Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pyc 2601
Pyc 2601
PYC2603/1/2012±2018
98785206
3B2
PST Style
(iii) PYC2603/1/2012±2018
Contents
Chapter Page
INTRODUCTION iv
1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ADULT DEVELOPMENT 1
2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND SEXUALITY 11
3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 17
4 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 27
5 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 37
6 SUCCESSFUL AGEING AND MENTAL HEALTH 46
7 DEATH AND GRIEF 51
(iv)
Introduction
In no other module in psychology will you learn more about your own growth and
development as an adult than in this module. We know that, as a student at our university,
you are an adult. For you, the childhood and adolescent stages of development are
something of the past.
What growth and development are you aiming to achieve as an adult? This is the type of
question that you are going to examine and reflect on in this module. By examining this
question in every area of your development (eg your physical ageing, how you think and feel
and interact with others, how you understand the fundamental issues of life in terms of your
moral values) you will develop informed opinions, come up with new questions, and feel
challenged in your own growth in the direction of greater psychological maturity.
Let us start by asking and confronting you with some very fundamental questions. (We
suggest that you use a workbook in which to answer all the questions, tasks and reflective
activities given in this study guide.)
What do you mean when you say that you are an adult?
Think about this for a while.
List your ideas in your workbook.
Your ideas about adulthood may have included that you are grown-up, in other words, that
you are no longer a child or an adolescent. You may have in mind the fact that you are
physically fully developed: that you look like an adult. We usually associate being an adult
with chronological age, that is, how old someone is. At a certain age, usually in the late teens
and early twenties, a person no longer has the physical appearance of a child.
But is chronological age the most important characteristic that distinguishes adults from
children? Why do we sometimes say that someone should start acting his or her age? What
do we mean when we say that a person is being childish or immature? When we say this sort
of thing, we have in mind certain characteristics of being adult. Look at the characteristics
you have listed, and let's think about some of them.
Which of the characteristics you have listed to describe yourself as an adult refer to your
behaviour or how mature you are as a person?
When you think about being an adult, are there certain characteristics that you may still
want to acquire? In your workbook, describe what you want to achieve with your life
and the kind of person you really want to be.
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Your description of yourself as you would ideally like to be will almost certainly include far
more than just physical appearance or age. Your concept of what it is to be adult now has far
more meaning. Let us consider this fuller concept of adulthood.
If we say that someone acts like an adult, we may have certain adult standards of behaviour
in mind. Our concept of an adult is of someone who is mature in the emotional or
psychological sense of the word. For example, an adult no longer throws emotional tantrums
if he or she wants something; is capable of controlling his or her emotions; can consider the
needs of others; and takes reality into account.
We have given this module the title Adulthood and maturity to indicate that in it we look
at all the essential features of being an adult, and we highlight the very essence of what it
means to be adult. As you will see in later chapters of the module, maturity refers to fully
developed powers of the mind and an optimal level of personality development. In this
module we also consider the characteristics of adult behaviour and functioning. But, and
much more interestingly, we also consider what being a mature adult, in the fullest sense of
the term, really means. As you will discover, it entails a certain way of being rather than just a
certain way of behaving. It is a way of being that not only brings our talents and capabilities
as a person to full fruition, but also earmarks us as truly human, as someone who exemplifies
the very best in human nature. It is a way of being that is particularly identified by how we
relate to others, what impact our lives have on theirs ± whether we bring out the best in
others as much as we seek to give full expression to the best in ourselves. Our lives mean
nothing if they mean nothing to anybody else. You will finally discover that if we can all act
in an adult, that is, highly responsible way, we will have a world worth living in.
Being a mature adult is therefore, and most essentially, a goal, something we strive towards
and which, if we really think about it, something that we truly want to be and experience.
Why? Because being an adult has to do with a sense of true fulfilment, almost like a
commission we have successfully fulfilled: in this case, becoming the person we were meant
to be. Becoming truly adult or mature is an achievement ± a life task we have successfully
completed. Achieving this life task gives our lives meaning. It is an indication that we have
not wasted our lives, nor failed to use the opportunities they have offered us, nor spurned the
responsibilities they placed upon us. If we complete our life task, we have lived a good, truly
worthy life and, in our unique way, we have changed our world for the better.
Louw, D., & Louw, A. (2009). Adult development and ageing. Bloemfontein: Psychology
Publications, ABC Printers.
. Table of contents
To get a good idea of the topic and issues that are discussed in each chapter, start by
reading the headings in the table of contents. In other words, regard reading the table of
contents as an important starting point in your study activities.
. Orientation
Each chapter in this study guide is introduced by an orientation in which we give a brief
overview of the contents of the chapter. In the orientation certain developmental issues
are put into perspective so that you will not only gain knowledge, but will also acquire
insight into the nature of developmental processes or principles.
