Airport Planning and Management

UNIVERSITY OF TOMORROW
Airport Planning and

Management
Unit 1
Master Planning
Introduction
site is an important consideration. Preliminary airport that requires additional expansion to its
obstacle survey ensuring no major limitations infrastructure would require a revisit of the present
such as connectivity to the city by means of road master plan and examination of changes based
or rail, existing airports close to the proposed site, on the current technology, regulations or any other
sensitive or protected installation like defense learning during operations.
installation nearby, are some of the factors which
are required to be examined and discussed with
appropriate authorities. A preliminary environment
impact study will also be useful.
Despite having a master plan, a brown field
2 Master Planning
While locating these facilities, planning shall Exit Taxiway(s) (RET) and apron including
also include the services that are required to be roads to the front and back of the aircraft
performed for aircraft, passenger or cargo handling. parking positions.
○ Perimeter road
Planning shall also include both aviation related
○ Storm water drains
and non- aviation related facilities.
○ Perimeter fence (security fence)
ICAO defines airport master plan as that which
○ Communication, Navigation & Surveillance
presents the planner’s conception of the ultimate
System (CNS) - Instrument landing system,
development of a specific airport. It effectively
DVOR, VHS, etc.
presents the research and logic from which the
○ Equipment for meteorological services
plan was evolved and artfully displays the plan in a
graphic and written report. Master plans are applied ○ Airfield Ground Lighting System (AGL) for
to the modernization and expansion of existing airfield pavements
airports and to the construction of new airports,
○ Power supply substations for all the airside
regardless of their size or functional roles.
infrastructures and facilities
○ Ground handling equipment workshops

Facilities or infrastructure to be incorporated in the
master plan are: ○ Airlines engineering workshops
● Airside: ○ Maintenance workshops and stores
○ Airfield pavements: runway(s), taxiways ○ Ground support vehicle workshops

parallel taxiway(s), entry/exit taxiway(s), Rapid
3 Master Planning
○ Rescue and Fire Fighting (RFF) stations or fire ○ Housing for staff
stations
○ Offices for airlines, airport administration,
● In the interface between airside and city side: customs, immigration, security, etc.
○ Passenger terminal building(s) ○ Hotels, convention centers, logistic centers,

SEZs.
○ Cargo terminal building
● Either on airside or landside:
○ Aircraft MRO (Maintenance, Repair and
Overhaul) ○ The Airport Surveillance Radar and Secondary
Surveillance Radar (ASR/MSSR)
● Land side:
○ The Air Routes Surveillance Radar (ARSR)
○ Car parks: surface / multilevel
○ The Air Traffic Control Tower (ATC) and
○ Main access road and approach roads to all
technical building
the facilities PTB, cargo, etc.
○ Aviation fuel storage
○ Cargo warehouse
○ Inflight catering facility
○ Airport main utility systems – power, water
and sewage treatment plants ● The master plan is prepared in order to ensure
that:
○ Commercial development; offices, hotels,
convention center, etc. ○ The facilities are sized to handle the ultimate
4 Master Planning
forecasted traffic. relocation is not possible, the possibility of
removal of such structures is to be evaluated.
○ The entire land parcel for the airport is optimally
If such structures cannot be removed, the
utilized.
height reduction should be evaluated. If
○ The facilities are located in the phased
neither the removal nor reducing the height
development to ensure these do not require
of the structure is possible, then the MP will
relocation.
identify the mitigation measures or operational
○ The facilities can be built in phases where restrictions due to these obstacles. Such
possible/ feasible. The impact due to operational restrictions acceptability is
expansion/development is minimum with required to be examined and documented in
least abortive work and operational hindrance. the Master Plan.
○ Environmental restrictions, if any, in locating ○ Regulatory guidelines like a minimum distance

the facilities are considered (in one airport the from the terminal to locate the car park spaces
ECC mentioned that certain aviation related are considered.
facilities are prohibited in some part of the
○ CNS equipment are located without infringing
land parcel).
the sensitive and critical areas (these are
Obstacle limitation surfaces around the
○ defined areas depending on the equipment)
airport are considered while locating the to avoid any effect on the performance of the
runway. If there are structures which penetrate equipment.
the Obstacle Limitation Surfaces (OLS) the
○ Facilities that are required for each phase of
runway location has to be reviewed. If runway
the development from initial phase to ultimate
5 Master Planning
6 Master Planning
numbers will be on annual basis and forecast requirement, specifically the approach lighting
horizon of 30-50 years. requirement
● From the annual numbers, particularly the ● Communication, Navigation & Surveillance
hourly peak traffic anticipated will have to be (CNS) systems that are required and their
worked out, as the sizing of many facilities location
depend on peak passenger and ATM numbers. ● Appropriate location of ATC tower and its
● In the case of brown field airport, the forecast height
will be similar to greenfield airport and the ● Location of Rescue and Fire Fighting (RFF)
current peak hour traffic available can be Stations (Fire Stations)
utilized as a basis for future peak traffic.
3. Location of passenger terminal building, the
2. Determine the airfield infrastructure requirement shape and the ultimate foot print required to
viz. meet the traffic forecast.
● Runway length, width and number of runways 4. Location of cargo terminal building, the ultimate
foot print required to meet the traffic forecast.
● Number of Parallel taxiways
Identify the cargo apron requirement based on
● Number of exit and entry taxiways between freighter only aircraft movements.
runway and parallel taxiway including Rapid
5. Aviation fuel storage tank farm location, size and
Exit Taxiways (RET)
associated buildings.
● Number of aprons stands required (depends
6. Vehicle Parking on city side–surface (or multi-
on peak hour traffic and buffer capacity)
level building) and number of vehicle slots and
● Storm water drains location
● Airfield Ground Lighting (AGL) system 7. Certain facilities like catering building, utilities
7 Master Planning
8 Master Planning
Unit 2
Airfield Infrastructure
Introduction
2 Airfield Infrastructure
Illustration for why threshold is required to be direction is right to left direction, there is no impact
displaced: due to the displaced threshold indicated above for
both landing and take-off, assuming there is no
● Threshold is at the extremity or at runway end
displaced threshold in this direction.
since the object on approach surface does not
protrude the surface ● Runway Strip: A designated area that includes
the runway and, if given, a stop way:
● Object protrudes the surface, in this case there
are two options. One is to remove or reduce ○ to lessen the danger of aircraft damage when
the height of the structure. The 2nd option is to they go off a runway; and
displace the threshold. i.e. C
○ to safeguard aeroplanes flying over it during
● Displaced threshold to avoid the object protruding takeoff and landing procedures.
the surface. The implication is that the landing
● Runway End Safety Area (RESA): An area
distance available now will be less by X mt.
It is to note that the runway pavement between

the end and threshold (X mt in the figure above)
can be used for take- off but not for landing from
left towards right. Similarly, if the runway usage
Unit 3
Obstacle Limitation
Surfaces (OLS)
2 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces (OLS)
Table: Dimensions and Slopes of Obstacle Limitation Surfaces – Approach Runways- Summary
Source – ICAO- Annex 14- 7th Edition

Unit 4
CNS System
2 CNS System
3 CNS System
4 CNS System
5 CNS System
6 CNS System
7 CNS System
8 CNS System
Unit 5
ATC Tower
Learning Objectives Introduction

By the end of this unit, you will be Air Traffic Controllers positioned at the ATC tower, uses air or
able to: ground communications and other ATC systems to provide
● Learn the siting criteria for air traffic air traffic services to the aircrafts on ground at the airport
control tower and those in the vicinity of the airport. For safe ground
movement control of the aircraft and for viewing the take-off
● Describe ongoing technology
and landing of the aircrafts, the ATC tower must be located
advancement and research projects
near active runways to give controllers adequate visibility.
on CNS and ATC tower
Height and Location of ATC Tower location should not hinder the future expansion
of airport facilities and also for example should
Tower with a height more than what is required consider coverage of the all runways and taxiways
will increase the capital cost and height less than which may be developed in future development
the requirement will not meet the objectives of phases.
safe and efficient operation since certain areas of
airfield may not be visible from the tower. A properly
Visibility Performance Requirements
located tower itself will optimize the height. The
VPRs are below:
● Unobstructed View of all intended areas of

Control Cab
coverage as mentioned above is required to be
Junction Level ensured.
● Object Discrimination relate to the tower

Tower Shaft Base Building controllers, who should be able to identify
and recognise any object laying on the airfield
pavement in order to avoid FOD (foreign object
damage) to the aircraft.
● Line of Sight (LOS) Angle of Incidence shall be

equal to or greater than 0.8 degree. See the figure
Figure: Height and Location of ATC Tower
2 ATC Tower
below for LOS angle of incidence Compliance with Obstacle Limitation
● Two-point Lateral Discrimination Angle shall be Surface (OLS) Requirement
greater than 0.13 degree or 8 minutes
While locating the tower, it shall be ensured that
tower height does not penetrate transitional surface.
Generally, tower location will not be planned in the
approach or take off climb areas since the visibility
requirement cannot be met and hence, the tower
height is not expected to infringe on take-off and
approach surfaces. The only surface it can possibly
protrude is the inner horizontal surface (IHS), which
is 45m above the aerodrome elevation. Usually in
large airports with multiple runways, the height
could be more than 45m to provide coverage of all
the runways, taxiways and movement areas with
one ATC tower. In such cases, where the ATC tower
protrudes the IHS, Aeronautical Study needs to be
3 ATC Tower
conducted for having an obstacle for the height at of all the aprons from ATC tower. In such cases the
the location planned, to evaluate the probability aircraft movement in the apron can be monitored
(collision risk model) of an aircraft colliding with from apron control tower which can be closer
the tower. This is a safety risk assessment study to the apron and away from ATC tower or for the
for the obstacle. If the study finds the probability stands where there are visibility issues the traffic
is extremely low, then the location & height of or activities are monitored remotely from apron
tower can be finalized. If the study finds that the control tower or AOCC through CCTV system with
probability is high, then an alternative location cameras installed for complete coverage.
needs to be re-worked with the required height for
that location. Communication and Navigational Equipment
Effect of the height and location with reference to

Apron Control and Monitoring
CNS equipment should be analyzed and should not
In small and medium size airports, the apron control affect the performance of the system.
& monitoring could be from the ATC tower cabin or
one level below the cabin. ATC Tower Cabin Orientation
As the Controllers view the airfield from the ATC

In large airports with apron stands at multiple
tower cabin, the direction of the cabin must be
locations, it would not be possible to have visibility
oriented to avoid all forms of glare viz. sun light, both
direct and indirect and from glare due to manmade
surfaces. Practice has shown that it is oriented
such that the view faces north or alternately east,
or west, or finally south in that order of preference.
Security Aspect
It may be preferable to locate the ATC tower away

from public areas. This may not be always possible
and during detailed design appropriate security
system should be planned and implemented.
Equipment Building and Office

For housing the ATS equipment technical building,
two or three stories will be planned in proximity
to the ATC tower depending on the ATS functions
carried out at the airport. In addition to housing the
equipment, this building will also have area control
or approach control center, offices for ATM, CNS
and Met departments. This building will have to be
4 ATC Tower
planned with future expansion in mind as there can
be a need to expand the services and systems in
line with the air traffic growth. Sufficient carparking
spaces need to be earmarked for staff and visitors.
Meteorological Equipment Requirements for an

Airfield
Aircraft operation on an airfield is dependent on

prevailing weather conditions. ICAO has prescribed
the following meteorological elements are observed
and reported:
● Surface Wind- Surface wind mean direction and normally derived based on the weather conditions
speed, as well as major fluctuations in wind at an aerodrome. Weather information report also
direction. facilitates the air crew on deciding the requirement
● Visibility in meter or KM. for the length of runway requirement and to operate
at that particular aerodrome. Aerodrome Operator
● Runway Visual Range (RVR) for all runways
declares the operating minima above which only
suitable for instrument approach and landing
the operations can be performed at that airport.
operations in Categories I, II, and III
The operating minima comprises of horizontal
● Current weather conditions at the airport and/or and vertical components and are expressed in
its area. terms of minimum visibility / Runway Visual Range
● At a minimum, the following current weather (RVR) and minimum descent altitude / height or
phenomena must be identified: precipitation Decision altitude / height. The operating minima of
and freezing precipitation, including intensity, an aerodrome also is published in the Aeronautical
fog, freezing fog, and thunderstorms, including Information Publication.
thunderstorms in the neighborhood.
In India, information related to the above is
● Cloud quantity, cloud type, and cloud base
provided by the India Meteorological Department,
height to define clouds of operational relevance.
IMD. It provides services through 18 aerodrome
When the sky is blocked, vertical visibility must
meteorological offices and 54 aeronautical
be monitored and reported in place of cloud
meteorological stations located at various airports
quantity, cloud type, and cloud base height. The
in India. Live updates/half hourly MET-R are
cloud base height and vertical visibility must be
provided to Air Traffic Control Tower and other
stated in meters/feet.
concerned airlines with which the operations are
● Air temperature and the dew-point temperature performed and the information is updated once in
● Atmospheric pressure two hours. Manual or automated methods are used
to give MET briefings and paperwork to operators.
The visual aids and the operating procedures are
The MET offices at Chennai and New Delhi airports
5 ATC Tower
operate the web-based information distribution The information on the RVR is also required for
system called as the On-Line Briefing System (OLBS) appropriate intensity selection of Aeronautical
of IMD, via which registered users may instantly Ground Lighting System. IMD as a special initiative
download the prediction. IMD also has advanced with the support of IITM Pune also has provided
communication modes for the dissemination of Fog predictor to ascertain the possibility of ground
aviation meteorological information. Fog. On trial basis the system is installed at IGI
Airport, New Delhi.
At an aerodrome following equipment are provided
to collect and share the meteorological report: As a part of master planning, the requirement for
● Wind direction indicator - (wind vane) the MET services is to be discussed with the IMD
and provisions or infrastructure as required are to
● Wind speed measurement - (Anemometer)
be incorporated and details worked out later on
● Temperature - air temperature, pressure and during implementation.
humidity (Barometric Pressure Sensor, AT/ Rh
sensor)
Remote ATC Tower
● Runway Visual Range (RVR) measurements -
Transmissometer This is a concept where the Air Traffic Control will be
performed off-airport, not from individual airports
● Rain fall measurement - (Surface observatory –
as a dedicated facility. From such a remote facility
Rain gauge)
nearby airports can also be controlled.
● Prediction on general visibility, weather conditions
and rain based on the cloud movements - (Radar) At London City Airport a 50m digital tower is being
built and at the top of this tower will be 14 HD
While the information on wind direction, speed, cameras and 2 PTZ (Pan-Zoom – Tilt) cameras
temperature, rain fall, etc. are measured from for 360-degree view of the airfield and immediate
one particular location of an aerodrome: the surroundings. Air Traffic Controllers will be based
measurement with respect to the Runway Visual at an off-site control room at NATS (NATS is ATM
Range (RVR) for deciding the category of operations service provider for UK airports) control center in
is provided by the field equipment placed along the Swanwick. Data will be sent through high-speed
runway. secure fiber network.
World’s first new airport bring built without

traditional tower is in Scandinavian Mountains,
planned for opening in Dec 2019. The airport is
Code 4E and Cat III compliant.
Indra Navia (leading manufacturer) is working with

Norwegian ANSP on a solution that will enable to
operate 15 airports from one location.
6 ATC Tower
In India, AAI has invited EOI for remote ATC tower The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and
to be constructed at an airport from where nearby Airports Authority of India (AAI) have implemented
smaller airports will also be controlled. India has the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation called
numerous small airports and many of which are “GAGAN “project as a Satellite Based Augmentation
being put into operation under RCS (Regional System (SBAS) for the Indian Airspace. GAGAN
Connectivity Scheme) network. These airports may provides the additional accuracy, availability, and
not have one or two aircraft movements in a day integrity necessary for all phases of flight, from
and a remote ATC tower will definitely be beneficial Enroute through approach for all qualified airports
in such cases. within the GAGAN service volume. Initially, Director
General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) certified GAGAN
The Advantages of Remote ATC Tower for enroute operations on December 30, 2013
and subsequently on April 21, 2015 for precision
Small airports having few flights need not have
approach services.
a dedicated ATC tower. In large airports where
there are constraints to develop the airfield due to
The benefits to the airport are that ground based
location of the traditional ATC tower, remote tower
navigational aids are not required with the use of
outside the airport helps to develop the airfield or
SBAS. Since there are no ground based navigational
maximize the land use for aviation purpose or even
aids, the siting restrictions discussed are not
for commercial development. The concept of Air
applicable, such as sensitive area, critical area etc.
Traffic Management through Remote ATC tower is
and hence, increases the flexibility in the master
expected to reduce capital cost and operating cost.
planning for more efficient airside utilization.
Communication Navigation and GAGAN, while initially intended for aviation, will
Surveillance System help many other user sectors, including intelligent
transportation, marine, roads, railways, surveying,
Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)
geodesy, security agencies, the telecom industry,
reduces the dependency on ground-based
personal users of position location apps, and so on.
infrastructure and leverages the precision and
accuracy provided by satellite technologies. This
India is now the fourth nation in the world to employ
system can provide approaches to runway ends
a satellite-based navigation system with the launch
at the same minima (200 ft.) as a Category I,
of GAGAN.
ground-based Instrument Landing System (ILS)
while improving safety. Ground- based reference
stations, satellite-based signals and aircraft sensor
systems comprise the SBAS architecture for
aircraft navigation. The SBAS provides integrity and
correction data significantly improves the accuracy
and reliability of the GPS position estimates and
most importantly the availability.
7 ATC Tower
According to the National Civil Aviation Policy, all
aircraft registered in India beginning January 1,
2019 must be GAGAN equipped. Concerning current
aircraft, NCAP states that AAI would investigate
methods to incentivize airlines through ANS price
discounts for retrofitting their aircraft with GAGAN
receivers.
Summary
● The GP and LLZ are located near the runway.
● Localizers emit very high frequency signals that,

when acquired by an aircraft, direct it onto the
runway's center line in the horizontal plane.
● The perimeter examination roads or roads to

these installations, as well as the runway or road
holding locations, must be planned in the master
plan.
● The airport benefits from the deployment of

