ISLAMSKA MISAO

Osnivač i izdavač: Fakultet za islamske studije, Novi Pazar

Za izdavača: Prof. dr. Enver Gicić
Glavni urednik: Prof. dr. Enver Gicić
Pomoćnik urednika: Prof. dr. Hajrudin Balić
Redakcija: prof. dr. Admir Muratović, prof. dr. Almir
Pramenković, hfz.doc. dr. Haris Hadžić, doc. dr. Siham Mevid
Šerijatski recenzent: hfz, prof. dr. Almir Pramenković

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Adresa redakcije: Fakultet za islamske studije,

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378:28

ISLAMSKA misao : godišnjak Fakulteta za islamske studije Novi Pazar /

glavni urednik Enver Gicić. - 2007, br. 1- . - Novi Pazar : Fakultet za islam-
ske studije, 2007- (Užice : Grafičar). - 24 cm

Godišnje.
ISSN 1452-9580 = Islamska misao (Novi Pazar)
COBISS.SR-ID 141771532
 Hfz. Prof. dr. Almir Pramenković
323.1::28(4-15)
316.722:28(420)

IMPACT OF ISLAMIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ON

PRESERVING RELIGIOUS IDENTITY – THE CASE OF MUSLIM
COMMUNITY IN BRITAIN1

Sažetak
Ovaj članak se prvenstveno fokusira na uticaj islamskih obrazovnih
institucija na očuvanje islamskog identiteta i nastoji analizirati različite
probleme i poteškoće u islamskim obrazovnim institucijama. Posebno,
cilj ovog rada je da proceni iskustvo islamskih obrazovnih institucija u
Velikoj Britaniji i probleme u ovim obrazovnim institucijama - kao i da
istraži neke od mogućih načina za prevazilaženje tih teškoća. Pokazat će
se da su obrazovne institucije osnova muslimanskog identiteta u Britani-
ji. Istaknut ćemo neke od obrazovnih problema muslimanske zajednice
kako bismo poboljšali kvalitet obrazovanja u cilju očuvanja vjerskog iden-
titeta. Jedan od glavnih problema, a možda i glavni problem musliman-
skih zajednica je očuvanje islamskog identiteta i uspostavljanje održivog
islamskog obrazovanja u svjetlu religijskog i multikulturalnog konteksta
na Zapadu. Važno je prepoznati različitu prirodu muslimanskih zajednica
u ovom spektru. Muslimanske zajednice koje žive na Zapadu čine različite
kulturne, sektaške i etničke pripadnosti Ova raznolikost i fluidnost treba
da nas upozore u pokušaju da pronađemo jednu specifičnu ili statičku
definiciju “muslimanske zajednice” ili islamskog identiteta. U isto vreme,
teško je uhvatiti jednu ideju ili definiciju onoga što čini “zapad”, ili ‘’za-
padnu civilizaciju’’. Moramo priznati raznovrsnu i pluralističku dimenziju
zapadne civilizacije, ili kulture, sa svojim dinamičnim silama koje proizlaze
iz različitih istorijskih faktora i iskustava. Dakle, uspon i ideja sekularizma
mogu imati različite forme u različitim evropskim zemljama. Iako je sma-
trana sekularnom demokratijom, UK ima uspostavljenu crkvu. Francuska,
s druge strane, nema ustanovljenu crkvu i ne postoje državne odredbe za
vjerske aktivnosti.
Abstract
1
Ovaj rad je deo postdoktorskog istraživanja koji je autor obavio na Markfield Institute of Higher Education
in association with Gloucestershire University-Lester (Engleska) 2010.godine pod naslovom Impact of Islamic
Educational Institutions on Preserving Religious Identity – The Case of Muslim Community in Serbia and Britain
a pod mentorstvom dr. Abdulaha Šahina.

