Pyc 2601

# 2011 University of South Africa
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University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
PYC2603/1/2012±2018
98785206
3B2
PST Style
(iii) PYC2603/1/2012±2018
Contents
Chapter Page
INTRODUCTION iv
1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ADULT DEVELOPMENT 1
2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND SEXUALITY 11
3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 17
4 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 27
5 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 37
6 SUCCESSFUL AGEING AND MENTAL HEALTH 46
7 DEATH AND GRIEF 51
(iv)
Introduction
In no other module in psychology will you learn more about your own growth and
development as an adult than in this module. We know that, as a student at our university,
you are an adult. For you, the childhood and adolescent stages of development are
something of the past.
What growth and development are you aiming to achieve as an adult? This is the type of
question that you are going to examine and reflect on in this module. By examining this
question in every area of your development (eg your physical ageing, how you think and feel
and interact with others, how you understand the fundamental issues of life in terms of your
moral values) you will develop informed opinions, come up with new questions, and feel
challenged in your own growth in the direction of greater psychological maturity.
Let us start by asking and confronting you with some very fundamental questions. (We
suggest that you use a workbook in which to answer all the questions, tasks and reflective
activities given in this study guide.)
What does it mean to be an adult?
What do you mean when you say that you are an adult?
Think about this for a while.
List your ideas in your workbook.
Your ideas about adulthood may have included that you are grown-up, in other words, that
you are no longer a child or an adolescent. You may have in mind the fact that you are
physically fully developed: that you look like an adult. We usually associate being an adult
with chronological age, that is, how old someone is. At a certain age, usually in the late teens
and early twenties, a person no longer has the physical appearance of a child.
But is chronological age the most important characteristic that distinguishes adults from
children? Why do we sometimes say that someone should start acting his or her age? What
do we mean when we say that a person is being childish or immature? When we say this sort
of thing, we have in mind certain characteristics of being adult. Look at the characteristics
you have listed, and let's think about some of them.
What does it mean to be mature?
Which of the characteristics you have listed to describe yourself as an adult refer to your
behaviour or how mature you are as a person?
When you think about being an adult, are there certain characteristics that you may still
want to acquire? In your workbook, describe what you want to achieve with your life
and the kind of person you really want to be.
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Your description of yourself as you would ideally like to be will almost certainly include far
more than just physical appearance or age. Your concept of what it is to be adult now has far
more meaning. Let us consider this fuller concept of adulthood.
If we say that someone acts like an adult, we may have certain adult standards of behaviour
in mind. Our concept of an adult is of someone who is mature in the emotional or
psychological sense of the word. For example, an adult no longer throws emotional tantrums
if he or she wants something; is capable of controlling his or her emotions; can consider the
needs of others; and takes reality into account.
We have given this module the title Adulthood and maturity to indicate that in it we look
at all the essential features of being an adult, and we highlight the very essence of what it
means to be adult. As you will see in later chapters of the module, maturity refers to fully
developed powers of the mind and an optimal level of personality development. In this
module we also consider the characteristics of adult behaviour and functioning. But, and
much more interestingly, we also consider what being a mature adult, in the fullest sense of
the term, really means. As you will discover, it entails a certain way of being rather than just a
certain way of behaving. It is a way of being that not only brings our talents and capabilities
as a person to full fruition, but also earmarks us as truly human, as someone who exemplifies
the very best in human nature. It is a way of being that is particularly identified by how we
relate to others, what impact our lives have on theirs ± whether we bring out the best in
others as much as we seek to give full expression to the best in ourselves. Our lives mean
nothing if they mean nothing to anybody else. You will finally discover that if we can all act
in an adult, that is, highly responsible way, we will have a world worth living in.
Being a mature adult is therefore, and most essentially, a goal, something we strive towards
and which, if we really think about it, something that we truly want to be and experience.
Why? Because being an adult has to do with a sense of true fulfilment, almost like a
commission we have successfully fulfilled: in this case, becoming the person we were meant
to be. Becoming truly adult or mature is an achievement ± a life task we have successfully
completed. Achieving this life task gives our lives meaning. It is an indication that we have
not wasted our lives, nor failed to use the opportunities they have offered us, nor spurned the
responsibilities they placed upon us. If we complete our life task, we have lived a good, truly
worthy life and, in our unique way, we have changed our world for the better.
Purpose of the study guide

