1|Page Ashikur Rahaman

Introduction
ChaPter-1
What do you understand by food biotechnology? Discuss the public concern of food
biotechnology.
Biotechnology: Biotechnology is defined as the "use of living systems, organisms, or parts of
organisms to manipulate natural processes in order to develop products, systems, or environments
to benefit people".
Food Biotechnology: Food Biotechnology means the Application of technology to modify genes
of animals, plants, and microorganisms to create new species which have desired production,
marketing, or nutrition-related properties.
Public concern about Food Biotechnology
Environmental concern: Environmental concerns have been raised about the impact of following
modifications by rDNA food biotechnology.
A) Pest & disease resistance: There is major concern about Bt corn pollens that they are toxic
to the non targeted organisms. However, at the time of Bt corn introduction, EPA
(Environmental Protection Agency) reported that there was no greater effect on non
targeted organism (monarch butterflies) with Bt corn than with insecticide use.
B) Transgene spread by pollen: There is a concern that the gene for herbicide tolerance may
spread via pollen from rDNA food biotechnology- derived crop to weed population which
will creat such forms difficult to control in the future.
C) Virus Resistance: There is concern that recombination between a virally derived transgene
and another virus can produce new virus with enhanced Virulence. However, NRC
committee report demonstrated that most virus derived resistance genes are unlikely to
present unmanageable and unusual Problems as compare to traditional one.
Medical Concern: Some major medical concerns are -
A) Allergenicity : Since genetic modification involves the introduction of new genes into
recipient plant and these genes would produce new proteins. The potential allergenicity of
foods developed through rDNA food biotechnology is a source of concern.
B) Antibiotic Resistant Gene : There is the concern of potential for transfer of the antibiotic
resistance gene from rDNA food biotechnology derived plant to microorganism, thereby
reducing efficacy of the antibiotic
C) Adverse effect on environment : There is a concern that rDNA food biotechnology
derived products may have adverse effects on environment. However, no adverse effects
have been reported due to continued research, monitoring,oversight,surveillance and
management.
D) Toxicants: There is a concern that rDNA food biotechnology derived new varieties of crop
may involve toxicants. However, the largest known member of naturally occurring

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toxicants are endogenous i.e. They are produced by the normal metabolic processes of the
organism that is food source.

Some other potential problems of food biotechnology:

 Introduction of new proteins into foods.
 Plants used to make nonfood substances.
 Special concerns with animal feeds.
 Unintended pleotropic effects.
 Increases of known toxins, decreases in nutrient.
 Activation of dormant pathways, allergens
Differences among the common types of microbes associated with food
Feature Bacteria Yeast Mold

1. size typical 0.5-1.5μm Range: 5-10μm 2-10μm by several

mm
by 1.0-3.0μm

2. Cell Type prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

3. Cell wall peptidoglycan No peptidoglycan No peptidoglycan

4. PH wide range of PH 4-4.5 2-8.5

5. Moisture High moisture Low moisture Low moisture

6. Produce Produce antibiotics None None

antibiotics

What is the importance of microorganisms in food?

What are the importance of microorganisms in food?
Good (desirable) Bad (undesirable)

Food bioprocessing Foodborne disease

Food bio preservation Food spoilage

Probiotics

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GOOD (DESIRABLE)
Food bioprocessing
 Foods produce by using biological process. In this process, food grade microorganisms
are used to produce different types of fermented food using raw materials from animal
and plant sources (this process known as "starter culture").
 Besides, microbial enzymes are also being used to produce food and food additives.
Food biopreservation
 Is a food biological preservative by using antimicrobial metabolites (taken from certain
microorganisms in order to control pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms in foods).