. Outcomes
The outcomes which are set for each chapter indicate what we hope you will achieve in
studying it; in other words, the outcomes refer to the knowledge and insight you should
have gained after completing the chapter. A further important aim of these outcomes is
that they should help you to apply this knowledge in practice.
. Study units
Each chapter in the study guide is divided into study units. Each study unit relates to a
specific aspect of development that occurs during adulthood.
In the study units of this study guide, we refer to specific headings in the prescribed
book. This means that a study section starts with the heading we refer to and ends at the
end of the section with that heading.
Boxes, tables or figures you need to study for examination purposes are specifically
referred to.
Remember that these questions and tasks do not cover all the sections and information
that you have to study for the examination. You should therefore make sure that you
know all the sections you have to study in their entirety.
Keeping this in mind, continue to answer the questions or complete the tasks in your own
workbook. Once you are satisfied with your answers, read our feedback carefully and
(vii) PYC2603/1
assess the correctness or quality of your work by comparing it with the suggestions in our
feedback. Remember that our feedback simply provides examples of how to handle
questions or tasks. It does not, therefore, give you the only possible or correct answer.
. Self-reflection activity
You will find it much easier to reach your final destination ± being a healthy, developing
person who interacts with others in ways that encourage their own personal and
professional development ± if you involve yourself in a personal and, at the same time,
critical way in this module on adulthood and maturity. We have, therefore, given you
some self-reflection activities. These activities require you to reflect critically on the
issues discussed in the study guide and prescribed book. You could also answer these
questions in your workbook. These reflections should help you draw on the knowledge
you have already accumulated through personal experience. They should also help you
to continually apply whatever scientific knowledge you are acquiring to practical or real-
life situations. The accumulation of knowledge is meaningless if it does not bring benefit
to us, to others, and to society as a whole.
We trust that you will find your study of adulthood an enriching experience which will
benefit not only yourself and your own development but also those with whom you
have contact through social or work relationships.
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CHAPTER 1
Orientation
A person spends approximately three-fourths of his or her life as an adult. Since the various
stages of adulthood, namely the young, middle and late adult years, represent the longest
part of our lives, it is important to acquire scientific knowledge of the development and
changes that take place during this stage in order to master the art of living to the full.
After you have worked through this chapter, you will have a new appreciation of the
complexity of human adult development. Your new understanding of the complex nature of
development should prevent you from depicting adult behavioural patterns simplistically or
sometimes even stereotypically. It should also ensure that you take the rich and interesting
diversities of individual differences into account when you explain and describe
developmental changes and behavioural patterns in adulthood.
Outcomes
After you have worked through chapter 1, you should
. be able to review adult development and the challenges involved in this developmental
stage
. be able to discuss the key principles underlying adult development throughout the life
span, as identified by Paul Baltes
. be able to explain the different forces that influence and shape human development
. recognise the importance of developmental issues
2
Self-reflection
Think about what it means to be an adult in our times. List your reflections and write down
questions that you might have. Then study the rest of the chapter and, at the end, see
whether it has addressed your reflections and questions. What did you learn about being an
adult? What, in your view, does it take to become a mature person who experiences true
fulfilment through finding meaning in achieving the life tasks of the adult years?
(1) in most poor economies the burden of sheer survival puts people at greater risk of
ageing prematurely than people in rich economies.
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(2) people in African societies age more slowly than those in western societies.
(3) people in western societies age more quickly than those in African societies.
(4) the WHO tends to take only chronological age into account when determining cut-off
points.
Add your own brief description of each principle, using the information in section 1.2 A life
span developmental perspective.
. Non-normative influences:
(i) ............................................................................................................................................
(ii) ............................................................................................................................................
. Normative history-graded influences: In this case you should have given examples of
historical or cultural events that have influenced the development of a specific
generation (cohort).
. Non-normative influences: Your examples should relate to unusual events that influence
the development of individuals.
following table by identifying the most important physical, cognitive, personality and social
developments that are characteristic of development in the three periods of adulthood. After
you have worked through all the chapters in the prescribed book, come back to this table and
make sure that you have, indeed, identified the most important developments for each
domain and each period.
Young
adulthood
(+ 20±35 years)
Middle adult-
hood
(+ 35±60 years)
Late adulthood
(+ 60 years and
older)
(b) Self-reports
1.6.3.4 Meta-analysis
(a) Researchers aim to identify the differences and the similarities between cultures.
(b) Researchers aim to identify either the differences or the similarities between cultures.
(c) Cross-cultural research is unique research and is independent from mainstream
psychology.