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 Hfz. Prof. dr. Almir Pramenković

This research focuses primarily on the impact of Islamic educational

institutions on preserving Islamic identity, and seeks to analyze various
problems and difficulties encountered in Islamic educational institu-
tions. In particular, our aim is to evaluate the experience of the Islam-
ic educational institutions in Britain, and number of related problems
encountered in these educational institutions—as well as explore some
possible ways in overcoming these difficulties. It will be shown that the
educational institutions are basis of Muslims identity in Britain. We will
highlight some of educational concerns of the Muslim community, and
the problems encountered in attempting to overcome them in order to
improve the quality of education for the sake of preserving religious iden-
tity. Hopefully, it will contribute to the current debate about the role
of Islamic education in preserving Islamic identity and its influence on
Muslim’s life to produce the desired positive impact in the community
for better life.
One of the major problems, and arguably the main problem, facing
Muslim communities is the preservation of Islamic identity and establish-
ing a viable Islamic education in light of the religious and multicultural
landscape in the West. Before we proceed further into the discussion,
it is important to recognize one initial problem in attempting to spell out
the diverse nature Muslim communities and the West. It is important
to recognize the diverse nature of Muslim communities across this spec-
trum. Muslim communities living in the West comprises of different cul-
tural, sectarian and ethnic backgrounds—arriving in different countries,
for different purposes and different periods in history. This diversity and
fluidity ought to caution us in attempting to locate one specific or static
definition—or identity—of “Muslim community” or Islamic identity. At
the same time, it is difficult to capture one idea or definition of what con-
stitutes “West,” or for that matter Western civilization. We ought to rec-
ognize the diverse and pluralistic dimension of the Western civilization,
or culture, with its own dynamic forces stemming from diverse historical
factors and experiences. Thus, the rise and the idea of secularism may
take a different form in various European countries. Though considered
a secular democracy, UK has an established church. France, on the other
hand, does not have an established church and there are not state provi-
sions for religious activities.2
Given the very nature of this diversity and fluidity of Muslim commu-
nities in the West and the West itself, and Europe in particular, the very

2
I owe this point to Dr. Abdullah Shahin for pointing out this major difference.

304 ISLAMSKA MISAO • 2019 • BROJ 11

 IMPACT OF ISLAMIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ON PRESERVING
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question of Islamic identity and Islamic education in European context

becomes acute. Moreover, the processes of globalisation, modernity,
and mass migration have brought diverse cultures closer than ever be-
fore. In his essay on the Islamic education, Abdullah Sahin argues that
our expression of Islamic identity through Islamic education ought to
take into consideration the presence and recognition of others, in which
our values are always in dialogue and informed by others. For Sahin,
the formation of Islamic identity through Islamic education is a continu-
ous learning process, cherishing an open and critical attitude of ourselves
and others. Basing himself on the Qur’anic injunctions and lessons from
Islamic history, Sahin draws our attention to this open-ended process
of Islamic education.3 This model of self-critical awareness and others
becomes highly relevant when we take a closer look at the response of
British Muslims in attempting to preserve and construe their religious
values.
Islamic educational institutions play an essential role in preserving
Islamic identity, values, and particularly—it preserves family values in the
society by keeping a healthy relation between individuals and groups.
Given the prominent role of the Islamic educational institutions and its
exerted influence in all aspects of life, it is therefore quintessential in
evaluating the Islamic educational institutions and their role in preserv-
ing Islamic identity. In societies where Muslims constitute a minority—in
Britain—the importance of such institutions becomes apparent.
The background of British Muslims differs in some respects. They
mainly come from Asian and Arabic countries, as well as from some Euro-
pean countries. Each of those countries has some specific habits, culture,
and local peculiarities. This variety affects life of Muslims in Britain, cre-
ating complexity, which we will discuss in greater detail in the following
chapter.
1. Islamic Identity and Islamic Education in Britain: Challenges and
Prospects
1.1. First wave of immigrations
In order to understand the attitude of behaviour patterns of Brit-
ish-born Muslim children, and concerns of their parents, it is important
to highlight the historical background of migration of Muslims into Brit-
3
Abdullah Sahin, ‘‘The contribution of religious education to social and community cohesion: an Islamic
educational perspective’’, in Religious education and Social and Community cohesion, ed. Michael Grimmitt
(McCrimmons Press, 2010).

