UNIT 1: THE ETHICAL Topic/Content

DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN
EXISTENCE • In August 2007, newspapers reported
what seemed to be yet another sad
Ethics is envisioned by every individual as vital
incident of fraternity violence. Cris
part of their daily activities. In line with its ethical
Anthony Mendez, a 20-year-old student
frameworks, frequently, a person is influenced and
governed by their behavior; according to their of the University of the Philippines (UP),

beliefs, values, principles and standards as to was rushed to the hospital in the early
which it is considered as right or wrong. morning hours, unconscious, with large
bruises on his chest, back, and legs. He
Learning Outcomes:
passed away that morning, and the
1. Identified the ethical aspects of subsequent autopsy report strongly
human life and the scope of ethical suggested that his physical injuries
thinking and philosophy
were most probably the result of
2. Created a philosophy of life relevant
to ethical values “hazing”.

3. Developed the ethical values with

special significance to human life Let me Explain!
experiences.
• Ethics, generally speaking, is about
4. Enhanced environmental experience
matters such as the good thing that we
through clean and green activity.
should pursue and the bad thing that we

Words to Remember should avoid; the

right ways in which we could or should

act and the

wrong ways of acting.

• Ethics as a subject for us to study is

about determining the grounds for the
values with particular and special
significance to human life.
The importance of Rules to Social Beings Ethics and Morals

1. Rules protect social beings by regulating “Morals” may be used to refer to specific
behavior. beliefs or attitudes that people have or to
describe acts that people perform. We also
2. Rules help to guarantee each person
have terms such as “moral judgment” or “moral
certain rights and freedom.
reasoning,” which suggest a more rational
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among aspect.
social beings.
“Ethics” can be spoken of as the discipline of
4. Rules are essential for a healthy studying and understanding ideal human
economic system behavior and ideal ways of thinking. Thus,
ethics is acknowledged as an intellectual
discipline belonging to philosophy.
Kinds of Valuation
Ethics – is the branch of philosophy that
• Aesthetics – from the Greek word
studies morality or the rightness or wrongness
“aisthesis” which means “sense” or
of human conduct. Morality, speaks of code or
“feeling” and refers to the judgments of
system of behavior in regards to standard of
personal approval or disapproval that
right and wrong behavior.
we make about what we see, hear,
smell, or taste Descriptive and Normative

• Etiquette – concerned with right or • A descriptive study of ethics reports

wrong actions, but those which might be how people, particularly groups, make
considered not quite grave enough to their moral valuations without making

belong to a discussion on ethics any judgment either for or against these

valuations.
• Technical – from the Greek word
“techne” and refers to a proper way—(or • A normative study of ethics, as is often

right way) of doing things. done in philosophy or moral theology,

engages the question: What could or
should be considered as the right way of
acting? In other words, a normative
discussion prescribes what we ought to
maintain as our standards or bases for
moral valuation.
Issue, Decision, Judgment, and Dilemma Dilemma

 A situation that calls for moral valuation • It refers to a situation in which a tough
can be called a moral issue. choice has to be made between two or
 When one is placed in a situation and more options, especially more or less
confronted by the choice of what act to equally undesirable ones.
perform, s/he is called to make a moral
• What is common to,oral dilemmas is
decision
conflict. In each ethical dilemma, an
 When a person is an observer making agent regards himself as having moral
an assessment on the actions or reasons to do each of two actions, bur
behavior of someone, s/he is making a doing both seems to be ethically not
moral judgment. possible.
 When one is torn between choosing one
3 levels of Moral Dilemma
of two goods or choosing between the
lesser of two evils, this is referred to as A. Personal Dilemma
a moral dilemma.
B. Organizational Dilemma
Characteristics of Moral Standards
C. Structural Dilemma
A. Moral standards involved serious
wrongs or significant benefits.
Only Human beings can be Ethical
B. Moral standards ought to be preferred to
other values. A. Only human beings are rational,
autonomous, and self – conscious.
C. Moral standards are not established by
authority figures. B. Only human beings can act morally or
immorally.
D. Moral standards have the trait of
universality. C. Only human beings are part of the moral
community.
E. Moral standards are based on impartial
considerations.