(d) Unique challenges such as misinterpretations and language barriers are associated with
cross-cultural research.
10
Conclusion
You, as an individual in one of the adult developmental stages, will now realise that an
informed approach to the challenges of adult development will contribute to a responsible
approach to your life tasks. These include, among others, embarking on a career, marriage
and parenthood; following a healthy lifestyle; making a commitment to community service,
especially during the years of retirement; counteracting developmental decline and
optimising your potential for personal growth; and developing a sense of morality and
profound respect for the dignity of the individual person and the rights of all people. The
journey of adulthood is, however, not an easy ride Ð be prepared to be cognitively, socially
and emotionally challenged as well as in terms of your personality.
. ``What are the characteristics of a person who has developed maturity and wisdom during
the adult years of life and how do I measure up to this standard?''
. ``What do I regard as the value of each period of adulthood?''
. ``How does my perception of my age reflect `personal age' and `ageless self'?''
. ``Do our cognitive abilities necessarily decline during adulthood?''
Make notes of your own personal questions and see whether you can find answers to these
questions in the course of your study of the various aspects of development in adulthood.
11 PYC2603/1
CHAPTER 2
Orientation
The way adults develop physically often creates a rather negative impression in people's
minds of the adult years. The peak of physical prowess, energy and health seems to be
reached in young adulthood; this is followed by a slow decline, which becomes all the more
noticeable after the age of 40. However, both the nature of individuals' biological ageing and
their life expectancy are determined by a complex interaction between genetic (biological)
and psychological characteristics and socioeconomic or environmental factors. This
interaction brings individual differences strongly to the fore. Papalia and her co-workers
(2007, p. 73) conclude that ``older adults vary greatly in health, education, income,
occupation, and living arrangements ... they are individuals with differing needs, desires,
abilities, lifestyles, and cultural backgrounds''.
Realising that we are not going to remain young forever should inspire us to devote
ourselves to the many tasks life presents to us; tasks which, if performed responsibly, will
lead to psychological growth and wellbeing no matter what our age.
Outcomes
. 2.1 Introduction
Our bodies age because they are used so much, and Wear and tear theory
are worn out like a machine.
Older people's bodies become stiffer and their skin Cross-linking theory
tissue becomes less flexible.
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The human species has a life expectancy of 120 Genetic programming theory
years.
Cells can divide only a limited number of times. Genetic programming theory
The DNA of cells is damaged when electrons leave Free radical theory
the nucleus of the atom.
Although you do not have to study the following sections of the prescribed book for the
examination, you do need to read them to get a more complete picture of the physical
changes that take place during adulthood, especially late adulthood.
2.3.4 Stamina
. 2.4 Sexuality
. Conclusion
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Although you do not have to study the following sections of the prescribed book for the
examination, you do need to read them to get a more complete picture of the development of
sexuality during adulthood.
Under 2.4.2:
(a) In a South African study it was found that many people prefer to have sex without a
condom, which contributes to the increasing number of people who are becoming HIV
positive.
(b) In middle adulthood, when the individual's identity is fully developed, he or she can, for
the first time, develop real emotional and sexual intimacy with a partner.
(c) Doing research on sexuality poses many problems, such as finding people who are
willing to participate in such a study, because of the personal nature of sexuality and
people's reluctance to reveal such information.
(d) According to the Pfizer Study, sex plays a more important role in the lives of South
African participants than in the lives of participants from other countries.
(e) According to the Ipsos Markinor Study, South Africans' risky sexual behaviour is on the
increase, despite HIV/AIDS campaigns.
(f) Although there is an age-related decline in sexual activity as people grow older, it is a
myth that people in late adulthood are sexless.
Conclusion
Physical changes during adulthood, especially late adulthood, are inevitable, yet these
changes do have psychological effects on older people and the people they come into
contact with. The question is not whether we will age physically, but how we react to these
changes and whether we will still grow towards psychological maturity.
16
References
Papalia, D.E., Sterns, H.L., Feldman, R.D., & Camp, C.J. (2007). Adult development and
aging (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stevens-Long, J., & Commons, M.L. (1992). Adult life. London: Mayfield.
17 PYC2603/1
CHAPTER 3
Cognitive development
Contents
Orientation
Outcomes
Orientation
Most people in early and middle adulthood feel some anxiety about how their cognitive
abilities will change when they grow old. The reason is that there is a common belief that
cognitive abilities decline with age. There is some truth in this belief, but fortunately there are
also research findings to the contrary. Hoyer and Roodin (2009, p. 243) comment on this as
follows: ``Cognitive decline is an inevitable aspect of aging. ... however, older adults usually
show no declines in proficiency. ... some older adults show wisdom and expertise. ... [there
is] proficiency in everyday tasks and wisdom on the one hand, and cognitive losses on the
other''.
