m min. 3 m (6.50 m) 9m 9m min. 3 m (6.50 m) 2m
min. 28 m (35 m)
60
PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS
9m
Service zone
Free zone
min. 3 m (6.50 m)
appr. 3 x 3 m
min. 3 m (5 m)
Libero replacement zone
Back zone
COURT
team bench
0.50 m-1 m
Front zone
Substitution zone
min. 24 m (31 m)
Scorer's table
Playing court
Free zone
A
Front zone
1.75 m 1.75 m
Libero replacement zone
team bench
Back zone
COURT
min. 3 m (5 m)
appr. 3 x 3 m
min. 3 m (6.50 m)
Free zone
9m
Service zone
warm-up area
min. 15 m (19 m)
0.05 m
9m 9m
1,75 m
End line
0.05 m
3m 3m
Side line
0.05 m
Back zone
axis of the centre line
Back zone
0.15 m
DIAGRAM 2: THE PLAYING COURT
0.20 m
3m 0.15 m
Relevant Rules: 1.1, 1.3, 1.3.3, 1.3.4, 1.4.1, 5.2.3.4
0.20 m
0.15 m
0.20 m
0.15 m
0.20 m
0.15 m
0.20 m
0.15 m
0.20 m
0.15 m
0.15 m
0.05 m
0.05 m
End line Attack line Centre line Attack line End line
1,75 m
0.80 m 9m
Cable
0.07 m
Cord 2.43 m
Men
1m
2.24 m
Women
2.55 m
0.05 m
Cord
9.50 - 10 m
0.50 m / 1 m
Axis
0.01 m
Top band
0.10 m
Cable
0.07 m
Cord
0.10
x
0.10 m
Side band
0.05 m
Example A:
Front-row player
Front-row player Front-row player
Back-row player
Back-row player Back-row player
Example B:
CC
(C)
Fault L (G)
64
PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS
DIAGRAM 5a: BALL CROSSING THE VERTICAL PLANE OF THE NET TO THE OPPONENT COURT
Relevant Rules: 2.4, 8.4.3, 8.4.4, 8.4.5, 10.1.1, 10.1.3, 24.3.2.7, 27.2.1.3, 27.2.1.7
Lower space
= Fault
= Correct crossing
66
PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS
= Correct = Fault
Ball above the net Ball lower than Ball touches the net Ball bounces off the net
the top of the net
A B
C
Net
Front Zone
Attack Line
C
A B
A = Correct
B, C = Fault
B
A
Net
A = Correct
B = Fault
68
PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS
2 1
1 L
1
L
2
S/AS
3 R2 R1 6
L
2
3
L
4 5
R1 = First Referee
R2 = Second Referee
S/AS = Scorer/Assistant Scorer
2 = Lines Judges (numbers 1-4 or 1-2)
4 = Ball Retrievers (numbers 1-6)
= Floor Moppers
70
PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS
1 AUTHORISATION TO SERVE
Relevant Rules: 12.3, 22.2.1.1
Move the hand to indicate direction of service
2 TEAM TO SERVE
Relevant Rules: 22.2.3.1, 22.2.3.2, 22.2.3.4
Extend the arm to the side of team that will serve
FS
3 CHANGE OF COURTS
Relevant Rule: 18.2
Raise the forearms front and back and
twist them around the body
4 TIME-OUT
Relevant Rule: 15.4.1
Place the palm of one hand over the fingers of
the other, held vertically (forming a T) and then
indicate the requesting team
FS
FS
6a MISCONDUCT WARNING
Relevant Rule: 21.1, 21.6
Show a yellow card for warning
6b MISCONDUCT PENALTY
Relevant Rules: 21.3.1, 21.6, 23.3.2.2
Show a red card for penalty
7 EXPULSION
Relevant Rules: 21.3.2, 21.6, 23.3.2.2
Show both cards jointly for expulsion
72
PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS
8 DISQUALIFICATION
Relevant Rules: 21.3.3, 21.6, 23.3.2.2
Show red and yellow cards separately
for disqualification
FS
11 DELAY IN SERVICE
Relevant Rule: 12.4.4
Raise eight fingers, spread open
FS
FS
14 BALL “IN”
Relevant Rule: 8.3
Point the arm and fingers toward the floor
15 BALL “OUT”
Relevant Rules: 8.4.1, 8.4.2, 8.4.3, 8.4.4, 24.3.2.5, 24.3.2.7
Raise the forearms vertically, hands open,
palms towards the body
FS
74
PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS
16 CATCH
Relevant Rules: 9.2.2, 9.3.3, 23.3.2.3b
Slowly lift the forearm, palm of the hand facing upwards
17 DOUBLE CONTACT
Relevant Rules: 9.3.4, 23.3.2.3b
Raise two fingers, spread open
18 FOUR HITS
Relevant Rules: 9.3.1, 23.3.2.3b
Raise four fingers, spread open
19 NET TOUCHED BY PLAYER – SERVED BALL TOUCHES THE NET BETWEEN THE ANTENNAE AND
DOES NOT PASS THE VERTICAL PLANE OF THE NET
FS
FS
FS
76
PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS
24 BALL TOUCHED
Relevant Rules: 23.3.2.3b, 24.2.2
1 BALL “IN”
Relevant Rule: 8.3, 27.2.1.1
Point down with flag
2 BALL “OUT”
Relevant Rules: 8.4.1, 27.2.1.1
Raise flag vertically
3 BALL TOUCHED
Relevant Rule: 27.2.1.2
Raise flag and touch the top with the palm of the free hand
4 CROSSING SPACE FAULTS, BALL TOUCHED AN OUTSIDE OBJECT, OR FOOT FAULT BY ANY PLAYER DURING SERVICE
Relevant Rules: 8.4.2, 8.4.3, 8.4.4, 12.4.3, 27.2.1.3,
27.2.1.4, 27.2.1.6, 27.2.1.7
Wave flag over the head and point to the antenna
or the respective line
78
PART 2 - SECTION 3: DIAGRAMS
5 JUDGEMENT IMPOSSIBLE
Raise and cross both arms and hands in front of the chest
80
PART 3: DEFINITIONS
COMPETITION / CONTROL AREA
The Competition / Control Area is a corridor around the playing court and free zone, which includes
all spaces up to the outer barriers or delimitation fence. See diagram/fig 1a.
ZONES
These are sections within the playing area (i.e. playing court and free zone) as defined for a specific
purpose (or with special restrictions) within the rule text. These include: Front Zone, Service Zone,
Substitution Zone, Free Zone, Back Zone, and Libero Replacement Zone.
AREAS
These are sections of the floor OUTSIDE the free zone, identified by the rules as having a specific
function. These include: warm-up area and penalty area.
LOWER SPACE
This is the space defined at its upper part by the bottom of the net and the cord joining it to the
posts, at the sides by the posts, and the bottom by the playing surface.
CROSSING SPACE
The crossing space is defined by:
The ball must cross to the opponent’s COURT through the crossing space.
EXTERNAL SPACE
The external space is in the vertical plane of the net outside of the crossing and lower spaces.
SUBSTITUTION ZONE
This is the part of the free zone through which substitutions are carried out.
FIVB STANDARDS
The technical specifications or limits as defined by FIVB to the manufacturers of equipment.
PENALTY AREA
In each half of the competition/control area, there is a Penalty Area located behind the prolongation
of the end line, outside the free zone, which should be placed a minimum of 1.5 metres behind
the rear edge of the bench.
FAULT
a) A playing action contrary to the rules.
b) A rule violation other than a playing action.
OFFICIAL VOLLEYBALL RULES 2017-2020 81
DRIBBLING
Dribbling means bouncing the ball (usually as a preparation to tossing and serving). Other
preparatory actions could include (amongst others) moving the ball from hand to hand.
TECHNICAL TIME-OUT
This special mandatory time-out is, in addition to time-outs, to allow the promotion of Volleyball,
analysis of the play and to allow additional commercial opportunities. Technical Time-Outs are
mandatory for FIVB, World and Official competitions.
Moppers: are personnel whose job it is to keep the floor clean and dry. They mop the court before
the match, between the sets and, if necessary, after each rally.
RALLY POINT
This is the system of scoring a point whenever a rally is won.
INTERVAL
The time between sets. The change of courts in the 5th (deciding) set is not to be regarded as an interval.
RE-DESIGNATION
This is the act by which a Libero, who cannot continue or is declared by the team “unable to play”,
has his/her role taken by any other player (except the regular replacement player) not on the court
at the moment of the re-designation.
REPLACEMENT
This is the act by which a regular player leaves the court and either Libero (if more than one) takes
his/her place. This can even include Libero for Libero exchanges. The regular player can then replace
either Libero. There must be a completed rally between replacements involving any Libero.
INTERFERING
Any action which will create an advantage against the opponent team or any action which prevents
an opponent from playing the ball.
O-2bis
An FIVB official form which registers players and team officials. It should be presented during the
Preliminary Inquiry.
OUTSIDE OBJECT
An object or a person which while outside the playing court or close to the limit of the free playing
space provides an obstruction to the flight of the ball. For example: overhead lights, the referee’s
chair, TV equipment, scorer’s table, and net posts. Outside objects do not include the antennae
since they are considered as the part of the net.
SUBSTITUTION
This is the act by which one regular player leaves the court and another regular player takes his/
her place.
82
INDEX
A F
Actions involving the Libero......................... 42 Fair play...................................................... 46
Additional Equipment................................. 16 Faults in playing the ball.............................. 29
Antennae.................................................... 15 Faults made during the service.................... 33
Application of misconduct sanctions............ 48 Faults of the attack hit................................ 34
Assistant Coach.......................................... 21 First Referee................................................ 51
Attack hit.................................................... 33 – Authority................................................. 51
Authorization of the service........................ 32 – Location.................................................. 51
First service in a set..................................... 31
B Five-ball system........................................... 16
Ball at the net............................................. 29 Forbidden objects........................................ 19
Ball crossing the net.................................... 29
Ball “in”.......................................... 27, 74, 78 G
Ball in play.................................................. 27 Game delays............................................... 39
Ball in the net.............................................. 30 Game interruptions............................... 36, 40
Ball “out”....................................... 27, 74, 78
Ball out of play............................................ 27 H
Ball touching the net................................... 30 Height of the net........................................ 14
Balls............................................................ 16
Block..................................................... 34, 67 I
Block contact.............................................. 35 Illegal substitution....................................... 38
Blocking................................................ 34, 74 Improper request......................................... 39
Block and team hits..................................... 35 Injury / Illness................................................ 40
Blocking faults............................................ 35 Interruptions............................................... 36
Blocking the service..................................... 35 Intervals...................................................... 41
Blocking within the opponent’s space.......... 35 Intervals and change of courts..................... 41
C L
Captain....................................................... 19 Lighting...................................................... 14
Change of courts.................................. 41, 71 Limitation of substitutions........................... 37
Change of equipment................................. 19 Line judges....................................... 57, 78-79
Characteristics of the attack hit................... 33 Line judges’ flag signals.................... 58, 78-79
Characteristics of the hit............................. 28 – Location.................................................. 57
Coach......................................................... 20 – Responsibilities........................................ 57
Contact with the net................................... 31 Lines on the court....................................... 13
Location of the team................................... 18
D
Default and incomplete team...................... 23 M
Delay sanctions........................................... 40 Minor misconduct....................................... 46
Designation of the Libero............................ 42 Misconduct and its sanctions....................... 46
Dimensions................................................. 12 Misconduct before and between sets.......... 48
Misconduct leading to sanctions................. 47
E
Equipment............................................ 18, 42 N
Exceptional game interruption..................... 40 Net and posts.............................................. 14
Exceptional substitution.............................. 37 Number of regular game interruptions........ 36
Execution of the service............................... 32
External interference................................... 40
S
Sanction cards........................... 48, 69, 72, 73
Sanction scales...................................... 47, 69
Scorer......................................................... 55
– Location.................................................. 55
– Responsibilities........................................ 55
Screening.............................................. 32, 74
Second Referee........................................... 53
– Authority................................................. 53
– Location.................................................. 53
– Responsibilities........................................ 54
Service........................................................ 31
Service order............................................... 32
Sequence of regular game interruptions...... 36
Serving faults and positional faults.............. 33
Side bands.................................................. 15
Sportsmanlike conduct................................ 46
Standards.................................................... 16
States of play.............................................. 27
Structure..................................................... 15
Structure of play.......................................... 23
Substitution................................................ 37
Substitution for expulsion or disqualification.. 38
Substitution procedure................................ 38
84
MEMO
86
Gender Issues in
Physical Education
Sarah Smiley
Kennaradeild
Hug- og félagsvísindasvið
Háskólinn á Akureyri
2015
Gender Issues in Physical
Education
Sarah Smiley
Leiðsögukennari
Andrea Hjálmsdóttir
Kennaradeild
Hug- og félagsvísindasvið
Háskólinn á Akureyri
Akureyri, janúar 2015
Titill: Gender Issues in Physical Education
30 eininga meistaraprófsverkefni sem er hluti af Magister Educationis-prófi í
menntunarfræði
Kennaradeild
Hug- og félagsvísindasvið
Háskólinn á Akureyri
Sólborg, Norðurslóð 2
600 Akureyri
Skráningarupplýsingar:
Sarah Smiley, 2015, meistaraprófsverkefni, kennaradeild, hug- og
félagsvísindasvið, Háskólinn á Akureyri, 92 bls.
Prentun: Stíll
Akureyri, janúar 2015
Ágrip
Íþróttir barna í grunnskóla eru hugsaðar til þess að efla heilbrigðan lífstíl og
hreyfingu með því að veita börnum tækifæri til að hreyfa sig í öruggu og
kunnuglegu umhverfi í þeirri von að upplifun verði jákvæð. Margar þjóðir,
Íslendingar meðtaldir, hafa áhyggjur af minnkandi hreyfingu á unglingsárunum
og þá sérstaklega hjá stúlkum. Í viðtölum við fjóra íþróttakennara og fjóra
skólastjóra í grunnskólum Akureyrar voru viðhorf þeirra könnuð til
íþróttakennslu, mikilvægi hennar, kynjamun í íþróttaiðkun og gildi þess að hafa
kynin saman eða sitt í hvoru lagi í kennslustundum.