SBAS since it eliminates the need for ground-
based navigational aids.
● This offers master planning flexibility for more

effective airside utilization.
● Concerning current aircraft, NCAP states that

AAI would investigate methods to reward airlines
through ANS price discounts for retrofitting their
aircraft with GAGAN receivers.
8 ATC Tower
Unit 6
Airport Buildings

By the end of this unit, you will be Passengers at the airport may be classified under following
able to: categories:
● List the functions of passenger

terminal building
International
● Learn the area requirement and
layout options
● Define design principles Domestic

● Learn Level of Service (LoS) concept
● Describe landside planning and

Transfer / Transit
systems in PTB in brief
● List the functional layout of cargo

terminal building General Aviation (GA)-
Business Jets
Charter Flights
All the above passengers will be processed through a

common Passenger Terminal Building (PTB). Exception
only for when GA or Charter traffic is very large, a separate
terminal provided only for these operations.
Passenger Terminal Building boarding counters, queuing area and circulation
area
Passenger Terminal Building (PTB) is to cater for
the following functions: ● F&B, retails, washrooms, baby change rooms,
airline lounges, kids play area, first aid room/
● Check-in of passengers and their hold bags-
medical center
Adequate area for check-in counters, passenger
queuing, circulation area and baggage handling ● Offices for airlines, government authorities,
system airport operator, concessionaires
● Immigration check after check-in- Adequate area ● Stores for all stakeholders
for counters and passenger queuing, circulation ● Space for baggage handling system after the
area check-in for screening system, conveyors and
● Security check of passengers after check- baggage make up and storage till they are loaded
in / immigration- Adequate area for security into the aircraft.
equipment and passenger queuing, circulation ● Arrival area includes baggage carousels, baggage
area make up area, circulation area, F&B, retails, duty
● Gate holding area after 2/3 above- Seating, Gate free shops, customs inspection area including
screening machines, meeters/ greeters area.
2 Airport Buildings
3 Airport Buildings
Following figures indicate the passenger flow and ● Minimum level changes. All level changes
the processes involved: are to be planned with staircase, elevator and
escalator. Ramp is another option, planned within
The PTB location is to be coordinated with the permissible slope
apron and the shape of the building can have
● Washrooms located at optimal walking distances
some influence on the apron layout. PTB is the first
(120- 150m)
impression arriving passengers view when entering
● Walking distances more than 300m is normally
the country or city and the impression lasts for a
aided with travellators.
long time. Similarly, a good layout and architectural
design will enhance the passenger satisfaction ● Distances more than 750 m are normally planned
in view of many processes involved for departing with automatic people movers.
passengers and they spend maximum time in the ● Corridor width is adequately planned. 4m-5m
PTB. The objectives of the layout and design to be width for one-way movement and 8m-10m width
considered are as below: for two- way movement of passengers. Arrival
● Simple and functional corridors have a minimum 5m width. In case
of corridors with travellators, the width shall be
● Beautiful and attractive architecture, particular
appropriately increased.
use of high ceilings
● Facilitates minimum connect time
● See through process from one location to another
for transfer passengers.
location.
Energy
● savings measures and use of
● Complying to ICAO SARPs and State’s regulations
environmentally friendly materials
- for example, separation of arriving & departing
passengers, segregation of secured areas from ● Future expansion of the building to be considered
other areas for minimal operations impact
● Ease of maintenance
● Independent staff flow for large airports through

the building and away from passengers.
● Barrier free access for passengers with reduced

mobility.
PTB could be a single level or multilevel depending

on the capacity of the airport. Airports designed
to handle an ultimate capacity of say 5 million
passengers can be a single level PTB, provided
there are no passenger boarding through bridges.
PTBs planned for Passenger Boarding Bridges
(PBB) are invariably with minimum two levels.
Medium and large size airports will be more than 2
4 Airport Buildings
levels to accommodate offices, hotels, mechanical pier configurations will have lesser walking
& electrical plant rooms and full- fledged baggage distances from or to the central processing area
handling systems with sorters, etc. from the gates. A matrix with ranking of various
configurations with specific considerations which
Main consideration in the shape or configuration are airport specific can be prepared and depending
of the building is the apron layout and walking on the configuration most suited for the particular
distance between the processes as the pier length airport.
increases. Star form or 3-sided pier or 2-sided
5 Airport Buildings
Single level building requires passengers’ boarding not through PBBs. But such buildings are simple,
and de- boarding will be through ladders and bus, cost effective- both for capital cost and operational
6 Airport Buildings
cost. The footprint occupied by the building will be
large being a one level operation. For small airports,
walking distance is not a concern, however medium
and large airports will require multilevel buildings.
Multiple Terminals – Large airports can have

multiple terminals. Features of multiple terminals
are:
These
● are to be interconnected through
Automatic People Mover (APM) system.
● Walking distances between processes minimized

within one terminal.
● Perception of crowding minimized.
● Kerb side traffic gets shared between the

terminals.
● Any system failure in one terminal affects

operation in only that terminal.
● In case resources are not optimized; there could

be some idling of resources. boarding happens in another terminal for which the
passengers will be transferred through Automatic
● One terminal can be dedicated to one mega
People Movers (APM). Thus, this increases the
airline operations.
capital and operational cost. Similarly, after de-
boarding the passengers will be transferred to
Singapore Changi Airport the main terminal through APM for immigration,
Satellite Terminal Concept: This is similar to baggage collection and customs. Since all arriving
multiple terminals except that the check-in process, passengers go out of the airport through one
immigration and security check are done in one terminal and similarly departing passengers are
terminal and only the gate holding, boarding / de- processed through one terminal the resources
Figure: Singapore Changi Airport Figure: Satellite Terminal Concept
7 Airport Buildings
are optimized and well utilized. The main terminal
also can have boarding / de- boarding process in
addition to satellite building. Hold Baggage are to
be transported through conveyors between main
terminal and aircraft and vice- versa.
Summary
● Passenger Terminal Building (PTB) is to cater
for check-in of passengers and their hold bags.
Adequate area for check-in counters, passenger
queuing, circulation area and baggage handling
system.
● PTB could be a single-level or multilevel

depending on the capacity of the airport.
● Airports designed to handle an ultimate capacity

of say 5 million passengers can be a single level
PTB, provided there are no passenger boarding
through bridges.
8 Airport Buildings
Unit 7
PTB Layout Objective and

Design Consideration

By the end of this unit, you will be A passenger terminal is a transportation facility placed
able to: on a sea or land transportation route where passengers
● Describe the functions of passenger transition from one method of vehicle transportation to
terminal building another or between carriers within the same mode. Such
carriers must operate on regularly scheduled routes and may
● Learn area requirement and layout
consist of vans, trains, ships, tour buses or boats, or other
Options
modes of transportation. Ticket counters, waiting spaces,
● Know design principles management offices, luggage handling facilities, and stores
may be found in passenger terminals.
The PTB Floor Area

The total area should meet the processes and the functions
mentioned in the beginning of this Unit.
Essentially, area requirement for each process is boarding. Area requirement of the arrival reclaim
based on maximum passengers at one time, number area is dependent on number and length of baggage
of equipments or positions needed and space reclaim carousel (which is dependent on number
provided per passenger. The quantum of resources of passengers and flights arriving at one point of
(equipment/positions) required will be dependent time) and circulation area between carousels.
on the waiting time (max) to be achieved for the
process completion. More resources required for Over and above these functional area requirement,
lesser waiting time and vice versa. The waiting time commercial and service areas, etc. to be added
in queue is also dependent on the efficiency of the which is explained further in the Unit.
personnel manning the process and the equipment
technology. Check-in, immigration, customs,
Level of Service (LoS)
security are the basic processes at an international
airport. Airport Development Reference Manual (ADRM)
/ IATA provides guidelines for determining the
Whereas the area requirement of the security number of positions or equipment required and
hold area or gate hold area is dependent on area area required per passenger while queuing in the
per passenger to be seated and queuing area for process.
Exhibit: LoS Guidelines for Airport Terminal Facilities
Figure: LoS Guidelines for Airport Terminal Facilities
2 PTB Layout Objective and Design Consideration

Two parameters determine the level of service in most of the cases with higher range for space
provided viz. area per passenger and waiting time and lower range for time. Even if the actual peak
during peak hours. Level of Service (LoS) provided hour traffic is more than the design value, we can
is classified as: achieve LoS “C” and also the traffic growth to some
extent can be managed with the same resources
with increased waiting time but within the upper
range and reduced space but again within the
range for LoS “C. Concession agreements may also
specify the LoS to be achieved with these values,
not only for planning but also during operations.
Master planning may be based on long term traffic

growth, but the implementation will be based on
shorter forecast period, in the next five to ten years
from the commissioning. This phased development
spreads out the funding requirement and optimizes
the operating cost. Also, this takes care of
technology changes that can be incorporated such
as automation, self-processing etc. which may
result in reduction of resources and the space.
Let us see the area / space and waiting time,

To calculate the number of resources the starting
process wise for achieving the three LoS as per the
point is the peak number of passengers to be
ADRM.
handled in certain time period which is derived
LoS A means more area / passenger and very less from the design peak hour passenger numbers the
waiting time (meaning more resources) results in airport is designed for. Traffic forecast will identify
the best services to the passengers but with higher the hourly, daily, monthly and yearly passenger
capital cost and operating cost. numbers and ATM. However, it is uneconomical
to use the highest hourly demand of the year
LoS E- Suboptimum means more waiting time in the for design purpose. Hence, design peak hour
queue and lesser space/passenger, meaning poor passenger is worked out which will be less than the
service level. highest hourly demand as per the forecast. This is

because such highest demand will happen only for
LoS C- optimum as the name implies the optimum few hours in a year. With lesser resources planned
level of service with acceptable waiting time and using design peak hour passenger numbers, there
space per passenger, resulting in optimized capital could be congestion at the process when the
and operating cost. highest peak hour passenger numbers occur during
certain period of operations. However, the degree
While designing the terminal building, we can of congestion expected during such few hours of
consider values indicated under LoS “C”- optimum- highest peak can be tolerated.

There are many methods practiced to arrive at the With the design peak passenger numbers
design peak hour passenger and ATM numbers and considering desired waiting time and the
from the annual numbers. Some of these being processing time, the resources can be calculated.
“Peak month average day” or “Typical Peak Hour If you can allow more waiting time, you require
Passenger (TPHP)” or “30th busiest hour” or lesser resources and vice versa. If processing time
“2nd busiest day in the average week of the peak is more, that requires more resources, if the waiting
month". Using any one of these methods, the traffic time remains constant.
forecast would have identified the design peak
passenger numbers and ATM numbers. It is also a The design peak passenger numbers and the
practice to specify a peak hour factor which should number of passengers at one point in the process
be multiplied with the annual passenger numbers queue will be different since all the passengers will
to arrive at the design peak passenger numbers not be reporting to the process at the same time.
instead of the methods mentioned. Similarly, the departing passengers reporting at one
point of time to immigration or security process will
The design peak passenger numbers will also have be less than the design peak passenger number
split between arriving, departing, international and since the passengers arrive from the previous
domestic and also identify whether the peaks of process.
international and domestic coincide or not. In most
of the Indian airports they do not coincide; thus you However, the arrival process is different in this
don’t have to sum the peaks of international and aspect. Since all the passengers will be de-boarding
domestic peak passenger numbers to arrive at the in a shorter interval of time and hence, will wait at
resources and space required. the process in a shorter window compared to the
domestic passenger process.

Let us take check-in counter as an example. popular and such passengers will not require
Assume the check- in opens three hours before the traditional check-in counters. Assuming in this
STD and closes 45 minutes before the ETD. Hence, case 80% passengers will use check-in counters for
passengers will be reporting between opening and manual processing and remaining have boarding
closing of the check-in time. Also, it is necessary passes through other modes as above, would
to identify if separate resources are needed for require 400 passengers to check- in during the 30
business class, first class and economy class and min window.
hand baggage only passengers, passengers with
infant and for Passengers with Reduced Mobility Assume 10% of these will be business class
(RPM). The waiting time for the business class/ passengers. Thus, 40 passengers are business
first class passengers is less than the waiting time class and 360 passengers are economy class
for economy class passengers. It is also necessary passengers. Assuming processing time for
to add some resources for surge in passenger business class and economy class passengers
numbers, flight delays and hence bunching of are same i.e. 2 min and waiting time for business
flights. class passengers is 5 min and for economy class
passengers it is 10 min.
Let us see how to arrive at the resources required
and area required for Check-in process for LoS “C”.
If the terminal is designed for 1000 departing peak

hour passengers, it is usually considered that 50%
of the design peak passengers will report in a 30
min period and resources are to be provided for this
number. In this case 500 passengers.
Assume certain percentage of passengers use Similar to the above methodology, area required for
traditional check-in. Currently, web check-in, printed all the processes are determined based on number
boarding passes, or boarding passes printed in the of passengers that will be available at one point of
self-check-in kiosks at the airport are becoming time from the previous process.
Let us take a closer look at each of the processing

areas with layout options.
Check-in Area
There are two layout options. One option is with
linear check- in counters and the 2nd option is in
island configuration.
The linear option is preferred for small airports

where walking distances is less. Island option the walking distances and modular extension of
increases the depth of the check-in area but reduces the terminal is possible.
Security Check Area

In this area the passengers and their hand bags are
checked to ensure they don’t carry any prohibited
items to the aircraft.
Boarding Gate Hold Area
The area requirement per passenger with seating

and passengers who are assumed to be standing
are given in the LoS table for the three LoS with Figure: Security Check Area

Figure: Open Gate Lounges
Whereas in the dedicated boarding gate lounges,

most of the passengers will be available within the
Figure: Security Check Area area when boarding is announced.
proportion of seated passengers and standing

Arrival Area
passengers. It’s important to consider the total
passengers as per the design peak hour passenger In this area, the baggage carousels are installed,
numbers. and the passengers’ hold bags are unloaded in
to these carousels. The number of carousels is
In this area, the dwell time of the passengers is very determined based on number of arriving flights
high as they spend maximum time in the airport in peak hour. Two or more flights can utilise one
before boarding the aircraft. There are basically two baggage carousel depending on the length of the
layouts. One common hold area for all the boarding carousel. The thumb rule is 75m claim length for
gates and the other option is dedicated hold area/ narrow body aircrafts and 90m length for wide body
lounge for each boarding gate. aircrafts.
If the layout is with dedicated boarding lounges, the The area requirement is based on the area occupied
common security check mentioned above will not by the carousels, distance between the carousels
be required and each gate lounge will have security and circulation spaces.
check stations and passengers and their handbags
will be checked here.
Common security check and common hold lounge

provides optimization of resources however all the
passengers may not be ready to board as they may
be seated in any location within the common area.
Figure: Closed Gate Lounges

● Baby changing room, first aid center.
● Airline(s) lounge(s)
● VVIP lounge
● General circulation area
● AOCC& SOCC
● Emergency management center (can be located

outside PTB as well).
Thumb Rule for Total PTB Area

There are no standards for minimum area per
passenger. However, for preliminary assessment
and master planning purposes, the following may
be considered:
● Domestic – 14-15 sq.mt per peak hour passenger
● International – 20-25 sq.mt per peak hour

Summary of passenger terminal building functional
passenger
areas
● Check-in hall IATA recommends area per peak hour passengers

● Security check area not to exceed 25sq.mt for domestic and 35 sq.mt
for international operations.
● Immigration area (for international only)
● Gate holding area If peak hour passengers are not available and only
● Arrival baggage reclaims area annual passenger numbers are estimated, we can
consider 8500 -10,000sq.mt per million passengers
● Corridors (arrival and departure), circulation
areas, boarding gate queuing area
● Washrooms (Male, female and passengers/

visitors and staff)
● F&B and retail, duty Free shops
● Meeters and greeters area
● Duty office rooms for airport manager, airlines,

government authorities and other stakeholders.
● Stores
● Services rooms - (IT, HVAC, electrical, etc.)
● Baggage storage area and loading area

per annum.
The area requirement can be optimized for PTBs

operating both domestic and international in one
building with certain common areas for international
and domestic operations, since the peak passenger
numbers of domestic and international will not be
at the same time. For instance, the check-in area
can be common for the two operations and also it Figure: Curbfront with Pedestrian Island
is a normal practice to swing the security holds area
between domestic and international depending on space for storage of baggage trolleys also required
the requirement. Similarly, the arrival carousel area to be planned. The width of the road shall cater for
between domestic and international can be used cars /taxis and coaches.
on swing mode.
The road network shall also include to and from
During detailed design area requirement for each the car park to the PTB. The car park could be on
of the functions and other requirements need to be surface or in multilevel depending on the number
worked out and the floor area decided. of car park slots required based on peak hour
passenger numbers and meeter and greeters’
numbers and land availability. Multilevel car park
Landside Planning
facilitates interconnection from PTB to the car
The road network to the passenger terminal building park and provides comfort and convenience to
shall be carefully planned to have unhindered traffic the passengers. No vehicle parking is allowed
flow to the PTB. Number of lanes in front of the within 75 m from the PTB and only drop/pickup of
building that are required to be evaluated are based passengers is allowed close to the PTB.
on the dwell time of the vehicles for drop/pickup
of the passengers, the length of the vehicle, space The interface between the road in front of the PTB
between the vehicles. A separate bypass lane must and the PTB entrance is called forecourt. See fig
planned between two lanes. Pedestrian lanes and below indicating the layout.
Figure: Forecourt

The minimum width of the forecourt is generally 15 towers) should be as close as possible to PTB.
m and to the entire length of the PTB.
Water Receiving, Storage and

Planning for Systems Distribution Center
The planning shall include buildings to A 3-day water storage strategy is usually in place. It
accommodate electrical substation equipment to is a facility which includes water treatment plants
feed power to all the facilities at the airport. The prior to delivery. A sewage treatment facility is
equipment includes HT panels, transformers, LT also planned to handle waste water generated at
panels, diesel generating sets (standby power in the airport, which will be utilized for flushing toilets
case of failure of supply from electricity supply and landscaping. The location of these two plant
company). The location of the substation is to be rooms, notably the wastewater treatment plant, is
at the load center and not far away from PTB to often designed away from populous sections of the
reduce losses and to reduce capital cost. Large airport.
airports will have multiple substations closer to the
loads. These buildings are to be located, planned and
constructed for flexibility to increase the capacity
Air-conditioning equipment (chillers and cooling as the airport expansion is taken up.