The purpose of this study guide is to make you aware of the developmental issues of
adulthood and to encourage you to think about them. It is also intended to guide you
systematically through the corresponding sections in your prescribed book. You should
therefore always study the textbook in conjunction with the study guide. Your prescribed
book for this module is:
Louw, D., & Louw, A. (2009). Adult development and ageing. Bloemfontein: Psychology
Publications, ABC Printers.
Format of the study guide

The study guide has been structured in such a way that you should work from your study
guide and then refer to your prescribed book. We will guide you through the relevant
sections in your prescribed book by means of the following:
(vi)
. Table of contents
To get a good idea of the topic and issues that are discussed in each chapter, start by
reading the headings in the table of contents. In other words, regard reading the table of
contents as an important starting point in your study activities.
. Orientation
Each chapter in this study guide is introduced by an orientation in which we give a brief
overview of the contents of the chapter. In the orientation certain developmental issues
are put into perspective so that you will not only gain knowledge, but will also acquire
insight into the nature of developmental processes or principles.
. Outcomes
The outcomes which are set for each chapter indicate what we hope you will achieve in
studying it; in other words, the outcomes refer to the knowledge and insight you should
have gained after completing the chapter. A further important aim of these outcomes is
that they should help you to apply this knowledge in practice.
. Study units
Each chapter in the study guide is divided into study units. Each study unit relates to a
specific aspect of development that occurs during adulthood.
. Sections of the prescribed book you have to study

Please note that we tell you which sections of the prescribed book you should study for
examination purposes. Although you do not have to study other sections of the
prescribed book for the examination, they usually provide useful and interesting
background information on the topic or they put the topic in a context. We have therefore
indicated which sections of the prescribed book you should read (rather than study), and
we suggest you do so in order to improve your understanding of the information you
have to study.
In the study units of this study guide, we refer to specific headings in the prescribed
book. This means that a study section starts with the heading we refer to and ends at the
end of the section with that heading.
Boxes, tables or figures you need to study for examination purposes are specifically
referred to.
. Questions and tasks

Once you have studied the relevant sections in the prescribed book, you can test your
knowledge and understanding by answering the questions or completing the tasks in the
study guide. We have set multiple-choice questions, fill-in questions and short or longer
type questions. From time to time, we also give you a task to do (eg drawing a mind map
or completing a table). Such tasks are important components of the learning process
which you can also apply to other sections of the work.
Remember that these questions and tasks do not cover all the sections and information
that you have to study for the examination. You should therefore make sure that you
know all the sections you have to study in their entirety.
Keeping this in mind, continue to answer the questions or complete the tasks in your own
workbook. Once you are satisfied with your answers, read our feedback carefully and
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assess the correctness or quality of your work by comparing it with the suggestions in our
feedback. Remember that our feedback simply provides examples of how to handle
questions or tasks. It does not, therefore, give you the only possible or correct answer.
. Self-reflection activity
You will find it much easier to reach your final destination ± being a healthy, developing
person who interacts with others in ways that encourage their own personal and
professional development ± if you involve yourself in a personal and, at the same time,
critical way in this module on adulthood and maturity. We have, therefore, given you
some self-reflection activities. These activities require you to reflect critically on the
issues discussed in the study guide and prescribed book. You could also answer these
questions in your workbook. These reflections should help you draw on the knowledge
you have already accumulated through personal experience. They should also help you
to continually apply whatever scientific knowledge you are acquiring to practical or real-
life situations. The accumulation of knowledge is meaningless if it does not bring benefit
to us, to others, and to society as a whole.
We trust that you will find your study of adulthood an enriching experience which will
benefit not only yourself and your own development but also those with whom you
have contact through social or work relationships.
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CHAPTER 1
Basic concepts of adult