Probiotics
 Is a concentrated supplement of beneficial live cells of bacteria (friendly bacteria) culture
taken orally intended to improve our health by promoting our body's natural immunity
and improving digestion system
BAD (UNDESIRABLE)
Foodborne disease.
 Is a disease cause by consumption of contaminate during various stage of handling
between production and consumption by many pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria,
molds and viruses).
Food spoilage.
 Is a condition of contaminated due to: Growth of microorganisms in food OR the action
of microbial heat stable enzymes
 Microorganisms used food supply as a source of nutrients by theirown growth
Write down the microbial application in food industry. -5
Answer: Microorganisms have been used for preparing food products like bread, yoghurt,
alcoholic beverages, cheese etc, for a long time without knowing their involvement in
fermentation. The applications of microorganisms in food industry are given below:
Organic acid by microorganisms: Citric acid is the most important organic acid produced by
fermentation with an estimated annual production of about half a million tonnes. It is primarily

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used in foods. Some other acids produced in large quantities by fermentation are gluconic acid,
lactic acid etc.
Citric acid had been prepared from citrus fruits like lemon, but now it is mostly produced by
fermentation using Aspergillus niger. Some yeasts like Candida have also been used to a smaller
extent.
Various Lactobacillus spp. are used in lactic acid productions. Gluconic acid is prepared by
fermentation using mostly A.niger and less commonly Acetobacter suboxidans.
Microbial enzymes in food industry: Enzymes have been used in food productions such as
leavening of bread, fermentation of fruit juice or malt, clotting of milk for cheese etc. Bacillus spp.
are important sources of stable enzymes for use in food industry. The enzyme α-amylase produced
from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens is used in baking, brewing, starch liquefaction, bread quality
improvement and clarification of fruit juice etc.
Fermentative production of amino acids: Many amino acids are used in food industry including
L-glutamate as flavor enhancer, glycine as sweetener, lysine and methionine as food and food
additives etc. The total commercial production of all the amino acids is over 1.6 million tonnes.
Corynebacterium glutamicum is the most versatile organism used commercially to prepare
glutamine, lysine, threonine, phenylalanine etc. E.coli, Bacillus spp. Candida spp. and S.cerevisiae
are also used in amino acid production, some of them are genetically modified.
In dairy products: Lactic acid forming bacteria (Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus and
Lactococcus) have been used to improve the flavor, texture, preservation and nutritive value of
dairy products including yoghurt, buttermilk, cheese etc. In addition, some are even used as
probiotics, which contribute to the overall health of the user.
In milk, lactic acid bacteria ferment lactose and other sugars. Some proteases play role in the
process along with the sugar metabolizing enzymes.
Formation of these products as well as compounds affecting flavor and texture gives the typical
pleasant aroma, taste and body to the products.
The metabolic activity also forms some useful vitamins. Many lactic acid bacteria like
L.acidophilus and L.sake produce antimicrobial bacteriocins, which help in controlling unwanted
microorganisms.

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Alcoholic fermentation: Yeast strain used in beer brewing is selected on the basis of flavor and
aroma, imparted by the strain during fermentation. For commercial beer production, S.uvarum and
S.cerevisiae have been commonly used.
Other microbial products: Candida utilis has been used industrially in the production of SCP for
food and fodder, waste treatment and the production of fine chemicals used as flavor enhancers

Write the various types of microorganisms studied in food microbiology.

Types of microorganisms studied in food microbiology
 Bacteria
 Fungi-molds and yeasts
 Algae- dinoflagellates/shellfish
 Protozoa-amoeba, Giardia
 Viruses-Hepatitis/shellfish
 Prions
 Helminths-worms
How microorganisms can deteriorate food?
When they utilize the nutrients of the food, it involved changes in the food compound like the
synthesis of a new compound that causes spoiling of the food or produced enzymatic changes
and contributes to off-flavors by means of the breakdown of the product.
How to prevent deterioration of the Food by a microorganism?
 Minimize the contact between microorganisms and food
 Eliminate microorganisms from foods
 Understand the preservation of the food
What are the sources of microorganisms in food?
Sources of microorganisms in food
The primary sources of microorganisms in food include:
Soil and water, Plant and plant products, Food utensils, Intestinal tract of man and animals, Food
handlers, Animal hides and skins, Air and dust
 Soil and Water: These two environments are placed together because many of the
bacteria and fungi that inhabit both have a lot in common. Soil organisms may enter the
atmosphere by the action of wind and later enter water bodies when it rains. They also
enter the water when rainwater flows over soils into bodies of water.
 Plants and Plant Products: Although most soil and water-borne microbes will
contaminate plants, very few types actually persist on them. Those that persist, such as