Vehicle Parking on Landside for PTB
Operations
The type of vehicles for which parking facilities are on the peak hour passenger traffic, passengers/
private cars, taxis, coaches, staff cars, staff two vehicle and passenger-meeters/greeters’ ratio
wheelers. Number of parking slots required depends and number of staffs in one shift. If the airport

handles maximum number of tourists, the number connected to the PTB through a covered pathway
of coaches will be high as the tourists usually travel which also provides protection from external
in groups. Similarly, passengers per taxi also will be weather and less walking distance for the users.
two to three, if it is a tourist driven traffic. In either Taxi staging area is kept further away from private
case, the passenger- meeters/greeters’ ratio will car parking.
be less than airports handling maximum number
of passengers who are employed overseas and Housing: Accommodation for employees of airport
travelling through the airport. Another detail to be operation and government authorities is to be
considered is the availability and convenient mode earmarked with a land parcel depending on the
of public transport like bus or rail connectivity requirement.
between the city/hotels and the airport.
Bulk Utilities: Buildings like electrical substations,
Based on the occupancy rate above, with design water supply storage and pumping station, sewage
peak passenger numbers, passenger to meeters/ treatment plant is required to be earmarked in the
greeters ratio, number of vehicles of each type, master plan after preliminary assessment of the
total numbers can be calculated. Also, additional required capacities with modular expansion in
slots for overnight parking, long term parking and phases.
buffer capacity.
Office space requirement for airport administration,
With Airport staff numbers and public transport Government Authorities and airlines is required to
availability, the number and type of vehicles can be assessed and earmarked in the master plan on
be determined. The employee parking slots will the city side.
be utilized for a longer period, based on shift duty
timings, unlike for passenger vehicles. Police and security buildings are also to be marked
in the master plan on the city side.
The vehicle parking area must be located away from
PTB and other sensitive installations like ATC tower Main access road within the airport boundary and
(if located on the landside). Normally, 75m-100m connection to the city road and connecting roads
distance is maintained for safety. Vehicle parking to all the buildings in the airport land are required to
on the kerb side of PTB is only for drop or pick up of be worked out with number of lanes depending on
the passengers/meeters & greeters. Staff vehicle the number and type of vehicles.
parking is usually provided close to the workplace.
Cargo Terminal Building, Apron and

Area required per vehicle depends on the type of
other Related Infrastructures
vehicle. 25 sq m per car is considered including
circulation and maneuverings space for surface Similar to passenger traffic, forecast for the Cargo
car park. If the vehicle parking requirement is large, traffic through the airport is required to be carried
it would not be practical for surface car parking out. Cargo handling facility should be planned
and multilevel car parking is planned which can be and developed based on the wide consultations

with airlines, manufacturers close to the airport
who may use the facility, freight forward agents
and others who may use the facility. Cargo may
be carried in the belly holds of passenger aircraft
or freighter (full cargo) or Combi aircraft where
cargo and passengers are carried in the main deck.
Forecast should include both the weight of the
cargo and number of ULDs, since mail will also be
part of the cargo. The forecast will calculate the %
of each type of cargo.
For any cargo movement there are three kinds of
flows viz. outbound, inbound and transit or transfer
Flow of Cargo
Cargo movement can be categorized into two types; Sizing of the cargo terminal building depends
International and Domestic based on the origin and not only on the quantity and type of cargo being
destination of the cargo. The International cargo handled, it also depends on the technology adopted
movement is slightly different from the Domestic for storage and retrieval and required storage
as it requires clearance procedures to be carried capacity required at one time based on the dwell
out by customs authorities. time of cargo.

Planning guidelines for sizing of the cargo
terminal:
Source – IATA- ADRM
It is important that the physical sizing of the

terminal is conducive to the flow of material and arrive at number of aircraft stand required. Apron
equipment that operate within it. Hence, circulation dimensions depend on maximum number of cargo
parameters/equipment sizes are considered in aircrafts that are forecast at a time and reference
calculating the basic dimension of the terminal. code. Separation distances and other clearances
are explained previously.
Sizing of Airside Infrastructures Siting Consideration
IATA ADRM guideline is to assume airside The location of the cargo handling facility should
infrastructure area (including apron, storage area be such that it is possible to expand the facility as
for equipment and processing) to be approximately and when required with least operational hindrance.
Provision of land or space for extension on either
side of the terminal, apron and city side facilities.
Adequate width of the road between the passenger

apron and cargo terminal and easy access is
required to be planned. Cargo related facilities
like freight forwarding agents offices and their
facilities, bonded stores, customs offices and Cargo
administration offices etc. are usually located on
the landside opposite to the cargo terminal. The
height (considering ETV) and location of the cargo
4 to 5 times the area of the cargo terminal building. terminal and apron shall be clear from the OLS
Another method is to arrive at per day tonnage and no effect on CNS equipment. City side road
from the yearly forecast number (consider 250 network should be planned with adequate care for
days per year) and 50 to 55 tons per aircraft for the movement of heavy trucks and with adequate
all cargo flights. 20 hours of operations and 4-7 parking space for the trucks.
hours turn around per aircraft is considered to

Summary
● This unit briefly talks about the various functions
of Passenger terminal building.
● Cargo terminal building and other building

functions.
● Area requirement and layout designs that are

used in airport planning.
● Design principles and level of service concept is

also discussed.
● Landside planning and systems in PTB is

discussed in brief.
● Functional layout of cargo terminal building is

also given.
● Area requirement and other building requirements

are also discussed.
● Cargo related facilities like freight forwarding

agents offices and their facilities, bonded stores,
customs offices and Cargo administration offices
etc., are usually located on the landside opposite
to the cargo terminal.

Unit 8
Land Use, Environmental

Control & Zoning

By the end of this unit, you will be Land use plan, environmental control and zoning are crucial
able to: from the conceptualization stage of the airport. The authority
● Learn control measures for responsible shall ensure that the airport is compatible with
reduction in noise, air and water the development/town planning regulations/guidelines
pollution of the region. It is essential that the community in the

surrounding areas and the ecology of the environment are
● Discuss waste management and
least impacted due to the airport without sacrificing the best
energy management
possible conditions for the airport.
● Describe zoning of land around the
airport In the current scenario, airports have become the catalysts
● Know LEED certification and airport for regional economic development and are an integral
carbon accreditation part of the city development programme. The location, size
and configuration of the airport has a significant impact on
residential, industrial, commercial, agricultural and controls should be implemented both inside and
other land uses of the area. The environmentalists outside the airport.
study the impact of an airport on people, flora,
fauna, water courses, air quality, soil pollution and In order to learn local and global impacts of
other facets to ensure minimal impact. pollution, it is important that the entire aviation
industry endeavors to control impact on the
environment. This includes the management of
Land-use Planning
noise, air pollution, climate change, water use and
Land-use planning or planning for compatible effects on communities surrounding the airport.
land uses that take airport growth demands into
consideration, more accurately characterizes the As pollution may harm both the environment and
process of developing an optimal relationship human health of the surrounding region, efforts
between an airport and its surroundings. should be done to avoid pollution. Airports'
environmental effect is controlled by authorities,
The automotive sector has been sensitive to public who steer airport activities in the aim of eliminating
concern about environmental protection, and as a pollution at the source or limiting the potential
result, an increasing emphasis on the need to utilise for negative environmental consequences.
effective strategies to mitigate such consequences Air and water quality norms, aviation engine
is being examined. As pollution may be created noise limitations, waste management plans,
both within and outside an airport, environmental environmental emergency plans, and environmental
2 Land Use, Environmental Control & Zoning

management plans are all required controls. and incorporation of technological advancements
the capacity of the airport can be enhanced,
Airports strive to have a low environmental effect thereby eliminating the need for more infrastructure
by integrating environmental management plans (runway, stands, terminal building area) requiring
and processes into land-use planning. Historically, land.
environmental management has focused on pollution
abatement or control by identifying methods to Concerns for an airport operator are about
dispose of trash once it has been generated. the construction activities and development
Organizations have lately shifted their attention to happening around the airport from the compliance
pollution prevention, which focuses on minimizing or to OLS since they should not become an obstacle
eliminating the need for pollution control. which may pose limitations to operations. However,
the following should also be a concern for the
Through effective planning operational procedures airport due to development around the airport:

Environmental Effects of Aviation take off to avoid flying over thickly populated
Activities and Control Measures area or buildings like hospital, school, etc.
and modification of engine thrust settings for
Aircraft Noise
certain operational phases.
Noise is likely the most important kind of pollution ● Use of electric powered Ground Power Units
created by aircraft operation, owing to turbo-jet (GPUs) and Pre-Conditioned Air (PCA) to be
type aircrafts that have too large a body, and is planned and incorporated in the design and
thus a key issue affecting land-use planning around thus avoid using Auxiliary Power Units (APU)
airports. Aircraft noise is the most major source of powered by aircraft engine when the aircraft is
negative community reaction to airport operation parked in the apron.
and growth.
● Engine testing at the airport considerable
noise and hence, properly located engine run
Control Measures
up bay is required to minimize the impact
1. Through certification, operational means and
● Configuration of apron should be planned with
scheduling:
power in and push back of the aircraft from the
● Aeroplane acoustics certification involve apron and thus avoid power out of aircraft
measuring the noise level of an aircraft at three
2. Other measures are:
defined reference points.
● Pro-active noise control measure is achieved
● Designing flight path, particularly approach and

through land use planning which is described ● Ground transport from the airport to the city and
subsequently in this chapter. back, as well as cargo transit and generators
delivering electricity to the airport.
● Planting trees may screen the noise from
certain areas. However, the trees selected
Control Measures
should match with the weather conditions at
the airport, have sound insulation properties, ● The certification process for aircraft engine
not increase bird activities, easy and in emissions.
expensive maintenance, and ability to grow ICAO
● continues to develop international
with water from sewage treatment plant. standards, guidance material, and technical
● Sound proofing or acoustic treatment of documentation as appropriate for the needs of
buildings protects the occupants of the the international community.
building affected by aircraft noise. Buildings ● Technological innovations in aviation continue
may be soundproofed to protect the occupants to lead the way towards effective and efficient
against excessive noise levels. measures.
● Similar to noise reduction, APU is not used till the

Air Pollution Control
aircraft is pushed back on apron taxiway, instead
The following factors have an impact on air quality use of electrically operated GPU and PCA while
around airports: the aircraft is parked at the apron.
● Aircraft engine emissions and Vehicles utilized ● CFC free refrigerants for HVAC chillers and FM
at the airside for GH services: baggage carts, 200 and other clean agents are used as fire
passenger/crew buses, and vehicles used extinguishing agents.
for operations like as facility inspections and
● Reducing emissions from airport operations
maintenance.
vehicle:

○ Reduce the number of vehicles on airside, for Passenger transport or airport staff transport: To
example more PBBs, less remote stands reduce dependence on taxis and private vehicles,
○ Ensuring preventive maintenance of equipment use of public transport is encouraged. Airport
and vehicles and fuel-efficient vehicles operator can work with the Government for the
implementation of high-speed road network
○ Alternative fuel to diesel powered engines
connecting city to airport, for example a dedicated
○ Optimum speed (airside vehicles are normally elevated corridor. Some airports operate bus
fitted with speed governors for safety purpose) services from airport to parts of the city. High
○ Avoid idle running of vehicles stopped for speed metro rail connectivity from airport to city is
operational reasons for more than a certain another option for mass transport.
time
Water Pollution
● Transport of bags/cargo to and from aircraft to
terminal building by battery operated vehicles Water pollution can result from direct or indirect
instead of diesel engine powered. discharge of substances into the aquatic
environment.
● Aviation fuel hydrant system instead of using
bowsers.

workshops and activities that are likely to
influence water quality are to be located outside
zone of a drinking water source. This includes
the treated water from the oil water separator
mentioned above.
● Sewage generated from the airport will be treated

with sewage treatment plant and the treated
water be used either for flushing or landscaping.
● Water quality after the treatment shall be

monitored frequently to ensure compliance to
Control Measures
local regulations.
● Surface run off water from the apron, runways
and taxiways, maintenance workshops etc.
where the water would have been contaminated Waste Management
with oil contents will be passed through lined
Waste management is concerned with the reduction
drains orpiped drains to an oil water separator.
of both hazardous and non-hazardous wastes.
The output water from the oil water separator,
after the removal of the oil contents, can be Airports generate enormous volume of solid
pumped into the ground through recharge wells wastes from the operation, and it is evolving into
(rain water harvesting structure). a great challenge for the airports to comply with
Fuel
● storage tanks, aircraft hangars and environmental regulations.

toners, containers which contained toxic chemical
substance, and sludge generated from sewage
Control Measures treatment plants that exceed the limit set by the
● Waste minimization regulations. These wastes are to be transported
using accredited agencies for this purpose and
● Reusable- Example, reusable containers
disposed in compliance with the regulations.
Waste
● Segregation- Three bin system-
biodegradable, non- biodegradable, recyclable
Energy Management
● Waste Storage and Disposal- For example, sludge
from sewage treatment plant that passes the Following are some of the current best practices
standard can be used as fertilizer. Food waste while planning the system:
can be composted and then used as fertilizer.
HVAC
Hazardous wastes
Air conditioning chillers are the major power
Hazardous wastes generated are from medical consumers in the entire system. Therefore, the
wastes, used engine oil, used engine filter, fused chiller selection shall be made after careful studying
lamps, electronic items, printer cartridges, inks and the following details:

High efficiency chilled water pumps can be system to conserve power and ensure that lighting
selected to suit the varying load conditions of the is operated only when required. Public spaces
areas. Cooling towers can be of high heat rejection like toilets, corridors etc. can be equipped with
capacity in the range available with aero foil fan occupancy sensors.
blades. AHU fans of electronically commuted
drives are being provided to cater for the varying Building Automation System
loads of the terminal. CO2 monitoring system can
All the systems can be operated and controlled by
be provided to regulate the fresh airflow supply
the intelligent building automation systems. The
depending on the indoor air quality. Variable air
control instruments can be installed for monitoring
volume control units can be provided in some of
and control of the key parameters of the systems.
the conditioned space to regulate the airflow based
on demand of the conditioned space. High energy
Airfield Ground Lighting (AGL)system
efficient type drive motors are being used.
Use of LED type lamps for the AGL system has
Plumbing and Drainage become popular. Based on identified taxiway routes
taxiway center line lights can be switched ON using
Water efficient sanitary fixtures and ablution taps
Individual Lamp Monitoring System (ILMS) and
with sensor control are being provided to avoid any
save considerable energy consumption for a large
sort of wastage of water. The main supply pumps
airport with multiple taxiways.
can be sised to suit the water demand and will be
provided with variable frequency drives to run at the
Renewable Energy
minimum speed based on the demand.
Solar powered plants are being installed at major
Electrical Systems airports in India. Most Indian airports using solar
power at various capacities for the day requirement.
The lighting for PTB and other buildings shall be
However, solar power plants require extensive land
energy efficient type. Light fixtures for various
and there are some restrictions like avoidance of
areas can be designed based on architectural
glare to pilots which should be kept in mind and the
requirements and energy usage. Day light can
location of the solar panels is to be approved by the
be utilized to the extent possible, where it is
CNS / ATM Provider and the Aviation Regulatory
appropriate. Considerable part of lighting system
Authorities. Other renewable sources of energy
can be controlled through Building automation
such as wind energy and geothermal energy are
actively being considered at various airports
globally.
Control and Monitoring
During the airport operation the energy consumption

needs to be monitored area wise and compared
with the previous readings and take corrective

action if there is any abnormal increase. Energy and no operational limitation is imposed. It also
reduction targets are to be set on yearly basis and ensures there are no abortive works like relocating
suggestions from all departments obtained which certain existing facilities. The desired goal is to
can then be analyzed. The suggestions which do minimize any environmentally or ecologically
not compromise operational efficiency or safety sensitive development close to airports, while
and with cost benefit analysis are taken up for allowing for other productive uses of the land.
implementation. Another objective is to inform the public about the
height restrictions around the airport at different
Environment and Social Impact Assessment locations up to certain distance from the airport.
E&S Impact Assessment for the airport development

AAI website provides the zoning map for most
is undertaken meeting all relevant rules and
of the Indian airports. Before the proponent of a
procedures; and include (without limitation) the
new building or structure applies for No Objection
following:
Certificate (NoC) to AAI, they themselves can
● Seismicity do a preliminary review with the zoning map for
● Liquefaction and ground settlement permissible height at the location the building or
structure is being planned.
● Terrestrial and aquatic
● Hydrology (flooding) Development/Construction Related Issues

● Contamination of water
Water pollution during the airport construction is
● Noise and vibration due to the activities like clearing, grubbing and pest
● Air quality control of the land. Similar to during operations,

fuel spillages from construction equipment and
● Local employment
vehicles like trucks etc. can cause sub-soil water
● Institutional and heritage pollution. When the airport is developed with airfield
● Traffic disruption pavements and buildings the natural drainage
pattern changes and may flood at the downstream
● Disruption of utility systems
which previously had less water in flow and may
cause some to have lesser flow.
Zoning of Land
Zoning of land has been effective in regulating the

development of the airport and its surroundings.
The objective of zoning of land, in and around
the airport is to ensure that whenever the airport
is developed, it meets the traffic growth with
additional infrastructures, the development
meets or exceeds the initial planning principle
like environmental protection, complying with all
regulations, safety of operations is not hampered,

Some airports' locations may conflict with the considerations for airport operating safety. Bird
shorelines of rivers, lakes, and the sea. Planning dangers at proposed new airports can be reduced
such airports should take into account potential by carefully selecting a location that avoids known
environmental issues such as water currents, silt bird migratory routes and regions inherently
deposits, affects on marine or fresh water life, and appealing to birds, as well as by using the land
marine or stream erosion. surrounding the airport for uses that do not attract
groups of birds.
The usage of land for airport purposes can also
have an impact on flora and wildlife. Clearing and In terms of these environmental issues, airport
cutting back of trees and other vegetation, changes development is no different from any other major
to the terrain of the land, and interference with building site. In many nations, the subject is
watershed patterns are all common aspects of addressed by general legislation on building site
airport construction activities. planning and development. An environmental
analysis is done, and an Environmental
The presence and behaviors of birds in the region, Management Plan with mitigation strategies for
as well as the risk of aircraft bird strikes, are key building operations is produced.