Therefore, the most important questions for you as a developmental psychology student are
probably the following: ``Do cognitive abilities grow or decline during adulthood?''; ``Is there
anything one can do to counteract cognitive decline?''. As you already know, there are no
simple answers to these questions. When we take the research findings into account, it is
clear that, while there is decline, there is also the possibility of remaining stable or even
improving some abilities. What we can say, however, is that there will always be differences
between people in terms of cognitive development during the course of their life. These
differences are the result of dissimilarities in people's genetic make-up, health status,
educational levels, cultures, lifestyles and so forth.
Outcomes
. be able to explain what expertise is and that some older people become specialised in
some areas, but that not all older adults are experts
. know the characteristics of wisdom and also be aware that it is a sign of wisdom to
know that life is full of uncertainties and not wholly predictable
. be able to explain the difference between formal operational thought and postformal
thought
. understand that cognitive development during adulthood is qualitatively different from
that during childhood and adolescence, and be able to explain this by referring to
Schaie's stages of cognitive development
. be able to explain to interested older people how to manage age-related decline by
means of selective optimisation and compensation
. 3.1 Introduction
Critical thinking
Answer the first question under the heading Review this section (at the end of
``Information processing speed''), namely: ``David Wechsler had a largely pessimistic view of
adult intelligence. What was his view and how has his view been challenged?'' Write your
answer down in your workbook and keep it.
Then study the rest of the chapter and add the new information it contains to your answer.
Now you should be able to come to your own conclusion about the controversy over
probable decline or not during old age.
In this section you are going to study the basic perspectives on memory processes. The
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working of memory is compared with the way in which computers process information. The
computer must first be switched on (attention must be paid to the stimulus) and then the
information can be encoded (stored) and retrieved (remembered).
3.2.1 Attention
The correct answer is alternative (1), since (a) and (b) are correct ± when doing simple tasks,
there is little difference between young and old, but the difference increases as tasks become
more complex; and the general slowing down in older persons is the result of a decline in
transmissions in the nervous system.
Although you do not have to study the following sections of the prescribed book for the
examination, you do need to read them to get a more complete picture of the development of
higher cognitive functions during adulthood.
5. Dual-component theory
Baltes
of intelligence.
7. Based on accumulated
Creativity
knowledge and is a func-
tion of education, exper-
ience and the environment.
9. Longitudinal research by
Cattell and Horn
................ found that
intelligence shows
stability between the ages
of 40 and about 55 or 60.
COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2
Name or aspect relating to Statement that fits the first
intelligence column
The classic ageing pattern 4. A dramatic decline on
performance scales of
intelligence tests takes
place from age 20.
Fluid intelligence 3. ``Raw'' intelligence, in-
dependent of social and
cultural influences or
learning experiences.
Terminal drop 6. Cognitive decline takes
place a few years
before death.
Wisdom 11. Characterised by ex-
pertise and insight as
well as uncertainty
about life.
Baltes 10. This person described
the mechanics and
pragmatics of intelli-
gence.
Encapsulation 8. Knowledge becomes
increasingly more
specialised in adult-
hood ± there is mastery
and competence in
specific domains.
Creativity 1. Characterised by origi-
nality, imagination and
expressiveness.
Crystallised intelligence 7. Based on accumulated
knowledge and is a
function of education,
experience and the
environment.
Cattell and Horn 5. Dual-component theo-
ry of intelligence.
The classic ageing curve 2. Intelligence test scores
peak at the age of 30
and then start to de-
cline steadily.
24
COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2
Name or aspect relating to Statement that fits the first
intelligence column
Schaie 11. Longitudinal research
by ..................... found
that intelligence shows
stability between the
ages of 40 and about
55 or 60.
. Conclusion
. Flexible thinking
. Regarding the truth as absolute and unchanging
. Acceptance of perspectives and values that differ from one's own
. Awareness that there is more than one solution to a problem
. The conviction that differing points of view, deviating from what you believe is the truth,
cannot be considered
. Recognising the validity of points of view that differ from one's own
. Preferring structured problems with definite answers
. Seeing everything in terms of ``black and white''
. Having absolute certainty about solutions to problems and choices
25 PYC2603/1
. Flexible thinking
. Acceptance of perspectives and values that differ from one's own
. Awareness that there is more than one solution to a problem
. Recognising the validity of points of view that differ from one's own
. Accepting that alternative arguments are as valid as one's own
. Forming your own view of a situation and committing to your belief
Schaie proposed a model that describes cognitive development from childhood to old age.