A general consensus was found amongst educators regarding the goals and
effectiveness of their physical education program. Schools in Iceland have no
guidelines from the Ministry of Education curriculum as to when, or whether to
use single sex or coed classroom environments; and that current school physical
education program set-ups are developed based on the opinions and beliefs of
the educators who have very little formal education regarding the use of single
sex and coed environments. All four teachers found it easier to activate girls in a
single sex teaching environment, specifically, when taking part in activities that
were more physical in nature and in the upper grades. However, all teachers
were in favour of a mix of coed and single sex teaching environments within
their programs in order that students benefit from the social interaction.
Educators had a variety of opinions regarding to what degree their programs
could be considered “masculinized”. In addition, the teachers indicated that girls
in general needed more motivation or individual attention on behalf of the
teachers in order to achieve greater levels of participation. This paper concludes
that formal education regarding gender issues in physical education should be a
requirement for physical education teachers. Furthermore, that schools should
investigate whether their physical education programs are truly meeting the
needs of both genders.
Foreword
This paper constitutes a Master’s thesis worth 30 ECTS credit points in
Educational Studies (Primary Education) in the Faculty of Education of the
University of Akureyri. The thesis was written under the supervision of Andrea
Hjálmsdóttir. I would like to thank her for her continuous support and
encouragement. I also want to thank my mother Alison Smiley for editing this
paper and my husband Ingvar Þór Jónsson for his support and patience.
Table of Contents
Ágrip........................................................................................................................ iii
Abstract ...................................................................................................................iv
Foreword ................................................................................................................. v
1 Introduction....................................................................................................1
2 Literature Review .........................................................................................3
2.1 Children and Activity ..................................................................... 3
Physical Inactivity ................................................................................... 3
Childhood Obesity .................................................................................. 3
The Benefits of Physical Activity ........................................................... 4
Physical Activity Recommendations ...................................................... 5
Recommendations in Iceland .................................................................. 5
Summary: Children and Activity ............................................................ 6
2.2 Gender and Age Effect on Physical Activity ................................ 7
Age, Gender and Physical Activity ......................................................... 7
Self-Perception and Activity ................................................................... 8
Sporting Role Models and Environment ................................................. 9
Peer and Parental Influences ................................................................. 11
Age and Gender Differences in Iceland ................................................ 12
Summary: Gender and Age Effect on Physical Activity ....................... 13
2.3 Physical Education ....................................................................... 14
Physical Education Goals and Benefits ................................................. 14
Effective Physical Education ................................................................ 15
Physical Education Program Requirements .......................................... 18
Summary: Physical Education .............................................................. 18
2.4 Gender Issues and Physical Education ....................................... 19
Gender Issues in Physical Education .................................................... 19
Improving Physical Education Programs .............................................. 20
Summary: Gender Issues in Physical Education ................................... 22
2.5 Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education ..................................... 22
Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education Arguments ............................ 22
Single Sex and Coed Physical Education in Iceland ............................. 27
Summary: Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education ............................. 29
2.6 The Masculinization of Physical Education ............................... 30
The Masculinization of Physical Education .......................................... 30
3 Research Goal .............................................................................................. 33
4 Method ........................................................................................................... 35
4.1 Qualitative Social Research ......................................................... 35
4.2 Reliability and Validity ................................................................ 36
4.3 Interview Method ......................................................................... 36
4.4 Population Sample ........................................................................ 37
4.5 Data Recording ............................................................................. 38
4.6 Data Analysis and Interpretation................................................ 38
5 Results............................................................................................................ 41
5.1 Physical Education Program ....................................................... 41
Goals and Effectiveness of Program ..................................................... 41
Effective Teachers and Teaching in Physical Education ...................... 43
5.2 Health Awareness and Initiatives................................................ 46
Health Awareness and Initiatives .......................................................... 46
5.3 Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education ..................................... 48
School Programs ................................................................................... 48
Single Sex and Coed Teaching According to the Principals ................. 50
Single Sex and Coed Teaching According to the Teachers .................. 51
Teaching Environment Preferences ...................................................... 54
5.4 Gender Issues ................................................................................ 56
Masculine and Feminine Influences ...................................................... 56
Equality in Physical Education ............................................................. 59
Treatment of Male and Female Students............................................... 61
6 Discussion..................................................................................................... 63
6.1 Effective Programs and Teaching ............................................... 63
6.2 Single Sex vs. Coed Physical Education ..................................... 64
6.3 Gender Issues ................................................................................ 67
7 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 71
References ........................................................................................................... 73
Print Sources............................................................................................ 73
Electronic Sources ................................................................................... 79
Appendix .............................................................................................................. 81
1 Introduction
In many countries around the world the health of future generations is at risk
due to the growing problem of obesity and overweight. The World Health
Organization [WHO] (2010) has identified physical inactivity as the fourth
leading risk factor for global mortality. Physical education programs in
schools are designed to promote lifelong habits of physical activity by
providing children with both the opportunity to be physically active and
positive experiences of that physical activity. In many nations, including
Iceland, there is general concern that levels of physical activity decrease
during adolescence, and that girls in particular are less active than boys. If
this is the case, we need to investigate the effectiveness of our physical
education programs at the elementary school level.
1
2 Literature Review
Physical Inactivity
According to the WHO (2010), “physical inactivity has been identified as the
fourth leading risk factor for global mortality (6% of deaths globally). This
follows high blood pressure (13%), tobacco use (9%) and high blood glucose
(6%). Overweight and obesity are responsible for 5% of global mortality”
(p.10). The WHO explains that a person’s rate of physical activity or
inactivity effect the risk factors of non-communicable diseases such as,
raised blood pressure, raised blood sugar, and being overweight and
according to the WHO, non communicable diseases now account for almost
half of global deaths. In addition, the WHO states, “physical inactivity is
estimated as being the principal cause for approximately 21–25% of breast
and colon cancer burden, 27% of diabetes and approximately 30% of
ischemic heart disease burden” (p.10).
Childhood Obesity
3
According to Must and Strauss (1999), possible immediate physical
consequences of childhood obesity include: bowing of the legs, the
development of gallstones, hepatitis, sleep-disorders, intracranial pressure
and menstrual abnormalities. There are also social consequences of obesity,
which may include, being more likely to be described as “lazy, cheating,
sloppy, dirty, ugly and stupid” (Must & Strauss, 1999, p. 4). Moreover, Must
and Strauss explain that obese children may be more likely to have low self-
esteem or low confidence and this may lead to lowered academic success and
therefore future personal economic consequences. Of great consequence, it
has been found that childhood obesity leads to a greater likelihood for
continued obesity in adulthood (Must & Strauss, 1999). The long-term
effects of obesity are dangerous and can include: the development of
hypertension, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer and
osteoarthritis (Avenell et. al, 2004).
The WHO (2010) states that regular physical activity will reduce the risk of
non-communicable diseases such as: coronary heart disease, stroke, diabetes,
hypertension, colon cancer, breast cancer and depression. Furthermore the
4
WHO explains that regular physical activity is a fundamental factor in
controlling weight. Additionally, the WHO has found through research that
overall health benefits to children ages 7-17, who participate in regular
physical activity, include increased physical fitness, reduced body fatness,
favourable cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk profiles, enhanced bone
health and reduced symptoms of depression. Furthermore, the WHO has
found evidence which supports that higher amounts of physical activity
achieved by children in this age group lead to improved cardiorespiratory and
metabolic health and lower rates of morbidity from cardiovascular disease
and diabetes later in life. According to Khan et al. (2000) it has been
observed that high rates of physical activity in childhood, particularly before
and until the end of puberty, will lead to increased measures of bone density
which persist into adulthood. Khan states that regular activity during
childhood may therefore greatly reduce occurrences of the degeneration of
bones known as osteoporosis later on in life.
Recommendations in Iceland
The Public Health Office of Iceland (2013) recommends that children and
adolescents are physically active for at least 60 minutes daily at a moderate
to difficult level; and that the total time may be made up from short intervals
of activity, for example bouts of 10-15 minutes. The Public Health Office
advises that the physical activity engaged in be as varied as possible in order
to develop different components of fitness, including: cardiovascular
5
capacity, muscle strength, flexibility, and coordination. The Public Health
Office emphasizes that some of the activity be vigorous in order to develop
the bone formation and bone mineral density, which is an essential part of
development during puberty. Furthermore, the Public Health Office advises
no more than 2 hours of sedentary time per day in front of either a television
or computer screen.
Further studies have indicated that Icelandic children are not meeting their
minimum recommendations for physical activity. Magnússon, Arngrímsson,
Sveinsson and Jóhannsson (2011), concluded that only 5% of 9 year olds and
9% of 15 year olds reached the recommended 60 minutes of moderate to
vigorous daily physical activity. Furthermore, Gunnarsdóttir (2005) found
that only one third of Icelandic children in grades 6-10 reached the
recommended 60 minutes of daily physical activity. The diets of Icelandic
children are also of concern. A study by Bjarnason, Jónsson, Ólafsson,
Hjálmsdóttir and Ólafsson (2006) looked at the health behaviours of students
in grades 6-10, and discovered while 65% of grade 6 children consumed fruit
5 times or more per week, only 39% of children in grade 10 did the same.
The study also concluded that 7% of those in grade 6 consumed candy 5
times or more per week while 21% of those in grade 10 did the same. A 2010
continuation of the same study found that while on average, grade 6 children
were physically active more than 60 minutes a day 4.2 days a week, grade 10
children did this only 3.6 days a week (Bjarnason, Hjálmsdóttir, Arnarsson,
2010).
6
active for a minimum of 60 minutes a day. It is therefore of great concern
that not enough children in Iceland are meeting these standards. In order to
understand why children are not meeting their daily recommended levels of
physical activity one must look at the different factors affecting this age
group.
7
puberty affect activity levels of children during adolescence. Finnel,
Bucksch, Lampert and Kolip (2011) looked at the effects of physical
maturation on physical activity and found that chronological age was a far
more important factor in the decline of physical activity than the timing of
puberty or puberty status. The authors suggest that there therefore may be
more social factors than physical factors influencing the decline of physical
activity during adolescence.
Perceptions that children and adolescents have about themselves and physical
activity can greatly affect their levels of participation. Body dissatisfaction
has been found to be associated with a decrease in physical activity. Finnel et
al. (2011) found that girls who felt “too fat” and boys who felt “too thin”,
were more at risk for infrequent physical activity. Perceiving one’s body type
in a negative way could therefore affect how one feels about attending
physical education classes where one’s body and abilities are very much on
display.
The way boys and girls perceive themselves and each other are also
strong social influencers in physical activity. A study involving semi-
structured interviews of adolescent girls and boys was conducted to discuss
perceptions of gender and physical activity (Vu, Murrie, Gonzalez, and Jobe,
2006). While girls were more likely to see other active girls as motivating,
healthy and fit, boys often regarded physically active girls in a more negative
way, sighting that active girls were trying to be like boys and were less
attractive. The study also found that both boys and girls saw girls who were
very physically active and participated in sports as too aggressive, or as
“tomboys”. Furthermore, Vu et al., found that the adolescent girls in this
study considered boys to be their greatest barrier to physical activity. The
girls interviewed in the study explained that they felt teased by the boys, that
the boys said they did not know the rules to games and that the boys made
them feel low in confidence about their abilities. Both the boys and girls
groups in this study also identified girls themselves as a main hindrance to
participating in physical activity. The boys said that the girls did not care for
sports and did not want to get dirty or sweaty. The girls stated that, lack of
interest, self-esteem and shyness were the reasons why they did not want to
be involved in physical activity (Vu, Murrie, Gonzalez, & Jobe, 2006).
8
with boys, boys watch girls play, girls are treated differently from boys, and
girls are made to feel inadequate, because of a lack of skills” (NSW, 1997,
n.p.). It is clear that perceptions that girls and boys have about themselves, or
the opposite sex, can strongly influence their participation in physical
activity.
Another possible social reason for the under representation of girls in sports
and lower rates of physical activity may be related to the perceived
masculinity or femininity of a given sport or activity. In most countries
around the world males outnumber females who participate in sport (Right to
Play, 2012). Although the gender gap in participation rates has been
decreasing over the past few decades (Women’s Sports Foundation, 2013),
there still seems to be difference in choice of sport between genders. For
example, Klomsten, Marsh and Skaalvik (2005) found that more girls
participate in sports such as dance, horse riding, figure skating and aerobics,
whereas more boys participate in sports such as ice hockey, martial arts,
football and boxing. A report from the Sports Council of Wales (2009)
indicated that football and rugby are still the number one choice of sport for
boys, whereas dance and swimming have the highest number of participating
girls.
9
A major change in the rights of women and girls to participate in sports
occurred in 1972 when the United States put in place the education
amendment, Title IX. The Title IX law states, "No person in the United
States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied
the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational
program or activity receiving federal financial assistance" (Women’s Sports
Foundation, 2013, n.p.). Since the inauguration of Title IX, participation by
girls in high school sports has increased by 900% (Women’s Sports
Foundation, 2013). This has been a factor in increasing the number of
amateur and professional female athletes globally in the past 4 decades, and
has led as well to female athletes, such as the soccer player Mia Hamm, or
the tennis playing sisters Venus and Serena Williams becoming international
stars (Daniles and Wartena, 2011). It can therefore be assumed that girls’
right to participate in sports and availability of female sports roles models
has improved in many countries around the world. Unfortunately, female
athletes in the media still do not receive as much coverage as their male
counterparts, are often photographed in sexual poses, and their feminine
attributes are highlighted in articles. The 2012 Olympics marked a historic
year for women in athletics. According to Kian, Bernstein and McGuire
(2013), it was the first Olympics where every competing country sent at least
one female athlete to compete. Furthermore, Kian et al., found that the
participation of women reached an all time high of 45%, and it was the first
year where all sports had events for both men and women. However, Kian et
al., also found that the media covering the 2012 Olympics, covered with
higher frequency women’s sports, which can be considered more feminine,
covered more athletes that are known for their heterosexual appeal, and
broadcasters emphasized women for their femininity by referring to them as
girls or referring to their family status.
The environment of a given sports association can also dictate the levels
of participation based on gender. An Icelandic study by Vilhjálmsson and
Kristjansdóttir (2003) found that the lower levels of enrolment of girls in
sports associations, as well as higher incidence of withdrawal from sports
associations, accounted for lower levels of physical activity overall in
10
comparison with that of boys. Vilhjálmsson and Kristjansdóttir, theorize that
despite recent increases in female enrolment in sports associations, the
associations are still more male friendly environments and therefore less
inviting to girls. The authors explain that the majority of executives and
board members in the Icelandic associations are men and that the
associations emphasize competitive sports such as: soccer, handball and
basketball, where males still outnumber female participants. In conclusion,
Vilhjálmsson and Kristjansdóttir (2003) stated, “by reflecting girls’ and
women’s as well as boys and men’s perspectives and interests, offering a
broader array of sports and exercises, and developing linkages with the
primary school system, we believe organized sport programs could recruit
more children and adolescents into sport and exercise, and reduce or
eliminate gender disparities” (p.372).