Certification of Airports for Clean building (not specific to airport) like hotel, office
Environment or Better Environmental complexes and airports included.
Control
Airport carbon accreditation recognizes and
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
accredits the efforts of airports to manage and
(LEED) Certification
reduce their carbon emissions. Green house gas
This certification provides Green Building Rating emission can be better managed if the airport
System provides a benchmark for the design, operator understands the source of emission and
construction and operation of high-performance estimates the quantities and identify to whom
green buildings. these are attributable.
It is a certification program focused primarily on Accordingly, emission sources at an airport are

new, commercial-building projects and based upon classified into three scopes:
a points system. The more points the building
earns, the higher the rating. There are four levels Scope 1- Emissions directly attributable to the
of certification viz. Platinum (more than 80 points), airport operator and over which they have control.
Gold (60-79 points), Silver (50-59 points) and Examples are; Power supply generators using
Certified (40-49 points). LEED certification is very diesel engines (even though used as a standby
popular for airport design and specified as one of source of power), emission due to airport vehicles
the key performance indicators for the design / using diesel or petrol, fuel used in fire training.
development of the airports.
Scope 2- Indirect emission and not under the
Certification is a onetime process based upon control of airport operator. An example is for the
a onetime review, similar to obtaining building use of electricity by the airport, the supply company
plan approval / permit. However, Operations & generates electricity using generators, away from
Maintenance of the buildings can also be certified the airport, which contributes to the emissions. The
for LEED and the certificate is valid for 5 years airport is responsible for such emissions.
and requires to be reapplied for certification after
this period. This certification is applicable for any Scope 3- Emission due to the airport tenants and
stakeholders for the use of electricity or other
polluting activities by them and emission due to
aircraft operations. Examples are emissions due
to aircraft operations called LTO cycle (Landing,
takeoff), vehicles used by the airlines, tenants and
other stakeholders. Transport used by the staff and
passengers including mass transport like bus and
train are also included under this scope.
An inventory can be prepared for the emission

sources as above and once those are mapped,

goals can be set to reduce, optimize and finally
make it carbon neutral. This can be incorporated
as a part of airport planning and development so
that the design incorporates features required for
the accreditation. During operations these can be
monitored and improved further.
ACI has published a self-contained Excel Spread

Sheet with which an inventory can be prepared.
This tool is known as Airport Carbon & Emissions
Reporting Tool (ACERT).
Airports Accredited for Neutrality
Carbon neutrality was achieved by 44 airports until

now. In the Asia-Pacific region there are currently
6 accredited airports, representing 4.7% of air
passenger traffic. Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and
Mumbai airports are accredited for neutrality out of
6 airports in Asia pacific region.
Summary
● Environment is a vital element in terms of every
development process.
● Environment has a major impact planning.
● Land use plan, environmental control and zoning

are crucial from the conceptualization stage of
the airport.
● There are several control measures for reduction

in noise, air and water pollution.
During
● the airport operation the energy
consumption needs to be monitored area wise
and compared with the previous readings and
take corrective action if there is any abnormal
increase.
● Waste Management and Energy Management

plays an important role in airport planning.

Unit 9
Airport Capacity
and delays

By the end of this unit, you will be Capacity of the airfield is specified in terms of maximum
able to: number of Air Traffic Movements (ATM) that can be handled
● Describe airfield and terminal and capacity of PTB is specified in terms of number of
building passengers that can be handled. Generally, the capacity

of the airport is specified in terms of maximum annual
● Learn capacity increase by
passenger numbers the facilities can handle, which is easily
maximizing the utilization of assets
understood by public. For planning purposes, the most
● Know ATM procedures and capacity appropriate capacity that needs consideration is the number
increase of ATM that can be handled in one hour to ascertain airfield
● Identify A-CDM; benefits and capacity and similarly number of passengers that can be
implementation procedures processed in PTB in one hour. The landside capacity in terms
of approach roads and vehicle parking slots shall match
● Explore PTB capacity enhancement
with the capacity so arrived with airfield and PTB. Thus, for
through self-service technologies
planning purposes there should be a match between airfield
● Know ongoing research projects on capacity, PTB capacity and landside capacity.
ATM procedures
2 Airport Capacity and delays
1. Single runways runways (V-shape). Depending on the wind, only
one runway may be operational at any one moment.
These runways are made up of one long runway
that is utilised for both takeoffs and landings.
Single runways, which can accommodate up to Outcome
100 incoming and outgoing aircraft per hour, are
Due to traffic volume during peak hours at big
common in tiny regional airports.
airports, taxi times may rise, resulting to late arrival
times. It also demonstrates that shorter taxi rides
2. Intersecting runways
to terminals lead to improved traffic flow and
This runway design consists of two or more performance. However, the data utilised is based
intersecting runways. They are employed in places on a single military airport with a dual, single
with high winds and little room for growth. The runway arrangement. In this scenario, one runway
objective is to always be able to use one of the is positioned to the west and near to the terminal,
runways regardless of wind direction. significantly cutting taxi times. The other runway
lies to the east, further away from the terminal, and
3. Parallel runways is solely used for take-offs. These findings do not
apply to bigger commercial airports. According
There is more than one runway in this layout, and
to Kennedy's research, no specific runway layout
they are all at the same angle.
would aid to improve airlines' on-time performance
4. Open-V runways statistics for new airport constructions seeking to

service more than 0.05 percent of yearly passenger
This runway design consists of two non-intersecting

boarding events in the United States. to climb exponentially. When demand exceeds
capacity, an excess of aircraft awaits service that
Defining Delay is precisely proportionate to the excess of demand
over capacity.
Delay is simply defined as "the time it would take an
aircraft to be served without interference from other
aircraft and the actual time it takes the aircraft to Air Traffic Movement
be served" (FAA 1973). Delay is the primary metric
The capacity of the airfield depends particularly
of service degradation induced by congestion and
on the runway that determines the number of Air
may be thought of as the common currency in
Traffic Movement (ATM) it can handle, which can
which other service degradations are exchanged.
be specified for one hour and from there computed
As congestion worsens, for example, separation
for one day and then on an annual basis. For
rules might be viewed as a mechanism of turning
example, the runway capacity can be specified as
an undesirable increased danger of accident into
60 ATM per hour or 900 ATM average per day and
the less serious deterioration represented by delay.
annual 300,000 ATM. To handle 60 ATM in one-
hour, sufficient number of aircraft stands should
When two or more aircraft attempt to utilise the same
be available. The terminal building capacity and the
runway, taxiway, gate, or other airside facility at the
city side facilities like access roads, car park etc.
same time, delays develop. One must wait for the
shall also be designed to match with the airfield
other to be accommodated. If all airport customers
capacity. Since the airfield capacity is in terms of
requested service at regularly spaced intervals,
the ATM, this should be converted to passenger
the airfield could accommodate them at a rate
numbers which depends on the seating capacity of
defined merely by the time it took to transfer them
the various aircrafts (fleet mix) which will operate
through the facilities. Aircraft, on the other hand,
through the airport.
arrive and depart at a relatively random rate, which
implies that delays can occur even when demand
For example, terminal building of 70 million
is low in comparison to capacity. Furthermore,
passengers, indicates this airport can handle 70
when demand approaches throughput capacity,
million passengers in one year. The annual capacity
the possibility of simultaneous need for service
then shall be related with daily capacity or peak
grows fast, causing the average delay per aircraft
hour capacity. Out of these two, peak hour capacity
is the one which will determine how much and what
resources and facilities are required to handle that
many numbers of passengers passing though the
airport in one hour.
Peak hour capacity: The throughput passenger

numbers vary from time to time during the 24 hours
operations. At one or more hours in 24 hours period,
the throughput will be maximum and this or these

hours are called peak hour(s) and the passenger ● Sufficient number of RET/ exit taxiways from
numbers during this or these peak hours should runway to parallel taxiway and their locations
be the basis for determining the resources and ● Additional Holding positions
facilities that are needed at the airport. The peak
● Aircraft fleet mix
hour numbers are not really the highest peak but
for example 30th busy hour numbers as explained ● ATS procedures and restriction if any in the air
later in this unit. space
● Arrival / Departure ratio

Airport Capacity will be determined with the airfield
● Aircraft performance- Runway Occupancy time
capacity first, as beyond certain number of ATM per
hour it is not practical to increase the same. Let us
The passenger numbers are directly related to the
see the airfield capacity.
ATM at the particular period of time. The air traffic
movement has two components viz. number of
Declared or theoretical airfield capacity: Airfield
aircrafts and the seating capacity of the aircrafts
capacity i.e., number of ATM that can be handled in
constituting these movements.
one hour is dependent on the following:
● How many runways are available- Single runway 11 to 15 hours out of 24 hours a day is considered
or multiple runways. Separation distance in the as a thumb rule, as if for the remaining hours there
case of multiple runways is zero traffic. However, practically three to five
● Availability of parallel taxiway (s) times peak hour traffic may happen in 24 hours and

remaining time the traffic will be less than the peak 2. During the slot allocation, additional traffic
traffic. More than two or three consecutive peaks demand should be met with additional aircraft
normally results in delays which has a cumulative movements in the period other than peak hours.
effect on subsequent hours of operation. This is called de-peaking. Assuming additional
aircraft movements in the non-peak hours, this
will increase the passenger throughput.
Actual Traffic Handled
3. Increase the peak hour ATM from the existing
Assuming that the actual traffic handled is 45
50 ATM. Analysis including simulation tools
million with 50 peak hour ATM for 4 times in 24
is used to evaluate the airfield capacity that
hours. To increase the annual capacity the options
could be achieved with or without additional
available are:
infrastructures or with modified air traffic control
1. Extract the passenger throughput in the 24 hours procedures etc.
operation. Consider the passenger throughput is
4. Increasing the ATM with additional infrastructure
as shown in figure below:
is considered only when it is confirmed that it
is not all possible to increase the capacity with
The theoretical capacity was arrived at with 100%
the present infrastructure. Similarly, for the
load factor which will not happen at all the times
PTB capacity assessment, simulation tools are
for all the aircrafts. So, you can see from the actual
available to evaluate the capacity (peak) with
the existing layout and facilities. This also can
suggest with some reconfiguring the existing
facilities if it is possible to increase the capacity
without expansion of the PTB.
It is noteworthy to mention that additional runway

or extension to PTB requires substantial capex and
increases the operating cost.
Figure: Passenger Throughput
through put that there are 4 peak hours with 50 On Time Performance (OTP) of Flights
ATM but throughput passenger capacity is 9000
against 11000 that was considered in the capacity Flight schedules are published twice in a year-
calculation. The reason is due to the passenger load summer and winter. Airlines publish the flight
factor which will not be 100%. Another possibility is scheduled in terms of Scheduled Time of Arrival
that the actual fleet mix could be different than the (STA) and Scheduled Time of Departure (STD). On
assumed fleet mix. Time Performance (OTP) of the airports/ airlines is

obtained by comparing the actual flight times (ATA
You can also see there are many hours where the and ATD) with STA and STD. A flight is considered
ATM and corresponding passenger numbers are as delayed when the Actual Time of Arrival (ATA)
less, therefore demand is less than the capacity or Actual Time of Departure (ATD) is more than the
during these hours. Scheduled Time of Arrival (STA) or Scheduled Time

of Departure (STD) respectively by 15 minutes. ● Airlines wise OTP
Number of flights operated ‘On Time’ to the total ● Specific time of consistent delays at a particular
flights operated during the period is the OTP time or day
measure of the airport/airline.
● Theoretical capacity versus Actual capacity at
the peak hours and the reasons thereof based on
The reasons for the departure delay could be for
the assumptions for the theoretical and compare
one or more of the following reasons:
it with actuals.
● Demand is close to or more than the capacity
● The process causing delay.
● Delayed arrival from the previous sector
● Airlines related- Cabin crew/cockpit crew non- Based on the analysis and identifying the reasons
availability at the last minute, technical glitch, for the corrective action to be taken by the airlines,
delay in passenger boarding/baggage loading airport operator and ANS providers.
● Aircrafts queuing up for departure and or many

arrivals, traffic congestion Importance of OTP
● Weather related- poor visibility, storm
Poor OTP means:
● Fleet mix
● Airport resources and facilities will be stretched-
congestion in the terminal, apron stands and in
The reasons for the arrival delay could be for one or
airspace.
more of the following reasons:
● Airlines operating cost increases due to more
● Demand is close to or more than the capacity
fuel consumption, more aircraft idle time.
● Delayed departure from the previous sector
● Passengers poor rating of the airlines/airports.
● ATC procedures related due to restriction in
● Loss to airlines, if the passengers miss the
airspace
connecting flights.
● Aircrafts queuing up for arrivals, traffic congestion
● Cumulative effect of delay throughout the day for
● Aircraft related- fleet mix, more runway occupancy that particular aircraft.
time by the preceding aircraft
Airport
● related- inadequate number or
inappropriate location of exit taxiways, non-
availability of parallel taxiway- these all result
in more runway occupancy time for the arriving
aircraft.
If there are consistent poor OTP, then it is essential

to identify the specific reasons and pattern of the
delays. Analysis may include:

Better airstrip and capacity planning will enhance
air traffic control. More precise take-off time
forecasts will assist the Network Manager in
making more exact network demand projections.
This improved flow and capacity management will
lead to better ATFM (Air Traffic Flow Management)
slot allocation, more compliance, and fewer missed
slots.
The Ground Handler will gain from having more

precise arrival in-block timings, as well as knowing
Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM)- when leaving aircraft have been issued start-up
(Extracted from Euro-control) permission. This results in more precise planning
and more effective resource utilization. Passengers
Airport CDM (A-CDM) attempts to enhance
will benefit from shorter wait times and fewer
the overall effectiveness of airport facilities by
missed connections. Restoration will be faster
improving resource utilization and enhancing event
following interruptions. In addition, more precise
predictability. It focuses on aircraft turn-around and
information for arrivals may be given to flight
pre-departure sequencing operations in particular.
information display systems and service desks.
Increased predictability may benefit all major airport

Along with increased predictability, airport CDM
and network operations by increasing productivity
provides several other benefits to airports, such
and cost-efficiency.
as reduced environmental impact and improved
turnaround planning, to mention a few.
Benefits to Airports
● Airport operators will gain from this. A-C DM Airports in Asia
● Fewer late stand changes result from better ● Incheon(Seoul)/South Korea

usage of stands/gates. ● New Delhi
● More predictable traffic flows and shorter taxi ● Mumbai
times result in fewer runway lineups and less
● Bangalore
congestion on the apron or taxiways.
● Changi/Singapore
Given that you will receive more precise aircraft ● Hong Kong
arrival timings and improved exit sequence
● Pudong/Shanghai/China
information, you will have a better understanding
of the status and position of your aircraft. Fuel ● Kunming/China
burn will be decreased as a result of waits at the ● Guiyang/China

runway threshold, which has both environmental
and economic advantages.

ATC Procedures Maximizing the Use of
the Existing System Capacity
Separation distances between the two aircrafts viz.
two arriving aircrafts, two departing aircrafts, also
limit the capacity of the airfield. The separation
distance between the aircrafts is due to ’wake
turbulence’. The ‘wake turbulence’ is the effect of
the rotating air masses generated behind the wing
tips of large jet aircraft. Wake turbulence separation
minima are based on a grouping of aircraft types
into three categories according to the maximum
certificated take-off mass as follows:

The following distance-based wake turbulence
separation minima is applied to aircraft being
provided with an Air Traffic surveillance service in
accommodate demand and build even greater
the approach and departure phases of flight in the
resilience into their operations.
defined circumstances.
The current categorization means that separations

Euro Control Study between individual aircraft could be larger than is
necessary to ensure safe separation. For example,
With demand for air travel forecast growing, new
when the smallest aircraft in the ‘Heavy’ category
and innovative ways are required to help airports
is followed by the largest aircraft in the ‘Medium’
category.
The simulations have studied the potential for

refining the separations between departing aircraft
by switching from these broad categories of aircraft
to individual ‘pairwise’ separations, where the safe
separation between departing aircraft is calculated
based on the wake vortices created by each aircraft
type.
The simulations have also explored how different

weather conditions might alter the dissipation of
wake vortices. For example, strong crosswinds
which might help clear the invisible turbulence
more quickly, potentially enabling a reduction in
safe separations in certain conditions.