F. Moral standards are associated with

special emotions and vocabulary.
Reasoning • Religion

• What reasons do we give to decide or to The divinity called God, Allah, or

judge that a certain way of acting is Supreme Being commands and
either right or wrong? one is obliged to obey his/her
Creator (Divine Command
• A person’s fear of punishment or desire
Theory).
for reward can provide him/her a reason
for acting in a certain way. • Culture

• The promise of rewards and the fear of Our exposure to different

punishments can certainly motivate us societies and their cultures
to act, but are not in themselves a makes us aware that there are
determinant of the rightness or ways of thinking and valuing that
wrongness of a certain way of acting or are different from our own, that
of the good or the bad in a particular there is in fact a wide diversity in
pursuit. how different people believe it is
proper to act. Therefore, what is
• Beyond rewards and punishments, it is
ethically acceptable or
possible for our moral valuation—our
unacceptable is relative to, or that
decisions and judgments—to be based
is to say, dependent on one’s
on a principle.
culture. This position is referred
to as cultural relativism.
SOURCES OF AUTHORITY Senses of the Self
• Law • Subjectivism
• It is supposed that law is one’s The starting point of subjectivism
guide to ethical behavior. In the is the recognition that the
Philippines, Filipinos are individual thinking person (the
constrained to obey the laws of subject) is at the heart of all
the land as stated in the country’s moral valuations. She is the one
criminal and civil codes. The law who is confronted with the
cannot tell us what to pursue, situation and is burdened with the
only what to avoid. need to make a decision or
judgment.
 “No one can tell me what is right
and wrong”
“No one knows my situation
UNIT II: UTILITARIANISM
better than myself”
“I am entitled to my own opinion”
“It is good if I say that us good”
• Psychological Egoism
A theory that describes the
underlying dynamic behind all
human actions. As a descriptive
theory, it does not direct one to
act in any particular way. Instead,
“The end may justify the means as long as
it points out that there is already there is something that justifies the end.”
an underlying basis for how one ― Leon Trotsky
acts. The ego or self has its I. The Principle of Utility
desires and interests, and all our
actions are geared toward Bahay by Gary Granada
satisfying these interests.
Isang araw ako'y nadalaw sa bahay
Strong points:
tambakan
Labing limang mag-anak ang duo'y
1. Simplicity nagsiksikan
Nagtitiis sa munting barung-barong na sira-
A theory that conveniently identifies
sira
a single basis that will somehow Habang doon sa isang mansyon halos
account for all actions. walang nakatira
2. Plausibility Sa init ng tabla't karton sila doo'y
It is plausible that the self-interest is nakakulong
behind a person’s actions.
Sa lilim ng yerong kalawang at mga sirang
gulong
• Ethical Egoism Pinagtagpi-tagping basurang pinatungan ng
This prescribes that we should make bato
our own ends, our own interests, as the Hindi ko maintindihan bakit ang tawag sa
ganito
single overriding concern.
Ay bahay
Sinulat ko ang nakita ng aking mga mata
Ang kanilang kalagayan ginawan ko ng
kanta
Iginuhit at isinalarawan ang naramdaman
At sinangguni ko sa mga taong marami ang  Pleasure or Happiness Is the
alam Only Thing That Truly Has
Intrinsic Value. ...
Isang bantog na senador ang unang nilapitan  Actions Are Right Insofar as They
ko Promote Happiness, Wrong
At dalubhasang propesor ng malaking Insofar as They Produce
kolehiyo Unhappiness. ...
Ang pinagpala sa mundo, ang dyaryo at ang  Everyone's Happiness Counts
Equally.
pulpito
Lahat sila'y nagkasundo na ang tawag sa o Utility, within the context
of utilitarianism, refers to people
ganito
performing actions for social utility. With
Ay bahay social utility, he means the well-being of
Maghapo't magdamag silang kakayod, many people. According to Mill, good
actions result in pleasure, and that
kakahig there is no higher end than pleasure.
Pagdaka'y tutukang nakaupo lang sa sahig o Utilitarian’s have freedom to "bend the
Sa papag na gutay-gutay, pipiliting hihimlay rules" and justify a bad action for a good
Di hamak na mainam pa ang pahingahan ng outcome. They may choose a wide
mga patay stance on morals that may cover more
ground than stricter moral principles,
Baka naman isang araw kayo doon ay and they also have options to take
maligaw stricter moral sides should they decide
Mahipo n'yo at marinig at maamoy at the scales are tipped in a sides favor
matanaw o Strength of Utilitarianism is for many
Hindi ako nangungutya, kayo na rin ang people happiness is an important part of
magpasya decision making as it their main aim in
Sa palagay ninyo kaya, ito sa mata ng life. Weakness is that it committed a
natural fallacy
Maylikha o The greatest happiness principle is the
ultimate standard of morality set up by
Words to Remember
classical utilitarianism. That classical
creed conceives of good as
o Moral Right