Research evidence supports that peer and parental influences can greatly
impact the physical activity level of children and adolescents (Ornelas,
Perreir & Ayala, 2007; Trost & Loprinzi, 2011). In 2011 the Canadian
Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute in collaboration with
ParticipACTION, a Canadian non-profit health organization, came to the
conclusion that parental enjoyment of physical activity was the strongest
predictor of their children’s levels of physical activity. They found that
parental support and encouragement can influence their children’s level of
participation in physical activity; and that greater support is associated with
greater intensity of physical activity in children. A research review by Trost
and Loprinzi (2011) also found that parents can greatly influence their child’s
level of physical activity by: actively playing with their child; watching their
child participate in an activity; signing up their child for activities and
providing transportation to the activities; positively reinforcing their active
behaviour; and teaching their child how to play active games and sports.
Furthermore, a study by Ornelas, Perreir and Ayala (2007) found that
parental involvement could have a positive effect on adolescents in grades 6
through 12. According to the authors, family cohesion, parent-child
communication and parental engagement specifically were predictors of
adolescents meeting daily moderate to vigorous physical activity guidelines.
These research studies suggest that parental involvement could play a part in
increasing the number of children who stay physically active throughout their
adolescence.
11
adolescents were more likely to engage in intense physical activity when in
the presence of peers, and that peer norms could influence attitudes about,
and intention to participate in physical activity. In conclusion, Fitzgeralda et
al., stated: “friendship quality and peer acceptance in adolescence was crucial
for sport continuation, perceived self-competence, and enjoyment of physical
activity” (p.954). Efrat (2009) also found connections between peer
influences and physical activity levels of children. Efrat found that peer
modeling (watching others partake in an activity) could significantly affect
physical activity levels in girls and also improve the self-efficacy (belief in
one’s ability) levels for physical activity, in children with low self-efficacy.
The study also indicated that changing beliefs about physical activity could
change levels of physical activity in girls and boys. Efrat suggests that
interventions where girls are motivated to engage in physical activity to
increase their attractiveness and where boys are motivated to engage in
physical activity to increase their popularity may have an impact on physical
activity levels. Furthermore Efrat found that peer victimization (bullying and
teasing), had a negative effect on physical activity levels in children.
12
lighter movements, which is consistent with findings that overall physical
activity decreases during adolescence. Magnússon et al. also found that boys
moved much more overall than girls when considering moderate to vigorous
amounts of activity. In the 9-year-old group 8.5% of boys met the daily-
recommended 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity, whereas
only 2% of girls met the same recommendation. In the 15-year-old group,
14.5% of boys and 1.5% of girls met the recommendation (Magnússon et al.,
2011). In addition, Vilhjalmsson and Kristjansdottir (2003) found that boys
are also more active than girls in sports associations; boys were enrolled at a
rate of 57% and girls at 44%. Furthermore girls were found to have higher
rates of withdrawal from sport associations. A large survey by Jónsdóttir,
Björnsdóttir, Ásgeirsdóttir and Sigfúsdóttir (2002), done in the Reykjavik
area, found that the type of sports in which children participated was very
differentiated by gender. When looking at participation in ball sports (soccer,
handball, basketball or volleyball), Jónsdóttir et al. found that 18%-36% of
boys and 23-40% of girls in grades 5-8 took part in ball sports a few times a
month, up to two times per week. However, when Jónsdóttir et al., looked at
participation in ball sports at a rate of 3 times per week or more, they found
that 49-50% of boys and only 19-23% of girls in the grades 5-8 took part at
this rate. Moreover when the Jónsdóttir et al. study looked at participation in
gymnastics (which can be considered a more female friendly activity) at a
rate of 3 times per week or more, they found that 1-5% of boys and 5-8% of
girls in the grades 5-8 took part at this rate. The study found overall in grade
8, 52% of boys and 34% of girls trained or competed with a sports club three
times a week or more. The studies from Iceland clearly reflect what appears
to be happening in other countries: that physical activity decreases starting in
adolescence, that boys are more active than girls, have higher levels or
registration in sports associations and that boys’ dominant participation is in
what are considered more “masculine” sports and that girls have higher
registration in more “feminine” sports.
It has been found that levels of physical activity in children in Iceland and in
many places around the world decrease during adolescence. This is of great
concern because the exercise habits formed during adolescence often
continue into adulthood and furthermore physical activity during adolescence
is key to the developmental health of the individual. Also of great concern is
that girls have been found to be less active than boys both in Iceland and
worldwide. It has been suggested that decrease in physical activity during
adolescence is related more to social factors than to chronological age. For
example, studies show how the influence of parents and peers are an
important factor in levels of physical activity during childhood and
adolescence, specifically through peer or parental modeling and
13
encouragement. The self-image or body perception of the individual
adolescent can also affect his level of participation in physical activity.
Moreover, how boys and girls perceive what is socially acceptable for their
own gender, including sporting role models, effects their choice of activity as
well as their likelihood of participating in sport.
One way to meet the physical activity recommendations from the WHO is to
provide students with regular access to physical education at school.
Research has found that physical education programs in school can
contribute to physical activity levels during childhood and later on in life
(Penney, 2010). The main goal of physical education, available in most
westernized schools around the globe, can be defined as “preparing students
to live physically active, healthy lives by providing a carefully planned scope
and sequence of learning experiences. These experiences must be designed to
foster the developmentally appropriate acquisition of motor skills, health-
related fitness knowledge, confidence in being physically active, and an
appreciation of the benefits of physical activity” (Pettifor, 1999, p. 5).
Regular physical education in schools can help children reach recommended
guidelines for daily activity, increase their physical fitness, and can help
motivate children to maintain a physically active lifestyle (Penny, 2010). A
physical education program can also provide children with the movement
skills and physical competence that are arguably critical to engagement in
lifelong activity (Penney, 2010). Physical education can therefore lead to a
healthier future including a decreased risk of obesity and overweight and
therefore decreased risk of morbidity from non-communicable diseases.
14
of the main goals of physical education is to teach, develop, and reinforce
social skills. Bailey (2006) argues that well organized physical education
programs have been found to have social benefits such as improving
children’s moral reasoning, fair play, sportsmanship, and sense of personal
responsibility. Furthermore, Bailey suggests that increasing amount of school
time dedicated to physical education may have positive academic benefits.
Moreover Bailey argues that physical activity increases blood flow to the
brain, improves mood and increases mental alertness, having a positive effect
on a child’s academics. A well-organized physical education program can
furthermore engage its students cognitively, by offering games and activities
that focus on problem solving and strategy (Pettifor, 1999).
Fairclough and Stratton (2005) measured levels of heart rate in children ages
11-14 during physical education classes. The data were used to assess
whether or not physical education could be effective in reaching
recommended daily physical activity levels. Fairclough and Stratton found
many factors that affected how active the children were during their classes.
One of these factors was level of physical ability. Students with the highest
ability levels (as rated by their teachers) were the most active, and this
concurs with most research. Fairclough and Stratton theorize that because
students of lower ability may not have the necessary motor skills required to
participate in a certain activity, this demonstrates the need for more
individualized teaching in order to increase likelihood of activating all
students. It is important to motivate all students to be engaged and enjoy the
physical activity because this can affect their likelihood of participating in
physical activity outside of school hours as well as later on in life. The
Fairclough and Stratton data also revealed that the boys were more active
than the girls, consistent with other research findings. It is important to note
that the boys and girls were however in single sex education classes (the
classes were separated by gender). Fairclough and Stratton found that in the
girls’ lessons there was more dance and gymnastics taught, whereas the boys
participated in more games. The authors furthermore found that games, as
well as individualized stations (running, swimming), produced higher levels
of vigorous activity. However, they also noted that gymnastics and dance
could benefit strength and flexibility of the children, which is also an
essential part of fitness. Moreover, Fairclough and Stratton theorized that the
girls might have been less motivated in their gym classes to move vigorously.
In conclusion Fairclough and Stratton emphasized that there would be value
in understanding the perception of the girls in order to increase their
enjoyment of physical activity during lessons and help them understand the
relevance of physical education.
15
Fairclough and Stratton (2005) found that the children operated at
moderate to vigorous levels of activity for approximately 18 minutes per
class. This brought the individual child one third of the way to meeting their
60 minutes of moderate activity levels recommended per day. Unfortunately,
very few physical education programs in Western education, offer daily
physical education. Fairclough and Stratton argue that children would benefit
from daily physical education because it increases the likelihood that they
reach their daily recommendations for physical activity, and that research has
shown that increased time in physical education is not detrimental to
academic performance in other subjects. Supporting their argument, Dale,
Corbin & Dale (2000):
Reported that third and fourth graders were significantly more active
on days when they attended physical education class compared to non-
physical education days. Furthermore, this study demonstrated how
children did not compensate after school or in the evenings with
increased activity when school-based activity, such as physical
education, was restricted (p.240).
16
critical to involvement in a variety of activities, include, “loco motor patterns
(skipping, hopping, jumping, etc.), manipulative patterns (throwing,
catching, striking, and receiving objects), and body-management skills
(balancing, rolling, transferring the weight of the body)” (p.209). The authors
furthermore state that the school’s physical education program is responsible
for developing these motor skills in all children. Additionally they indicate
that effective physical education programs are ones in which children are
given the opportunity to build these motor skills over time; rather than
programs which emphasize specialized sports skills which exceed the current
motor skill abilities of the child. Moreover, Rink and Hall argue that
effective physical education programs encourage its students to participate in
a wide variety of physical activities such as: dance, gymnastics, games and
different ball sports; in order to acquire motor skills and experience a great
opportunity to enjoy movement.
Rink & Hall (2008) argue that effective physical education teaching
requires an environment, which is positive and stimulates learning.
Moreover, Rink and Hall state that “it is well organized, expectations are
clear, and the teacher is consistent in enforcing and maintaining behaviours
conducive to a quality learning environment” (p.211). The authors explain
that in order to provide an effective learning environment, physical education
teachers must be ‘good managers’, who can effectively manage students,
equipment, space, and time so that the goals of the lesson can be met.
Furthermore according to Rink and Hall, effective teachers can motivate and
challenge students to succeed at level appropriate tasks; they encourage
students to use their own improvement as a measure of success, rather than
comparing themselves to others; and they provide students with quality
feedback and positive reinforcement.
17
towards exercise and eating fruits, they were less ego-oriented and the
students of the three teachers [in the study] were more task-oriented than the
students in the typical classes” (p.206). The study indicates that through an
effective and appropriate learning environment, student’s attitudes towards
physical education can be changed.
Physical education programs around the globe are varied. Often countries
apply national standards to their programs; but school administration and
physical education teachers often dictate how programs are run. For example,
in France, compulsory physical education is 3 hours a week; whereas in
Spain, physical education is only 3 sessions of 45 minutes per week
(Weichselbaum, et. al, 2012). In Canada and the United Sates, there is no
uniform policy for physical education programs; rather the policies vary by
province or state (Iannotti, Kogan, Janssen, & Boyce, 2009). According to
the Iceland’s Ministry of Education, Science and Culture in the national
physical education curriculum (2007), physical education is divided into two
programs, skólaíþróttir (which will be referred to as physical education in
this paper) and skólasund (which will be referred to as swimming in this
paper). The curriculum states that it is the right of all students to have at least
3 teaching periods per week in physical education and that the school
principal has the right to increase this time if he or she sees fit. Specifically,
the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (2013) states that the total
amount of time dedicated to physical education per week is 480 minutes for
grades 1-4 and 360 minutes for grades 5-10. The goals of the physical
education program according to the Ministry of Education, Science and
Culture include, an interconnection of physical education within all school
subjects in order to promote a healthy environment for students where there
is an emphasis on “exercise, positive self-image, nutrition, rest, mental
wellbeing, creative thinking, positive communication, security, hygiene,
sexual health and understanding of one’s own feelings and those of others”
(p.187).
Physical education has been shown not only to help children meet their daily
60 minutes of recommended physical activity but to help them begin healthy
lifestyle habits which should continue into adulthood. It has been argued that
physical education also benefits children on social and academic levels. In
order to meet these physical education goals, according to the research,
effective physical education requires effective teachers who motivate
individuals regardless of their ability, organize their lesson plans to
18
incorporate moderate to vigorous activity, help children develop a variety of
motor skills, and allow children to experience a wide variety of physical
activities. Effective teachers furthermore have clear expectations; are
consistent in their classroom management (behaviour, time and space), so
that lesson goals can be met; and provide students with quality feedback.
Fundamentally, the effective physical education environment should
therefore have the same qualities of any effective school environment.
As has been discussed, children in Iceland and many places around the world
are not meeting their daily recommendations for physical activity, and
moreover, that adolescents and in particular, girls are more at risk for not
meeting these recommendations. It can therefore be seen as critical that
adolescents and in particular girls, are active during physical education
lessons and furthermore enjoy their experience; in order to increase the
likelihood that they maintain healthy activity habits for life. Unfortunately,
there are many issues in physical education that may make the environment
uncomfortable or negative during adolescence for boys, and more frequently
for girls.
19
concluded that it was necessary to examine how to improve children’s self-
competence in physical education, especially in girls.
20
as they grow older, it is important to consider how schools can improve their
physical education programs to meet the needs of adolescent girls in
particular. A Scottish study by Kirby, Levin and Inchley (2011), examined
how the environment of the physical education program, including: the
school’s physical activity initiatives, sporting facilities, total time spent in
physical education, and opportunities to be physical provided by the school,
could be associated with the physical activity levels of adolescent girls.
Kirby et al. found that the strongest predictor of activity level among girls
was the total amount of time spent in physical education. That is, the authors
found that in the schools that allocated more time to physical education
lessons, the girls showed higher levels of physical activity overall. This
reflects the study by Dale, Dale and Corbin (2000), which found that children
who spent time in physical education were more likely to continue to be
active outside of school hours. Kirby et al. did not find an association
between more school sports facilities and higher levels of physical activity.