The European Wake Vortex Re-categorization
(RECAT-EU) is a new, much more exact aircraft
classification than the previous ICAO classification.
It intends to increase airport capacity in a safe
manner by redefining wake turbulence categories
and their related separation minima. It subdivides
the current Heavy and Medium categories and adds
a new Super Heavy category for the Airbus A380.
European Wake Vortex Re-categorization will

improve safety and capacity, perhaps reducing
airport delays dramatically. It delivers spacing
The simulations focusing on how this is much more accurately and efficiently, and it
implemented at London Heathrow Airport have protects extremely small or ICAO-rated medium
the potential to be reproduced at other congested aircraft better.
airports around Europe. The simulations are part of
the SESAR 2020 programme’ s 'Increased Runway
Increasing the PTB Capacity
and Airport Throughput' component, which is the
second phase of the major public-private European Waiting time for the processes and hence, the
R&D project aiming to modernize Europe's airspace queuing and area required can be optimized by
management in order to safely handle predicted automating the processes.
expansion.
Airports are increasingly turning towards self-
NATS, the United Kingdom's top provider of air service technologies to meet the rising passenger
traffic management services, has introduced the expectations and in turn reduce the manpower
world's first completely systemized Optimized cost.
Runway Delivery (ORD) technology, which is
expected to enhance punctuality at the country's Number of traditional check-in counters is reduced,
biggest airport. with a greater number of hand baggage only
passengers either using boarding passes printed
The Enhanced Time-Based Separation (eTBS) tool at home/office or boarding passes in their smart
employs the most recent European wake vortex phones, or printing the boarding passes at the
classifications (RECAT-EU) for both arrivals and self-check-in kiosks at the airport. This reduces
departures. the manpower for the check-in process and even
the space occupied by the traditional check-in
Reducing the safe separation minimum between a counters. Some of the airports have installed the
particular aircraft pair requires taking into account self-check-in kiosks on the kerb side of the PTB.
not only the wake vortex formed by the leader, but
also the resistance to it by the following aircraft on E-boarding is not only for check-in process but also
departure or final approach.

for security check and used till the gate boarding.
The advantage with the e-boarding in security
check is that we are informed of the particular
passenger having crossed the security check. With
manual checking this would not have been possible.
Similarly, using e boarding at the gate automatically
updates the passenger status as boarded.
E-gates for immigration process is also getting

popular and being employed at the airports. See
the image of these gates (from one manufacturer)
which is fully automatic including facial recognition
and occupies little space. Many airports have e
gate immigration system.
Figure: E-gates for Immigration

Self-bag Drop- This may not reduce the counter
space but avoids the check-in agent’s presence for
traditional counters. That means more capacity.
each counter. Bag drop queue time is estimated to
be 30sec to 60 sec against 120 sec to 150 sec in
Security Check Screening Process- Automatic tray
retrieval systems provide a controlled entry and exit
and subsequent optimization of imaging and x-ray
machine performance at the security check point.
These technologically advanced lanes ensure
easy loading and unloading of hand baggage.
These lanes also increase throughput by avoiding
repetitive and time-consuming manual handling of
trays by check point personnel. Technology is being
developed to integrate the x-ray machines and
configure for remote screening.
Figure: E-gates for Immigration
Figure: Smart Lane

Figure: Self-check-in Kiosks (From M/S Arinc)

Summary
● This unit explains the Airport Capacities.
● Capacities increase by maximizing the utilization

of assets.
● The different ATM procedures and capacity

increases.
● The benefits and implementation procedures of

ACDM.
● With demand for air travel forecast growing, new

and innovative ways are required to help airports
accommodate demand and build even greater
resilience into their operations.
● Separation distances between the two aircrafts

viz. two arriving aircrafts, two departing aircrafts,
also limit the capacity of the airfield.
● The separation distance between the aircrafts is

due to ’wake turbulence’.

Unit 10
Airport Operations –
Part 1

By the end of this unit, you will be The objective of airport operations is to provide efficient,
able to: comfortable, convenient and reliable services with highest
● Learn operational areas from standards of safety and a secure environment. The services
terminal to airside and others are to passengers as well as to airport stakeholders such
as airlines and government authorities performing sovereign
● Describe ground handling
functions.
operations
● Know AOCC, SOCC- purpose and Given sustained growing air traffic, high passenger
benefits expectations, concentration of movements and
● Explain commercial management infrastructure improvements trying to catch up with the
and engineering maintenance traffic growth, operational efficiency is an important aspect.

Other challenges are to optimize the operating cost and
● Understand aerodrome emergency
improving the revenue from non-aeronautical assets.
planning
In general, broad roles and responsibilities of airport of these functional areas. For example, for
operations include: terminal operations the actual delivery (values)
of service quality parameters (as a part of
● Resource allocation, monitoring & managing-
an agreement with the government or derive
Resources includes not only manpower, but also
their own). The monitoring frequency may vary
the facilities. For example, allocation of boarding
depending on the parameter itself
gates, apron stands, baggage carousels, check-
in counters. Manpower allocation is based on ● Safety compliance – monitoring and alerting the
queuing time, congestion, etc. team in case of non-compliance
● Monitoring key performance indicators for each ● Routine checks of the terminal areas to ensure all
2 Airport Operations – Part 1

normal and in case of abnormal situation initiate operations will be carried out by airlines. For
corrective action example, ground handling operations, which is
explained in the later part of this unit similarly,
● Identify important observations during each
sovereign functions are performed carried out
shift and highlight positives and areas of
by the respective government authorities like
improvements
Immigration. The airport operator monitors the
● Daily reports based on the prescribed format
performance of these functions to ensure flow is
including incident reports and corrective action
efficient, and the service quality parameters are met.
taken or on going
For example, finding a prompt solution to correct
● Performing contingency measures or operational reasons for congestion when the queuing time is
instructions based on Standard Operating very high and informing the concerned agency to
Procedures (SOPs) and suggest improvements man more counters and find out what challenges
required in the existing SOPs or for additional they face and finding solutions to correct these as
SOPs quickly as possible or reasons for such situation.
Manage
● emergency situations- accident,
incidencts related to aircrafts or buildings- for Airport Operations Control Center
example fire, earthquake (AOCC)
● Ensure security program is implemented
In the modern airports, the resource allocation
● Familiarization training to new joiners and the monitoring are carried out in a centralized
location called Airport Operations Control Center
Some of the functions in terminal and airside (AOCC).
It is a dedicated facility which provides operational

situational awareness and promotes collaborative
decision making among the stakeholders involved
in the operations.
AOCC has a centralized airport operating system

that combines IT systems spread across the airport
campus which puts all the required information at
the AOCC Manager’s desk. As the system captures
real-time data from the various stakeholders, it thus
allows for more proactive and informed decision
making.
Entire terminal building, land side and airside is

covered through CCTV cameras and the image
are projected in the individual works stations area

and can be verified before the landing aircraft is
informed of the stand number. Similarly, the live
streaming of CCTV images of various operational
areas within the terminal building enables the
operators and AOCC manager to identify any
abnormal queuing in a process or even an incident
or unserviceability of any equipment which
impacts standard operations.
Security Operations Control Center

(SOCC)
Figure: Typical View Inside the AOCC Similar to AOCC, from the SOCC the entire airport’s
security status can be viewed using CCTV camera
wise as well as certain areas on a big screen often images. This will be managed by the authority
called video wall for the AOCC manager to monitor. responsible for aviation security. In Indian airports,
For example, apron stand allocation and boarding CISF manages this facility on 24X7X365. The
gates allocation are shared with ATC and airlines CCTV coverage includes airside, perimeter fence,
one day in advance, based on the flight schedule. landside and terminals. Any abnormality can be
From the AOCC the real time availability of the observed remotely and intrusion or other unlawful
aircraft stands at a particular time as planned interference can be prevented.

Summary
● The objective of airport operations is to provide
efficient, comfortable, convenient and reliable
services with highest standards of safety and a
secure environment.
● The services are to passengers as well as

to airport stakeholders such as airlines and
government authorities performing sovereign
functions.
● In the modern airports, the resource allocation

and the monitoring are carried out in a centralized
location called Airport Operations Control Center
(AOCC).

Unit 11
Airport Operations –
Part 2
Learning Objectives Terminal Operations

By the end of this unit, you will be As described above, the functions of terminal operations
able to: primarily involve facilitating the passengers, airlines, ground
● Describe terminal operations handlers and members performing sovereign functions.
● Learn airside, landside and safety

Terminal operations includes:
operations
● Explain engineering maintenance
● Know aviation safety

Management of retail and F&B passenger ● Left luggage handling
facilitation involve: ● Way finding signage
● Portering option ● Adequate seating
● Flight information ● Cleanliness of the PTB especially washrooms,
● Airport information counter baby care and changing rooms
● Availability of baggage trolleys ● Services for PRMs

PTB Actual Level of Service (LoS) in Terms of such improvement, particularly infrastructure
Waiting Time and Space Per Passenger improvement, is required immediately or requires
planning for implementation within a time frame.
LoS concept was explained in Unit 5, with three
If one parameter is optimum and another one
service levels viz. over design, optimum and
is suboptimum, there is a need to consider
suboptimum is based on two service parameters.
improvements which could involve operational
During operations the actual values of these
process, queuing configuration etc. When both the
two parameters in various processes can be
parameters are suboptimum it requires immediate
measured and improved based on which process
intervention like additional counters to improve the
requires improvement. Also, what infrastructure
LoS parameters.
or process improvement is required and whether

Airside Operations ● Ensuring marking, lighting, and signage
Airside operations team ensures the following and ● Implement and monitor access control to airside
these are majorly related to aviation safety and like airside entry pass, airside vehicle permit
hence their role is very significant: system, airside driver’s licensing system, etc.
● Compliance to ICAO SARPs in respect of ● Monitor vehicular movements in the operational
operation and maintenance of facilities area and identify and improve if any safety issues
● Runway and airside inspections to identify for Maintaining

● communication protocol with
example FOD (Foreign Object Debris) various stakeholders
● Airside vehicle permit and airside driving permit- ● Inspection programs and airfield pavement
process, ensure safety compliance condition reporting
● Cleaning of drains ● Aircraft fuel handling management
● Bird management, maintaining grass level
● RFF operational readiness, availability of

extinguishing agents
● Navigational aids and visual aids- availability,

flight check and ground check
● Airfield pavement surface condition monitoring
● Apron management
In order to ensure safety some of the core elements

of operation and maintenance are: Figure: Security Operations
Figure: Airside Operation

Security Operations ● Protecting the landside
● Managing passenger flows for security

Security operations at an airport is also an extremely
● Surveillance equipment and lighting
important function of the airport operation due to
the security related incidents in the past and threat ● Perimeter protection
perception. ● Patrolling
● Access control
Security department functions includes the
following: ● Airport entry pass management, credentialing,
and background checks
● Preparing an airport security programme
● Assessing threats, risks and vulnerabilities The passenger screening, airside patrolling are
● Making use of information and intelligence sovereign functions where the security personnel
are deployed by the government. The Airport
● Protecting assets
operations team ensures sufficient personnel,

Figure: Security Check – Passengers and Handbags
deployed for effective functioning. In India, training, safety awareness/ campaign are taken
BCAS is the regulator for aviation security and care by safety team.
formulates policies and procedures and monitors
the implementation at airports, whereas CISF is Landside Operations
the implementing agency at the airports. BCAS
Landside Operations team oversees Airport’s
provides training and certifies the X-ray baggage
ground transportation services to ensure
screeners to be employed at airports.
passengers transport needs are catered for by
reducing the wait time at the kerb when travelling
Aviation Safety from airport to city and reduce congestion at the
departure kerb side when passengers alight from
Aviation Safety team is responsible for preparing
the vehicle to the terminal.
Safety Management System (SMS) manual
and implementation of the same. They ensure
The landside security is usually manned by the
safety compliance. State Safety Plan defines the
airport operator for enforcing traffic compliance.
safety performance indicators and targets for
The land side security team also protects the
these indicators. Airports are to ensure these
property and ensures prevention of any untoward
are achieved. Daily monitoring of airside safety,
incidents on the landside.

Landside Operations function includes: and importance of non-aeronautical revenues
was explained. In view of this, a separate function
● Traffic monitoring and discipline
for maximization of revenue from commercial
● Safety compliance
activities is important for better focus.
● Enforcement of road traffic regulations as
applicable The key objectives of the functions are:
● Monitor taxi service in terms of availability to ● Determine the airport’s position in the airport
minimize waiting time for arriving passengers. landscape
● Speedy clearance of vehicle at the departure kerb ● Formulate a comprehensive commercial strategy
to avoid congestion to boost non-aeronautical revenue
● Availability of baggage trolleys ● Evaluate new and alternative revenue streams
● Report law and order issues, if any, to the police ● Monitor the revenue on monthly basis like Spend
per Passenger or revenue per passenger using
● Maintenance of landscape
Electronic Point of Sales for automatic capturing
of the sales
● Carry out bench marking of the innovative ideas

from other airports
● Suggest alternative models for rental of space
● Identifying more commercial opportunities like

Offices, convention center, hotels, etc.
In order to meet the objective of maximizing

revenue from commercial assets the following sub
functions are created:
Figure: Car Park and Forecourt at Hyderabad

Airport
Airport Commercial Operations

The airport business model has undergone a
massive transformation after increased private
sector involvement in airport development and
operations. Today’s airports are expected to finance
the infrastructure development, while keeping
airport charges in check and increasing commercial
activities and making them more profitable. In the
chapter on airport revenue and costs, the necessity

Engineering Maintenance serviceable for approach lights, runway edge and
end lights. Also, to ensure continuity of guidance
The upkeep of the systems is vital in the functioning
adjacent light failures is not permitted and if failure
of the airport. Various maintenance and operational
is observed the system is unserviceable even
best practices ensure the upkeep of the systems
though it meets the 85% serviceable lights. For Cat
for efficient functioning of the airport. Specialized
II and III operations more stringent requirement will
systems such as AGL, baggage handling and
be applicable.
security systems impact the very functioning of
the airport. The maintenance team to ensure the
Two categories of Maintenance-
system and equipment are available and serviceable
1. Preventive Maintenance (PM): is carried
and comply with service level agreement or as per
out as per the periodicity prescribed by the
SARPs. This is covered in Unit 16 ‘Performance
manufacturers or based on industry practice.
measurement of airports’ with target values as per
Taking out the facility or the system from service
the agreement. For certain systems and equipment,
may affect the operations at least on large
the target values are specified in ICAO SARPs.
airports. The shut down for maintenance are
Maintenance aspect of the airfield installations is
slotted and agreed with various stakeholders to
discussed in above chapters. For example, for Cat
reduce the impact of the non-availability of the
I operation all runway and approach lights shall be
systems. For this, it is essential a preventive
serviceable and at least 85% of the lights shall be
maintenance schedule is prepared system

wise or equipment wise with date and timings mitigations for the non- availability of the system/
in consultation with the operations team. Such equipment should be available and the team has
schedule can be finalized one week or even one familiarization to the SOPs.
month before. The maintenance and operations
team should ensure the schedule is followed Beyond the basic maintenance types above,
and the maintenance team should be prepared predictive maintenance can be carried out based on
with adequate manpower and spares. They monitoring actual values of certain parameters like
should also have a list with checks that are to temperature, pressure monitored and determine
be performed and parts that are to be replaced whether the equipment is performing normal or
system/ equipment wise. Such preventive requires intervention.
maintenance check list is prepared for all system
and equipment. In the case of airfield installations Maintenance performance can be evaluated
including pavements maintenance shutdown is with actual versus targeted ‘Mean Time between
taken once in a week or once in fortnight for two Failures (MTBF)’, ‘Mean Time to Repair (MTTR)’,
hours, depending on the requirement based on Serviceability and Availability.
number of aircraft movements, and maintenance
carried out like removal of rubber deposits on Strategy for maintenance can be either:
the pavement, inspection of pavement surface ● Fully outsourced and only managed by the airport
condition and repair if required, AGL fixture operator
cleaning, change of fused lamps or other failed
● With in-house team- Normally this is for systems
components, repainting the pavement marking,
where special skills are not required, others
cleaning of the pavement to remove debris,
outsourced.
cleaning of drains, grass cutting, substation
maintenance are some of the maintenance
Outsourcing contract can be either on
activities.
comprehensive maintenance including manpower
2. Breakdown Maintenance (BM): is taken up when and spares or only man power outsourced and
the system or equipment cannot be put into spares provided by the airport operator.
operation and taken out of service for repairs.
Such breakdowns are to be analyzed including Outsourced contracts will mandate delivery of the
whether it is a repetitive failure and whether service levels of the equipment and system, in
preventive maintenance was carried out. terms of MTTR, MTBF, Serviceability and Availability
Breakdown can be minimized if the performance including PM.
parameters of the equipment or system can
be monitored while in operation, abnormality
Support Functions
observed and corrective action taken before it
breaks down. Support functions that are required for the efficient
management of the airport depends on the airport
When the maintenance is carried out, Standard size
operating Procedure (SOPs) describing the
● Purchase department – Responsible for

procurement of systems and services. ● Public relations – To implement the public policy
measures within the airport organisation.
● Finance – For managing the revenues and
expenditure. ● Marketing – Focus on air traffic improvement,
working with airlines to bring in additional routes,
● Legal – For legal aspects of the land, agreements
increased frequencies on existing routes, higher
and other governmental.
capacity aircrafts. Increasing non-aeronautical
● Admin – For facilitating the support functions
revenue through commercial activities.
and operational functions.