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lactic acid bacteria and some yeasts, must be able to adhere to the plant material and
utilize it for growth.
 Food Utensils: When vegetables are harvested in containers and utensils, one would
expect to find some or all of the surface organisms on the products to contaminate contact
surfaces.
 Gastrointestinal Tract: This biota becomes a water source when polluted water is used
to wash raw food products. The Intestinal biota consists of many organisms that do not
persist as long in waters as do others, and notable among these are pathogens such as
salmonellae.
 Food Handlers: The microbiota on the hands and outer garments of handlers generally
reflect the environment and habits of Individuals, and the organisms in question may be
those from the soil, water, dust, and other environmental sources.
 Animal Feeds: This is a source of salmonellae to poultry and other farm animals. The
organisms in dry animal feed are spread throughout the animal environment and may be
expected to occur on animal hides.
 Animal Hides: From both the udder and the hide, organisms can contaminate the general
environment, milk containers, and the hands of handlers.
 Air and Dust: Among fungi, a number of molds may be expected to occur in air and
dust, along with some yeasts. In general, the types of organisms in air and dust would be
those that are constantly reseeded to the environment. Air and dust are important sources
of microorganisms during food processing and can influence food quality in the home as
well.
Illustrate the synopsis of common foodborne bacteria ( Genus Bacillus, Genus Lactobacillus,
Genus Clostridium, Acinetobacter, campylobacter, Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Salmonella,
Shigella, Staphylococcus
Synopsis of common food-born bacteria
1. Genus Bacillus
 Different species may be mesophilic or thermophilic, lipolytic or proteolytic.
 Spores produced by this bacteria are generally heat resistant.
 Some species may cause foodborne diseases (Bacillus cereus) and food spoilage in
canned products (Bacillus coagulans and Bacillus stearothermophillus)
 The soil is an important source of this species.
2. Genus Lactobacillus
 Rod-shaped facultative anaerobic, non-motile, mesophilic.
 Can be homo or heterolactic fermentors.
 Found in plant sources, milk, meat, and feces.
Usage:
Food bioprocessing: L. bulgaricus, L. lactis.

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Probiotics: L acidophilus
Spoilage:
i. Wine or beer production.
ii. Cheesemaking.
iii. Can survive pasteurization.
3. Genus Clostridium
 Rod-shaped, anaerobic and form endospores.
 Found in soil, marine sediments, and animal and plant products.
 Some are pathogens e.g.: Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium perfingens while others
are important in food spoilage.
 C.perfingens cause stormy fermentation in foods (disruption of curd in milk).
Acinetobacter
 Acinetobacter is a complex genus, and historically, there has been confusion about the
existence of multiple species.
 The species commonly cause nosocomial infections, predominantly aspiration pneumonia
and catheter-associated bacteremia, but can also cause soft tissue and urinary tract
infections.
Campylobacter
 Campylobacter is a bacterial species that represent one of the most common causes of
diarrheal illness worldwide.
 This infection is associated with the consumption of undercooked poultry, raw milk, and
contaminated water.
Escherichia
 The bacteria are gram negative, rod shaped, non-spore forming, motile with peritrichous
flagella or nonmotile,
 commonly known as nonpathogenic bacteria, are long-lived bacterium found in the
intestines of humans and animals.
Pseudomonas
Contamination by Pseudomonas spp. plays an important role in milk spoilage
because Pseudomonas spp. produce many thermo-tolerant lipolytic and proteolytic enzymes,
which reduce both the quality and shelf life of processed milk. Pseudomonas spoils a wide range
of foodstuff, and meat is no exception
Salmonella
Salmonella genus represents the most common foodborne pathogens frequently isolated from
food-producing animals that is responsible for zoonotic infections in humans and animal species