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 Hfz. Prof. dr. Almir Pramenković

ain.
Muslim presence in Britain goes back at least three hundred years to
the activities of the East India Company, when men from Indian subcon-
tinent were first recruited into the merchant navy.4 These sailors, known
’kascars’, were present in Britain’s ports in sizeable numbers.5 Since entry
into Britain for citizens of British colonies was not restricted by 1962 the
immigrants came from India in 1940s after Second World War. Before Brit-
ish authorities issued a legislative proposition of entry into the country
(Immigration Act of 1962) there was a massive increase in immigration
from all regions, especially from the Indian subcontinent.6 Next Muslim
group of different background, Turkish, settled in Britain in 1970s. It was
followed by smaller groups from Malaysia, Morocco and Yemen.7 Euro-
pean Muslims from Bosnia and Kosovo as well as from Afghanistan and
Somalia came to Britain in 1990s. Until 2001, a comprehensive data on
British Muslims were not available. According to the 2001 census, British
Muslim population numbered 1.6. Million, making up 2.7 percent of total
British population, and is considered second-largest religion in Britain.8
1.2. Islamic Educational institutions in Britain
Many of the Muslim immigrants came in Britain for variety of rea-
sons—some as refugees, some for a better standard of living, others to
get education. Although the first mosque was erected in Woking in 1890,9
the number of mosques increased significantly with new phases of immi-
grants in Britain in the 1950s.10
It is unclear when supplementary schools first appeared. What is
known, however, is that the supplementary school “movement” started
flourishing after the Second World War, when refugees from Eastern Eu-
4
Ziauddin Sardar, ‘’Racism, Identity and Muslims in the West’’, in Muslim Minorities in the West, ed. Syed Z.
Abedin, Zaiauddin Sardar, (London: Grey Seal, 1995), 1.
5
Philip Lewis, Islamic Britain-religion, politics and identity among British Muslims (London, New York: I.B.
Tauris Publishers, 1994), 11.
6
Muhammad Anwar, Young Muslims in Britain-attitudes, educational needs and policy implications (Leicester:
The Islamic foundation, 1994), 12 .
7
Jorgen Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995), 41-42.
8
Ceri Peach, ‘‘Britain’s Muslim population: Overview‘‘, in Muslim Britain: Communities under pressure, ed.
Tahir Abas, (London, New York: Zed Books, 2005), 18.
9
Muhammad Anwar, Young Muslims in Britain-attitudes, educational needs and policy implications (Leicester:
The Islamic foundation, 1994), 12. Britain has no generally applicable legal framework for religious communities.
Traditional religious communities have historical privileges, but there some statutory limits for their freedom.
However, status of recognition, like in Austria for example, does not exist in Britain. Most Muslim organization
and mosques operate under law that regulates charitable organizations. That means that all mosques and
organizations are registered charities. Other than that, technically, organizations are not required to be registered.
10
Gilles Kepel, Allah in the West – Islamic Movements in America and Europe (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997),
97.

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 IMPACT OF ISLAMIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ON PRESERVING
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rope arrived in the UK. This growth continued in the 1960s, when immi-
grants from new Commonwealth countries set up their own community
schools. It has accelerated again as new communities continue to arrive
in Britain. Many such supplementary schools are held in mosques, in com-
munity centres, church halls, school halls hired for use, or private homes.
They study Arabic language for purpose of Qur’anic recitation, and they
also study principals of beliefs and basic requirements of Shari’a.11 One of
the main reasons, why Muslims have established a programme of supple-
mentary schools—madrasas—is because parents thought that the state
schools fail to provide an essential part of spiritual and moral education.
Other reasons include the absence of Arabic and other relevant commu-
nity languages from the school curriculum.12
Nowadays, there are two types of Muslim schools in Britain: state
funded and independent Muslim schools. State-funded Muslim schools
are required to teach the National Curriculum, but they are free to teach
their own syllabus for religious education. Independent Muslim schools
combine traditional Islamic religious education, based on models from
the Indian sub-continent, with some mainstream English National Curric-
ulum subjects. However, there is great diversity among Muslim schools
in Britain. For instance, they vary in student numbers from approximately
5 to 1800. They also differ in terms of the curriculum they teach: all state
funded and some independent Muslim schools follow the national cur-
riculum, while a small number of independent schools teach an entirely
Islamic curriculum. These tend to be Islamic seminaries or daru-l-ulum,
which are training their students to be Islamic scholars.13
The struggle to obtain government funding for Muslim schools spans
for pretty long time, as applications were repeatedly turned down. For
example, Muslim parents Association in Bradford in 1982 sought five
schools with majority of Muslim students to be moved into voluntary
aided schools under Muslim control. The initiative was rejected with ar-
gument that type of schools like that would inevitably lead to social seg-
regation and poor quality of the education.
When the Education Reform Act was adopted in 1988, for the first
time it has become a statutory duty for country schools with Muslim stu-