According to this model, the people who are responsible for organisations in society are in
the (a) .................................... stage. People with less social involvement, and who
concentrate on tasks that have meaning for them, are in the (b) ....................... stage.
People who are concerned with their responsibilities to family members and employees are in
the (c) .............................. stage.
When people revise their will and give directions for funeral arrangements, the end of life is
anticipated this is called the (d) ....................................................... stage.
Coordination, refinement and practising refer to (e) ................................. of skills, while the
narrowing down of possible alternatives refers to (f) ........................................ .
Using means such as cues to help one to remember is called (g) ................................... .
Using the above leads to the maximisation of (h) .................................. and the minimisation
of (i) ............................................... .
(g) compensation
(h) gains
(i) losses
Conclusion
One can feel discouraged after studying the research findings in this chapter showing that
there is a decline in cognitive functions as we grow older. However, the picture is not just
negative: older people can still make a considerable contribution to their communities,
families and workplaces by using their expertise, wisdom and creativity and by managing
possible cognitive decline by being selective, by optimising the skills they have, and by
compensating for declining abilities.
If you are in the middle years of adulthood, do you find that your memory is changing or
decreasing slightly? Or if you are younger, do you know older people who tell you that they
cannot remember as well as they did in their younger years? Do you know what to tell them
from the knowledge you gained by studying this chapter?
We hope that you have learnt that decline in memory can be counteracted by exercise and
training and by using effective memory strategies. A general decline is therefore not
inevitable. Instead of worrying about the decline in certain aspects of memory due to
biological ageing, adults should regard the various changes in memory as an incentive to
concentrate on other aspects of development, such as developing a mature grasp of the
paradoxes and complexities of life. This is more likely to contribute to mental and
psychological growth that will, in turn, enable the person to develop inner wisdom.
Reference
Hoyer, W.J., & Roodin, P.A. (2009). Adult development and aging (6th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
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CHAPTER 4
Personality development
Contents
Orientation
Outcomes
STUDY UNIT 4.1 Models of adult personality development: the debate about stability or
change
STUDY UNIT 4.2 Stage models of adult personality development
STUDY UNIT 4.3 Trait models of adult personality
STUDY UNIT 4.4 Cognitive approaches to personality development
STUDY UNIT 4.5 Integrated approaches to personality development
STUDY UNIT 4.6 An African perspective on personality development
Conclusion
Orientation
When we talk about people's basic nature ± what kind of people they are, what makes each
one a unique, recognisable person ± we refer to their personality. Personality is a complex
concept and not easy to define, but the following definition by Mischel gives us quite a good
idea: personality is a set of ``distinctive patterns of behavior, ... thoughts and emotions ... that
characterize each individual's adaptation to the situations of his or her life'' (cited in Papalia,
Sterns, Feldman & Camp, 2007, p. 395).
When people reach late adulthood, they tend to reflect on life; this is known as a life review.
As the hectic pace of life slows down, often accompanied by retirement from paid
employment, this is a time to reflect and contemplate, to think. This seems to be the unique
meaning of what can be the most profound period in the developing person's life, a period
which can result in the development of an even more integrated and mature personality.
Outcomes
. be familiar with the personality dimensions researchers use to describe the personality of
adults
. know about the cognitive side of the personality, namely how people view themselves
and the way in which they reflect on who they are
. be able to explain to an audience of western people what the African perspective on
personality development is and compare it with the western view
. 4.1 Introduction
Self-reflection
Answer the questions at the end of the introduction under the heading: Critical thinking.
Write down your answers in your workbook and keep them. Then study the rest of the
chapter, and once you've reached the end, see for yourself if your answers are still the same.
What did you learn from studying the various models of personality development?
Although you do not have to study the following sections of the prescribed book for the
examination, you do need to read them to get a more complete picture of the stage models of
personality development during adulthood.
Erikson's approach proposed (a) .......................... development, based on the (b) .....................
principle. Erikson divided adult development into (c) ............................................. stages. He
called the first of these stages (d) ................................................... which is characteristic of the
(e) .............................. adulthood stage.
The next stage, which emerges during middle adulthood, is known as (f) .............................. .
Erikson contended that if, during the final and peak stages of psychosocial development,
adults do not reach a sense of integrity, they will experience a sense of
(g).......................................... .
Research on personality stability versus personality change during adulthood has showed
that ...
(a) the five personality dimensions distinguished by Costa and McCrae show a remarkable
degree of stability during adulthood.
(b) personality traits are reinforced by the environment, which contributes to the stability of
the traits. Furthermore, people seek environments that will suit their personalities.
(c) as people grow older, their personality traits change according to distinct patterns. For
example, it was found that openness to experience continues to increase until the end
of life, whereas agreeableness increases in young adulthood, but decreases in old age.