However, they found that a predictor for higher levels of physical activity
was the availability of sports clubs and extra-curricular activities at the
school. Kirby et al. argue that previous studies have shown that more sports
facilities are associated with higher levels of physical activity, but they
suggested that their study could indicate that lack of sports facilities or funds
do not need to be a barrier to creating opportunities for physical activity.
Furthermore, Kirby et al. found that more program diversity and greater
number of sports clubs available at the school could increase the level of
activity amongst girls. The authors suggested that offering girls more options
allows them more freedom to choose a sport they feel confident is
appropriate to their level of skill and that they find enjoyable.
21
recommends different practical solutions for catering to different needs of
female students. They suggest for example, eliminating myths about female
participation in physical activity, surveying all students to find out what
activities they like best and ensure that there is a balance of activities
between what both genders enjoy, being sensitive to the different abilities
and experiences of boys and girls, and ensuring use of a variety of teaching
methods and organization to meet those needs. The NSW Education
Department also recommends a practical solution that has been much
debated in circles of physical education administrators, educators and
researchers around the world, that is, determining whether girls and boys
prefer single sex or coed environments for their physical education.
In our Western school history, most physical education programs started out
as “single sex”, meaning, girls and boys partook in gender separated physical
education classes (Keay, 2007). As laws about education changed to
incorporate issues of gender equality, for example Title IX in the United
22
States, physical education became “coed”, meaning a mixed gender physical
education experience (Ronspies, 2011). Many credit the Title IX law for
major positive change in women’s education as well athletics (Title IX,
2013).
Equal rights for men and women in education is still a much discussed
issue in many countries, as are growing concerns about the levels of physical
activity amongst children and adolescents. It could be these factors which
have encouraged the discussion amongst physical education teachers,
administrators and researchers, as to whether or not to return to the single sex
physical education format; in hopes of creating more gender equity and more
physically active youth. Although single sex and coed education formats
have been much debated and somewhat researched amongst physical
educators, parents, students and researchers alike, no consensus has been
reached as to which is the better system. It is therefore difficult to determine
if a single sex program benefits both genders, more or less, than a coed
program. Within this debate, some argue strongly for single sex education,
some against it, while others argue for the use of both. At the same time,
arguments have been made that neither single sex, nor coed environments,
can create equal opportunities for genders because there are other hidden
issues such as the masculization of the school environment which will later
be examined.
23
mature the single sex environment was more comfortable. Overall, when
asked in which environment they would rather have their physical education
Derry found that overall, 75% of the girls responded in favour of the single
sex environment. In the single sex classes, it was found that 84% of the girls
responded that they would want to continue in single sex classes; whereas
only 63% of the girls in coed classes responded that they would rather switch
to single sex classes (however, it was noted by Derry that only 43% of these
girls had experienced single sex classes and that this number could possibly
be higher had the girls previous experience in single sex classes). Derry cited
arguments for not switching to a single sex environment, which arose during
the interview, included a desire to be challenged physically by the boys.
Derry explained that the majority of girls who responded in favour of coed
classes rated themselves as highly capable athletes.
Pearson and Web (2010) present findings which also argue for a single
sex teaching environment. The Pearson and Web study investigated the
perceptions of elementary school teachers concerning levels of performance
and physical activity amongst students in coed and single sex physical
education settings through both qualitative (interviews) and quantitative
(questionnaire) research formats. Pearson and Web found that the large
majority, 82%, of teachers believed that a single sex environment was
preferable to helping students achieve physical education goals. Moreover,
Pearson and Web found that the majority of teachers believed that the single
sex environment could increase physical activity levels among girls during
24
physical education classes, especially during contact sports. The teachers in
the study indicated that because the boys were growing physically girls were
participating less in games of physical strength and contact such as, soccer,
hockey or basketball. Pearson and Web found that the majority of teachers
felt there was a large level of skill difference between boys and girls and that
reducing the disparity in skill difference, in for example games such as
volleyball or golf; could best be achieved in a single sex environment. An
implication of participating in contact and skills sports in a coed
environment, as suggested by Pearson and Web, as well as other researchers
is that the development of both boys and girls will be hindered, due to lack of
competition for boys and under participation by girls. Teachers in the
Pearson and Web study also identified peer pressure as a contributing factor
to influencing participation levels amongst both boys and girls; as both boys
and girls in adolescence are concerned with keeping a certain favourable
image towards the opposite sex and that these “distracting” behaviours could
be lessened within a single sex environment. Furthermore, Pearson and Web
indicated that teachers also identified intimidation as an influencing factor on
participation levels in both single sex and coed environment. The teachers
noted that within the single sex environment, boys and girls who have higher
levels of abilities can often dominate the environment, leaving boys and girls
of lower ability feeling intimidated. However, Pearson and Web found that
most teachers agreed intimidation levels increased during coed environments,
where girls of lower ability were greatly intimidated by dominating boys and
that boys of lower ability felt in adept in comparison towards girls of high
ability.
In a study by Ronspies (2011), a small sample of boys and girls ages 12-
13 years old were interviewed and the results interpreted slightly
contradicted those of the Derry study. Ronspies found the children had a
25
variety of perceptions about same sex and coed physical education. Of the
boys and girls interviewed, Ronspies found that 4 out of the 6 would rather
have coed physical education; this was mainly for social reasons, including
opportunities to show off or to make friends. Desire to interact with the other
gender as a reason for wanting to continue coed physical education has also
been found in other studies (Furrer, 2010). At the same time, in the Ronspies
(2011) study, both the boys and girls also listed reasons why they were
reluctant to be in coed classes including, the girls felt embarrassed about
making mistakes in coed classes and they felt that the boys disrupted class
and wasted class time; whereas, the boys felt that they could not have as
competitive games when the girls were involved, and that many of the girls
did not try their best. Ronspies concluded that it is critical to listen to the
voices of the students; that clearly the students have social needs and this is
an important part of their whole school development experience and at the
same time, that the environment of the class needs to be one that is safe as
well as challenging and motivating. Ronspies suggested that perhaps
different opportunities to participate in coed and same sex activities or
classes might be a way to address to diversity of student needs.
Other relevant studies have argued the case for a mixed physical
education program, which would offer both single sex and coed physical
education environments. Greenwood and Stillwell (1999) surveyed
approximately 750 middle school students (grades 7 and 8) with the aim of
improving school curriculum by determining the interests of boys and girls.
Boys and girls were found to have some similar, and some dissimilar
interests. For example, the boys in the study preferred activities such as
bowling, flag football and wrestling, while the girls preferred gymnastics,
softball and tennis. In conclusion, Greenwood and Stillwell suggested that
single sex classes may be appropriate for activities of dissimilar interests.
Conversely, Greenwood and Stillwell also suggested coed classes would be
appropriate where both boys and girls had similar interests, such as,
basketball, cycling, soccer and swimming.
Other studies have argued that single sex education environments are not
always beneficial. A report by McKenzie, Prochaska, Sallis, and LaMaster
(2004), which was based on 4 years of physical education research of grades
6-8, both single sex and coed classes, interpreted data to assess and discuss
levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity amongst boys and girls in
both learning environments. McKenzie et al. found that in the single sex
environments, boys were more active than girls, by a total of approximately 4
minutes. Furthermore the report indicated that when the classes were coed,
the boys were found to be similarly active, whereas the girls had higher
levels of activity in comparison to their activity levels during single sex
classes. Mckenzie et al. suggested that the difference in activity levels
26
between those of the female only classes and the coed or male only classes
could be attributed to the higher accumulated time spent working on skill
development activities during the female only classes. Mckenzie et al.
indicated that during the coed or boys single sex classes there was more time
accumulated in game play activities which they argue produced more
vigorous activity levels than the skill development on which the girls’ classes
focused. In conclusion Mckenzie et al. questioned why the female only
classes had allocated more time towards skill development, and theorized
that this was to help the girls develop the necessary skills needed to partake
in a greater variety of physical activities. They furthermore questioned
whether or not the time dedicated to skill development paid off in the long
term in regards to better motor skills amongst the girls and importantly, a
greater interest in physical activity. Although physical activity levels were
higher in coed classes in comparison to female only classes, this cannot be
the only determining factor as to whether or not one type of class
environment holds more value to the other.
There has been one small study conducted in Iceland investigating the merits
of single sex and coed physical education. Stefánsson (2010), interviewed
27
three elementary physical education teachers at three different schools in
order to investigate whether the schools were using any type of single sex
education, and what the experiences of the teachers were who taught physical
education concerning gender dividing practices. The three teachers
interviewed (referred to as teacher A, teacher B and teacher C) in the
Stefánsson study were teaching in very different environments; teacher A
taught both coed classes and single sex classes; teacher B taught coed classes
and occasional single sex classes; and teacher C only taught coed classes.
Stefánsson (2010) found that teacher A, who taught both coed classes and
single sex classes, was satisfied with the current system in the school, which
was being taught for the first time. The teacher explained that the students
participated in coed physical education classes until grade 6, when they
switched to single sex swimming classes, as well as one coed and one single
sex class a week at the school. Ball sports were only taught during single sex
classes, whereas stations and games were taught during coed classes. Teacher
A interviewed by Stefánsson found that in this current system, all students
were more active during ball sports and seemed to enjoy themselves more.
The teacher indicated that the change had been brought about because of
concern for under-participating girls during coed ball sports. Teacher A in
the Stefánsson study also emphasized that separating boys and girls in
swimming classes during the adolescent grades created a more focused
environment. The teacher, who had 30 years of teaching experience, felt that
the current system he was teaching with was the best that he had ever used in
terms of activating and focusing his students. Teacher A in the Stefánsson
study furthermore believed that it was not necessary to begin single sex
classes before the grade 6 as strength and size differences were not as evident
between boys and girls; and that students in grade 6 and above benefited from
having one time a week where they were taught in a coed environment.
Stefánsson (2010) found that teacher B who taught coed classes with the
occasional single sex class was not satisfied with the current system at his
school. The teacher had many years previous experience with single sex
teaching environment and found this preferable. Teacher B in the Stefánsson
study found that teaching coed classes was challenging and that he could not
activate students to the same degree. The teacher furthermore felt that
teaching fitness, stretching and stations was reasonable during coed classes
but that any ball sports or other physical sports were especially difficult to
teach. Teacher B in the Stefánsson study also felt that teaching single sex
classes was more beneficial for both sexes. This teacher believed that in the
single sex environment the girls had better attendance, felt more comfortable,
were more active and focused, and communicated better with their teachers.
Teacher B in the Stefánsson study also believed that boys in the single sex
environment were able to exert themselves on a higher level. The teacher,
28
who had 25 years experience, mostly in teaching single sex classes, believed
that only single sex classes should be taught in all grades, both in physical
education and swimming.
Stefánsson (2010) found that teacher C who taught only coed classes was
relatively satisfied with the school’s current system. The teacher felt that
having coed classes was a positive way for the classes to be active together
and therefore improve their class moral. Teacher C in the Stefánsson study
found however that while some girls were very active in the coed classes that
others stepped to the side. The teacher also found that boys did not always
exert themselves to the fullest. Teacher C in the Stefánsson study believed
that single sex classes could be beneficial during the adolescent ages,
especially to assist girls in becoming more active during ball sports and
physical sports; and that the boys could equally benefit by the ability to be
more competitive. The teacher believed it was not necessary to begin single
sex classes before grade 6 because all students were on rather equal levels.
Teacher C in the Stefánsson study furthermore believed that it was important
to have the classes as coed for part of the physical education as it could
improve class dynamics and moral, but that for activities that were physical
and involved ball sports would indeed be better off in a single sex
environment.
In summary, the arguments for and against single sex education are varied.
Both the Derry 2002 study and the Pearson and Web 2010 study found that
teachers in their studies overwhelmingly preferred the single sex
environment in order to activate both girls and boys to a greater degree, as
well as make the environment more supportive and effective. Both studies
argue that this is due to: a tendency for boys to dominate the coed
environment because of physical strength and size, girls being able to feel
more comfortable in a single sex environment and therefore have higher
levels of participation, and that boys would be provided with more
competition in a single sex environment. There are also arguments in favour
of the coed environment. For example, a teacher in the Iceland Stefánsson
29
(2010) study found that the coed environment promoted class bounding.
Furthermore, Wilson (2010) found that the attitudes of the boys in his study
were more positive regarding girls in physical education if they were
involved in coed classes. There are also arguments for a mixed program,
which include opportunities for both single sex and coed physical education
environments. For example, Greenwood and Stillwell (1999) found that the
interests of boys and girls were sometimes the same and sometimes different
and argued that physical education could be coed when activity interests
were similar and single sex when the interests of boys and girls were
different. Conversely, some researchers and educators have pointed out that
the challenges facing adolescent girls in particular lie within the deep rooted
gender roles that have been established in physical education.
30
felt it necessary to adapt to these changes as well. Keay argues that by
adapting to the male physical education model, females could be seen as
losing their independence, or on the other hand, as female physical education
claiming power. Keay states, “the change in the PE curriculum for girls
therefore became a double-edged sword, because although, in adopting the
curriculum offered to boys, women were ensuring that their provision was
valued and in a sense gained power by aligning with the dominant form of
the subject, at the same time they lost independence and therefore power”
(p.211). It can therefore be argued that in modern masculinized environment
of physical education, girls can be considered powerless. For example, in
order for girls to be seen as “good” in sports or to claim respect from their
male classmates, they need to achieve the same level of performance as the
boys (Pearson & Webb, 2010). However, according to Keay (2007), it is
essential that while achieving high levels of sporting performance, the girl
maintains her femininity and that deviation from this image can be met with
criticism from society, rendering the women or girl as powerless.
The teachers in the study believed that changing the girls’ attitudes about
sports and physical education was the key factor in the solution, not changing
the physical education environment.
31
3 Research Goal
Children need to have positive experiences of physical activity and education
to help influence their levels of physical activity throughout life. If physical
activity decreases in adolescence and girls are less active than boys overall,
then the effectiveness of physical education as well as the experience of girls
in physical education requires further investigation. By interviewing 4
physical education teachers and 4 principals at the elementary school level in
Iceland, the research goal of this paper is to explore current beliefs about the
effectiveness and value of physical education, gender issues within the
physical education system, as well as the value of coed and same sex
physical education.