11
Ghulam Sarwar, British Muslims and Schools, (London, The Muslim Educational Trust, 1994), 28.
12
Muhammad Akram Khan-Cheema, ‘’British Muslims in State schools: a positive way forward’’, in Issues in
Islamic education, ed. The Muslim Education Trust, (London: Cromwell Press Limited, 1996), 84.
13
Parker-Jenkins, M., ‘‘The Legal Framework for Faith-based Schools and the Rights of the Child’’, in Gardner,
R. et al. (eds.) Faith Schools: consensus or conflict?, (Abingdon: Routledge Falmer, 2005),

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 Hfz. Prof. dr. Almir Pramenković

dents to include the teaching of Islam in their RE programmes.14 The new

Education Act adopted in 1993 contained provision for the government
support of schools formed by voluntary groups. The door therefore ap-
peared to be open for Muslim schools to receive state finance. About
500.000 Muslim children are currently receiving education in British
schools.15 Only one per cent of all Muslim children are home schooled.16
However, vast majority of Muslims children attend three kinds of schools:
community schools, churches schools or Muslims schools.
Generally, in the UK, children are required to attend school between
ages of 5 and 16. Under the Human Rights Act (1998) schools are re-
quired to adhere to requirements of the European Convention on Human
Rights, such as the right to freedom of religion, the right of parents to
schooling their children, in the line with their religious and philosophical
beliefs, and protection the children from discrimination on the ground of
religion.17
1.3. Challenges for the Islamic education in Britain
From the time globalization set in as a social force, religious identi-
ty has gone through unique changes. The most important change was
religious society found it facing other institutions totally detached from
religious belief that offered new sciences devoid of all religious inclina-
tions. To understand the depth of this change, we need to understand the
meaning of secularization, multifaceted process of social change through
which religious thinking; practice and institutions lose their social signif-
icance. The process of secularization began with the Enlightenment in
the West. It became a strong counterforce to the moral dominance of
religious orientations. One of the consequences of the process of secu-
larization alongside globalization has been reflected in the fragmentation
of religious identity.18
Before proceeding to more specific discussion on religious identity of
Muslims in UK it is necessary to consider the general context in the coun-
tries of origin. Muslim communities bring with them to Britain a complex
of perception about the norms of family life and the undisputed roots.
14
Ghulam Nabi Saqeb, ‘’Teacher training in Islam: its importance and practicalities’’, in Issues in Islamic
education, ed. The Muslim Education Trust, (London: Cromwell Press Limited, 1996), 35.
15
www.statistics.gov.uk/focuson/religion
16
www.islamichomeeducation.co.uk
17
European Conventionon Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) art. 9 and 14, and Aditional
Protocol no 1 to the ECHR, art.2.
18
Seid Reza Ameli, Globalization, Americanization and British Muslim Identity (London: Islamic College for
Advanced Studies Press, 2002), 109.