Airport Emergency Planning exceptional situations at the airport, as well as
coordinating the plan with local authorities. The
Airport emergency planning is the method of
airport should also be in charge of assigning
equipping an airport to deal with an event that
emergency personnel and equipment provided by
occurs at or near the airport. The goal of airport
all relevant agencies and agencies, as well as giving
emergency planning is to reduce the effect of an
full aircraft/airport crisis services and healthcare
incident, especially to save lives and ensure safe
help. At the airport, an incident management or
aircraft operations. The airport emergency response
crisis management center, similar to AOCC and
plan outlines the methods for synchronizing the
SOCC, will be constructed, with communication
response of several airport agencies (or services)
capabilities such as hot lines and so on.
as well as agencies in the surrounding community
that may be able to assist in responding to the
disaster. Once a year, such emergency preparedness Ground Handling
methods are put through a mock drill.
Ground handling is defined as services necessary
for an aircraft’s arrival at, and departure from, an
An emergency operations plan's objective is to
airport, other than air traffic services.
guarantee that there is, transitioning from regular
to emergency operations in a timely and effective
Passenger services at the terminal building are:
manner, airport emergency authority delegation,
responsibilities in an emergency, key staff approval ● Check-in and issue of boarding pass after
for activities outlined in the plan, coordination of verification of passenger identity
emergency response efforts, Safe continuation of ● Hold baggage check-in and safe handling of the
aircraft operations or as soon as feasible return to same including protection of the baggage after
regular operations. the security screening, segregation of baggage
for the respective flights and storage till loaded
The airport operator is accountable for creating in to the aircraft
emergency plans and procedures to cope with
● Transport of baggage from the terminal building
in baggage make up area to the aircraft through
containers and loading into the aircraft and the
equipment needed for these activities
● Reconciliation of passenger and their baggage
● Flight status announcements, boarding gate

manning and managing passenger boarding
processes- either through PBB or through bus
transfer for remote parked aircraft
● Loading the arriving bags at the arrival carousel

for passengers to collect their bags
● Managing mishandled bags at the arrival hall

Aircraft related services at the apron/ramp are:
● Arranging all resources and equipment needed

for arriving aircraft
● Marshalling of arriving aircraft into apron stand

(if VDGS is not provided)
● Ensuring the apron stand is clear of any

obstruction (vehicle, staff movement etc.) stand till apron taxiway when aircraft is on its
own power.
● Once the aircraft is parked in the stop position
securing the aircraft with chokes
The services that are required to be performed for
● GPU, PCA connections an aircraft on apron and time required for these
● Offloading of baggage services are given in the technical manual published
by the airplane manufacturers for each aircraft.
● PBB docking to aircraft
● Cleaning the aircraft including washrooms The servicing requirement and timing for the
● Arranging for refueling of aircraft (fuel loading is activities are given in figure below for A 330 aircrafts
the responsibility of the fuel supplier/operator) by airbus industries.
● Arranging for F&B loading (F&B loading is carried

For A 330 all the servicing activities can be
out by the in-flight catering service provider)
completed in 59 min. The timings mentioned are
● Services for departing aircraft from the apron on the basis of some assumptions for each of the
activities. For example, refueling certain quantity at
certain pressure. Hence, the actual time may vary
depending on the operating personnel performance
and availability of servicing equipment.
TRT: 59 min
Figure: Servicing Requirement for A 330 aircrafts Figure: Servicing Activities for A 330 Aircrafts

Summary
● The objective of airport operations is to provide
efficient, comfortable, convenient and reliable
services with highest standards of safety and a
secure environment.
● The services are to passengers as well as

to airport stakeholders such as airlines and
government authorities performing sovereign
functions.
● This unit deals with various operational areas

from terminal to airside and others.
● Handling operations under airport planning are

also studied.
● The purpose and benefits of AOCC & SOCC.

Commercial management, engineering
maintenance and aerodrome emergency
planning is also studied.

Unit 12
Airport Operating
Revenue and Cost

By the end of this unit, you will be This unit deals with classification of revenues. It also talks
able to: about airport charges. The ICAO principles and the necessity
● Classify revenues for economic oversight are also discussed below. There are
different operating expenses and what various approach for
● Know the airport charges- the ICAO
the determination of airport charges. The revenues and cost
principles and the necessity for
are very important factors in the study of airport planning.
economic oversight.
● Learn operating expenses

Revenue
● Learn various approaches for the
determination of airport charges Airport revenues are from providing aeronautical services,
CNS/ATM services, air navigation services and from
commercial activities within the terminal building like retail,
lounges, F&B, offices, etc. and commercial activities outside
the terminal building but within the airport boundary like
hotels, office complex, convention centers, SEZs, etc.
Aeronautical charges are regulated either by The fee charged by the airport for these services
regulators or in the absence of the regulators by the are described below:
government. In India, AERA regulates aeronautical
charges for major airports (airports handling more 1. Passenger Service Charge or Fee
than 1.5 million passengers per annum).
This is collected from the passengers for using the
terminal building and other passenger processing
Aeronautical charges for non-major airports and
facilities. In India, this fee has two components
ANS charges are regulated by the government.
– one for the airport operator for the passenger
facilitation and the second one for the security
Aeronautical service means any service provided
services being provided. The PSC or PSF is paid only
(as per AERA Act)
by the departing passengers. This fee is charged
1. For air traffic management navigation, per passenger and collected by the airlines when
surveillance, and supportive communication the passenger books the flight. The concerned
2. For aircraft landing, lodging, or parking, or any airlines deposits back the PSF collected to the
other ground facility provided in connection with respective airport. In some countries this is paid
aviation operations at an airport directly to the airport operator by the passenger
when they check-in at the airport. Collection of PSF
3. For airport ground safety services
at the airport mean separate counters, man power
4. For airport ground handling services including and checking of the passengers before boarding
aircraft, people, and cargo to ensure they paid the PSF. Collection as part of
5. For an airport's cargo facility the airline ticketing and reconciliation between the
airlines and airport operator avoids the hassle to
6. To provide fuel to planes at an airport
the passengers. The airlines are paid a collection
7. For a stakeholder at a terminal, the Authority may
charge for the PSF collected –either as a percentage
decide the charges, in the view of the Central
of PSF or a flat rate per passenger.
Government, for reasons to be stated in writing.
2 Airport Operating Revenue and Cost

Exemption from paying PSF can be specified by the 3. Airfield Lighting Charges
regulator. For example, Crew on duty is exempted
This is payable by the airlines for the use of airfield
from paying PSF.
ground lighting- approach, runway, taxiway lighting,
etc., provided this is not part of landing / take-off
2. Aircraft Landing/Take-off Charges
charges.
This is payable by the airlines for using the airfield
infrastructures. Either a landing or take off will be 4. Aircraft Parking Charges
considered as one movement for the purpose of
This is payable by the airlines for the use of apron.
the charge. The charges are based on the Maximum
Charges per aircraft, is based on MToW of the
Take- off Weight (MToW) of the aircraft. See the
aircraft, and number of hours of parking for the use
example below:
of apron for parking the aircraft.
Up to 40,000 Kg: Rs 3.00 per 1000 Kg per hour
40,001 to 100,000 Kg: XXXXXXXXXXXXX
Above 100,000 Kg: XXXXXXXXXXXXX
In India, up to 2 hours the parking charges are

not levied. Beyond this free period, for the first
two hours the parking charges as above will be
levied. Subsequent to the paid first 2 hours, the
charges will be doubled. The charges are same for
contact stand and remote stand. Part of an hour is
considered as one hour.
Night parking charges is normally half of the

normal charge if there are stands available in the
night. Particularly when nearby airports have more
demand than supply for night parking.
For the parking of aircrafts in hangars (which is

called housing charges) there are no free parking
hours and charges could be different than parking
in passenger aprons depending on the demand.
Cargo Charges
Cargo charges and all other cargo-related charges

Organization (ICAO) recommends that discussions
be held on any expenses that need to be collected
from users.
Emissions-related Aircraft Charges
This airport fee is intended to alleviate Local Air

Quality (LAQ) issues at or near airports. Although
a range of technological and operational methods
are being used to reduce some pollutants released
by aircraft engines that influence LAQ, some states
may choose to implement emissions taxes to
address LAQ concerns at or near airports. Costs
expended in mitigating or avoiding the problem may
or fees charged for the usage of the airport's freight-
be ascribed to airports and recovered from users at
processing systems and regions. If the airport
the discretion of states. States have the freedom
itself operates the cargo facility, cargo handling
to choose the manner of cost recovery and pricing
charges will be applicable If the cargo operation is
that best suits their needs.
outsourced to a third party, there will be a fee levied
by the airport operator to the cargo operator based
on per MT of cargo handled. Fuel Concession Fees
Refueling of aircrafts at the airport is carried out by
Ground Handling Charges
specialised companies handling aviation fuel. The
If airport operator provides the ground handling infrastructure required for refueling includes:
services, the airport will charge the airlines for the
● Bulk storage of the fuel (7- 15 days depending on
services provided based on the agreement between
the source location of fuel)
airlines and the airport. If the airlines carryout self-
handling or through ground handling companies, ● Required number of refueling bowsers if fuel
the airlines pay a fee to the airport. hydrant system is not installed
● If hydrant system is installed at the apron stands,

Noise-related Charges fuel storage tanks with pumping system, fuel
hydrant pits and valves at the apron and required
Airports may incur costs for noise control measures
number of refuellers
to reduce noise effect, even when newer aircrafts
are calmer than older ones. ICAO advises that
Normally, the airport operator charges the refueling
expenses incurred in adopting such safeguards be
agency a charge called ‘throughput’ charges, which
allocated to airports and collected from users at
is per KL of fuel used for refueling the aircrafts.
the discretion of states. States have the freedom
to choose the manner of cost recovery and pricing
In India, the fuel throughput charges are regulated
that best suits their needs. If noise-related costs
by AERA.
are to be imposed, the International Civil Aviation

Aeronautical and Non-aeronautical Revenues
All the above charges have been considered as

aeronautical revenues for the airport. However, concessionaire's act of delegation or leasing out
some of these particularly ground handling, cannot alter the colour of income from aeronautical
cargo and fuel concession fees have been service to revenue from non-aeronautical service.
treated as non-aeronautical revenues in some of Hence, interpretation of aeronautical and non-
the concession agreements. ICAO (Doc 9562) aeronautical revenues should be based on the
classifies ground handling concession fee and description as per concession agreement and
aviation fuel concession fee as revenue from non- regulatory guidelines.
aeronautical services. Whereas a tribunal while
deciding the airport charges gave a judgment The importance of classification of revenues
that merely appointing a third party to conduct viz. aeronautical and non-aeronautical will be
a task would not change the classification of understood in the subsequent paragraphs while
service from aeronautical to non-aeronautical. The describing the determination of airport charges.

Air Navigation Service (ANS) Charges
Air navigation services are supplied during three
major stages of flight: movements at and around
the airport (aerodrome control), approach and
departure of aircraft (including initial rise and
descent) (approach control), and en-route, and
hence prices for these three periods are set.
In terms of this price, the approach and take-off

operations are treated as a single service.
Summary
● Airport revenues are from providing aeronautical
services, CNS/ATM services, Air Navigation
Services and from commercial activities within
the terminal building like retail, lounges, F&B,
offices etc. and commercial activities outside the
terminal building but within the airport boundary
like hotels, office complex, convention centers,
SEZs etc.
● If airport operator provides the ground handling

services, the airport will charge the airlines for
the services provided based on the agreement
between airlines and the airport.
● Airports may incur costs for noise control

measures to reduce noise effect, even when
newer aircrafts are calmer than older ones.

Unit 13
Airport Operating Revenue

and Cost– Part 2

By the end of this unit, you will be Non-aeronautical revenues are an important part of an
able to: airport's income statement and, as a result, its bottom line.
● Understand revenues from non- These types of revenue also have larger net profit margins
aeronautical services than aviation sales. Non-aeronautical revenue sources

not only diversify airport revenue streams, but they also
● Learn costs for the operation,
provide as an additional buffer during economic downturns.
maintenance, and management
It also includes leasing earnings from office and building
● Know IATA, ICAO and ACI position accommodations on airport property. Other small non-
for such approaches aeronautical revenue streams may include charges for third-
● Describe Development Fee (DF) party employee security permits, pass-through costs for
utility usage, or access charges for public transportation
● Explain economic oversight and its
providers.
objectives
Revenues from Non-aeronautical Commercially oriented non-aeronautical activities
Services cover a wide range. Most common services
provided at the airport are:
Non-aeronautical services include a wide range
of retail shops, F&Bs, airline lounges, hotels,
Within the Passenger Terminal Building
convention center, SEZs and other service activities,
● Restaurants, bars, coffee shops, automatic
offices and other buildings occupied by airlines and
dispensers for water/soft drinks, etc.
government authorities.
Shops for example souvenirs, handicrafts,
●
Revenues from non-aeronautical activities may medical shops
be in the form of rent per sq. mt. of built-up area
● Banks/foreign exchange
occupied by the stakeholders like offices within the
● Kiosks for taxi booking
terminal building or may be a monthly rental plus
revenue share from the business activities like ● Kiosks for car rentals
retail shops, F&B or if land is allotted to the entity, ● Advertisement signs
they pay a lease rental and the facility is developed
● Duty-free shops:
and operated by them for a period defined in the
lease agreement like hotels, convention center ○ Liquor and tobacco
etc. ○ Perfume and toiletries
2 Airport Operating Revenue and Cost– Part 2

○ Watches diesel outlets
○ Optical and electronic equipment ● Automobile service stations
● Hairdressing/barber shop ● Hotels, convention centers
● Freight consolidators/forwarders or agents ● Special economic zones
● Souvenir shops ● F&B outlets
● Airline Lounges ● Advertisement signs
● Hotels
The charges are market driven and not regulated
● Hotel reservation kiosks
but subject to compliance to local laws.
● Porter Services
Miscellaneous Revenues: These are all non-
● Tourist information kiosks
operating revenues, but earned by the company for
● Nap and Shower facilities
example by providing consultancy services to other
airports.
Outside the terminal building (within airport
boundary):
Costs
● Hangars
● Warehouses Following are the line items of the costs at an airport

for the operation, maintenance and management:
● Vehicle parking
a. Manpower Expenses (Only on the pay role of the
● Airport/city public transport services
airport operator)
● Refueling stations for vehicles- petrol/CNG/

● Staff salary and other welfare measures like ● Airport operation costs including outsourced
uniform manpower costs
● Training ○ Terminal operations
● Traveling expenses ○ Airside operations including safety
● Others ○ Landside operations
b. Operating Expenses ○ ARFF operations
● Repair and maintenance of ● Utilities (electricity, water consumption)

charges
○ Buildings
● House keeping costs (cleaning and janitorial)
○ IT system
● Security cost (landside and other than aviation
○ All other system & equipment
security)
○ Landscaping
● Fuel cost
○ Airfield pavements and AGL
● Vehicle maintenance
○ Utilities system and equipment
● Others
○ Spare parts cost

c. Administration Expenses established by ICAO in the field of airport and air
navigation service prices. The three fundamental
● Insurance
concepts are summarized as follows:
● Advertisement
● The use of airports and air navigation services
● Business promotion/event management
in a contracting state by aircraft from all
● Rent other contracting states is subject to uniform
● Taxes (other than corporate tax) conditions.
● Audit fee ● A contracting state's charges for the use of such

airports or air navigation services should not be
● Office expenses- printing and stationery,
greater for aircraft from other contracting states
communication, etc.
than for national aircraft engaged in equivalent
● Collection charges international operations.
● Community development ● No contracting state shall levy a fee merely
● Conveyance for the right of transit over, entrance into, or
departure from the territory of any contracting
● Others
state's aircraft or persons or property on board.
d. Consultancy Expenses and Professional Fee These principles intend that a state should not
The expenses mentioned above from a to d can charge only for giving permission for an aircraft to
be for aeronautical, non-aeronautical and air operate into, out of, or over its territory. However,
navigation services and hence, each line item is states have complete authority to collect the
to be apportioned to the three classifications of expenses of providing airport and air navigation
services. infrastructure and services through user fees.
Article 15 of the convention on International Civil ICAO Doc 9562- Airports Economic Manual and
Aviation (Doc 7300), often known as the Chicago ICAO Doc 9082 ICAO policies on charges for airports
Convention, expresses the basic principles and Air Navigation Services, provides adequate
guidance on the charges for these services.
The Basis for Airport Charges

In general, if an airline is open to international
traffic, it is ideal that consumers ultimately bear
their full and fair share of the cost of providing
services at the airport. It is also vital that airports
maintain records that provide sufficient information
for both airports and users, and that the facilities
and services connected with airport services be
identified as clearly as possible. Airlines must

maintain accounts that provide a sufficient basis ● The allocation of expenses to various types of
for analyzing and allocating recovered expenses, users, including State aircraft, should be done in
publish financial statements on a regular basis, an equal manner. No user should bear costs that
and provide appropriate economic information to are not correctly allocated to him in accordance
customers during consultations. with solid accounting standards.
● The capacity of users to pay should not be

The following factors should be considered when
addressed until all expenditures have been
determining the cost basis for airport charges:
thoroughly examined and objectively distributed.
● The price to be assigned comprises the whole At that time, the individual states' and
cost of supplying airline services and significant communities' contributing capacities should be
ancillary services, as well as appropriate amounts examined, with the knowledge that any State or
for cost of capital and asset depreciation, as well charging authority may collect less than its full
as maintenance, operation, management, and expenditures in recognition of local, regional, or
administration. national advantages acquired.
● Airplane owners and other airport users, including ● At the State's discretion, costs directly connected
end-users, should not be taxed for facilities and to oversight duties (safety, security, and economic
services that they do not use and that are not monitoring) for airport services may be included
included by the regional air navigation plan. in the airport's cost base.
● Only the cost of general facilities and services

utilized by international air services should be
included; the cost of facilities or premises that
are explicitly leased or occupied and billed
separately should be excluded.
● Cost allocation for government authority' use of

space or facilities should be examined.