development
Contents
Orientation
Outcomes
STUDY UNIT 1.1 Adult development and ageing in a changing world
STUDY UNIT 1.2 A life span developmental perspective
STUDY UNIT 1.3 The forces and influences of development
STUDY UNIT 1.4 Issues in development
STUDY UNIT 1.5 Domains of development
STUDY UNIT 1.6 Research in adult development
Conclusion
Orientation
A person spends approximately three-fourths of his or her life as an adult. Since the various
stages of adulthood, namely the young, middle and late adult years, represent the longest
part of our lives, it is important to acquire scientific knowledge of the development and
changes that take place during this stage in order to master the art of living to the full.
After you have worked through this chapter, you will have a new appreciation of the
complexity of human adult development. Your new understanding of the complex nature of
development should prevent you from depicting adult behavioural patterns simplistically or
sometimes even stereotypically. It should also ensure that you take the rich and interesting
diversities of individual differences into account when you explain and describe
developmental changes and behavioural patterns in adulthood.
Outcomes
After you have worked through chapter 1, you should
. be able to review adult development and the challenges involved in this developmental
stage
. be able to discuss the key principles underlying adult development throughout the life
span, as identified by Paul Baltes
. be able to explain the different forces that influence and shape human development
. recognise the importance of developmental issues
2
. be able to distinguish between physical, cognitive, personality and social development

. be able to reflect on the importance of research
. know the different kinds of research and the different methods of gathering research
data
. have a basic understanding of the general research designs and the research designs for
studying adult development
. be able to reflect on the value of cross-cultural research
. reveal a basic understanding of the ethics involved in doing research with adults
Study unit 1.1

Adult development and ageing in a changing world
Adult development no longer entails what it entailed even a few decades ago because we are
living in a world that is prone to change on many different levels. To keep up with the
continuous change that is a hallmark of this world, and to stay in tune with life, presents its
own kind of challenge for present-day adults. However, we should see the opportunities
adult development holds as a special gift that we should embrace, or as a pathway to finding
true meaning and reaching fulfilment despite the realities, and often the difficulties, of
becoming older.
Recommended reading, not for examination purposes:

. 1.1 Introduction
1.1.3 The demographics of the human population
Sections you have to study for examination purposes:
1.1.1 Sub-stages of adulthood

1.1.2 Perspectives on age
Box 1.1: Defining old age in Africa
Activity based on study unit 1.1
Self-reflection
Think about what it means to be an adult in our times. List your reflections and write down
questions that you might have. Then study the rest of the chapter and, at the end, see
whether it has addressed your reflections and questions. What did you learn about being an
adult? What, in your view, does it take to become a mature person who experiences true
fulfilment through finding meaning in achieving the life tasks of the adult years?
Question 1 based on study unit 1.1

The reason the cut-off point for old age is set at 60 for western societies and at 50 for African
societies is that ...
(1) in most poor economies the burden of sheer survival puts people at greater risk of
ageing prematurely than people in rich economies.
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(2) people in African societies age more slowly than those in western societies.
(3) people in western societies age more quickly than those in African societies.
(4) the WHO tends to take only chronological age into account when determining cut-off
points.
Feedback on question 1 based on study unit 1.1

The correct answer is alternative (1). From the information in Box 1.1 Defining old age in
Africa, you should know why the cut-off point for old age differs between western societies
and African societies.

The prescribed book clarifies the various perspectives on age. Briefly explain the four
perspectives on age as you understand them and give your own example for each
perspective.