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They brought with them a cultural heritage and customs.19 All groups
who migrate to a new country have difficulties adjusting to a new way
of life. Strongly attached to their own religion and culture they feel that
Western culture is a threat to their religion and values, and religion is an
important and sensitive part of British Muslims identity. Brought up in
a different cultural environment Muslims migrants began to experience
tensions between minority-majority culture. These tensions strongly in-
fluence the attitudes towards religion and other values of their own com-
munity. Adapting to the new circumstances and culture becomes a major
obstacle for these newly formed communities in Britain. This raises a
number of important and related questions pertaining to their identity of
Muslims living in Britain. As Claire Tinker points out,
“Given these diverse national origins it is unsurprising that a num-
ber of questions have arisen about how Muslims in Britain construct and
maintain their identities.
In particular, do they adopt multiple or overlapping identities, or do
they privilege one aspect of their identity over others? Do `British Mus-
lims’ affiliate themselves to the British State, to a British or European
Muslim community, or to a global Ummah?”20
One of the main challenges for British Muslims is how to preserve
their Islamic identity in British society, and what this Muslim Britishness
means, or can we speak of multiple identities?21 British Muslims are grap-
pling with the question of how to be Muslim in secular state and to find
proper mechanism to live as a minority in non-Muslim society. In addi-
tion, they are supposed to find appropriate way whereby they will recon-
cile values of Islam and living in secular state.
For early Muslim immigrants preserving a religious identity became
a major concern, and they sought to preserve their religious identity by
educating and upbringing their children in accordance with Islamic teach-
ing. In order to achieve that, first Muslim erected first mosques in Brit-
ain. The structure of mosque and madrasas played key role in the first
decades of Muslims settlements. The first serious Islamic educational
need appeared to have been felt by the first generation when they were
joined by their families and children. Consequently, they expended realm
19
Maurice Irfan Coloes, Education and Islam – a new strategic approach (Leicester: SDSA, 2004), 13.
20
Claire Tinker, “State Funded Muslim Schools? Equality, Identity and Community in Multi-faith Britain,” Ph.D
dissertation (University of Nottingham, 2006), 12.
21
Paul Bagguley, Yasmin Hussain, ‘‘Flying the flag for England? Citizenship, religion and cultural identity among
British Pakistani Muslims‘‘, in Muslim Britain: Communities under pressure, ed. Tahir Abas, (London, New York:
Zed Books, 2005), 217.

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 Hfz. Prof. dr. Almir Pramenković

of interaction with surrounding society particularly in education.22 That

interaction raised deeper questions, challenges and issues which relate
to individual and collective senses of identity. When the first children
from Muslim families arrived in the British educational system in the late
1960s, Muslims found themselves facing a sizeable cultural challenge:
what would be the consequences of social cohesion of these children
within open society where they would meet children of own age from
different cultural and religious background. Was there not a risk that Is-
lamic identity would be adulterated and eroded through contact with the
dominant non-Muslim society?23
Very often, children meet quite different values in school from those
that they usually meet at home. These lead children to face problems
adapting to life both in school and at home. How they will deal with food
restrictions, the question of dress, physical education and special prob-
lems met by girls in the religious context are the crucial questions. Simi-
larly, Education Reforms Act 1988 aroused concerns of Muslims.24 Mus-
lim parents were worried regarding appropriation of Christian Assembly
in Religious education. They could only avoid it by writing an explicit dis-
approval to the head teachers stating that they do not wish their children
to attend these services as well as Christian Religious Education. Parents
were worried because of the lack of facilities in schools to teach them
their religion and culture.
Single-sex schooling has also been part of the appeal for Muslim
schools. In Bradford, the Muslim Parents Association was formed in 1974
to represent the Muslim view on this issue and from this time a number
of private Muslim schools were founded along single-sex lines and in ac-
cordance with Islamic principles. Muslim schools for boys have been es-
tablished to accommodate the wishes of Muslim communities who have
expressed a need for single-sex schooling for their sons as well as their
daughters. In the absence of schools promoting an Islamic faith, Muslim
parents have opted for alternative denominational schools, such as those
run on Anglican or Catholic lines, which are seen to be supportive of both
moral education and single-sex schooling.
When the Government has taken the lead on many issues relating
to the needs of the children from Muslim and other minority group the
22
Jorgen Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995), 118.
23
Gilles Kepel, Allah in the West – Islamic Movements in America and Europe (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997),
109.
24
Muhammad Anwar, Young Muslims in Britain: Attitudes, educational needs and policy implications
(Leicester: The Islamic foundation, 1994), 30.