33
4 Method
35
emphasize that observation of the subject in their natural environment is
critical because of the assumption that human nature is influenced by its
social context. The second feature of qualitative research according to
Bogden and Biklen is descriptive data. Descriptive data are often referred to
as “soft”, or empirical, meaning, they are descriptive of “people, places and
conversations and cannot be easily handled by statistical procedures”
(Bogden & Biklen, 2007, p.2). The third feature referred to Bogden and
Biklen is concern with process, meaning the research is more concerned with
the process of study than with the outcome of the study. The fourth feature,
from Bogden and Biklen is, as mentioned above, induction. This is a
reference to the research being a “bottom up process”. The fifth feature
referred to by Bogden and Biklen is meaning, where the researcher hopes to
gain insight into how the subjects perceive their personal experiences and
produce meaning.
36
people and the meaning they make of that experience” (p.3). If certain
guidelines are followed, there can be many advantages to using this type of
technique. For example, Neuman (2004) found that: interviews have the
highest of response rates, the interviewer can make observations of the
subject in their natural environment, and the interviewer can ask complex
and probing questions which may reveal unexpected data. Neuman
emphasizes the following guidelines for the interviewer to follow: asking the
questions and letting the subjects do the responding; keeping one’s own
feelings and opinions private; refraining from judgment and not attempting to
change the subject’s opinions or beliefs; and, controlling the topic direction
and pace in order to keep the interview on track.
37
In this study, the principals interviewed had between 2 years and 16 years
of experience in their current position. The teachers interviewed had between
9 years and 34 years of physical education teaching experience. There were 5
men and 3 women interviewed. The work experience and gender (all
interviewees are referred to in the masculine) of each individual interviewee
were not disclosed in the results, in order to protect their anonymity.
38
during the analysis and interpretation stage of this study. Bogden and Biklen
(2007) suggest developing code in several steps. The first step is to search
the materials for any patterns and different topics to be discovered. The next
step is to name these different patterns and topics and develop categories.
From this step the descriptive data can then be organized with more ease and
sequentially sorted and compared. A disadvantage to social research and the
interview technique is possible bias on the part of the researcher. For
example, the interviewer in this study has her own set of values and opinions,
which come from a unique background of education and experiences, which
could possibly influence how the data from the study are interpreted (Bogden
& Biklen, 2007).
39
5 Results
This chapter will describe findings based on the interviews with the four
school principals and four physical education teachers. In order to protect the
identity of the individual interviewees, all quotations, comments and
references in this section are described using the pronoun “he”. The first
section, Physical Education Programs, describes the data regarding the goals
and effectiveness of the school programs, as well as, what it means to be an
effective physical education teacher and to have an effective school program.
The second section describes the data regarding the health awareness and
initiatives of each school. The third section, Single Sex and Coed Physical
Education, describes the data regarding how the school programs are
organized in terms of coed and single sex groupings. It also describes the
opinions of the principals and then the teachers regarding the advantages and
disadvantages of single sex and coed physical education, as well as the
teaching environment preferences of the teachers. The fourth and final
section, Gender Issues, describes the data regarding masculine and feminine
influences in physical education, equality in physical education, and the
treatment of male and female students.
The school principals and school teachers were asked to describe what they
felt the goals of their physical education program were and what values,
knowledge and skills they wanted to see their students graduate with.
41
reaching out to students but felt that the teacher could better answer that
question.
The teacher from School B indicated that ideally he would like to see
everyone graduate from the program with fit and healthy bodies. However,
he acknowledged that there were many outside influences that prevented this
from happening. This teacher was mostly concerned for students who were
graduating from the school and not practicing any sport. The principal from
School B stated that he would like to see his students graduate with a desire
to be physically active and an understanding that physical activity is not just
for athletes but is necessary for everyone. The teacher from School B felt that
the school’s program was indeed motivating for the students to be active
beyond school graduation. The teacher described how he began many of his
physical education lessons by reminding kids of why they need to be active
and that they should use their time well. This teacher also makes trips into
the school classroom of the oldest grades to present information on the
importance of physical activity and to really try to get their attention on the
subject. The teacher explained:
I always start by asking, have you started thinking about what you
will study in the future? I want to be a computer specialist . . . and you
. . . a nurse . . . and what happens when your health becomes poor at
the age of 50 because you have not taken care of your body? Because
you have not used the most important years to build up your fitness?
They [the students], find this motivating.
On the other hand, the principal of this school felt that while the school’s
program was motivating for some students, the school staff were not able to
reach out to all individuals at the school, some of whom did not have a
positive experience of physical education.
The teacher from School C wanted to see his students’ graduate with the
knowledge that physical activity is important, a positive experience of
physical activity, as well as having found some kind of physical activity that
they enjoy as an individual. The principal from School C was concerned that
the students graduate having experienced a variety of different activities and
finds enjoyment in some kind of physical activity. The teacher from School
C felt that the school was able to motivate students to be active beyond
graduation, because the school was concerned about this and because he
believed the non-competitive atmosphere and variety that is provided in their
program helps ensure this. Conversely, the school principal from School C
felt that although he finds many students enjoy their physical education
program, he is not sure that they are able to reach out all students. He
explained that many students come to him trying to find ways to get out of
physical education with different excuses and by providing medical notes.
42
The teacher from School D felt that the main goal of physical education
program is to let students experience a variety of different activities. He felt
this was a very strong focus at their school and that the educators emphasized
having as much variety as possible. The principal from School D wanted to
see the students increase their movement abilities and learn about their body
and nutrition. He also hoped that they had the opportunity to try as many
activities as possible and find something, which appealed to them so that they
can continue to be active when they graduate. While the teacher felt that their
physical education program was indeed motivating for students to continue
being active, he recognized that students today are becoming so diverse, with
many practicing sport intensely and many who are completely inactive,
lacking the middle group of moderately active individuals which used to
exist. The school principal was unsure whether or not the school‘s program
was motivating for students to continue to be active beyond graduation. He
was however pleased that his students seemed to be practicing a wide variety
of sports outside of school.
It seems as though all teachers and principals had very similar ideas
concerning the goals of their physical education program, including,
graduating with a positive experience of physical activity, and specifically
experiencing a wide variety of activities in order to increase the likelihood
that students will find something appealing to them. Whether or not they
believed in the effectiveness of their program showed more disparity
between where teachers and principals stood on the matter. Three out of the
four teachers answered more positively about their abilities to motivate
students towards future physical activity. At the same time, all four principals
seemed unsure about whether or not their program was able to reach out to
all individuals.
Both the school principal and teacher were asked to indicate what they felt
made an effective physical education teacher. The teachers were also asked
to describe how they were able to activate all students within class time.
The principal from School A felt that an effective teacher was one who
taught a wide variety of physical activities and was able to engage the
interests of all students, not only those who show higher levels of ability. The
teacher from School A also felt that an effective physical education teacher
needed to teach a variety of activities and to reach out to all students. He
stated:
You can fall into a pattern, for example if I was interested in football I
could just teach football all the time, that’s no problem, I could do that
43
for a whole winter … But that’s not good for the kids. You have to
teach everything …You have to teach variety and reach out to the kids
with everything. Also show them it is not always the most fun things
that need to be done. Also, that the ‘boring’ things can be fun.
The teacher also felt it was important for the students to find his
classroom atmosphere to be positive. In order to ensure that all students were
active during class time, the teacher from School A felt that firstly one had to
get to know the kids. He described having to look out for the students who
were not as motivated as others and try to motivate them. The teacher also
felt that sometimes it is necessary to alter certain activities so that the
students who were behind or not as motivated could also be successful.
However, he found this type of individual teaching to be very challenging in
an environment with many students.
The principal from School B felt that concern for students well being was
the most important part of being an effective physical education teacher. He
described how concern for the individual or, meeting the student’s individual
needs, has become an important part of modern day teaching in all subjects.
The teacher from School B also felt concern for the individual was critical in
being an effective physical education teacher. He stated:
You have to be friends with your students . . . I put a lot of effort into
achieving a personal connection with my group . . . In order to be close
to your students it is most important that they understand I am trying to
give them positive advice and motivation to be active, (especially) if
they are not practicing anything . . . I always invite them to talk to me
if they want that.
The teacher also gives the students individual advice about how to be
active, and how to find something they are interested in. He stated, “this does
not happen unless they have a positive experience of me [as a teacher]”. In
order to ensure that all of his students were active, the teacher from School B
indicated different efforts that are made to motivate more individuals. For
example, he explained that in the current semester the school is undergoing
an experiment where students are working in smaller groups and going
through different activity stations. So far the teacher is finding that the size of
the groups (smaller than normal) prevents students from trying to sit out of
the activity. He furthermore creates different rules in games to ensure that all
students are involved. For example, all students on one team must touch the
ball once before a goal is scored. The teacher from School B also spends a lot
of time trying to motivate individuals on a personal level through one on one
discussion about the importance of physical activity and what is available to
them.
44
The principal from School C felt that reaching out to the kids was the
most important part of being an effective physical education teacher. He
described an effective teacher as being fair and determined while at the same
time having a sense of humour, as well as being a good listener. The teacher
from School C felt that it was important to personally enjoy physical activity
and education as well as the importance of the subject so that he could help
share that enjoyment and make it fun for the kids. In order to ensure that all
students were active the teacher from School C felt that it was critical to
organize time well and to include a variety of activities in hopes of including
more students.
45
5.2 Health Awareness and Initiatives
Both the school principals and school teachers were asked whether they were
aware that it has been found that two thirds of Icelandic children are not
getting the recommended guideline of 60 minutes of daily physical activity.
They were asked if any school initiatives were in place in order to encourage
students to be more active. Furthermore, the principals and teachers were
asked to discuss whether they would include daily physical education in their
education program if it was an option and if there were any possible barriers
to initiating more physical education.
The principal from School A was not aware that two thirds of Icelandic
children were not meeting the 60 minutes of recommended of daily physical
activity. He was aware however that children are not moving enough in
general and felt that the school was indeed concerned about this fact. He
mentioned that the school was taking part in “Göngum í skólann”
(www.gongumiskolann.is), a walking to school initiative in which primary
schools across Iceland take part. However, he was not so sure that it was
working. He also explained that the school tried to encourage the teachers of
classroom subjects to do more lessons outside in order to help students
become more active. The principal from school A stated:
We are also trying to have the teachers use the environment more, go
outside more with the kids, even though it is not exactly physical
education, just go outside to study math and be physically active and
play games, I do not find that this is going any better either. I would
like to see much more of this. But we are trying.
The teacher from School A was aware that two thirds of Icelandic
children are not meeting daily physical activity requirements and also felt
that the school showed concern over this fact. For example, he was satisfied
in general with the school principal’s reaction to recent requests from the
physical education teachers to decrease class size and re-schedule physical
education lessons in order to better improve the quality of class time. The
teacher from School A also mentioned that they took part in “Göngum í
skólann” and recently added “Skóla-hreysti”, a school fitness competition, to
their school program. He felt it was very important for the physical education
teachers to encourage the school board and principal into different initiatives
and that it was not just the responsibility of the principal to come up with all
of the ideas. Both the principal and teacher from school A responded
positively that they would like to see daily physical education or activity in
their school.
46
Both the principal and teacher from School B were aware that two thirds
of Icelandic children were not meeting the 60 minutes of recommended of
daily physical activity. The principal felt the school staff was conscious of
this fact and because of this took part in events such as “Göngum í skólann”,
Olympic games at the school and outside physical activity days. He was
however concerned that many kids did not enjoy physical education at the
school and that perhaps the solution was not to add more physical education
but find ways to make it more enjoyable. The teacher from School B felt that
the school was indeed concerned about lack of physical activity in students.
He did however feel that the subject of physical education was not regarded
to have the same level of importance as other subjects. Both the principal and
teacher from school B responded positively that they would like to see daily
physical education in their school.
While the teacher from School C was aware that two thirds of Icelandic
children were not meeting the 60 minutes of recommended of daily physical
activity, the principal from School C had not heard the statistic but was
aware that it was quite a large number. The principal felt that the school was
concerned about level of physical activity amongst its students. He also
explained that while they took part in events such as “Göngum í skólann”,
there was no specific school program to increase physical activity. He
explained that at one time they would take the students hiking. When bus
money became an issue this activity had to be cancelled. The teacher from
School C also made similar comments that although the school showed its
awareness by taking part in events such as “Göngum í skólann”, school ski
and skating trips; that nothing extra was done to increase physical activities
levels. He explained that in previous years one teacher had offered extra
game times for the students in the gymnasium outside of teaching hours, but
that when he wanted to be paid for the overtime, the program had to be
cancelled. Both the principal and teacher from School C responded positively
that they would like to see an increase in amount of physical education
offered in their school.
Both the principal and teacher from School D were aware that two thirds
of Icelandic children are not meeting the 60 minutes of recommended of
daily physical activity. The principal from school D felt that yes the school
was concerned about lack of physical activity amongst students and took part
in many health promoting initiatives. He explained that the school took part
in events such as “Göngum í skólann”, school runs and school games; and
also encouraged healthy daily eating habits. The principal also mentioned
concern for students who were practicing up to 20 hours of sport outside of
School, that adding more physical activity to those students might be too
much. He did however point out that time constraints would be the main
barrier to being able to do more physical education in school. He explained:
47
“the school has a specific number of hours that they are required to fill for
each subject, Icelandic requires this many hours, math needs this many and
so its really a competition for time.” Both the principal and teacher from
School D responded positively that they would like to see daily physical
education in their school.
School Programs
48
different grades to decide how they would run the program (single sex or
coed) for that year or semester.
School B’s program was described as including two times per week coed
physical education in all grades (however in previous years 9th and 10th grade
had been mostly single sex). Swimming was single sex in 1st grade as well as
again in 8th through 10th grade. The school principal at this school was in
charge of making the physical education schedule. The teacher at this school
felt he had no control or say around the timing of what grades come in for
lessons at what times. He felt that this made it difficult to plan. The physical
education teachers at this school did however have the opportunity to teach
single sex or coed groupings if they chose, as two classes came together
during physical education and there was more than one teacher working with
the group, which made this possible. When the teacher was interviewed he
stated that the teachers were for the time being keeping the groups as coed.
All four schools had a variety of arrangements concerning single sex and
coed groupings. However swimming was always separated into single sex for
8th through 10th grade (with the exception of one school which had this
49
separation only sometimes). In all schools the principals, vice principals or
department heads made up the schedules for physical education. All four
teachers demonstrated however that they did have some control over whether
they were teaching single sex or coed groupings. The teachers described the
control over groupings as a result of communication with other staff or the
availability of more than one teacher during physical education lessons.
The school principals were asked for their opinions regarding single sex and
coed teaching environments in physical education and whether or not they
had read any research on the topic.