happiness and holds that right actions
o Utility are those which maximize the
o Integrity total happiness of the members of the
o Self-discipline community.
o Trustworthy o Utilitarianism brings about more
o Responsiveness happiness which is relevant
o Justice in today's society.
However, utilitarianism can also be seen
as not being relevant to the 21 st century
Topics because by promoting happiness over
other goods, it reduces morality to being
o Utilitarianism is a theory in ethics by simple
which an actions are judged to be right
or wrong solely according to their casual Summary
consequences
o Three principles:
o Utilitarianism is an ethics by which an
actions are judged to be right or wrong
solely according to their casual
consequences
o 3 Principles:
 Pleasure or Happiness Is the
Only Thing That Truly Has
Intrinsic Value. ...
 Actions Are Right Insofar as They
Promote Happiness, Wrong
Insofar as They Produce UNIT III: NATURAL LAW
Unhappiness. ...
 Everyone's Happiness Counts
Equally. The Disobedient Baby Bird
o Strength of Utilitarianism is for many A mother and father bird and their three babies
people happiness is an important part of lived in a nest high up in a tree. The parents
decision making as it their main aim in had to go off to find food for their babies and
life. Weakness is that it committed a
leave them alone in the nest. When the babies
natural fallacy
o Utilitarianism brings about more were very little they were good and sat quietly
happiness which is relevant in the nest waiting for their mother or father to
in today's society. come with the food. As the babies grew bigger
However, utilitarianism can also be seen they used to look out over the edge of the nest.
as not being relevant to the 21 st century Their parents warned them about the cat. “The
because by promoting happiness over cat looks very friendly but he eats little birds.
other goods, it reduces morality to being Never listen to the cat and never go near the
simple cat,” they warned. One day when the parents
were away the cat came and sat under the
tree. “I am so happy to see you,” said the cat.
“Please come and play with me.” “Oh, no!” said
the baby birds. “Our parents told us about you.
You eat little birds!” “Oh, no!” said the cat. “I
would never do that! You are my friends. Come
and play with me.” “Oh, no!” said the baby
birds. Then the cat began to cry. “I am so
lonely,” he said. “I have no-one to play with.”
The first and second baby birds said, “No
never! Our parents told us about you. We will
not come and play.” But the third little bird
looked over the edge of the nest. “He is such a
beautiful cat,” he said, “and he is crying
because we will not go and play with him.” “Oh,
please,” said the cat. “Please come and play
with me.” With those words the third little bird
jumped down from the nest to play with the cat.
“Snap, snap!” The little bird was gone, and
there was a smile on the face of the cat! Just
then father and mother bird came back.
“Shoo!” they shouted and chased the cat away.
“Now we know why we must listen,” said the quodlibets (akin to the
two little birds who were still in the nest. symposiums of the Greeks). His
notable works include Summa
Contra Gentiles, Summa
Words to Remember Theologiae, and De Veritate.
o Aquinas died on March 7, 1274.
o Natural Law The Catholic Church honors him
o Eternal Law as a Doctor, a title given to saints
o Human Law who are recognized as a giver of
o Divine Law particularly important insights in
the understanding of Christian
Topics doctrine or faith (Pasco et. al.,
2018).
o St. Thomas Aquinas - He was o Natural Law - Aquinas Natural
born in Roccasecca, near Law Theory is consist of four
Aquino, Terra di Lavorro, different types of law: Eternal
Kingdom of Sicily (Italy) in 1225. Law, Natural Law, Human Law,
Thomas was placed in a and Divine Law
monastery of Monte Cassino o According to Aquinas Eternal
near his home as an oblate in the Law means God’s rational
hope of his family that he would purpose and plan for all things.
someday become an abbot to He thinks that everything has a
their advantage purpose and follows a plan. If
(www.britannica.com). His family something fulfils its purpose/plan
were against on his decision. then it is following Eternal Law
There was a time that they (Dimmock, et. al., 2017).
prisoned him for two years in his o Aquinas also introduces the
room and they also tempted him Human Law which gives rise to
with prostitute but to no avail. what he calls “secondary
Eventually, his family realized precepts.” Secondary precepts
that they could not change his are not generated by our reason
mind so they conceded. but rather they are imposed by
o He stayed in the monastery for governments, groups, clubs,
nine years and he returned home societies, etc. (Dimmock, et. al.,
after the monks were expelled by 2017). Examples of secondary
the emperor due to their too precepts in the new normal are
much obedience to the pope. He wearing of mask in public places,
was sent to the University of sanitize or wash hands
Naples where he encountered frequently, stay at home, etc.