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response to specific religious needs has been largely left to local govern-
ment. The reason for this is that Local Education Authorities (LEAs) are
clearly in better position to identify the religious needs of children. Prac-
tices adopted by LEA in response to Muslims requests include: provision
of a room for midday prayer and special provision for Friday prayer, adop-
tion of school uniform rules and sportswear requirements, the use of dis-
cretionary holidays to allow Muslim children permission to be away from
school at the start of Ramadan and at ’Eid al-Fitr and ’Eid al-Adha, the
provision of halal food for school lunch, single-sex groupings and classes
and other schools activities.
Majority of Muslims parent support single-sex schooling for their
daughters after puberty. There are greater opportunities for boys to har-
ass girls verbally and physically in mixed schools. Muslims parents are
increasingly using these arguments to support their preference for sin-
gle-sex schooling. Muslim children are exposed to divergent values at
school and at mosque school.
In terms of educational planning, some community schools attempt
to keep religion and faith out of schools altogether, and this makes it
more difficult for them to meet distinctive moral, spiritual and cultural
needs of Muslim children.25 The result is that Muslim children’s unique
religious identity may not be celebrated in schools, leading to feelings
that this identity is also not valued in broader society. At the same time,
there is a concern of the teasing and bullying that Muslim children expe-
rience at schools. In one incident, a schoolgirl had her headscarf pulled
of by woman at her school gates while in other verbal abuse and threat
is recorded. The school curriculum has important contribution to make in
helping students to develop an understanding of different groups within
their society. Schools have responsibility to check the accuracy of rep-
resentation of Islam in the textbooks and library books they use. In the
school, Islam can be taught by non-Muslims, but they often have limited
understanding of issues pertaining to the needs of Muslim community.26
Many parents would like their children to have opportunity to receive
lessons about Islam within community schools, as a part of normal school
day, preferably taught by imam or qualified Muslim teacher. In State
schools, students are required to take part in daily collective worship,
which can be considered in broad sense as Christian in character.27 Above
25
Open Society Institute, British Muslims and Education (2005), 145.
26
Ibid. 152.
27
Ibid. 159.

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 Hfz. Prof. dr. Almir Pramenković

all, teachers should be trained to meet the needs of Muslim children and
to respond sensitively to Muslim beliefs and values in, and beyond, the
classroom. It is important teachers to respect Muslim children’s identity
and avoid stereotypes about Islam and Muslims.
Prominence of religion in the identity of young British Muslims is of
enormous importance in schools, but it involves complex questions of
intercultural relations in multicultural society. The question of assimi-
lation and isolation begin to emerge in this context. One response is to
require Muslim children to cast off their cultural heritage (assimilation)
while other response is for Muslims to retreat into inner-city enclaves,
where they can preserve their identity untouched by the way of life in
the broader society around them (isolation). Muslim should prefer a re-
sponse in which they are both free to develop their distinctive identity
and confident to take on all the rights and responsibility of full British
citizenship. Here we are moving into the model of integration. Two shifts
in curriculum might help to make this happen. The first is more global
focus, where European and Christian culture is contextualised in terms of
world civilisation. The second involves the inclusion of currently neglect-
ed Muslim contribution to European learning and culture. The effect of
this would be both to enrich curriculum for all students and to support
Muslim children in preservation their identity within the concept of Euro-
pean citizenship, hence that will reduce their feeling of rejection.28
British Muslims have to consider question if they want or not to im-
port pedagogical methods and curricula from the country of origin and to
think of a project adapted to the realities of their societies. They should
explore the areas with witch Islamic education is concerned. Study of the
surrounding and of people is an essential part of education. Islamic ed-
ucational institution can not be disconnected from reality. If things were
the same as in the students’ countries of origin, the teaching methods
would have to take into account the milieu in witch the education was
given.
State-maintained schools are nurturing in an Islamic environment. At
the same time, there is a danger of many of these schools which pro-
mote a more isolationist outlook.29 These schools could isolate Muslims
from broader society and hinder attempts at integration. They may fail to
prepare children adequately for democratic citizenship in multicultural
Ibid, 154.
28

Abdullah Sahin, ‘‘The contribution of religious education to social and community cohesion: an Islamic
29

educational perspective,” 168.

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society and understanding of other faiths. Conversely, they nurture faith