(d) differential stability exists, that is stability in people's rank order in respect of a certain
33 PYC2603/1
trait. This means that the most conscientious individuals during young adulthood will
also be the most conscientious when they are older.
The first sentence of option (c) is correct, but the statements on openness to experience and
agreeableness do not accord with the research findings Ð it was found that openness
decreases in old age, while agreeableness increases with age. This option is therefore not
correct.
According to the self-concept models (a) ........................................... forms the core of the
personality.
According to self-concept theorists, the self-concept consists of (b)......................................
which can be described as (c) ........................................................ around which behaviour is
organised.
34
The self-concept has different domains, namely the (d) .........................., (e) .......................,
(f) ................................. and (g) .............................................. domains [you may give the
answers to (d) to (g) in any sequence]. These domains are (h) equally/not equally important
to all individuals (choose the correct one).
. Conclusion
35 PYC2603/1
Which of the following statements about the African perspective on personality development
is/are correct?
(a) Individuals, while being shaped by the community, can also have an effect on the
community by making contributions that can transform the community.
(b) Personhood (becoming a person) is achieved by complying with certain standards of
the community, such as showing generosity, compassion, hospitality, benevolence,
humility and respect.
(c) Personality is formed by following one's own heart, because one is born with certain
characteristics that do not necessarily comply with the community's standards.
(d) The phases of personality development are social priming, social induction, adulthood,
and the last phase of old age, which ends when the person dies.
Option (c) is incorrect, because the African perspective holds that personality is formed by
complying with the community's standards and ideals.
Option (d) is also incorrect, because the African perspective states that development
continues after death ± this refers to an ancestral selfhood after biological death.
Conclusion
It is clear that personality development in adulthood entails stability as well as change.
Although it might seem that change and stability are contradictory, the fact that our
personalities are both stable and changing reflects the complexities in our personality
makeup. Most of us stay the same people that our families, friends and others know. Yet
certain aspects of our personalities can change during the course of a lifetime.
``Human beings are not born once and for all on the day their mothers give birth to them ... .
Life obliges them over and over again to give birth to themselves'' (Gabriel Garcia Marquez
cited in Papalia et al., 2007, p. 392).
± How did your personality develop during the various stages, or how do you imagine your
personality will develop?
± On the basis of which personality characteristics do you categorise other people?
± What aims are you setting for yourself in terms of what you want to achieve or the kind of
person you want to become over the course of your own life?
± Does gender stereotyping play a role in your own personality development and in the
personality development of your family members and friends?
± After considering these issues, think about what you can do to achieve optimal
personality development in order to realise your life goals and your dreams.
Reference
Papalia, D.E., Sterns, H.L., Feldman, R.D., & Camp, C.J. (2007). Adult development and
aging (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
37 PYC2603/1
CHAPTER 5
Social development
Contents
Orientation
Outcomes
Orientation
Humans are social beings. Our lives are deeply embedded in a social milieu and we are
constantly faced with various aspects of our social development. Ultimately though, each
person has to lead his or her own life, and confront his or her unique social situations. Life
comes to each of us in a personal way and events impact on, or affect, each of us differently.
However, if we want to make the best of our lives, what we all do share is responsibility ± the
responsibility that comes with freedom of choice.
Because freedom of choice in making certain personal choices is one of the main
characteristics of the years of adulthood, we need to take note of the different life situations
in which adults exercise the options and choices available to them. In this chapter we focus
on the more common features of adults as social beings, such as the characteristics of adult
relationships, lifestyle choices, the role played by work, retirement and leisure, as well as
moral development as an integral part of being an adult.
Outcomes
. 5.1 Introduction
Which of the following statements regarding the life course and life cycle perspectives are
true?
(a) The life cycle perspective is a useful way of thinking about the sequence of role
transitions.
(b) The life cycle perspective is no longer representative of the contemporary patterns and
divergent lifestyles of adults.
(c) The life course perspective acknowledges divergent lifestyles.
(d) The life course perspective places people in a historical and cultural context and is
therefore much more relevant than the life cycle perspective in conceptualising the
social development of South Africans.
(e) The life cycle perspective does not locate people within their stage or historical context.
relationships are experienced on a deep, meaningful level, and long-lasting love and
attachment bonds are formed.
Intimacy
Infatuation (eg
being in love)
5.3.1.2 Cohabitation
5.3.1.3 Singlehood
5.3.2 Family lifestyles and relationships
Table 5.2 The family life cycle
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(f) Grandparenthood
The following mind map is a very basic one, but it will give you an idea of how a mind map
can be compiled. Try to improve this mind map by adding more detail using the information
in section 5.3 Lifestyle choices of your prescribed book.