The principal from School A felt that single sex teaching in the older
grades (8th through 10th) could be appropriate because of problems such as
shyness or different interests of the genders that could be evident at that
stage. He thought that perhaps with a single sex teaching environment it
might be possible to reach out to a greater majority of the group. The
principal stated that he had not read any research on the topic of single sex
and coed teaching and admitted that his opinions on the topic had been
shaped by those of the physical education teachers he had worked with.
The principal from School B felt he would like to see a mix of both single
sex and coed teaching. He stated, “we are two different genders, we have
different needs . . . We are different and we need to sometimes meet the
needs of both”. He felt boys have interest in “rougher” sports than girls and
that there need to be activities that met the interest of girls as well. He
explained that if the boys and girls knew that they had classes coming up
which were suited to their needs (for example, “action time”, with just boys
together, or girls doing dance), they might be more patient in taking part in
other activities that they did not find as enjoyable. The principal from School
B had not read any research regarding single sex and coed teaching in
physical education but was interested in doing so in the future.
The principal from School C felt that single sex teaching could be
appropriate with some groups and not in others, that there was not one
teaching style superior to the other. He explained that it was the
responsibility of the teacher to find out what suited their current group best.
For example, he explained that:
If the girls in one group are holding back because the boys are more
dominant, than that is good reason to try separating them. That does
not need to be just in physical education, but also could be appropriate
in other classes . . . First and foremost we want the groupings, (single
50
sex or however they are split up) to improve the educational needs on
the students.
The principal from School C had not read any research regarding single
sex or coed teaching in physical education but was familiar with some
research of single sex and coed teaching in the classroom.
The principal from School D felt that the question of whether or not to
teach coed or single sex was difficult to answer because there was perhaps no
right answer. He personally would like to see the students in a coed
environment if possible. His rational for this was that the students needed to
learn to handle each other and respect each other as different genders in
school because they would continue to be together in society. However he
also mentioned that girls may have more of a “chance to shine” if they are in
a single sex environment. The principal from School D also mentioned that
in the classroom environment it may sometimes be beneficial to separate the
genders, for example when discussing subjects that may be sensitive to a
group. He found that in general team teaching environments (more than one
teacher over seeing a group) was a valuable teaching tool so that one could
separate groups as necessary. When asked whether he was familiar with any
research regarding coed and single sex teaching environments, the principal
from School D explained that he was familiar with the “Hjallastefna”
policies. Hjallastefna schools are Icelandic schools whose curriculum has
specific policy regarding gender groupings in order to ensure gender equality
and work towards breaking down traditional gender roles (Hjallastefna,
2014).
Out of the four principals interviewed, three found the idea of teaching
using both single sex environments and coed environments according to the
situation or needs of the students preferable. One principal suggested that
single sex teaching would be most valuable in the adolescent stage (grades 8
through 10). None of the principals were familiar with research regarding
single sex or coed teaching in physical education; however they were
somewhat familiar with research regarding single sex or coed groupings in
the classroom environment.
The physical education teachers were asked for their opinions regarding
single sex and coed teaching environments in physical education and whether
or not they had read any research on the topic. Because of their daily
experience of working hands on with students, the teachers were asked more
in depth questions concerning these teaching environments than were the
51
principals, such as questions of student activation and classroom
management.
The teacher from School A had not read any studies concerning single sex
or coed teaching environments. However, based on his personal experiences,
the teacher from School A felt that he was better able to activate girls,
especially in the upper grades, in a single sex teaching environment. He
found that less athletically inclined girls, were shy or held back more in the
coed environment, whereas the boys were more dominating in activities. He
noted for example in fitness activities that the girls could be shy about having
to do push ups from their knees in front of the boys. He also found that
attendance was better among girls in the single sex teaching environment,
especially in the case of swimming. When asked whether he found the girls
to be physically self-conscious in the coed teaching environment the teacher
from School A responded:
It is much worse when the boys are there, then they [the girls] are
really conscious about themselves . . . Last year in the upper grades it
was coed in physical education. . . you could see it on some of the
girls that they did not feel good being with the boys. They are gaining
weight, they are growing, there are so many changes, they don’t know
how to perceive themselves, never mind understand how others
perceive them. It is a difficult time.
The teacher furthermore remarked that this was a sensitive time also for
the boys, and that was sometimes forgotten. He explained that the boys were
also self conscious about being with the girls and that less athletically
inclined male students would feel more embarrassed about showing any
incompetency in front of the girls. The teacher from School A found that
classroom management was more effective in a single sex teaching
environment in the upper grades (grades 8 through 10). He explained that the
boys and girls had a tendency to fool around more or “show off” when they
were in a coed environment. He found that in general the students were more
focused in a single sex teaching environment. He furthermore found that
teaching activities such as ball sports or team sports was more effective in a
single sex environment. The teacher explained that when they were together
in these types of activities there would be more complaints. For example, he
stated: “The boys complain about the girls not doing anything and the girls
complain that the boys never pass to them”.
The teacher from School B was familiar with research and had also
engaged other teachers in discussion regarding single sex and coed teaching
environments. Based on what he has learned and his personal experiences, he
finds that it is easier to activate girls in a single sex environment, especially
in the upper grades. He finds that girls who are less athletically inclined and
52
shyer are noticeably more comfortable in a single sex environment. The
teacher explained:
In the oldest grades, 8th, 9th and 10th grade, where the difference of
physical strength of the boys is so evident . . . and they have more self-
confidence . . . girls, if they are all together [coed], no matter if it is
volleyball, bandi, football, any game, they will be more passive and
hold back. If they are with other girls [single sex], they are much more
active, I am absolutely sure about this.
The teacher from School C had not read any studies concerning singles
sex or coed teaching environments. However, based on his personal
experiences, he has found that girls have more of a tendency to pull
themselves out of physical or ball sports when groupings are coed, but that
they are more likely to participate in these activities when they are grouped
as single sex. He found this especially influential during the upper grades at
the time when boys are becoming physically stronger than the girls. He felt
therefore that when taking part in any physical sports or activities it was a
more appropriate time to have single sex groupings. Furthermore, he found
that single sex groupings were perhaps a more comfortable environment for
girls with lower confidence. Conversely, the teacher from School C found
that boys, who were more “calm” in physical education, could perhaps
benefit from being with girls who were also more “calm” and that being in
single sex environment with all boys may be challenging for them. When
asked whether he found the girls to be physically self-conscious in the coed
teaching environment the teacher from School C responded, “maybe when
they are older, when they are teenagers . . . yes probably a little bit more . . .
but it is not so prominent”. In terms of classroom management he found that
it was easier to have control in an all-girls class than in an all-boys class.
However, whether it was easier to have control over all-boys or a coed
environment he found difficult to answer; especially because when coed was
together there were more students which affected teaching practices.
53
The teacher from School D had not read any studies concerning singles
sex or coed teaching environments. However, based on his personal
experiences, he has found single sex groupings in physically education
preferable in both the younger grades and the upper grades. He explained that
for example when doing station work it was better to have groups of all-boys
and all-girls. He stated that this was because: “Boys will be working at a
faster pace, it is often that they will get in more repetitions and girls want to
go slower, then it is better to separate them and we do that.” Furthermore,
when the teacher from School D used to have younger grades as coed the
girls often felt disrupted by the behaviour of the boys. He also found that
girls were more likely to hold back in coed groupings and were perhaps more
comfortable in single sex groupings in the upper grades. He found that when
given the choice of whether or not to separate genders that the students in the
upper grades would often chose to be in single sex groupings. However, he
explained that some students would also chose to be together and that some
of the girls wanted to be challenged by the boys. The teacher from School D
had not noticed girls being physically self-conscious in the coed teaching
environment as being an issue or challenge. He found that boys who are less
athletically inclined or overweight had a hard time in physical education
regardless of whether the lesson was coed or single sex.
Three out of the four teachers were not familiar with any research
regarding single sex or coed teaching environments. Based on their personal
experiences the teachers were unanimous that they found it easier to activate
girls in a single sex teaching environment, specifically, when taking part in
activities with more physical contact in the upper grades. They were
furthermore unanimous that this especially impacted girls who displayed
more shyness or were less athletically inclined. Two of the teachers found
that physical self consciousness affected the participation level of girls in the
upper grades. The other two teachers believed that it was perhaps an issue
but that they had not observed any prominent impact on participation levels.
Concerning the participation of male students, two of the teachers found that
less athletically inclined boys benefited from being in a single sex
environment (because they would not feel as much embarrassment as they
would in coed). At the same time, one of the teachers felt that less
athletically inclined boys may feel more comfortable being with less
athletically inclined girls; while another teacher felt that they would struggle
regardless of whether the teaching environment was single sex or coed.
The teachers and principals were asked what their ideal school program
arrangement would look like in terms of the use of single sex and coed
teaching.
54
The principal from School A felt that the most appropriate program
arrangement would include a mix of coed and single sex teaching
environments. He liked the idea of working with the physical education
teachers to decide when it was better to work with the different environments
depending on the nature of the classroom activity. The teacher from School
A felt that he would like to continue teaching single sex classes in grades 8
through 10, however he was open to the idea of having coed sometimes in
the upper grades as well. As for the younger grades, the teacher from School
A felt that it was appropriate to have a mix of coed and single sex teaching.
According to this teacher an influencing factor in determining how to run the
class time depended on the nature of that individual class. For example, he
felt while some classes worked very well together, other classes could benefit
from single sex teaching. The teaching environment of School A is very
flexible because they practice team teaching; which means there is always
more than one teacher available and classes can always be split into groups.
The principal from School B felt that the most appropriate program
arrangement would include a mix of both coed and single sex physical
education teaching environments. He felt that the single sex environment
could be used to meet different needs of each gender and the coed
environment to help break down social boundaries created by masculine and
feminine ideals. The teacher from School B felt it was appropriate to begin
practicing single sex teaching environments more often when the students
reach the 6th grade. He however felt that it was appropriate to mix the groups
sometimes in order to allow the genders to socialize together and to bond as a
group. This teacher was currently practicing team teaching in the upper
grades where it was possible to have a mix of coed and single sex groupings.
The principal from School C felt that single sex teaching should only be
used when the teachers felt that it was beneficial to the learning of all
students. He felt that it was important to keep the genders together because of
the social benefits of learning to be with diverse groups of individuals. The
teacher from School C felt that an emphasis on more single sex teaching
should begin in the upper grades, perhaps in the 5th and 6th grade, but that it
should begin gradually. He felt that they were fortunate at his school to have
access to quality facilities where they have a lot of room to divide the
students into groups and could split them into single sex groupings
sometimes and into coed groups at other times.
The principal from School D felt that it was appropriate to have coed
physical education unless there was a specific situation that required single
sex teaching. He added:
55
handball while the boys are on the other side playing handball. That is
a possibility and I am not against that either. Because we have this
system [team teaching] it is possible.
All four principals were interested in having a mix of both coed teaching
and single sex teaching, depending on the activity at hand and how the their
physical education teachers wanted to manage an activity. All four teachers
furthermore felt that having a mix of both coed and single sex teaching was
appropriate. Three out of the four teachers mentioned that single sex teaching
should be emphasized more in the upper grades while one teacher felt that it
could be appropriate in all grades. At some point during the interviews, 6 out
of the 8 educators emphasized the importance of social factors in coed
teaching. They felt that students benefited greatly from being with the other
gender because, the students could learn from each other, it was fun to have
them together, it gave the classes a chance to bound, and it helped break
down masculine and feminine social barriers. All four of the teachers often
took part in team teaching, which meant students were often grouped
together from more than one class, and two or more teachers worked as a
team. The teachers were therefore able to split the groups into the divisions
they felt were appropriate and were able to use single sex or coed groupings
where they saw it as necessary.
Principals and teachers were asked to describe what they saw as masculine
and feminine influences in physical education and whether discussion of
these influences was a part of the schools’ curriculum.
The principal from School A was not aware of any situation where
masculine and feminine stereotypes were influencing participation of
students in physical education. He did however mention that the discussion
of masculine and feminine influences in society was a part of the school’s
curriculum. The teacher from School A said he noticed masculine and
feminine stereotypes having an effect on participation in physical education.
For example, he explained:
56
I taught them yoga the other day, the boys looked at me [and said],
yoga? I said that is not more feminine than something else . . . it is so
good for them to go over the line, outside their boundaries. Everyone
had to participate, and you could see at first some lying there, [and
saying], no, I’m not going to do something like this.
He also added that once the students saw that everyone was at the same
level, that no one was the best; they were more open to participating in the
lesson. In response to the question whether physical education teachers
involved students in discussions about the creation of masculine and
feminine stereotypes, the teacher from School A felt that questions could
come up from time to time but that most of these types of discussions took
place in the classroom.
The principal from School B felt that masculine and feminine stereotypes
were influencing participation of students in physical education. However he
also felt that students could be born as more feminine or more masculine
individuals and that the social environment was not the only influencing
factor. He added:
In addition, the principal found that it was very important that the genders
were together in physical education so that they could see that different
activities were for everyone, not just one type for boys and one type for girls.
Furthermore, he commented that the school was conscious about discussing
the issues of masculine and feminine stereotyping with its students. The
teacher from School B felt that masculine and feminine stereotypes were
influencing participation of students in physical education. He explained that
this could come up when the students were doing station work; that there
were some activities that they were embarrassed to take part in, where
someone might laugh at them because they could not do the activity well. As
an example the teacher spoke about a class where students were required to
dance at one station. He explained that the boys were at first nervous about
this but took part eventually and enjoyed it. He also used this as an
opportunity to challenge their ideas of what is masculine and what is
feminine and discuss this during the class time. The teacher was pleased that
he was able to open the boys up to the idea that dance was not just for the
girls. The teacher from School B also suggested that the influence of
masculine and feminine stereotypes has changed greatly; pointing out that in
57
the football and handball clubs participation rates among girls and boys were
becoming progressively equal (sports which have previously favoured the
male gender).
The principal from School C was certain that in some ways masculine and
feminine stereotypes could influence participation in certain activities.
However, he also felt that this might be changing. He mentioned for
example, home economics, as one subject which used to be looked at as very
feminine. He explained that this was no longer the case, as it was a very
popular course amongst all students. The principal furthermore noted that
teachers were discussing issues of masculine and feminine stereotypes as part
of the school curriculum. The teacher from School C did not feel that
masculine and feminine stereotypes strongly influenced his students desire to
participate. He believed that what influenced their desire to participate was
more a question of whether they felt they were competent in the activity. He
explained:
The teacher felt that although these masculine and feminine stereotypes
may influence slightly which sports the students took part in outside of
school that this was changing. He mentioned that girls were participating
more often in sports such as handball and football, while boys were more
visible in gymnastics.