by teaching religious education, including art, sex education and history,
from an Islamic point of view and by providing school ethos that is sup-
portive of faith. They provide appropriate spiritual environment and ed-
ucation which is in accordance with Islamic beliefs and values. They help
Muslim children to develop and retain their religious identity. If Muslim
children have strong self-concept and sense of identity they will be able
to develop respect and tolerance for others and play worthwhile role in
increasingly multicultural society.
1.4. Integration in British Multicultural and Secular Society
British multiculturalism provides a fruitful dialogue between different
cultures and religions which fosters and encourages diversity and plu-
ralism. Its benefit lies in the recognition of various group identities and
particularly the identity of minorities.30 The prospect of celebrating a
multicultural attitude in Britain has been hampered by Rushdie’s Satan-
ic Verses Affair (1988) as well as attacks of 9/11 and 7/7—resulted in a
more hostile attitude against the Muslims in Britain. The presence of
Muslims in British society became clearly visible in the 1980’s following
the Rushdie affair. At the same time, a sense of alienation from the tra-
ditional culture at home and feeling rejected from the wider secular was
felt by many young Muslims. Shahin writes,
“During the late 1980’s and 1990’s growing economic inequality, dis-
crimination, very slow upward mobility coupled with growing Islamopho-
bia have increased this sense of alienation. The British multiculturalism
compared to the more openly assimilationist French model appears more
accommodating to the religious/cultural demands of ethnic minorities.
However more recent developments suggest that both systems are no
longer able to contain, let alone properly address, the growing Muslim
challenges in Europe.”31
Shahin recognizes two major problems arising due to this inadequacy
of Muslim integration into the multicultural of Britain. First, it relates
to the policy makers who for the most part have focused on the nation-
al security in attempting to eradicate terrorism without prioritizing the
fundamental socio-economic and educational policy.32 Moreover, there
is a tendency on a superficial level to promote “moderate” Muslims in
30
Claire Tinker, “State Funded Muslim Schools? Equality, Identity and Community in Multi-faith Britain,” 206.
31
Abdullah Sahin, “Rethinking the Meaning of Being Islamicly Educated in a secular Context: Reflections on
Religious Nurture among British Muslim Communities”, 2.
32
Ibid, 1.

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 Hfz. Prof. dr. Almir Pramenković

an attempt to define British Muslims by a political rhetoric. For Shahin,

these are short-term goals and do not allow Muslims to empower them-
selves as well as identify and resolve their own problems.33 Shahin notes
a second major problem which relates to the inaptness of Islamic institu-
tions, lack of necessary skills and method, to engage critically in a wider
multicultural society.34
Shahin explores various problems facing Islamic institutions in at-
tempting to engage in a wider multicultural society. One of the main
challenges facing Islamic institutions in Britain is the failure of recognition
of Islamic institutions by the UK educational authorities. Many of the
graduate from the Islamic seminaries are not recognized in a wider sec-
ular educational institutions. Shahin recognizes that Islamic institutions
ought to rethink the strategies of integrating more fully into the secular
educational system.35
Within mosque schools teaching is often provided by local imams,
who may be unfamiliar with current educational thinking and who ac-
tually have received their training in madrasas in other cultural and reli-
gious contexts outside the UK. The need for imams who are trained in the
UK, and are able to communicate and interact with young British Mus-
lims, is one of the most important issues for preservation Islamic identi-
ty.36 Thereby, they will help Muslim children to preserve religious identity
and to articulate Islam in contemporary British society. Britain Muslims
should not think that the right response should come from abroad, from
great Islamic scholars residing in Muslim countries. It is felt that imams
who were trained outside the UK could adversely affect process of per-
severance of religious identity and at the same time integration in British
society. At the same time, it also relates to the pedagogical and curricu-
lum that is that in these seminaries. Shahin writes,
“It is very concerning that most of the teaching staff and students in
the seminaries are not introduced to the generic pedagogic skills nec-
essary to develop a proper knowledge and understanding of Islam and
effectively communicate it to the wider society. It appears that no proper
provision is made to introduce students to the subjects within the clas-
33
Abdullah Shahin, “Islam, Secularity and the Culture of Critical Openness A Muslim Theological Reflection”, in
Islam, Society and the State: British Secularism and Religion ed. Yahya Birt, Dilwar Hussain and Attaullah Siddiqui
(Markfield: Kube Publishing, 2011), 10.
34
Ibid, 10; Abdullah Sahin, “Rethinking the Meaning of Being Islamicly Educated in a secular Context:
Reflections on Religious Nurture among British Muslim Communities,” 4.
35
Ibid, 3.
36
Maurice Irfan Coloes, Education and Islam – a new strategic approach (Leicester: SDSA 2004), 12.