Lifestyle choices
during adulthood
!
!
!
"Marriage "Cohabitation "Singlehood
; ; ;
What is marriage? Cohabitation rate SA Statistics
; ; ;
Work is an important part of most adults' life, but brings with it many stressors. Certain
groups experience more stress at work than others. These groups of people are especially
susceptible to burn out. Losing one's job can also be a very traumatic experience, and coping
with this takes a special ability to adjust to change. Even retirement, which is mostly planned
for and therefore expected, causes stress and requires adjustment on the part of the person
concerned. No matter what kind of adjustments one has to make, social relationships play an
important role ± social support can often serve as a buffer, alleviating the stresses that
accompany many changes.
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& Work gives definition to the days, weeks and months of the year.
& Work is tiring and exhausting.
& Work often caters for our social interactions outside the family circle.
& The value of work should be assessed in terms of extrinsic factors such as salary and
working hours.
T Work gives definition to the days, weeks and months of the year.
T Work is an opportunity for self-expression and a means of survival.
T Work to a large extent satisfies the human need to achieve and attain goals.
T Work often caters for our social interactions outside the family circle.
44
Which of the following statements regarding moral development in adulthood is/are true?
(a) Cognitive awareness of higher moral principles develops in adolescence, but people
only start committing themselves to those principles in adulthood.
(b) Higher moral reasoning is not necessarily attained by all adults.
(c) All adults reach the higher levels of moral reasoning because of their life experiences
and cognitive maturity.
(d) Responsibility for the welfare of others contributes to adults' moral reasoning.
Conclusion
Adults who have been fortunate enough to experience life to its fullest in its different facets,
who have been involved in family and social relationships, who are content with their
lifestyle choices, who have experienced a working environment of whatever nature and who
have reached the peaks of moral development and reasoning have, perhaps, a responsibility
to convey their life experiences to the younger generation and to inspire them to strive to live
life to its fullest.
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CHAPTER 6
Conclusion
Orientation
In 2010 an act was promulgated in South Africa with the general aim of protecting the
interests of older persons so that they can enjoy a life of good quality. If South Africans will
adhere to the spirit of this act, they can promote the wellbeing of the elderly of our country
and contribute to their life satisfaction, which will also lead to their ``successful ageing''.
The developmental importance of adulthood is emphasised by the fact that the ability to ``age
successfully'' and to live a meaningful life in the remaining years of late adulthood depends
on having a positive outlook on life and being able to cope with social and environmental
circumstances. The central theme of late adulthood is coming to grips with the meaning of
one's life through a process of life review and reflection, which can lead to feelings of
wellbeing and satisfaction (and therefore to successful ageing).
Outcomes
and what its objectives are. We have a growing population of older people, who are
sometimes victims of prejudice and do not receive the respect and protection they deserve.
Legislation cannot change people's attitudes towards the elderly, but it could lead to greater
awareness about older people's situations, and that could contribute to the wellbeing of
elderly people in our country.
After studying this topic in the prescribed book, you will be able to answer the first question
at the end of this section in the prescribed book under Review this section ± ``What are the
objectives of the Older Persons Act No 13 of 2006?''
. 6.1 Introduction
(a) Is this true in your community, or do you live in a community that respects older adults?
If they are respected, how is this respect shown?
(b) Do you think that legislation (specifically the Older Persons Act) can bring about a
change in attitude towards older people? Whether you answer yes or no, think of a
motivation for your answer.
(c) How could people in South Africa be made aware of the existence of the Act?
successful. From the information provided in this section of the prescribed book, we can
conclude that the following are indicators of successful ageing:
There are also other factors that play a role in successful ageing. Here the ``golden rule''
(according to Louw & Louw, 2009, p. 262) applies: there are individual differences with
regard to the factors associated with successful ageing and you must therefore keep in mind
that there are always exceptions to the rule ± the impact of a specific factor will depend on
the individual and his or her situation. Bear this in mind as you study the various factors
described in the prescribed book that may play a role in successful ageing.
(a) Research has found that physical health is a necessity for feelings of wellbeing.
(b) Most elderly people over the world are victims of ageism, which has a negative impact
on their self-concept.
(c) Research on the relationship between successful ageing and personality traits of older
persons has found that there are particular personality traits that could play a role in
ageing successfully.
(d) Locus of control can have an effect on successful ageing ± an external locus of control
is usually related to people feeling that they are in control of their lives, which will
contribute to feelings of ageing successfully.
(e) Poverty cannot have an effect on successful ageing because housing, the kind of
neighbourhood and material possessions will not affect feelings of life satisfaction.
(f) Older people experience more daily hassles than younger people, which may negatively
affect their feeling of wellbeing.