scientific and philosophical works o Finally, Aquinas introduces the
which led Aquinas to join the Divine Law that God has seen fit
Friar Preachers or Dominicans. to give us which we find in the
o He went to Paris and studied scripture, that is, the Ten
under St. Albertus Magnus. A Commandments (Dimmock, et.
tremendous scholar with a wide al., 2017). Human as we are we
range of intellectual interests can only get rational reflection.
(www.britannica.com). He earned We need some revealed
his master of Theology at the guidance and this comes in the
University of Paris where he form of Divine Law. For example,
spent his life on lectures, a married woman is having an
instructions, writings and extra marital affair. She justifies
 that they are both so much in o Self-governance
love and happy. However, if we
are going to examine this act
deeply, the woman is committing
adultery. Sometimes our reason Topics
is not good at all and that we
o There are three relevant
need the guidance revealed in
the Divine Law. questions that can help Filipino
students appreciate Natural Law
Theory as cited from the writings
of Alasdair Macintyre: Who am I?
Who do I want to be? How can I
get there? (Pasco et. al., 2018).
o Who Am I? Is a process of
Summary knowing one’s self or one’s
identity. According to Aquinas,
ethics is basically a question of
o Catholic Church honors St.
human identity. Building up the
Thomas Aquinas as a Doctor, a
identity of the human person
title given to saints who are
recognized as a giver of starts with knowing the self. It is
particularly important insights in through self-knowledge and
the understanding of Christian reflection that a person knows
doctrine or faith (Pasco et. al., his/her history, abilities and
2018). present situation. This
o Aquinas Natural Law Theory is assessment of one’s own
consist of four different types of strength and weaknesses is
law: Eternal Law, Natural Law, critical in being able to do good
Human Law, and Divine Law and avoid evil (Pasco, et.al.,
o Eternal Law means God’s 2018).
rational purpose and plan for all o Who do I want to be? Knowing
things
oneself, leads to clarification of
o Human Law which gives rise to
one’s goal. It is at this point that
what he calls “secondary
another important question is
precepts.”
o Divine Law that God has seen fit raised: “Who do I want to be?”
to give us which we find in the This question reveals one’s self-
scripture, that is, the Ten determination. Having all the
Commandments (Dimmock, et. knowledge of himself/herself and
al., 2017) the ability to reflect the self can
be better directed. Ethical acts
give direction through freedom to
I. Essence and Varieties of Law build up the self towards a
Leading to True Self particular goal (Pasco, et. al.,
2018).
Words to Remember o How can I get there? Having
self-knowledge and self-
determination, a person can
o Self-knowledge utilize reason and evaluate the
o Self-determination best options and possibilities to
 achieve one’s goal. Answering Topics
this question will lead to a
particular actions and routines in
reaching one’s goal. Goal- setting o Deontological Ethics, Duty, Agency,
through reason and decision is Basic Assumption, Deontological
complemented by the ability to theories, Agency
freely move the self and o Deon - means duty
command the body in action o Deontology is a category of normative
(Pasco, et. al., 2018). It is in this ethical theories that encompasses any
theories which is primarily concerned
stage that the person exercises
with adherence to certain rules or
self-governance. duties. Consequences do not matter
o A duty-based ethics is called
Deontology
o Focuses on acts not on consequences
o Expressed in 2 ways: NEGATIVE: do
not lie, do not steal; and POSITIVE:
telling the truth and keeping your
promises.
Summary o Basic Assumption: a) No matter how
morally good their consequences, some
choices are morally forbidden; b) What
o Three relevant questions that can makes choices right is in conformity with
help Filipino students appreciate a moral norm; and c) The Right is said
Natural Law Theory: to have priority over the Good
 Who Am I? Is a process o Divine Command Theory – The idea
of knowing one’s self or that we have the duty to obey God
one’s identity o Golden Rule – The ethic of Reciprocity
 Who do I want to be? o Natural Law and Right theories –
Knowing oneself, leads to Humans have reasoning and the Laws
clarification of one’s goal of Nature are discernable by Human
 How can I get there? Reason
Having self-knowledge o Agency – Focused on the duty of the
and self-determination, a moral agent (The person acting) rather
person can utilize reason than the right of the person being acted
and evaluate the best upon (patient-centered theories)
options and possibilities to o Agent-Relative theory – An act is
achieve one’s goal relative to the individual duties (ex.
Duties to Family, Personal Morality,
Personal Interest)
I. Duty and Agency o Agent neutral Duties – The act is the
same for every Agent (ex. Duty to obey
Words to Remember Law, Duty to not kill the innocent)