In your answer you should refer to (1) chronological age, (2) psychological age, (3) social
age and (4) biological age. Explain what is meant by these perspectives on age and give
examples based on and referring to the information in section 1.1.2 Perspectives on age in
your prescribed book.
Study unit 1.2

A life span developmental perspective
Given that human development takes a life-time to complete, it is important to study adult
development and ageing in a life span perspective, as proposed by Baltes (cited in Louw &
Louw, 2009). Using this approach will make you aware of the key features underlying
development throughout a person's life span. Humans are not passive, reactive organisms
and therefore adult development involves both growth and decline; potential skills may be
developed or improved throughout life ± even during old age; the circumstances within
which individuals develop are partially determined by their historical time and the physical,
social and cultural contexts in which they live; development is shaped by biological,
psychological, socio-cultural and life cycle forces. However, the role of the person in
determining his or her own development should not be overlooked. During adulthood, even
more than in other life stages, the individual is to a large extent free to determine his or her
own developmental path.
Section you have to study for examination purposes:
. 1.2 A life span developmental perspective
Question based on study unit 1.2

Name and briefly explain the key principles of Baltes's life span approach that form the
framework for the study of life span development.
4
Feedback on question based on study unit 1.2

The key principles of Baltes's life span approach that you have to mention and briefly
describe (refer to your prescribed book, section 1.2) are the following:
. Development is a lifelong process.

. Development is multidimensional and multidirectional.
. Development is a combination of gains and losses.
. Development shows plasticity.
. Development is embedded in history and context.
. Development occurs in a context.
. Development is multidisciplinary.
Add your own brief description of each principle, using the information in section 1.2 A life
span developmental perspective.
Study unit 1.3

The forces and influences of development
Human development is not only brought about by learning as a result of experience, but is
also the result of biological maturation. Development therefore entails a complex interaction
between learning and maturation that influences the development of a person's body,
thinking skills, social and moral behaviour, interpersonal relationships, emotions and
personality.
. 1.3 The forces and influences of development
Task based on study unit 1.3

Give two examples (other than those mentioned in your prescribed book) of each of the
following influences on development, based on your own life experiences:
. Normative age-graded influences:

(i) ............................................................................................................................................
(ii) ............................................................................................................................................
. Normative history-graded influences:

(i) ............................................................................................................................................
(ii) ............................................................................................................................................
. Non-normative influences:
(i) ............................................................................................................................................
(ii) ............................................................................................................................................
Feedback on the task based on study unit 1.3

. Normative age-graded influences: Relevant examples should relate to the influence of
biological, social and cultural events on the adult age group.
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. Normative history-graded influences: In this case you should have given examples of
historical or cultural events that have influenced the development of a specific
generation (cohort).
. Non-normative influences: Your examples should relate to unusual events that influence
the development of individuals.
Study unit 1.4

Issues in development
As you learn more about human development, remember that certain developmental issues
have been recurring over the years in discussions about human development. These issues
relate to the nature-nurture debate, the stability-change concept, the continuity-
discontinuity debate, the activitypassivity question, whether development is universal or
context specific and, lastly, what actually guides human development.
. 1.4 Issues in development

After studying the different issues in development discussed in your prescribed book
(section 1.4 Issues in development), reflect on what you think is the most prominent issue
in development.
Feedback on the question based on study unit 1.4

You should be able to explain what you regard as the most important developmental issue by
giving valid reasons for your opinion.
Study unit 1.5

Domains of development
Human development takes place in various domains, namely the physical, cognitive,
personality and social domains. Development in these areas does not take place at the same
tempo, nor does it follow the same pattern for everyone. Furthermore, the domains of human
development are interrelated and aspects of development in one domain affect development
in other domains. As already emphasised, the role of the adult individual in determining his or
her own development should never be overlooked.
. 1.5 Domains of development

Study the information under the heading Domains of development. Then complete the
6
following table by identifying the most important physical, cognitive, personality and social
developments that are characteristic of development in the three periods of adulthood. After
you have worked through all the chapters in the prescribed book, come back to this table and
make sure that you have, indeed, identified the most important developments for each
domain and each period.
Period and age Physical Cognitive Personality Social

developments developments development development
Young
adulthood
(+ 20±35 years)
Middle adult-
hood
(+ 35±60 years)
Late adulthood
(+ 60 years and
older)