The cost basis for air navigation charges: Similar IATA Position
principles as that of airport charges mentioned
IATA supports the single till concept, which
above.
considers airport non-aeronautical earnings
to counterbalance aeronautical expenses. The
Three approaches for the determination of
single till method is justified by IATA because
airport charges: The charges for the aeronautical
there is an interdependence between the
services (airport charges) will be decided based
passenger airlines transport to airports and the
on cost recovery principles for the services
non-aeronautical revenues (e.g., retail, parking)
provided. The operating cost mentioned earlier
they create for airports. As dual till may result in
is for three services viz. aeronautical services,
higher aeronautical charges, it may not only have a
non-aeronautical services and air navigation
negative influence on air traffic development, but it
services. So, the line item of each cost has to be
may also need complicated and thorough cost and
split into three parts by allocating the costs. There
asset allocation between aeronautical and non-
are three approaches to consider the revenues
aeronautical. Because airlines transport people
earned through non-aeronautical services while
who utilise airport establishments and add to their
evaluating what should be the aeronautical
profit, it stands to reason that airlines should gain
revenue to comply with cost recovery principles.
economically from airport commercial activity. A
The approaches are:

single till helps both airlines and their customers, as
well as airports, allowing them to make a fair rate
of return on their activities if they operate properly.
ACI Position
The dual-till method guarantees that revenue from

the aeronautical side of the business is used for
aeronautical spending, while non-aeronautical
income is used to fund non-aeronautical
expenditure and to make up company profits. ACI
does not support the single till method (in which activities are the principal mechanism by which
all airport revenues are immediately included for airports adopting single-till or hybrid-till may recoup
determining airport charges). By include non- their entire expenses, because gains from these
aeronautical income in the cost basis for airport non-aeronautical activities more than compensate
charge calculations, the airport corporation is shortages in airside operations.
artificially constrained. In order to reach respectable
returns, the airport must thus depend substantially A difficult balance must be struck, taking into
on non-aeronautical revenue. It also offers an unfair account, among other things, the fact that the
subsidy for aeronautical activities, which basically expansion of non-aeronautical earnings should not
amounts to a subsidy for airlines. jeopardize safety or security on airport land and
premises, and that an airport's principal duty is to
A dual-till structure also permits the 'monopolistic' enable air traffic.
component of an airport's business, the provision
of basic aeronautical operations, to be controlled The fees are determined by the market and are not
while allowing the other aspects of the business regulated, but must comply with local legislation.
to operate under regular marketplace competitive
norms.
Development Fee (DF)
The New Civil Aviation Policy in India mandates a The Development Fee (DF) is used to subsidize
hybrid till method, with 30% of non-aeronautical or finance the costs of upgrading, expanding, or
earnings to be included while determining developing the airport. The price may also include
aeronautical rates. the cost of establishing and developing a new
airport.
ICAO Policies for Non-aeronautical Charges
The ICAO's charge policies acknowledge the The DF levy is considered only in circumstances
continuous significance of non-aeronautical and for a time in which an airport's goal income is
income and support for its full expansion. It should predicted to fall short of the allowable expenditure.
be highlighted that earnings from non-aeronautical DF might be used as a revenue-boosting tactic to
ensure the airport's economic survival.

Under the PPP model, the Concession Agreements by providers, as well as, to the greatest extent
for the two Greenfield Indian airports call for a possible, agreement with users on key projects
DF levy on departing domestic and international that will be pre-funded.
passengers, as well as the provision of traveler
● Consumers will benefit from lower costs and
facilities, services, and facilities, with the DF being
a smoother transition in price changes for a
utilized for the advancement, strategic planning,
brief time after new facilities or equipment are
upkeep, function, and growth of the airport's
installed.
infrastructure.
Similar to Airport charges, DF is decided by AERA

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
based on the justification provided by the airport and
recommends the following project prefunding
inputs/comments obtained from the stakeholders
requirements (Doc 9082):
and its own assessment. There is a clearly specified
mechanism in AERA Act for the collection of the DF
Pre-funding of projects through fees should
by the airport, by maintaining an escrow account,
never be used to recover the costs prior to the
draw down schedule etc. For further reading refer
installation of new airport or air navigation facilities
to AERA Act. The airport charges are continuous
or infrastructure, but it may be approved in specific
in nature except the charges may vary every year
cases where this can aid in financing long-term,
(but decided for a 5-year period as per AERA Act),
large-scale investment, provided strong controls
whereas the DF will be only for a limited period
are in place, including the following:
depending on the funding requirement.
● Economic control of charges and associated
service delivery that is efficient and transparent, AERA regulates the airport charges and DF only
including performance management. for major airports in India (handling more than 1.5
mppa), these charges for non-major airports will be
● Complete and transparent accounting, with
approved by the Government.
assurance that resulting expenses are and will
remain earmarked for civil aviation services or
Similar to PSC, DF is also collected by the airlines
projects.
while the passenger purchases the flight ticket
● Prompt, transparent, and extensive consultation
and airlines in turn transfer the amount collected
to the airport operator on monthly basis. Airlines
may charge collection charges from the airport
operator as per the agreement between the airlines
and the airport operator. Collection of DF directly
by the airport operator from the passengers while
boarding improves its cash flow but increases
its administrative expenses (collection staff,
accounting, ensuring payment by all passengers)
and hassle to the passengers in queuing and
waiting to make payment.

Other Charges point-to-point, short-haul services, particularly
those offered by low-cost carriers, are examples of
Common Infrastructure charges like passenger
airport competition (LCCs). These, however, do not
boarding charges, it system usage, airport entry
diminish the need for economic supervision, unless
permit processing fee etc. Passenger Boarding
the mechanism of the oversight differs. Market
Charges can be either per passenger or per flight.
conditions and levels of competition may differ
between airports within a state. Even in competitive
Economic Oversight marketplaces, airports' emphasis on competition
and cost reduction might have a detrimental
ICAO (Doc 9562) defines economic oversight as
impact on the interests of particular user groups.
the role by which a state regulates an airport's
Furthermore, commercialization and privatization
commercial and operational operations. Given the
may have diminished airports' understanding of,
potential for airports to misuse their dominating
and adherence to, states' international duties, such
position, the state is responsible for the fiscal
as ICAO's pricing regulations. As a result, the state
monitoring of their operations. This is accomplished
has sole responsibility for adhering to ICAO-SARPs.
by doing the following:
Objectives of Economic Oversight

Consultation with the users- Airports consult with
users that appropriate performance management Economic monitoring works best when airports
systems are in place. are given clear objectives and incentives to offer
services in the most cost-effective and high-quality
Price regulation– In view of monopolistic nature manner possible. The following objectives highlight
of airports. Meaning limited competition between possible areas of need for adequate economic
airports in attracting airlines or passengers. oversight:
● Reduce the possibility of airports engaging in

Commercialization and privatization have
anti-competitive behavior or abusing whatever
increased competitiveness and commercial
dominating position they may have
pressure on airports. Lengthy hubs competing
for origin-destination and transfer traffic, various ● Guarantee non-discrimination and transparency
airports in a city if functioned by different entities in charge application
competing for the same routes, smaller non- ● Ensure that capacity investments are cost-
proximate airports actively competing to attract effective in meeting current and future demand.
The primary goal of economic monitoring should be

to strike a balance between the interests of airports
and ANSPs, including government-operated
providers, and public policy goals such as, but not
limited to, the following:
● Reduce the possibility of airports and ANSPs

engaging in anti-competitive behavior or

exploiting whatever dominating position they
may have.
● Ensure that charges are applied in a non-

discriminatory and transparent manner.
● Ensure that capacity investments are cost-

effective in meeting current and future demand,
and
Protect
● passengers' and other end-users'
interests.
Summary
● Airport revenues are from providing aeronautical
services, CNS/ATM services ANS and from
commercial activities within the terminal
building like retail, lounges, F&B, offices, etc.
and commercial activities outside the terminal
building but within the airport boundary like
hotels, office complex, Convention centers, SEZs,
etc.
● Similar to airport charges, DF is decided by

AERA based on the justification provided by the
airport and inputs/comments obtained from the
stakeholders and its own assessment.
● In general, if an airport is available for international

use, it is preferable that the users eventually
carry their full and fair portion of the expense of
providing services at the airport.
● It is critical that airports keep accounts that offer

enough information for both airports and users,
and that the facilities and services associated
with airport charges are recognized as clearly as
feasible.

Unit 14
Private Sector
Participation in Airports

By the end of this unit, you will be Most of the airports were owned and managed by
able to: Government till 1980 and the private sector involvement in
● Analyze private sector involvement to the airports commenced and change of ownership and
in terms of scope, risk sharing and change in management structure gained momentum from
deliverables 1990. These changes resulted in reduced government

involvement and increasing private sector involvement. The
● Learn global scenario
changes generally result in moving away from government
● Know about indian airports control and manage mention day to day operations,
development and financial management. Moving away from
government and ownership change does not mean sale of
the airport, which we will see subsequently in this chapter.
i) sovereign functions like Customs, immigration,
aviation security, etc. and
ii) ATM/CNS services: The private sector

investment includes for the capacity addition
for the total airport infrastructure as required
with specific development guidelines and are
also responsible for the revenue collection
and development of non- aeronautical assets.
The private sector takes the passenger traffic
risk and hence, they will have to work hard to
increase the traffic for business viability.
Privatization of Airports
For
● Operation, maintenance, management
Privatization of airports means either full or
and development of only the passenger
majority ownership of facilities and services by the
terminal building, city side development and
private sector. The point to note here is ownership
apron with exclusions as mentioned above.
of facilities and services, not the airport ownership.
The airside facilities will continue to be the
responsibility of the Government. The private
Private sector participation may be necessitated
sector investment includes for the capacity
due to the requirement of immediate augmentation
addition only for passenger terminal building,
of existing airports or new airports to meet with the
city side and apron infrastructures as required
traffic growth, which requires large investment and
with specific development guidelines. They
early addition of capacities. The second requirement
are also responsible for the revenue collection
could be to improve the operational efficiency,
only for the scope they are responsible and
stake holder’s management and more focus on
development of non-aeronautical assets within
business aspects of the airport, with change of
the defined land boundary. The agreement will
management structure, with new ideas and work
clearly specify the responsibilities of the private
culture. It is believed that private enterprises
enterprise and the Government. The private
are in a better position to meet the time lines to
sector takes the passenger traffic risk and hence,
complete the projects, bring in capital and improve
they will have to work hard to increase the traffic
operational efficiency. As already mentioned, the
for business viability. However, for augmenting
ownership of the assets and the land still lies with
the airside infrastructure they need to work with
the Government but the private enterprise becomes
the Government to ensure the airside infra is
the custodian of these for limited period.
augmented in alignment with traffic growth.
Private sector participation can be: ● Engage the private enterprise on a management
contract basis, meaning they will be responsible
For
● Operation, maintenance, management
only operations and maintenance of the airport
and development of the complete airport but
(as per the scope defined) and improve the
excludes
operational efficiency for which they will be paid
2 Private Sector Participation in Airports

a fee for managing the assets. Autonomy refers to the ability of airport
management to use income earned and make
One more arrangement of private sector autonomous managerial choices on matters falling
participation recently being tried is that the within the organization's charter. An autonomous
Government develops the aeronautical assets airport authority is a self-contained body formed
by its own funds and gets them in place through to operate and administer one or more airports,
a competitive EPC contract bids through with the ability to use the money generated to fund
specialized construction agencies. So, the extent of its expenditures. An autonomous airport authority
development will be as planned by the Government might be a government body, a corporate authority,
and the cost optimized with specialist’s contractors or a government-owned enterprise.
by its own bidding processes. In parallel, to
the development of the aero assets, it assigns Listed businesses airports that are owned by
the operating responsibility to a private sector publicly traded firms whose activities include
for managing the assets including operation, airport administration. These firms' shares may be
maintenance etc. The private enterprise also wholly held by private entities and traded on the free
given the right to develop commercial assets market, or the public sector or government may be
(non-aeronautical). The private enterprise collects a main stakeholder. These corporations may own
aeronautical and non-aeronautical revenues (as one or more airports.
per the responsibility matrix agreed upon). They
reimburse the actual cost of aeronautical assets Reasons for Privatization or Private Sector
developed to the Government with a predefined Participation in Airports
yearly payment and for a specified period. The ● Aside from the broader process of globalisation
Government gets back the entire investment after and liberalization of the world's economy, and
a few years. Also, the Government can specify the the push toward privatization of commercially
requirement of revenue share in addition to fixed oriented industries and services run by states or
sum of capital cost reimbursement. The traffic state-owned enterprises.
risk rests with the private enterprise. They are not
● Mainly driven by huge investment need for
responsible for the capacity augmentation unless
infrastructure improvement with development of
there is a separate agreement on this.
existing airports and requirement of new airports
to meet the demand which shows sustained
Forms of Change of Management passenger traffic growth. To meet the investment
Corporatization is the process of establishing a

legal body (a corporation or firm) independent of
the government to manage and run the airport,
either through a particular law or under an existing
general statute such as company law. Typically, the
government retains control of the firm.

needs government pass on the responsibility Each Contracting State is responsible for providing
of capital investment to the private sector. In airports and air navigation services on its territory in
addition to avoiding the budgetary support for conformity with the Standards and Recommended
the investment, private airport operator shares Practices outlined in the Chicago Convention.
revenue from the airport with the government The Convention's Articles 11 and 15 prohibit
which they can use it for social welfare measures. discrimination between Contracting States. Article
15 addresses fundamental charging concepts.
● The current approach of governments is to move
While the Convention does not prohibit states from
away from the ownership and management of
delegating tasks to private firms, it is the State's
non-core public utilities, and airports, at least
obligation to ensure that all of the Convention's
the major ones, are considered as commercial
requirements are adequately implemented. Other
entities rather than public utilities.
international agreements, such as bilateral or
● Private Sector enterprises are in better equipped
regional air services agreements, may impose
to maximize airports business opportunities and
responsibilities on a State party to such accords
thus revenue increase which can be reinvested
with respect to particular areas of airport or air
for development.
navigation service supply.
● Private sector management processes facilitate
timely delivery of the improvements and A change in the ownership and management
expansion of the airport which improves the structure of an airport or group of airports may
passenger and stakeholder satisfaction. When not alleviate all of the difficulties that an airport
capacity is created and made available, the or group of airports may be experiencing. If the
traffic growth is met and this further increases change is poorly planned, it may be detrimental in
the growth. the long run. Any change should have well stated
goals. The major goal of airports and air navigation
Airport
● charges for aeronautical services
services is to offer users with safe, secure, efficient,
are regulated whereas the revenues due to
and cost-effective services.
commercial activities are not regulated and
they are market driven. Hence, revenues due to
Form of Private Sector Involvement- Which One to
commercial activities can be enhanced to a great
Adopt?
extent with private sector participation.
This Unit discusses several ownership and
management possibilities. For worldwide
Regulatory Mechanism
applicability, there is no ideal choice. A state should
Since airports are important infrastructure, select the best alternative for it. Choosing an
frequently monopolistic in character, on which option should be done after thorough thought and
users rely heavily, regulatory bodies exist or have planning. Regardless of organisational structure,
been formed in nearly all States where privatization the State is ultimately liable in light of potential
or private participation has occurred to guarantee abuse of dominant position by airports, economic
that monopoly power is not misused, particularly in control of their activities, according to ICAO's policy
the case of aeronautical charges. on charges in Doc 9082. (Doc 9082). It is likewise

underlined that at whatever point an autonomous Certification of Aerodromes (Doc 9774).
entity is laid out, whether by an administration or by
confidential interests, the State should guarantee
Airport Ownership – Global Scenario
that all pertinent commitments of the State
determined in the Chicago Show, its Extensions, As per ACI’s report, as on year 2016, private sector
and air administrations arrangements are met, as participation is seen in nearly 600 commercial
well as that ICAO's strategies and practices are airports and nearly 4300 are either owned by
followed (Doc 9082). States ought to guarantee that government or government entity.
air terminals going through possession and control
structure changes are dependent upon certification With only 14% of airports with private sector
procedure as per the Principles and Suggested participation, these airports handle 40% of global
Practices in ICAO Extension 14 - Aerodromes, traffic. Out of 100 busiest airports, 46 % have private
Volume I - Aerodrome Design and Operations, to the sector participation. These show that large volume
Chicago Convention, as well as other appropriate airports are with private sector participation.
ICAO guidelines, and as outlined in the Manual of
In terms of type of private sector participation, Airport Ownership in India

majority of airports are under concession (41%),
Majority of airports in India are owned by either
24% on free holds, 24% are leased airports and only
Central or State Governments.
9% on management contracts.
Airports are operated as under:

As per the ACI report, airports with private sector
participation invested 44% of global capital ● Airports Authority of India- There are nearly 95
expenditure in year 2014. airports in addition to Defence airfields as below
● By Defence – 86 airports. Out of 86, nearly 25

airports AAI operates terminal building, city side and appropriately addressed while drafting the
and apron stands and CNS services in some terms and conditions for change of custodianship
airports. particularly to private sector (either under
concession or lease or management contract for
● By Joint Venture (JV) Companies – 4 airports
operation, management etc. and Government retain
viz. Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru and Hyderabad.
the ownership of the land and the assets):
For these airports Operation, management and
development Agreement (OMDA) / Concession ● Assets handed over as they are; the new entity
agreement signed between AAI and the JV. The is responsible to assess the present condition
duration of the concession agreement is 30 years and undertakes to ensure the performance of
during which the JV is responsible for operation, the asset (equipment) or replace at its cost.
management and development of the airport. Responsibility matrix between Government and
Under this PPP model two more airports are the new entity with clearly defined scope on day-
under development viz. Navi Mumbai and MOPA to-day operations, maintenance, development
(2nd airport for Goa). and management.
● Nagpur airport is a JV between MADC and AAI. ● Existing staff-conditions of employment with
the new entity, responsibility for their retirement
● By State Governments & Private Companies –
benefits, salary & other benefits, etc.
13 airports. These are controlled or public use
aerodromes. Implementation
● of effective corporate
governance, formalizing links between the
● By State Governments & Private Companies –
airport(s) and the government, especially
130 airports. These are uncontrolled or private
the military establishment of an economic
use aerodromes.
supervision framework.
● Cochin International Airport Limited (CIAL)
Establishment
● of appropriate performance
operates the airport. CIAL is a one-of-a-kind
management systems with clearly defined
business founded with equity contributions
parameters for monitoring and mitigations if the
from the Kerala government, NRIs, industrialists,
specified performance is not achieved
financial institutions, and airport service
providers, with over 18,000 NRI owners from 29 ● Period of concession, lease or management
countries. The state government owns the bulk contract.
of the company.
Development
● guidelines and operation &
maintenance guidelines.
For establishing 14 green field airports in-principle
approval has been given. ATM/CNS services are
provided by AAI for all the Indian airports, including
airports with private sector participation, AAI also
provides ATM/CNS services for the aircrafts over
flying Indian Airspace.
Some of the issues/matters need to be considered

○ Terms and conditions for hand back to the
Government on completion of the agreement
period.
Summary
● This unit dealt with various types of private sector
involvement in terms of scope, risk sharing and
deliverables.
● It talks about the role of government in giving the

controls in private hands.
● Most of the airports were owned and managed

by Government till 1980 when the private sector
involvement into the airports commenced and
change of ownership and change in management
structure gained momentum from 1990.
● Private sector participation may be necessitated

due to the requirement of immediate
augmentation of existing airports or new airports
to meet with the traffic growth, which requires
large investment and early addition of capacities.
● Different reasons behind privatization are also

studied in this unit.