(g) With regard to activity level, the type of lifestyle that will lead to feelings of wellbeing
and satisfaction with one's life is an individual matter ± some older persons will only be
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satisfied if they can stay active while others will be satisfied with their lives if they can
slow down on all their activities.
(h) Research has found that religious and spiritual older people are in better health than
others because they have healthier lifestyles.
(i) Loneliness is a problem especially in late adulthood, and has a negative influence on
feelings of wellbeing and satisfaction with life.
Conclusion
We all know people in late adulthood who can be described as ageing successfully. What are
their characteristics? Ryff and her colleagues (Papalia et al., 2007) identify six dimensions
which they feel describe successful people, namely self-acceptance, positive relationships
with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth.
Successful and mentally healthy people will score high on all these dimensions.
50
However, nobody's life is perfect. As humans we only attain some aspects of perfection as
we aspire towards the ideal. Perhaps the humble person is the image of the ideal person: the
one who is aware of his or her own weaknesses and failings but whose heart is in the right
place, and whose life is devoted to worthy causes and to doing good to others. Perhaps this
is the kind of person who will have all the characteristics that different researchers have
ascribed to people who are ageing successfully.
Reference
Papalia, D.E., Sterns, H.L., Feldman, R.D., & Camp, C.J. (2007). Adult development and
aging (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
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CHAPTER 7
Orientation
What comes to mind when we hear the terms `death' and `dying'? It might be the picture of
old people in nursing homes. Or the solemnity of black clothing and a cemetery. Or even the
transition to an eternal life. For many of us, it might be the unknowable mystery of it all.
It is ironic, perhaps, that most of us experience contradictory feelings about death and dying.
On the one hand, we are fascinated by death, as demonstrated by the popularity of television
series and films about murders or wars. We easily and quite comfortably watch movies and
TV programmes containing images of people dying or who are being killed in wars or
genocides. When we deal with death and dying in this way, we feel essentially removed from
them. On the other hand, when death becomes more personal (for example when our doctor
tells us we or one of our loved ones has a life-threatening illness), we feel great anxiety and
our deepest emotions are involved. Nor do we ever wish to think about the death of loved
ones, family and friends.
Outcomes
. 7.1 Introduction
Self-reflection
Think about the inevitability of your own death and the death of your loved ones. Write
down your feelings and the questions that might come to mind. Then study the rest of the
chapter, and when you reach the end, see whether the content has addressed your feelings
and questions. What did you learn about this topic, which is quite often a taboo subject that
must not be discussed or considered?
State of death during which all external signs of life Clinical death
such as consciousness, heartbeat, breathing and
brain functions are absent, but the metabolic
processes are still proceeding
to all people in all instances, it has become even more complicated in recent years due to the
influence of various factors such as politics, ethics, the law and human rights. But a proper,
acceptable definition is necessary if we want to avoid confusion about matters such as organ
transplantation and a person's right to die under certain conditions.
and, through this, old people are given a last opportunity to live meaningfully, express their
best qualities and find the courage to become what they are destined to be.
Although KuÈbler-Ross distinguishes specific stages in dying, we need to keep in mind that
death is a highly individual experience. Not everyone goes through all the stages of dying
and people may go through these stages in different sequences. People may experience
certain stages more than once or they may go back and forth between different stages. There
is no rigid pattern to the process of dying. Like living, dying is pre-eminently an individual
experience.
. 7.6 Grief
John Bowlby and Colin Murray Parkes describe the following phases of grief:
(1) numbness, yearning, disorganisation and despair, reorganisation
(2) numbness, disorganisation and despair, yearning, reorganisation
(3) disorganisation and despair, numbness, reorganisation, yearning
(4) disorganisation and despair, reorganisation, yearning, numbness
(a) The death of a parent is always very traumatic regardless of the life phase the child is in.
(b) Adults who have lost a parent often report changes in many aspects of their lives.
(c) The loss of a parent may have a symbolic meaning for adult children.
(d) The death of an elderly parent is less traumatic than the death of a younger parent.
(e) The grief and resulting symptoms may be determined by the quality of the relationship.
Conclusion
Death in itself is senseless. The meaning of death, however, can be found in the meaning of
life. Viktor Frankl testifies that, if we can find meaning in suffering and death, then we will
discover that life is unconditionally meaningful. This is why we should always strive to
preserve and protect life and why we need to live it, each day, appreciatively and well.
You have now come to the end of the module ``Adulthood and maturity''. We trust that
you have found this a positive learning experience.
We hope that you will now realise, even more clearly than before, that adulthood not
only covers the largest portion of your life, but that it is the developmental period
during which you can make a unique contribution and give expression to the person
you truly are.
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