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including birds. Thus, Salmonella infections represent a major concern to public health, animals,
and food industry worldwide

Shigella
Eating food that was prepared by someone who has a Shigella infection (shigellosis). Foods that
are consumed raw are more likely to be contaminated with Shigella germs. Shigella germs can
also get on fruits and vegetables if the fields where they grow are contaminated with poop
containing the germ
Staphylococcus
Staphylococcus aureus is a major human pathogen that causes a wide range of clinical infections.
It is a leading cause of bacteremia and infective endocarditis as well as osteoarticular, skin and
soft tissue, pleuropulmonary, and device-related infections.
Illustrate the synopsis of genera of yeasts common to foods (Genus saccharomyces, Genus
Candida, Cryptococcus
Synopsis of genera of yeasts common to foods
 Yeasts may be viewed as being unicellular fungi in contrast to the molds, which are
multicellular; however, this is not a precise definition, as many of what are commonly
regarded as yeasts actually produce mycelia to varying degrees.
 Yeasts can be differentiated from bacteria by their larger cell size and their oval,
elongate, elliptical, or spherical cell shapes. Typical yeast cells range from 5 to 8 pm in
diameter, with some being even larger. Older yeast cultures tend to have smaller cells.
Most of those of importance in foods divide by budding or fission.
 Yeasts can grow over wide ranges of acid pH and in up to 18% ethanol. Many grow in
the presence of 55-60% sucrose. Many colors are produced by yeasts, ranging from
creamy, to pink, to red. The asco- and arthrospores of some are quite heat resistant,
(Arthrospores are produced by some yeast-like fungi.)
Genus saccharomyces
 Cells may be round, ovate, and elongated.
 Reproduction is by budding or by acospore formation.
 S.cerevisiae is employed in many food industries e.g bread manufacturing, wines, alcohol
etc.
 S.fragilis and s.lactis is important in milk and milk products because they are common
spoilage microorganism.
Candida
Candida is a genus of yeasts. Candida antarctica and Candida rugosa are a source of industrially
important lipases, while Candida krusei is prominently used to ferment cacao during chocolate

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production. Candida rugosa is also used as an enzyme supplement to support fat digestion with its
broad specificity for lipid hydrolysis.

Cryptococcus
 Cryptococcus is a genus of fungi in the family Cryptococcaceae.
 Cryptococcus is a yeast that is surrounded by a thick coating of polysaccharides, called a
capsule for this reason Cryptococcus is often referred to as ‘the sugar yeast’.
 Cryptococcus is actually a basidiomycete yeast, more closely related to the mushrooms on
your pizza than the yeast used to leaven the crust or to ferment the beer you drink with it
Illustrate the synopsis of common foodborne molds ( Genus Aspergillus, Penicilliumium,
Cladosporium, Mucor, Rhizopus )
Synopsis of genera of molds common to foods
Molds are filamentous fungi that grow in the form of a tangled mass that spreads rapidly and
may cover several inches of area in 2 to 3 days.
1.Genus Aspergillus
 Widely distributed and contain many species important in food.
 Septate hyphae and produce asexual spores on conidia.
 Xerophilic; causing spoilage in grains, jams, nuts and
 Example: Aspergillus flavus produces alfatoxin (a kind of mycotoxin)
 Strains used in food processing:
I..A.oryzae: hydrolyze starch in sake production.
ii.A.niger: citric acid production

2. Genus Penicillium
 Widely distributed and containing many species
 Septate hyphae and form conidiophores on a brushlike conidia head. penicillium
roquerfortii and Penicillium camembertii are used in cheese production.
 Some species can cause spoilage in fruits, vegetables, grains, bread etc.
 The can also produce mycotoxin
Cladosporium
Cladosporium species have been isolated from cereal grains, peanuts, fruits, and refrigerated meat,
particularly beef. Cladosporium is very common and can grow under refrigerated storage
conditions. The main consequence of Cladosporium species in foods is spoilage and discoloration.
Mucor