The principal from School D believed that in some ways masculine and
feminine stereotypes could influence student’s participation in certain
activities especially when they reached the upper grades and became
increasingly self-aware. However he believed that students participated in
everything that was offered to them. He gave as an example a recent school
activity day where students were mixed together in all ages and the older
students had to take on the role of being the caregiver of their groups. He was
pleasantly surprised to see the male students take on the role of caregiver for
the younger children in the group with no real realization that they were
taking on that (more feminine) role. He explained that influences of
masculine and feminine stereotypes were discussed as part of the school’s
curriculum. The teacher from School D felt that overall masculine and
feminine stereotypes were not strongly influencing student’s participation in
certain activities. However he mentioned that while the girls were ready to
58
try all activities, the boy’s maybe had a harder time with activities such as
dance or yoga where they were perhaps more shy about participating. He
furthermore believed that masculine and feminine stereotypes were starting
to change and that the students found more and more that yoga and dance
were for both genders. The teacher also mentioned that the male teachers in
the school would not be likely to teach yoga or dance and that the female
teachers were more likely to take on this responsibility.
Three out of the four principals interviewed felt that masculine and
feminine stereotypes were influencing the participation of students within
certain activities in physical education. All four of the principals stated that
gender issues were discussed as part of their school curriculum. The question
of whether or not masculine and feminine stereotypes influenced the
participation of students prompted lengthy responses from the teachers. For
example, three out of the four teachers found that masculine and feminine
stereotypes somewhat influenced their students levels of participation. Those
three teachers described the resistance of their male students to take part in
activities such as yoga or dance. Two of those teachers found these incidents
to be a useful opportunity to talk to their students about stereotypes and to
encourage the male students to try something new. Both of these teachers
were pleased at the end of the activity with how their male students had
changed their attitude and participated in the activity. Alternatively, one
teacher felt that the students’ feelings of competency in activity had the
greater influence on their level of participation than feminine and masculine
stereotypes.
Principals and teachers were asked whether they believed girls and boys had
equal access to physical education at their school, as well as whether or not
the program was more targeted to the interests of boys.
The principal from School A felt that boys and girls had equal access to
be active in physical education and at school in general. When asked if he
felt that the physical education program favoured boys more he responded:
The teacher from School A felt that students had equal opportunity to be
active in physical education within the single sex environment. He explained
that this environment was better for girls who were holding back when the
59
boys dominated the environment. He also felt that ability groupings could
help activate both students who were practicing sport and those who were
not. The teacher from school A felt that the physical education program was
in general more targeted towards the interests of boys, but that girls who
exhibited more masculine traits benefited from this.
The principal from School B felt that perhaps the school could be more
conscious about whether or not boys and girls had equal opportunity to be
active in physical education. He found that the program rewarded more often
the strong and active boys and sometimes a few girls. In response to the
question whether the physical education program favoured the interests of
the boys he explained: “We [the school] are not meeting the interests of the
girls enough, I think we need to handle this”. The teacher from School B on
the other hand felt that boys and girls had equal opportunity to be active in
physical education because everyone was offered the same program. He also
felt that the program at his school was not targeted more towards the interests
of boys because of the variety in activity that was offered and that all
students regardless of gender completed the same requirements.
The principal from School C felt that students had equal opportunity to be
physically active in physical education and in other areas within the school.
He felt however that the physical education environment did favour the
interests of boys more. He explained that:
there are more girls that come here to me [to the principal’s office],
because of physical education, trying to get out of physical education,
than there are boys . . . girls use often the excuse that they are on their
periods, sometimes every week [that they approach him with this] . . .
If the physical education teacher can create a program that is
interesting for the kids, than the class will be more enjoyable and more
likely that the kids will want to stay in the class.
The teacher from School C felt that at his school boys and girls had equal
opportunity to be active. He felt that the program was for everyone. He
stated: “It is not like the boys are working hard and the girls sit down after 15
minutes”. He explained that both boys and girls were more likely to avoid
participating in an activity because they had low confidence in their abilities.
He added that in games where girls have complained about not wanting to
participate, such as football, that they will separate genders and then the girls
are more likely to join in.
The principal from School D felt that boys and girls had equal opportunity
to be active in physical education and at school. He felt that this was because
of changes during the last 5-10 years in regards to the female role models in
sports and coverage of those role models in the media. The principal noted
60
that there were now many athletic role models for girls especially in football
and gymnastics, as those programs in Iceland have been successful and
receive media coverage. The principal was not sure whether or not their
physical education program favoured more the interests of boys. He felt that
it depended on the teachers and whether or not they were bringing in material
that appealed to both genders. He also felt that perhaps it was a judgment of
society to assume that girls were not receiving equal opportunity. He stated,
“We [society] have already decided that girls do not have as much
opportunity as boys, but I do not know if that is the reality”. The principal
furthermore explained that there were many girls that wanted to compete
with the boys, especially the athletic ones, and that until the 8th grade they
were not behind the boys physically in any way. The teacher from School D
felt that at his school boys and girls had equal opportunity to be active in
physical education. He furthermore did not feel that the physical education
program offered at his school favoured more the interests of boys. He
explained that they tried to create a program that appealed to both genders
and that because the most recent curriculum was very open, it included
different goals to achieve, and it encouraged the school to have variety in
their program.
Six out of the eight educators felt that both boys and girls in their school
had equal opportunity to be physically active within physical education and
within their school program. One educator felt that the school could perhaps
become more conscious about whether or not the programs available did
indeed provide equal access. Another educator pointed out that the girls had
equal access to physical education when they were provided with single sex
teaching environments. The question as to whether their physical education
program was more targeted towards the interests of boys left the educators
more divided on the issue. Two educators felt unsure whether or not their
programs were more appealing to boys. At the same time, three educators felt
that the program was appealing to both genders mostly because of the variety
that was offered. On the other hand, three educators felt that the physical
education program was not equally appealing to girls as it was to boys.
The teachers were asked to explain how they handled teaching boys and girls
differently. The teacher from School A explained “I need to handle them
totally differently, I think it is really fun to be with the boys [teaching single
sex], because they are straight forward, girls more often have some drama”.
The teacher from School B explained that he needed to treat his male and
female students differently. He explained that he had to be really kind to the
girls, especially older students because they were at such a sensitive age,
where they do not feel good and have low confidence. Moreover, that he
61
went as far as he could to reach out to those students. The teacher from
School C explained that boys and girls were treated differently because they
are different. He explained: “Boys are more rowdy and you need to control
them more, girls hold back more and you have to try to encourage them. Of
course you have to treat them differently because they are different”. The
teacher from School D explained that perhaps he treated boys and girls
differently without realizing it. He stated; “One tries to speak with them [the
two genders] the same and we speak mostly to the group as a whole. Where
there are both boys and girls, but the girls listen better, they are quieter than
the boys. Furthermore he added, “when I first started teaching here . . . then I
taught boys only, that was wonderful . . . they [the boys] did not whine . . .
they were so positive”. Two of the teachers seemed to enjoy more teaching
all-boys single sex groupings because the boys were more “straight
forwards” and “did not whine”, while the girls were described as having
“more drama”. At the same time, two of the teachers explained having to
show concern to their female students in order to encourage them to take
part.
62
6 Discussion
While the teachers and principals had similar ideas about the goals of
their physical education program and instruction, they had different views
concerning the effectiveness of the program. Three out of the four teachers
63
answered positively about their abilities to motivate students towards future
physical activity, whereas, all four principals seemed unsure about whether
or not their program was able to reach out to all individuals. While the
teachers have a more hands on classroom experience of working with their
students, the principals have a different perspective, a more general view of
the students as a whole; the different perspective could affect their opinions
as to whether or not they viewed the program as effective.
The teachers and principals all understood that Icelandic children are not
reaching the 60 minutes of recommended daily physical activity.
Furthermore, every educator interviewed agreed that an increase in the
amount of physical activity provided in the school would be beneficial.
Fairclough and Stratton (2005) argue that children would benefit from daily
physical education because it increases the likelihood that they will reach
their daily recommendations for physical activity. Moreover, Dale, Corbin
and Dale (2000), support that argument with their findings:
That third and fourth graders were significantly more active on days
when they attended physical education class compared to non-physical
education days. Furthermore, this study demonstrated how children did
not compensate after school or in the evenings when school-based
activity, such as physical education, was restricted (p.240).
64
teaching and coed only teaching environments. Iceland’s current physical
education curriculum does not dictate what type of environment (coed or
single sex) is optimal for teaching (Ministry of Education, 2007). Schools
therefore have no guidelines to make decisions in this area. Within the
schools examined in this study the principals as well as the department heads
dictated the physical education schedule and classroom makeup. Although
the principals had some familiarity with research regarding coed and single
sex teaching environments, none of the principals were familiar with any
research on this topic within physical education. There is therefore a gap in
knowledge and education among principals regarding the effectiveness or
how and when to use coed and single sex teaching environments in physical
education. As they have no guidelines to work from, the principals used only
their own experience or that of their physical education teachers to make
decisions regarding the arrangement of their physical education programs.
Only one of the four teachers was familiar with research regarding single
sex and coed teaching environments. The opinions observed in this study
from the majority of teachers are therefore entirely experienced based. Based
on this experience, all four teachers found that it was easier to activate girls
in a single sex teaching environment, specifically, when taking part in more
activities more physical in nature and in the upper grades. They were
unanimous that this was especially important for girls (rather than boys) who
displayed more shyness or were less athletically inclined. The teachers
indicated that the less athletically inclined girls were more likely to “hold
back”, display signs of physical self consciousness, or “be passive” when
taking part in physical coed activities (such as team ball sports). Stefánsson
(2010) found that the three elementary teachers interviewed in his study also
indicated that girls tended to be less active during coed experiences of sport,
which were physical in nature specifically, in the upper grades. Similarly, the
teachers interviewed in the Derry (2002) study observed that female students
(ages 12-15), specifically those that were less athletically inclined, were
more likely to display signs of shyness and intimidation and were less likely
to participate in coed groupings. Derry found that 80% of the elementary
school teachers interviewed preferred a single sex teaching environment,
specifically to allow less athletically inclined girls a greater chance to
participate. The Pearson and Web (2010) study also concurred that
elementary school teachers found single sex environments preferable for
increasing the physical activity levels among girls, especially during contact
sports such as soccer, hockey or basketball.
65
in the coed environment and so a single sex environment would be
preferable. Another teacher found the single sex environment also beneficial
for boys because of a tendency to hold back, “not want to run over girls”. He
also found that less athletically inclined boys would benefit from a single sex
environment because they would not have to display any incompetency to the
girls (in the upper grades). One teacher found that boys who were less
athletically inclined or overweight, would struggle in either environment; but
that more athletic boys would benefit from a single sex environment because
“they would be working at a faster pace”. Another teacher found that boys
who were “calm”, or less athletically inclined could benefit from being
around girls with similar attributes and could struggle in a single sex
environment. The study by Wilson (2010), found that both boys and girls
performed better on physical tests in single sex groupings and the author
theorized that feeling more comfortable in a single sex environment allowed
the students to exert themselves more fully than in the coed environment.
However, Wilson also found that the single sex environment affected the
attitudes of the students. He found that boys who participated in a coed
environment had significantly more positive attitudes towards girls’
participation in sports than did boys in the single sex environment. Pearson
and Web (2010) found overall teachers favoured a single sex environment for
boys because they would have more competition from other boys. The
teachers in the Pearson and Web study indicated that within the single sex
environment both girls and boys whom are less athletically inclined would
feel intimidated by their more dominant peers; they also indicated however
that the less athletically boys would feel incompetent compared to girls with
higher athletic ability in a coed environment. Which environment is best for
the male as compared to the female students, specifically those of lower
athletic ability, seems to be more debatable in the eyes of educators.
66
split the groups into the divisions they felt were appropriate and were able to
use single sex or coed groupings where they saw it as necessary. The
Greenwood and Stillwell (1999) study argued for the use of both single sex
and coed environments based on the interests of children. Upon interviewing
750 middle school children, they found that girls and boys had dissimilar
interests, for example, boys liked wrestling and girls liked tennis and it could
be appropriate therefore to separate them. Conversely, Greenwood and
Stillwell also found that girls and boys enjoyed similar activities, such as
cycling, and it could therefore be appropriate to have them together for
activities of similar interests.
Six out of the eight educators interviewed found that boys and girls within
their schools were provided with equal access to physical education. One
principal responded that they should look into whether or not their program
was providing equal access and another teacher responded that he felt there
was equal access when the students were provided with single sex
environments. In Western society, single sex physical education was the
norm in schools until the late 20th century (source). Laws about education
and gender equality, for example Title IX in the United States (Title IX,
2013), and societal changes led to the physical education environment
67
becoming, for the most part, a coed one (Ronspies, 2011). Having boys and
girls take part in physical education together and completing the same
programs meant that all students had equal access to the same education. It is
therefore no surprise that the majority of the educators interviewed in this
study feel that the access to physical education is equal.
Alternatively, it has been argued that girls are disadvantaged in the coed
environment not just because of physical strength or ability but because the
physical education environment and program has been masculinized since its
beginning. Keay (2007) argues that male educators led the way to many
changes in physical education during the post world war II era, by for
example, increasing the number of competitive sports within the program.
According to Keay, female physical education teachers followed these
changes in order to increase the equality in their program by matching the
girls’ program to that which the boys were being offered. Furthermore Keay
argues that this masculinized physical education environment has changed
very little over the years because educators feel pressured to keep the
environment the same. Although the educators in this study mostly agreed
that their students had equal access to physical education, they were not of
like mind when asked whether or not the program masculinized. Two of the
educators answered that they were unsure whether their program was
targeted towards the interests of boys. Three educators found that their
program was appealing to both genders because of the high degree of variety
of activity offered. At the same time, three educators found that their
physical education was more appealing to boys. For example, one principal
explained that more girls than boys would come to his office with excuses,
trying to get out of physical education, sometimes on a weekly basis. This
gave him the idea that perhaps the physical education program was not as
interesting for girls.
Within this part of the interview and at other times, a theme that arose
from some of the educators concerned the more athletically inclined girls.