o Duty
o Agency Summary
o Ethics
o Basic Assumption
o Deontology is derived from the word
deon meaning duty. It is a duty
based ethics which focuses on acts
 and not in consequences. It is self-determination, self-rule, being your
expressed in 2 ways: Negative and own person, and self-governing
Positive o Autonomy refers to a general capacity of
o Basic assumptions are as follows: an individual
o No matter how morally good o Respecting autonomy means you have
their consequences, some to be accurate with the information,
choices are morally forbidden; communicate the same properly, and if
o What makes choices right is necessary persuade them with a firm
in conformity with a moral conviction
norm; and o Competence refers to a specific ability,
o The Right is said to have such as those involved in a performance
priority over the Good of a specific task
o Deontological Theories are the o Factors that affect competence are: a)
following: physical; and b) psychological. In moral
o Divine Command Theory problems the question of competence of
o Golden Rule the subject is always crucial
o Natural Law and Right Theory o Principle for Respect of Autonomy and
o Agency focused on the duty of the Competence are crucial in moral
moral agent (The person acting) decision making in ethics, and require a
rather than the right of the person great deal of thought
being acted upon (patient-centered
theories). It hay 2 types : a) Agent- Summary
Relative Theory; and b) Agent-
Neutral Duties
II. Autonomy
o Autonomy is a general capacity of an
individual
Words to Remember o Competence is a specific ability that
involve a performance of a specific task
o Both Principles of Autonomy and
Competence are essential in making a
proper moral choice
o (1) term or equivalent to a period of six
(6) years