Unit 15
Certification of Aerodrome
or Licensing of Aerodrome

By the end of this unit, you will be States are required by ICAO Annex 14 to certify aerodromes
able to: utilized for international operations under an acceptable
● Know certification of aerodrome, regulatory framework. According to the guideline, ICAO
initial certification Annex 14 requires states to approve public-use aerodromes

through an acceptable regulatory framework. According to
● Describe licensing of aerodrome
ICAO, such regulatory framework must involve the creation
● Explain the scope of licensing, of criteria and processes for airport certification.
aerodrome manual, initial
certification
Scope of Licensing
● Know the process of issuance of the
certificate The certification scope includes all applicable criteria from
ICAO Annex 14/DGCA CAR as well as any extra requirements.
○ operations with reduced visibility
○ compliance with applicable laws of the Safety

Management System (SMS).
Prior to awarding the aerodrome licence, the

licensee must submit an aerodrome manual
providing information on the aerodrome in the
manner prescribed in rule 81 of the aircraft rule
1937 as part of the licensing procedure.
The certification scope includes at least the

Scope of the Aerodrome Manual
following subjects:
The aerodrome manual includes all of the necessary
● Conformity of the airport infrastructure with the
material to define the management and operational
applicable rules for the operations planned to be
organisation. It is the method through which all
served by the airfield,
airport operating personnel are thoroughly aware
● When relevant, the operational processes and
of their safety obligations and responsibilities,
their day-to-day implementation concerning:
including information and instructions on the
○ aerodrome data collection and reporting subjects stated in the relevant rule. It details the
○ gain entry to the mobility zone aerodrome's services and amenities, as well as all
operating regulations and any limitations.
○ aerodrome emergency response plan
○ examine the moving area The aerodrome handbook must have the following
○ upkeep of the mobility area parts, as well as some of their requirements:
○ snow and ice control, as well as other ● The contents of table,
dangerous climatic situations ● List of corrections/amendments
visual
○ aids and electrical systems for ● List of recipients,
aerodrome
● Aerodrome administrative data includes an
○ safety during aerodrome works organisational chart as well as the safety
○ rescue and firefighting (RFF) obligations of the aerodrome operator.
○ apron management ● Aerodrome description, including maps and

charts.
○ apron safety
● The aerodrome's physical features, as well as
○ vehicles on the movement area
information on the RFF level, ground aids, primary
○ wildlife risk management and secondary electrical power systems, and
○ obstacles major obstructions,
○ the removal of a crippled plane ● All deviations from the civil aviation authority-
2 Certification of Aerodrome or Licensing of Aerodrome

authorized regulatory provisions, as well as their ● An application has been submitted by the
legality and references to the relevant documents operator.
(which includes any safety assessments), ● The airport operator's manual provides all of the
● A description of the proposed operations, which necessary information.
includes: ● The aerodrome manual contains all of the
○ Critical aircraft that the airfield is meant to procedures connected to aerodrome certification
service that will be evaluated by the on-site verification
team.
○ The runway(s) offered (non-instrument,
instrument including non-precision and
Any modifications to the approved/accepted
precision),
aerodrome manual made between the time of the
○ Various runways and the related levels of certificate application and the completion of the
service, on-site verification shall be reported to the State.
Characteristics
○ of aviation activities
(commercial, passenger, air transport, cargo,
Initial Certification
aerial work, general aviation),
The aerodrome's compliance is determined by:
○ The kind of traffic allowed to use the airport
(international/national, IFR/VFR, scheduled/
unscheduled).
○ Minimum RVR at which airfield operations are

authorized.
● A description of each of the airport operator's

safety protocols for aeronautical operations at
the airfield. The following must be described for
each procedure:
○ Aerodrome operator responsibilities
○ Tasks to be completed by the airport operator

or its subcontractors
○ The means and processes required to execute

these activities, as well as the relevant
specifics such as application frequency and
operation modes
A
● description of the operator's Safety
Management System (SMS) is required
The Civil Aviation Authority evaluates the following

before approving/accepting the airport manual:

In the event of discoveries, the operator creates Promulgation of the Status of Certification
a corrective action plan outlining how to remove
The authority publishes the status of aerodrome
or reduce the results, as well as timeframes for
certification in the aeronautical information
each following step. If required, the authority may
publication, including the aerodrome name and
impose immediate appropriate measures on the
ICAO location indication, the date of certification
airfield operator until efforts are done to remove or
and, if appropriate, the validity of certification, and
mitigate the findings.
any notes.
Issuance of the Certificate The Licence issued by the DGCA is valid for two
years.
When no findings are recorded, or when corrective
action plans are accepted and mitigating measures
Continued Aerodrome Oversight
are agreed upon, the authority awards the applicant
the airport certificate. An appendix specifying Continued oversight activities are not as extensive
the necessary conditions at the airfield may be as the original certification procedure, but they
appended to the certificate. If the regulatory are intended to assure compliance throughout the
framework allows it, the authority may authorise a planning of suitable supervision measures. The
variance based on a safety evaluation. Throughout authority performs specific and targeted actions
the certificate's validity period, the authority in addition to scheduled activities, for example, in
supervises the timely implementation of corrective connection to modifications, analysis of incidents,
action plans as part of the ongoing monitoring. safety of aerodrome works, monitoring of corrective
action plans, or those connected to the State

safety plan. Depending on the airport organisation,
the authority may also address other concerns
concerning aerodrome safety, such as obstacle
control or ground handler monitoring.
Summary
● In India, DGCA CAR mandates the aerodromes
be licensed in accordance with the requirement
laid down in Part- XI, aerodrome of the aircraft
rules, 1937.
● The procedure to be followed is the same as

mentioned in ICAO, Annex 14.
● The procedure is described in Doc 9981- PANS

aerodrome.
● Licensing and certification mean the same and

both the terms will be used depending on the
context.
● An aerodrome is basically an airport which is

certified for commercial flights.
● It is to have an efficient and safe operation.
● There is a well specified procedure for the

certification of aerodrome.

Unit 16
Performance Measurement
of Airports

By the end of this unit, you will be Airport performance can be measured in terms of financial
able to: parameters (EBITDA, RoI, PAT, PBT), productivity parameters
● Know the partial factor indicators or on the service quality delivery. Also, the performance
measure parameters can be partial factor productivity
● Learn service quality delivery
performance indicators or absolute numbers. This unit talks
evaluation – objective and
about Partial Factor indicators and its parameters.
subjective parameters
● Explain rating of airports on service

Partial Factor Indicators
quality by ACI and SKYTRAX
Some of the financial parameters are:
● Aeronautical revenue/passenger
● Gross revenue/cost,
● EBITDA margin
● Non-aeronautical revenue/passenger
● Non- aeronautical revenue/gross revenue
● Operating cost/passenger
● Spend per passenger at the F&B, retail and duty-free shops
Some of the efficiency parameters are:
● Passengers per employee
● ATM per employee

● Total cost or operating cost per passenger and easy to understand. However, the measure can
● Total cost or operating cost per ATM be misleading. This is because airport operation
and business model are not uniform across the
● ATM per gate or apron stand
airports and hence, caution must be exercised when
benchmarking is used to compare the performance
Some of the environmental parameters are:
with these factors. For example, one airport may
● Electricity consumption per unit area of terminal have outsourced the ground handling services
building or per passenger and hence, the number of employees on its roll
● Water consumption per unit area of terminal will be less than an airport which carries out the
building or per passenger services through its own employees. Hence ratio of
passengers/employee of these two airports cannot
● Renewable energy produced per total electricity
be compared. Similarly, aeronautical revenue and
consumption, in number of units
non-aeronautical revenues of two airports can
be compared only when it is confirmed that the
The performance measures through the indicators
classification of services under these two heads
above are the partial productivity factors, as these
are same at these airports. However, comparing
are simple quantities or ratios. PFP measures are
with previous years for the same airport will be
easy to calculate, with limited data and looks simple
meaningful.
These absolute numbers are useful for the airport to groups viz. objective and subjective parameters.
compare them with the previous years and evaluate
their own performance. If the changes are negative, Objective parameters- These parameters will have
they can analyse the reasons for the same and take a specific target to achieve and actual delivery can
corrective measures. be measured. Some of the objective parameters
are:
Service Quality Delivery Performance

Waiting time in the queue for the process
Measures
● Check-in
The airport provides services mainly to the
● Immigration
passengers. It also provides/facilitates airlines
and stake holders to perform their functions ● Customs
efficiently. The parameters for the service quality ● Security
measurement can be broadly classified in to two
● Delivery time of hold bags at the arrival hall
2 Performance Measurement of Airports

● And soon ● Elevators
● Flight Information Displays

Availability of equipment / system
● Escalators

Subjective Parameters- The target values for these a questionnaire identifying the parameters and
parameters are not provided with absolute numbers, number of respondents among other specifics. The
as these cannot be quantified. The actual quality of ratings of the passengers for the parameters are
service delivery is obtained from the passengers perceptions which are required to be considered
and stakeholders through satisfaction surveys while structuring the survey and analyzing the
conducted periodically with clear guidelines and ratings.
The performance on the subjective parameters is Each quarterly survey at the airports will cover
to be evaluated through passenger satisfaction 350 passengers and hence, 1400 survey results
surveys which are required to be conducted and on these 34 parameters each year. The survey
results are to be benchmarked/ compared with questionnaire which is common for all the
other airports the parameters are to be the same airports and questionnaire will be completed by
for all airports being compared, the questionnaire, the passengers while they are at the airport and
the methodology, the respondent’s profile, etc. are collected by the survey staff once filled in by the
to be scientifically chosen and analyzed. Hence, passengers. This is to ensure the passengers’
this type of survey is best done by experts and an experience and satisfaction thus derived is fresh
independent agency acceptable to the airports. in their minds. The ASQ Survey questionnaire is
prepared in 41 languages.
ACI conducts a program called ASQ surveys
primarily for departure processes. The program is The key steps of the survey are as below:
based on 34 key service areas on which passengers
● The passengers are selected according to a
will be asked to rank 5 to 1. This survey is carried
sample plan to ensure statistical accuracy.
out once in quarter and results consolidated and
● On-site fieldwork survey team distributes to the
published on a yearly basis. The ASQ Survey is
select passengers at the gate hold area as the
designed with a flexibility in a way that it can be
passengers would have completed all formalities
applied irrespective of the size of the airport viz.
and awaiting boarding call.
small to large airports. Thus, it is an invaluable tool
for airports of all sizes. The airports are grouped The
● survey team collects the completed
together based on the passengers handled in a year questionnaires.
for the ranking. The groups are up to 2 mppa, 2-5, ● The completed questionnaires are sent to the
5-15, 15-25, 25-40 and more than 40 mppa.

ASQ team. the parameters to the airports and provides analysis
with other airports. With this, airports can identify
● The results are analyzed, and reports are
the specific areas for improvement that too can
distributed to all participating airports.
prioritize which affects most to the passengers. Also
For airports handling less than 2 million passengers bench marking with other airports is an opportunity
per annum, the survey is carried out twice a year. to understand how other airports do better.
This program is called ASQ Regional ACI also Passenger’s importance to the 34 parameters can
conducts the ASQ program called ‘unique’ for also be understood with the rating.
airports who wants to experiment with the survey.

Called as ASQ Unique, this is a one-time survey at ASQ Arrival Survey
the airport.
Similar to the ASQ Departure survey, ACI has recently
ACI website provides the top most rankings of commenced the survey for arrival processes i.e.
airports for all categories. ACI shares the rating of
SKYTRAX Ranking includes the complete experience at the airport

and the rating by the passengers are not done at
SKYTRAX is a UK based consultancy which runs an
the airport, it is sent through e mail to SKYTRAX.
online airport and airline review and ranking site.
SKYTRAX claims ‘The World Airport Star Ratings

They conduct online surveys on a variety of
are recognized as a global benchmark of airport
parameters related to air travel and publish yearly
standards, developed through many years of
rankings for top airports and airlines across the
professional experience and SKYTRAX specialist,
world. As it could be seen that ASQ surveys are for
qualitative knowledge of the airport industry’.
airports only whereas SKYTRAX is for both airlines
and airports. Also, ASQ survey questionnaire is for
33 parameters evaluated during the passenger
departure processes whereas SKYTRAX survey
survey are given table 1 and the 34th parameter is

the overall satisfaction score.
Summary
● The performance measures through the various
indicators. It is a critical system of management.
● Management always requires information so as

to identify the sections or areas to work upon.
● The performance of different sections is studied

critically and evaluated.
● There are a useful set of performance measures

that are applicable across the world in different
categories of airport.
● The study of different parameters is to make the

airports better in terms of facilities.

Airport Planning and Management

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Airport Planning and Management

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UNIVERSITY OF TOMORROW

Airport Planning and

Despite having a master plan, a brown field

○ Ground handling equipment workshops

● Airside: ○ Maintenance workshops and stores

○ Airfield pavements: runway(s), taxiways ○ Ground support vehicle workshops

○ Passenger terminal building(s) ○ Hotels, convention centers, logistic centers,

○ Environmental restrictions, if any, in locating ○ Regulatory guidelines like a minimum distance

It is to note that the runway pavement between

Source – ICAO- Annex 14- 7th Edition

12 Obstacle Limitation Surfaces (OLS)

Learning Objectives Introduction

● Unobstructed View of all intended areas of

Junction Level ensured.

● Object Discrimination relate to the tower

● Line of Sight (LOS) Angle of Incidence shall be

Effect of the height and location with reference to

As the Controllers view the airfield from the ATC

It may be preferable to locate the ATC tower away

Equipment Building and Office

Meteorological Equipment Requirements for an

Aircraft operation on an airfield is dependent on

World’s first new airport bring built without

Indra Navia (leading manufacturer) is working with

● Localizers emit very high frequency signals that,

● The perimeter examination roads or roads to

● The airport benefits from the deployment of

● This offers master planning flexibility for more

● Concerning current aircraft, NCAP states that

Learning Objectives Introduction

● List the functions of passenger

● Define design principles Domestic

● Describe landside planning and

● List the functional layout of cargo

All the above passengers will be processed through a

system airport operator, concessionaires

in / immigration- Adequate area for security into the aircraft.

● Independent staff flow for large airports through

● Barrier free access for passengers with reduced

PTB could be a single level or multilevel depending

Multiple Terminals – Large airports can have

● Walking distances between processes minimized

● Perception of crowding minimized.

● Kerb side traffic gets shared between the

● Any system failure in one terminal affects

● In case resources are not optimized; there could

Figure: Singapore Changi Airport Figure: Satellite Terminal Concept

● PTB could be a single-level or multilevel

● Airports designed to handle an ultimate capacity

PTB Layout Objective and

Learning Objectives Introduction

The PTB Floor Area

Exhibit: LoS Guidelines for Airport Terminal Facilities

Figure: LoS Guidelines for Airport Terminal Facilities

2 PTB Layout Objective and Design Consideration

Master planning may be based on long term traffic

Let us see the area / space and waiting time,

service level. highest hourly demand as per the forecast. This is

3 PTB Layout Objective and Design Consideration

4 PTB Layout Objective and Design Consideration

If the terminal is designed for 1000 departing peak

Let us take a closer look at each of the processing

The linear option is preferred for small airports