314 ISLAMSKA MISAO • 2019 • BROJ 11

 IMPACT OF ISLAMIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ON PRESERVING
RELIGIOUS IDENTITY – THE CASE OF MUSLIM COMMUNITY IN BRITAIN

sical Islamic humanities (the adab genre) and almost no contemporary

Western liberal arts subjects are studies. Without proper familiarity with
the humanities it is difficult to expect that the students will develop the
hermeneutic competence to engage with the rich Muslim cultural herit-
age and develop a more appropriate and effective language for articulat-
ing Islam in contemporary British society.”37
This perception of classical Islamic learning and the wider secular so-
ciety seems to be inherently incompatible for many Islamic educational
institutions, which may explain one of the reasons why many of the Is-
lamic institutions are reluctant to engage in a broader dialogue with cul-
ture at large. Shahin, however, challenges this dichotomous view of in-
compatibility between Islamic values and that of secular ideals. Shahin is
careful to differentiate between a) secularism “as an ideological position
that confines faith strictly to the personal sphere of life, neither reflects
the reality of contemporary Western societies nor is compatible with Is-
lam, and b) secularity “as a political principal integral to democratic in-
clusion, may accommodate—in a just manner—the diversity of cultures,
value systems and faith traditions that make up modern plural society.”38
Furthermore, Shahin aims to show that the latter, namely a process
of secularity—is in fact compatible with the principles of Islam. He points
out that the ideals of secularity may in fact be sought in the Islamic princi-
ples of public or common good (maslaha) and in an attempt to delineate
and explicate the purposes of Divine Will (maqasid and ta’lil al-ahkam)
in a modern contemporary society.39 Shahin encourages openness and
cultural engagement that was practiced in the medieval Islamic society,
which displayed openness and tolerance of various faith communities.
Conclusion
In the introduction we have already alluded to Sahins epistemological
framework which involves critical engagement with others. We may push
this line of thought in terms integrationist approach, in which— Muslims
sought to strive as full and equal members of a multicultural and multi
religious Britain, without jeopardizing their religious identity. One way
forward is for there to be willingness on part of those in authority to un-
derstand the educational needs of British Muslims and meet needs with

37
Abdullah Sahin, “Rethinking the Meaning of Being Islamicly Educated in a secular Context: Reflections on
Religious Nurture among British Muslim Communities”, 4.
38
Shahin, “Islam, Secularity and the Culture of Critical Openness A Muslim Theological Reflection”, 3.
39
Ibid, 4.

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 Hfz. Prof. dr. Almir Pramenković

impartiality.40 At the same time, there must a self-awareness of Islamic

educational institutions to be more inclusive of culture at large.
As noted previously, however, many Islamic educational institutions
tend to be more insulated from the wider culture at large. This protective
and insulated attitude becomes problematic for many young Muslim stu-
dents who find it difficult to express themselves in a wider society. The
Muslim educational institutions ought to be more inclusive and show an
open attitude towards others.
Study of Muslim religious educational institutions suffers from the
lack of awareness of the complex of structure and culture at large. It is
noted that awareness of Muslims from their arrival in Britain for their
religious identity was on quite high level. The dilemma was about their
children and young generations that have been born in Britain and there-
by they got, besides Islamic identity, British identity and adopted some
of British cultural heritage. Thus, a challenge appeared in font of both
parents and children. Children were often times in dilemma in how to
maintain Islamic identity in non Islamic society in which they were born.
Parents were concerned how to pass on to children their perception and
values in accordance with new area circumstances but first of all to be in
conformity with Islamic teachings.
If faith is the key determinant of Muslim students’ lives and identity,
the Educational system schools and Higher Education Institutions must
take steps to understand more deeply the key components and issues
for Muslim students. The presence of Muslim children in multi-religious
schools is needed to help the majority ethnic community to be more in-
clusive. Here, the question of an open attitude and critical dialogical ap-
proach on both sides becomes apparent.
The improvement in the Islamic education institution remains
vital to the gradual development of the indigenous Muslim religious
authority and religious leadership in Britain. If the Muslim community,
their so called leaders and DFEE cum LEAs are really serious in raising the
standard of education of the Muslim children than fundamental changes
have to be made in the British educational system. Muslim children needs
state funded Muslim schools for their proper growth and development.
They are in a better position to educate them because they understand
their needs and demands.

Ghulam Sarwar, British Muslims and Schools, (London, The Muslim Educational Trust, 1994), 30.
40

316 ISLAMSKA MISAO • 2019 • BROJ 11