o Autonomy
o Competence
o Morality
o Happiness
o Integrity
o Wisdom
o Respect

Topics

o Autonomy from the Greek autos (self),

nomos (rule of law). Broadly meaning,
 o People have different ideas of what
constitutes the good life. Wrong pursuits
may lead to tragic consequences.
Correct pursuits may lead to flourishing.
Therefore, be careful what you dream
for
o Everybody wants more happiness and
success. It’s good to know how to
optimize happiness and success. There
are many happiness coaches and self-
help books on the market.
o There are risk factors when:
 The happiness pursuit becomes
one’s ultimate purpose in life.
 The happiness pursuit is not
guided by a philosophy of life
informed by general principles of
meaning, spirituality and virtue
(e.g., the Golden Rule).
o Golden Rule:
 Confucius: What you do not want
done to yourself, do not do unto
others.
 Aristotle: We should behave to
others as we wish others to
behave to us.
UNIT V: VIRTUE ETHICS  Buddhism: Hurt not others with
that which pains thyself.
 Christianity: Do unto others as
“Ethics without virtue is an illusion. What is you
the highest purpose of ethics? It is to make  would have them do unto you.
a person good, that is virtuous?” o The pursuit of the good life has ended in
- Peter Kreeft misery and self-destruction for many
people.
 Common Cause: They make
I. Happiness and Ultimate Purpose personal happiness and success
their ultimate end of life without a
moral compass and without the
Words to Remember desire to pursue inner goodness.
o Advantages of the meaning of pursuit:
o Excellence  Avoids the pitfalls of self-centered
o Morality pursuit of happiness and
o Joy success.
o Happiness  Sustains us between the highs of
o Integrity inspiration and the lows of
o Wisdom despair.
 Happiness and flourishing will
sneak in through the back door.
Topics  Ability to transform adversities
into opportunities for personal
growth.
o Good life is a virtuous life:  Achievement, religion/spirituality,
 A meaningful, authentic good life positive affect, relationships, self-
is based on inner goodness. transcendence, intimacy, self-
 “The end of life is Eudaimonia.”— acceptance, fair treatment.
Aristotle  Basic needs for mental health
 Eudaimonia means well-being, and flourishing.
virtue and human flourishing.
 To live the good life is to become
what we ought to be as human Summary
beings—moral agents who strive
for moral excellence.
o For Aristotle: o Good Life is a Balanced Life:
 His moral theory is teleological.  A single-minded pursuit is not
 Aristotle’s virtue ethics. always beneficial.
 The golden mean to avoid  Active engagement needs to be
extremes. balanced by rest.
 Practical wisdom: the proper end  Exclusive love needs to be
to our actions and the proper balanced by greater love.
means to our end.  Achievement needs to be
 Four cardinal virtues: prudence, balanced by acceptance.
justice, fortitude, and  Self-transcendence needs to be
temperance. balanced by fair treatment.
o For Confucius:
 Lived in a tumultuous period of
war and conflict. o Model of a Good Life:
 Equates the good life with social
harmony.
 The need to fit in an ordered
society.
 Five cardinal virtues:
benevolence, righteousness,
propriety, wisdom, and
faithfulness or loyalty.
 Inner cultivation of virtues leads
to world peace.
o Shift in the Narrative of Good Life: II. Virtue as Excellence
 A shift from virtue and ethics to
personal happiness and success. Words to Remember
 An increase in personal freedom
and gross domestic product o Virtue
(GDP). o Excellence
 Money does not always buy o Intellectual
happiness. o Moral
o Holistic Approach: o Prudence
 The whole is more than the sum o Justice
of its parts. o Benevolence
 Good people + Good community Topics
+ World peace = Good life.
o Sources of Meaning for a Good Life:
 Wong’s implicit theory research. o Virtue (Latin: virtus) is moral excellence.
A virtue is a trait or quality that is
 deemed to be morally good and thus is
valued as a foundation of principle and Summary
good moral being. Personal virtues are o A virtue is a trait or quality that is
characteristics valued as promoting
deemed to be morally good and thus is
collective and individual greatness.
valued as a foundation of principle and
o Aristotle's 12 virtues:
good moral being
 Courage – bravery. o Aristotle’s 12 virtues: Courage,
 Temperance – moderation. Temperance, Liberality, Magnificence,
 Liberality – spending. Magnanimity, Ambition, Patience, and
 Magnificence – charisma, style. Friendliness
 Magnanimity – generosity. o There are two kinds of virtue: a)
intellectual and b) moral.
 Ambition – pride.
o There are three primary virtues: a)
 Patience – temper, calm.
prudence, b) justice, and c)
 Friendliness – social IQ. benevolence, in that order. Each of
o There are two kinds of virtue: a) them is essential to the others and to
intellectual and b) moral. We learn the living of a full life in society.
intellectual virtues by instruction, and we o Virtues need to be cultivated to become
learn moral virtues by habit and more prevalent in life
constant practice. We are all born with
the potential to be morally virtuous, but it
is only by behaving in the right way that
we train ourselves to be virtuous.
o The Three Primary Virtues. Adam
Smith, in his important book The Theory
of Moral Sentiments, wrote that
excellent people have three primary
virtues: a) prudence, b) justice, and c)
benevolence, in that order. Each of
them is essential to the others and to
the living of a full life in society.
o They are honest, respectful,
courageous, forgiving, and kind, for
example. They do the right thing, and
don't bend to impulses, urges or desires,
but act according to values and
principles. Some might say
good qualities are innate, but we're not III. Moral Virtue
perfect. Virtues need to be cultivated to
become more prevalent in life. Words to Remember
o Virtues are important because they are
the basic qualities necessary for our o Moral Virtue
well-being and happiness. By o Courage
recognizing the importance of virtues, in o Temperance
our lives, it will lead to better o Liberality
communication, understanding and o Wisdom
acceptance between us and our fellow o Prudence
man. o Justice
o Fortitude
 o Moral Virtue is concerned with practical
Topics life (Liberality or gentleness) or with
vegetative and appetitive (as
o Moral Virtue for Aristotle is temperance or self-control) – contrasted
a virtue concerned with the practical life with intellectual virtue
(as liberality or gentleness) or with the o Moral Virtue in Ethics is a disposition to
vegetative and appetitive (as behave in the right manner and as a
temperance or self-control) —contrasted mean between extremes of deficiency
with intellectual virtue. and excess, which are vices (Aristotle)
o Honesty, courage, compassion, o We learn moral virtue primarily through
generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, habit and practice rather than through
self-control, and prudence are reasoning and instruction.
all examples of virtues. For example, a o Moral Person can be described as a
person who has developed the virtue of person who knows the difference
generosity is often referred to as a between right and wrong. Hence, a
generous person because he or she person has no morals when he doesn’t
tends to be generous in all know what is right or wrong means.
circumstances.
o Aristotle defines moral virtue as a
disposition to behave in the right
manner and as a mean between
extremes of deficiency and excess,
which are vices. We learn moral
virtue primarily through habit and
practice rather than through reasoning
and instruction.
o Because of this reference, a group of
seven attributes is sometimes listed by
adding the four cardinal virtues
(prudence, temperance,
fortitude, justice) and three theological
virtues (faith, hope, charity).
o Some
common synonyms of virtuous are ethic
al, moral, noble, and righteous. While all
these words mean "conforming to a
standard of what is right and
good," virtuous implies moral excellence
in character.
o Morals are the principles we follow that
help us know the difference between
right and wrong. Immoral is sometimes
confused with amoral, which UNIT 6 – SYNTHESIS: Making
describes someone who has no
morals and doesn't know what right or Informed Decisions
wrong means.
“...The rarest of all human qualities is
consistency.”
Summary ― Jeremy Bentham