The educators indicated that these more athletic girls in particular were
rewarded for their skills in the physical education program, that the program
was perhaps more suited to them, and that the girls themselves enjoyed the
challenge of the coed environment. The Derry (2002) findings agree with the
observations of the teachers in this study. For example, in the Derry study
students were interviewed regarding which type of classroom environment
they preferred, single sex or coed, the majority of girls who responded in
favour of coed classes had rated themselves as highly capable athletes. Derry
also found that the teachers she interviewed observed their highly skilled
female students as more social and active in coed classes than their lesser
skilled peers. In addition, Pearson and Webb (2010) argue that in order for
girls to be seen as capable in sports or to claim respect from their male
68
classmates, they need to achieve the same level of performance as the boys.
This can be seen as related to Keay’s (2007) argument that last century's
adaptation to the more masculine physical education program renders girls
“powerless”. Keay (2007) argues that, it is essential while achieving high
levels of performance, that the girl must maintain her femininity or else be
met with criticism from society.
Keay (2007) suggests that because girls have lowered levels of physical
activity during adolescence and their attitudes towards physical education
become more negative, they are often seen as the problem, instead of the way
in which they are being taught. The teachers in this study were asked to
describe how they treated boys and girls differently. Three out of four were
aware that they treated their male and female students differently. Two of the
four teachers indicated that they enjoyed teaching single sex boys classes or
groupings; making comments such as the boys were more “straight forward”
and “did not whine”, and that the girls had “more drama” to deal with. Two
of the teachers also explained that they found they needed to encourage the
girls to take part or show them more individual concern. Similarly, other
research has shown that teachers in physical education often treat male and
female students differently. For example, Wright (1997) observed that in
coed classes, girls developed more inter-personal relationships with their
teachers, which often seemed to be facilitated or encouraged by the teacher.
Conversely, Wright observed that boys in the coed classes received more
simple instructions, which were task oriented, and they were also subject to
quicker and more frequent discipline. As another example, Rich (2007)
interviewed six female physical education teachers and found that the goals
of those teachers were to encourage and motivate girls into more sports and
physical education participation. The teachers in the Rich study believed that
changing the girls’ attitudes about sport and physical education was the key
factor, not changing the physical education environment. It is of course a
natural instinct on the part of the physical education teachers to want to
encourage and motivate their less active female students to increase their
levels of participation. Perhaps though, as Fairclough and Stratton (2005)
argue, there would be value in understanding the perception of the girls in
order to increase their enjoyment of physical activity during lessons and help
them understand the relevance of physical education.
69
7 Conclusion
Physical education school programs internationally and in Iceland are
designed to provide students with physical activity and give them the tools
they need to engage in lifelong physical activity. If physical activity
decreases in adolescence and girls are less active than boys overall, then the
effectiveness of physical education as well as the experience of girls requires
investigation. It was the research goal of this paper to explore current beliefs
about the effectiveness and value of physical education, gender issues within
the physical education system, as well as the value of coed and same sex
physical education in Akureyri, Iceland.
71
Although all educators had similar goals for their physical education
programs, there was no consensus as to whether or not their physical
education programs were meeting those goals. Furthermore, although the
majority of educators believed that their physical education program allowed
equal access to male and female students, many of the educators believed
that masculine and feminine stereotypes influenced the levels or participation
in students in certain activities, and some of the educators felt that their
programs may be more targeted towards male students or were unsure
whether their programs effectively met the needs of both genders. However,
on a positive note, it was obvious that many of the educators felt that the
influences of these masculine and feminine stereotypes were not as
prominent as they once were. In addition, the educators seemed to feel that
they were able to handle discussions of masculine and feminine stereotypes
when they arose. It was also positive that the teachers found overall, that the
variety of activity, the opportunity for individualized teaching, as well as the
ability to group their students as they saw appropriate, encouraged more
overall participation.
Although this study was small in size, it offered many interesting insights
as to how effective educators see their programs, the different ways in which
teachers are motivating students and the many gender issues which have
improved or which still impact current teaching methods. It is the main
conclusion of this study that if the schools within this study or elsewhere
want to meet the goals of their physical education programs, and help
decrease the gender gap that is evident in physical activity during
adolescence, perhaps then they need to look at whether their programs are
truly meeting the needs of both genders. Further studies could include
reaching out to the students themselves, in order to learn about their interests,
how they feel about physical education programs, different ways to motivate
them, and subsequently implementing change.
72
References
Print Sources
Andrés, Ó., Granados, S. R., Ramírez, T. G. & Mesa, M. C. (2012).
Gender equity in physical education: the use of information. Sex
roles, a journal of research, 67(1-2), 108-121.
Avenell, A., Broom, J., Brown, T. J., Poobalan, A., Aucott, L., &
Stearns, S. C. (2004). Systematic review of the long-term effects
and economic consequences of treatments for obesity and
implications for health improvement. Health Technolgy
Assessment Program, 8(21).
Cairney, J., YW Kwan, M., Velduizen S., Hay, J., Bray, S. R., &
Faught, B. E. (2012). Gender, perceived confidence and the
enjoyment of physical education in children: a longitudinal
73
study. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and
Physical Activity, 9(26).
Finnel, E., Bucksch, J., Lampert, T., & Kolip, P. (2011). Age, puberty,
body dissatisfaction, and physical activity decline in adolescents.
Results of the german health interview and examination survey
74
(KiGGS) International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and
Physical Activity, 8(119).
75
female athletes at the 2012 London Olympic Games. The
Journal of Popular Television, 1(1), 143-149(7).
Kirby, J., Levin, K. A., & Inchley, J. (2011). Associations between the
school environment and adolescent girls’ physical activity.
Health Education Research, 10.
Lobstein, T., Baur, L., & Uauy, R.(2004). Obesity in children and
young people: a crisis in public health. The International Obesity
Task Force, 5(1), 4-85.
76
Ornelas, I. J., Perreira, K. M. & Ayala, G. X. (2007). Parental
influences on adolescent physical activity: a longitudinal study.
International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical
Activity, 4(3).
77
Trost, S. G. & Loprinzi, P. D. (2011). Parental Influences on Physical
Activity Behavior in Children and Adolescents: A Brief Review.
American Journal of lifestyle medicine, (2), 171-181.
78
Electronic Sources
Everhart, R. B. & Pemberton, C. L. A. (2001). The Institutionalization
of a Gender Biased Sport Value System. Advancing Women in
Leadership. Retrieved, June 25th 2013 from:
http://www.advancingwomen.com/awl/winter2001/everhart_pe
mberton.html
79
The New South Wales Department of Education and Communities.
(1999-2011a).
Personal Development, Health and Physical
Education (PDHPE). Retrieved June 28th 2013, from: whole
school problem. Retrieved June 28th 2013 from:
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/
pdhpe/pdhpe7_10/physical_activity/gipa_003.htm
80
Appendix
Appendix 1 Teachers’ Interview Template English and Icelandic ...............82
81
Appendix 1 Teachers’ Interview Template English and Icelandic
English Template
School Program:
Health:
Are you aware that 2/3‘s of children in Iceland do not meet the
recommended 60 minutes of physical activity daily?
82
Is your school concerned about lack of physical activity and is the
school taking any initiatives to help promote physical activity or
improve this?
Do you notice a decline in physical activities levels as students reach
adolescents? In what way does that present itself? Is there anything
the school is doing to promote physical activity in this age group
specifically?
What kinds of steps are taken to ensure that all students are active?
What do you feel makes an effective physical education teacher?
What kind of bullying/teasing happens in physical education classes?
Are less skilled boys and girls often victims of teasing? Do you
notice these effects their level of engagement in class?
Have you noticed that girls in general are teased more?
Do you see more skilled children enjoying physical education classes
more?
Do you feel that providing a greater variety of activities in physical
education is necessary in getting all students active, specifically
girls?
Gender issues:
Do you see evidence in your classes that some children feel that it is
not appropriate for them in certain activities because they are too
“masculine” or “feminine”? What activities are they?
Do you think ideas of masculinity and femininity in sports effects
their decision to enroll in sports associations outside of school?
Is there anything you do to teach children the level of masculinity or
femininity in a sport is socially constructed?
83
Do you feel you need to treat boys and girls differently in physical
education? How so?
Do you feel that boys and girls are given equal access to be
physically active in physical education and other opportunities at
school such as recess?
Do you feel the physical education environment in general favors
boys more? Or is more masculinized? How so?
Do you feel that girls need to “play like boys” in order to be
considered skillful in sports?
84
Do you feel that the program could be changed to benefit all students
better, regardless of gender or level of ability?
What would be your ideal set up of a physical education program?
Icelandic Template
School Program:
Health:
85
Eru kennarar skólans þíns meðvitaðir um að 2/3 af íslenskum
börnum ná ekki 60 mínútum af ráðlagði daglegri hreyfingu?
Er __________ skóli með áhyggjur af þessu? Er skólinn að gera
eitthvað (prógram eða frumkvæði) til að hvetja nemendur til að vera
meira líkamlega virkir?
Tekur þú eftir því að nemendur eru minna líkamlega virkir á
unglingsaldri. Hvernig er það sýnilegt? Er eitthvað gert í þínum skóla
sérstaklega fyrir þennan aldurshóp?
Effective PE:
Gender issues:
86
Er eitthvað sem þú gerir til að kenna börnum hvernig hugmyndir um
karlmennsku eða kvenleika íþróttum eru félagslega smíðaðar (til
dæmis með umræðum)?
Finnst þér að þú þurfir að koma öðruvísi fram við stráka og stelpur í
íþróttatímum?
Finnst þér að strákum og stelpum séu gefin jöfn tækifæri til að vera
líkamlega virk í íþróttum og í öðrum tímum í skólanum, eins og í
frímínútum?
Heldur þú að íþróttkennsla höfði meira til stráka? Eða sé
“karlmannlegri”? Ef svo er, þá hvernig?
Finnst þér að stelpur þurfi að “spila eins og strákar” til að ná góðum
árangri í íþróttum?
87
Hvaða félagsleg áhrif heldur þú að kynjaskiptir eða blandaðir tímar
hafi?
Hefur þú lesið einhverjar rannsóknir um mismunandi umhverfi í
íþróttakennslunni (kynjaskipt/blandað)? Ef svo er hvað finnst þér?
Telur þú hægt sé að breyta íþróttatímum/kennslunni til að gagnast
öllum nemendum betur, óháð kyni eða hversu hæfir þeir eru?
Hvernig myndi draumauppsetningin þín líta út?
88
Appendix 2 Principals’ Interview Template English and Icelandic
English Template
School Program:
How long have you been school principal? What is your previous
teaching experience?
How many physical education classes do students receive per week?
How are those classes split? Are boys and girls separated? Which
grades specifically does this effect?
How is the physical education program set up/managed? Who makes
the decisions concerning the schedule?
Why is the physical education program set up the way it is? What is
the thinking behind this?
What would you say the goals of your physical education program
are for students? What do you want them to graduate with
knowledge/experience of?
Would you include daily physical education into your school
program if you could? What kinds of barriers prevent that from
happening?
Do you feel that your physical education program motivates students
to be active after graduating from your school and for life? How so?
Do you feel that physical education is critical part of the school
program because it can have positive academic benefits? What
would you say those benefits are?
What do you feel makes an effective physical education teacher?
Health:
Are you aware that 2/3‘s of children in Iceland do not meet the
recommended 60 minutes of physical activity daily?
89
Is your school concerned about lack of physical activity and is the
school taking any initiatives to help promote physical activity or
improve this?
Do you notice a decline in physical activities levels as students reach
adolescents? In what way does that present itself? Is there anything
the school is doing to promote physical activity in this age group
specifically?
Gender Issues:
Are you aware of the potential benefits of single sex vs. coed
teaching environments?
Have you read any studies concerning the different environments
Do you see evidence in your students that some children feel that it is
not appropriate for them in certain activities because they are too
“masculine” or “feminine”? What activities are they?
Do you think ideas of masculinity and femininity in sports effects
their decision to enroll in sports associations outside of school?
Is there anything you do to teach children about construction of
masculinities and feminities?
Do you feel that boys and girls are given equal access to be
physically active in physical education and other opportunities at
school such as recess?
Do you feel the physical education environment in general favors
boys more? Or is more masculinized? How so?
What do you feel would be the idealized set up your physical
education program concerning single sex vs. coed teaching
environments?
90
Icelandic Template
School Program:
Health:
91
Er __________ skóli með áhyggjur af þessu? Er skólinn að gera
eitthvað (prógram eða frumkvæði) til að hvetja nemendur til að vera
meira líkamlega virkir?
Tekur þú eftir því að nemendur eru minna líkamlega virkir á
unglingsaldri. Hvernig er það sýnilegt? Er eitthvað gert í þínum skóla
sérstaklega fyrir þetta aldursstig?
Gender Issues:
92
Volleyball
Workouts To
Try at Home
PHYSED 4:
Team Sports
https://prezi.com/p/qcfsiejnvqh7/volleyball-skills/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=33sWyhjhacM
Volleyball Drills to Do at Home In sports like volleyball, it can
Without a Net or Court be difficult to keep up with
your practice when you don't
have immediate access to a
court. Whether you play for a
school and don't want your
skills to atrophy over summer
break or you joined a new
gym that doesn't have a
volleyball court, you may be in
need of some drills you can
run at home or outdoors
without a net.
6 At-Home Volleyball Practice
Techniques:
https://youtu.be/mpH_uZiQZF8
https://youtu.be/ZHehqp5HYS4
https://youtu.be/qWwGYtrEXqk
https://youtu.be/5z1gX9BfsEw
https://youtu.be/dScC-BAYBnI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBjR96TidOw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w8juY-jSJXk
4-day plan: Volleyball
workouts at home -
The Art of Coaching
Volleyball
https://www.theartofcoachingvolleyball.com/volleyball-home-workouts/
https://howtheyplay.com/team-sports/Volleyball-Drills-to-do-at-Home
http://www.fivb.org/en/refereeing-rules/documents/FIVB-Volleyball_Rules_2017-2020-EN-v06.pdf
https://www.slidesgo.com
Photo Credits:
http://www.suvolleyball.com/news/1608/volleyball-skills-model-provided-by-volleyball-australia/
https://southernconf_ftp.sidearmsports.com/custompages/socon/members_only/Rules/2013-
14/Volleyball_Signals.pdf
https://depaulbluedemons.com/sports/womens-volleyball/roster/coaches/marie-zidek/344
https://www.giphy.com
https://www.pinterest.com