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Mucor cause serious spoilage of stored food leading to enormous economic losses. Moulds can
also produce mycotoxins that are associated with several acute and chronic diseases in humans

Rhizopus
Rhizopus stolonifer is also considered to be parasitic because it obtains nutrients from living
organisms, causing the food to rot. It secretes digestive juices, that contain enzymes, directly on
the food. These enzymes cause the food to become soluble, which it is then absorbed by the mold.
What are the impacts of biotechnology on Food Production?

 Modification of food taste and appearances: Biotechnology has allowed scientists to

produce fruits with better taste. GM foods with better taste include seedless watermelon,
tomato, eggplant, pepper and cherries etc. Elimination of seed from these food resulted in
more soluble sugar content enhancing sweetness.
 Extended shelf life: Extended shelf life ensures larger profits by keeping food fresher,
longer. As for example: Transgenic FlavrSavr tomato has a "deactivated" gene that keeps
them fresh for long time.
 High nutritive value: By introducing genes into plants to increase the amount or potency
of nutrients. This is called as “Bio-fortification”. Examples: "Golden rice" enrichment
with carotenoids (provitamin A).
 Modified oil content and composition (e.g. polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic
acid, laureic acid) for maize, soybeans and other oil crops. These modified crops could be
important in the fight against cardiovascular disease, obesity, and certain forms of cancer.

 Higher content of protein or amino acids, or modified amino acid composition for
enhanced nutritional value. For example, a GM potato was developed in India containing
one third more protein including essential, high quality nutrients.
 Higher levels of beneficial antioxidant compounds (e.g. lycopene, flavinols found in
tomato) to prevent cardiovascular diseases and certain forms of cancer.
 Elimination or reduction of undesirable substances like allergens or toxic substances (e.g.
caffeine, nicotine).
 Production of herbicide, pest and disease resistance plant.
 To increase the production of milk quantity.

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 Biopharming: The genetic engineering of plants has the potential to provide edible plant
vaccines that could be used to immunize individuals against a wide variety of infectious
diseases ranging from cholera to potentially AIDS. One such example: the transgenic
potato plants are used to deliver a pharmaceutical immunization against diarrhea
Mention the benefits of food biotechnology
Benefits of food biotechnology:
 Food biotechnology offers many benefits for farmers, food companies, consumers, and
the environment. Below are some of these benefits.
 The environment
 Researchers have made some foods, such as potatoes and papayas, more disease resistant.
 If a crop is more resistant to disease that means it needs less chemical spray to protect it.
Less spray subsequently means less air, land, and water pollution.
 This is good for animals, plants, etc., i.e., the environment.
Greater yields
 Thanks to biotechnology, plants can ward off insects and have a better tolerance to
herbicides. Put simply; science can help plants survive better so that we subsequently get
better crop yields.
Fresher food
 Thanks to food biotechnology, many vegetables, and fruits today take longer to ripen.
This means that distributors and retailers have more time to get their products onto
shelves when they are just right."
More food with less land
 By the middle of this century, there will be about nine billion people on Earth. Thanks to
biotechnology, we will be able to produce more food using the land we are already using.
 Regarding getting more food from our land, the authors of a University of Arizona
article- Biotechnology and Food" - write:
 This way, countries do not have to devote more land to farming. In turn, developing
countries can benefit most, since they will have the largest population growth.
Food safety
 Scientists are getting better at accurately detecting undesirable bacteria and viruses in our
food. Thanks to their technology, there will be a lower risk of food-borne illnesses. A
foodborne illness is an illness we get because of something we ate.
 We call foods that scientists have altered genetically GM foods. GM stands for
genetically modified.

Ashikur Rahaman
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