I. Introduction:
This chapter contains the essence of humanity that Culture and Ethics
appears to be the never-ending search for what it Saying: “when in Rome, do as the Romans
means to be fully human in the face of moral do” by St. Ambrose
choices. It clarifies several notions as such; the - implies that one’s culture is inescapable,
questions of what the right thing to do is and why that is, one has to look into the standards
are questions that all human beings – regardless of of her society to resolve all her ethical
race, age, socio-economic class, gender, culture, questions with finality.
educational attainment, religious, affiliation, or - James Rachels (1941-2003) – American
political association- will have to ask at one point or philosopher
another in their lives or neither the rules nor laws - provided a clear argument against the
of one’s immediate community or of wider culture validity of cultural
or of religious affiliation; and finally, reasoning - relativism in the realm of ethics.
which allows human to make the best decisions - Defines cultural relativism as the position
possible in a given situation of moral choice. that claims that there is no such thing as
objective truth in the realm of morality.
- Employs a “reduction ad absurdum”
II. Topics: (Acquire)
argument. It is an argument which first
The Moral Agent and Contexts
assumes that the claim in the question is
“Know Thyself” – Epimeleia hē auto
correct, in order to show the absurdity that
Ramon Castillo Reyes – Filipino Philosopher;
will ensue if the claim is accepted as such.
writing essay: “Man and Historical Action”
- Three absurd consequences of accepting
explained that “one is” is a cross-point - one’s
the claim of cultural relativism:
identity, who one is or who I am, is a product of
 Cultural relativism was correct, then one
many forces and events that happened outside of
cannot criticize the practices or beliefs of
one’s choosing.
another culture anymore as long as the
- Four cross-points:
culture thinks that what it is doing is
- Physical – events in the past and material
correct.
factors in the present that one did not have
 Cultural relativism was correct, then one
a choice in.
cannot even criticize the practices or beliefs
- Interpersonal – many events and factors
of one’s own culture
outside of one’s choosing
 Cultural relativism was correct, then one
- Societal – “one who is” is shaped by one’s
cannot even accept that moral progress can
society.
happen.
- Historical – is simply the events that one’s
Ethics – should neither be reduced
people has undergone.
to one’s own cultural standards, nor should
 it simplicity dismiss one’s unique cultural Pre-conventional
beliefs and practices. This pre-conventional level, whose reasoning is
Moral development – is a centered on the consequences of one’s actions, is
prerequisite if the individual is to encounter divided into two stages. The first stage of
ethical situations with a clear mind and with reasoning centers around obedience and the
her values properly placed with respect to avoidance of punishment: to a young child’s mind,
each other. an action is “good” if it enables one to escape from
punishment; “bad” if it leads to punishment. The
Religion and Ethics second stage of reasoning and learns to act
“Religious” assume that it is the according to what she thinks will serve her self-
teachings of their own religion that define what is interest; thus what is “good” at this age is what the
truly right or wrong, good or bad. child thinks can bring her pleasure.
Ramon C. Reyes – says concerning an Conventional
individual’s cross-points, one can see that the – This is the age in which older children,
reading or interpretation of a particular passage or adolescents, and young adults learn to conform to
text is the product of the individual’s embodiment the expectations of
and historicity and on the other hand, her society. The morally mature individual, for
existential ideal. Kohlberg, must outgrow both (1) the pre-
 One must determine what justifies the claim conventional level, whose pleasure-and-pain logic
of a particular religious teaching when it locks on into self-centered kind of
commands its followers on what they thinking, an egoism, as well as (2) the
“ought to do” (whether in general or in conventional level, which at first glance looks like
specific situations). sensible approach to morality. The second level
 Plato “ Euthyphro” – it is the pious loved by might, de facto, be the way that many (if not most)
the gods because it is pious, or is it pious adults think about morality, that it is simply a
because it is loved by the gods?” question of the following the right rules.

Moral Deliberation Post-conventional

There is a big difference between a young child’s – The morally responsible agent recognizes that
reasoning on the right thing to do and the manner what is good or right is not reducible to following
a morally mature individual arrives at an ethical the rules of one’s group. Instead, it is a question
decision. of understanding personally what ought to do and
deciding, using one’s free will, to act accordingly.
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1-987) – Moral Moral maturity therefore is seen in an agent who
Development acts on what she understood, using her full
rationality, to be what is right, regardless of A. The first one is a situation in which we need
whether the act will bring the agent pleasure or to clarify whether a certain action is morally
pain and even regardless whether the act is in right or morally wrong.
accordance with one’s community’s laws or not. B. The second type involves determining
whether a particular action in question can
 Social Contact - an agreements that rational be identified with a generally accepted
agents have arrived at whether explicitly or ethical or unethical action. An example
implicitly in order to serve what can be would be the issue of the ethical value of
considered the common good or what one the death penalty.
ought to honor and follow. C. The third type points to the presence of an
ethical dilemma. Dilemmas are ethical
Feelings in Moral Deliberation situations in which there are competing
Emotions or feelings have long been values that seem to have equal worth.
derided by purely rationalistic perspectives as
The value of studying ethical theories or
having no place in a properly executed moral
frameworks
decision. Aristotle precisely points out the moral
virtue goes beyond the mere act of intellectually These ethical theories or frameworks may

identifying the right thing to do. Instead, it is the serve as guideposts, given that they are the

condition of one’s character by which the agent is best attempts to understand morality that

able to manage her emotions or feelings. the history of human thought has to offer.

The Natural Law Theory – on the other

Moral Problems
hand puts more emphasis on the supposed
objective, universal nature of what is to be
First Step – that we ought to take if there is
considered morally good, basing its
potential ethical issue to determine our level of
reasoning on the theorized existence of a
involvement in the case at hand.
“human nature”. This theory has the
Second Step – After ascertaining our involvement
advantages of both objectivity and a kind of
in the potential moral situation, we then need to
intuitiveness.
make sure of the facts. The first fact to establish is
Kantian Deontology – puts the premium
whether we are faced with a moral situation or not.
or rational will, freed from all other
Third Step– is to identify all the people who may
considerations, as the only human capacity
potentially be affected by the implications of a
that can determine one’s moral duty.
moral situation or by our concrete choice of action
 Focuses on one’s autonomy as constitutes
There are several types of ethical problems
of what one can consider as moral law that
or issues:
is free from all other ends and inclinations-
 including pain and pleasure as well as  Virtue theory teaches that one must alwsys
conformity with the rules of the group. find and act on the mesotes whether in
treating oneself or any other human being.
Self , Society, and Environment
This mesotes points to the complexity of
Individual Self knowing what must be done in a specific
One may to the demand for an ethically moral situation.
responsible “care for the self” by making full use of
Social Life: In the Philippine Context
the four ethical theories or frameworks.
and in the Global Village
1. John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism – seemingly
One’s membership in any society
a hedonistic theory given its emphasis on
brings forth the demand of communal life in
maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain,
terms of the group’s rules and regulations.
elevates the human element above the
animalistic and above the merely selfish. 1. Mill’s utilitarianism doctrine will always
2. Thomas Aquinas’s Natural Law Theory - push for the greatest happiness
states as the first natural inclination the principle as the prime determinant of
innate tendency that all human beings what can be considered as good action,
share with all other existing things; namely, whether in the personal sphere or in the
the natural propensity to maintain oneself in societal realm.
one’s existence. 2. Thomas Aquinas natural law theory has
3. Kant’s deontology celebrates the rational a clear conception of the principles that
faculty of the moral agent, which sets it should guide the individual in her
above meremermerely sentient actions that affect her larger society.
merely sentient beings. Kant’s principle of 3. Immanuel Kant use the principles of
universalizability challenges the moral agent universalizability and of humanity as end
to think beyond her own predilections and in itself to form a person’s autonomous
desires, and to instead consider what notion of what she ought to do.
everyone ought to do. His principle of 4. Aristotle’s virtue ethics prescribes
humanity as end in itself teaches one to mesotes as the guide to all the actions
always treat humanity, whether in her own that a person has to take, even in her
self or in any other individual, as the end or dealing with the larger community of
goal of all human actions and never merely people.
as the means.
The Non-Human Environment
4. Aristotle’s virtue ethics – teaches one to
cultivate her own intellect as well as her Questions of environmental ethics, of the

character to achieve eudaimonia in her ethical or moral responsibilities human

lifetime.
 beings have toward the non-human world, that her choices in the end cannot
only appeared in the twentieth century. simply be a mere product of these
outside forces, but must be made in
a. Kantian deontology focuses on the
the spirit of freedom. Kohlberg
innate dignity of the human being as
teaches that one’s realization of her
possessing reason, it can be argued that
own freedom to determine her own
one cannot possibly universalize maxims
moral principles, free from all
that, in the end, will lead to an
convention, happens in a process of
untenable social existence.
maturity. An essential element in
b. Thomas Aquinas – states that certain
maturity is the realization that one’s
actions should be avoided because they
choices, even in the realm of ethics,
do not produce a harmonious, peaceful
cannot simply be a function of
society.
rational thought but are inevitably
c. Aristotle’s virtue ethics – pick up on the
shaped also by feelings. Thus, there
problem of such short-sightedness and
is the additional of cultivating one’s
ask how this can possibly lead to
feelings as well as one’s reason. The
becoming a better person
moral agent must be mature enough
A Closing that is Really an Opening to be able to cultivate the necessary
steps to ensure a sound, well-
In the end, there is only a
informed previous chapters, the
beginning.
morally mature agent will be able to
III. Summary
appreciate her responsibility toward
Making informed decisions in the
herself, her society, her
realm of morality entails first
environment.
understanding who one is, in order
to account for reasons that one
comes up with as the agent who
must choose in a moral situation.
Reyes explains that one’s self is a
cross-point of many forces and
factors that shape one’s choices but
do not dictate upon them. The
mature moral agent must
understand how her society, history,
culture, and even religion shape who
she is. She must also realize though