Compare the developments you have filled in with the information discussed in the various
chapters under physical, cognitive, personality and social development. Make sure that you
have identified the most important developments according to the information in your
prescribed book.
7 PYC2603/1
Study unit 1.6

Research in adult development
Theories about adult development provide researchers with a frame of reference within
which to study the various aspects of human development. Without a theoretical frame of
reference, the study of human development would quickly be reduced to generalisations and
could even become little more than a stereotypical or popular description of a few
characteristics. There is, therefore, a close relationship between theory and research.
Theoretical speculations are tested by means of research, to find out whether they should be
accepted or rejected. It is through this interaction between theory and research that we build
up our scientific knowledge of adult development.
. 1.6 Research in adult development
1.6.1 Kinds of research
1.6.2 Methods of gathering information
(a) Systematic observation of behaviour
(b) Self-reports
(c) Psychological tests
1.6.3 General research designs
1.6.3.1 Experimental research
1.6.3.2 Correlational research
1.6.3.3 Case studies
1.6.3.4 Meta-analysis
1.6.4 Research designs for studying adult development
1.6.4.1 The longitudinal design
1.6.4.2 The cross-sectional design
1.6.4.3 The sequential design
1.6.5 Cross-cultural research
1.6.6 Research ethics
Task 1 based on study unit 1.6

The prescribed book describes various research designs according to which research may be
conducted. After you have studied the relevant sections in the prescribed book, indicate
which research method is used in the following examples:
8
STATEMENT RESEARCH DESIGN
Research in which the researcher aims to control

conditions in such a way that it is possible to
determine to what extent a given factor influences
the behaviour to be investigated
The research design in which the same sample of

people is studied at different ages over a long period
of time
The research method used to conduct an in-depth

study of a single person, family, event or situation
The research method where a statistical analysis is

made of the results of existing studies on a specific
topic to determine whether greater clarity can be
reached, usually in instances where there are
conflicting results
The research design in which persons of different

age groups are studied together on a single occasion
and the results of the different age groups are then
compared
Research that aims to determine whether there is a

relationship between variables
The research design in which both the longitudinal

and cross-sectional designs are used in one study
Feedback on task 1 based on study unit 1.6

The correct answers are indicated in the following table:
Research in which the researcher aims to control Experimental research

conditions in such a way that it is possible to
determine to what extent a given factor influences
the behaviour to be investigated
The research design in which the same sample of Longitudinal research

people is studied at different ages over a long period
of time
The research method used to conduct an in-depth Case study

study of a single person, family, event or situation
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The research method where a statistical analysis is Meta-analysis

made of the results of existing studies on a specific
topic to determine whether greater clarity can be
reached, usually in instances where there are
conflicting results
The research design in which persons of different Cross-sectional research

age groups are studied together on a single occasion
and the results of the different age groups are then
compared
Research that aims to determine whether there is a Correlational research

relationship between variables
The research design in which both the longitudinal Sequential design

and cross-sectional designs are used in one study

Read the following and answer the multiple-choice question:
A researcher wants to determine whether physical activity will influence adults' cognitive
skills. One group of adults is subjected to an exercise programme, while a second group of
adults does not receive any intervention. The cognitive ability of both groups is measured
after a few months to determine whether any change has occurred. The first group is called
the ... and the second group is called the ... .
(1) dependent group; independent group

(2) case study group; meta-analysis group
(3) control group; experimental group
(4) experimental group; control group

The correct answer is alternative (4). After you have studied the general research designs you
will realise that, in experimental research, the research conditions are controlled to such an
extent that the contribution of a given factor to a certain behaviour can be determined. The
group which is exposed to a certain condition/variable is called the experimental group. The
group that is not exposed to the specific condition/variable is called the control group.

Answer the following multiple-choice question:
Which of the following is/are true of cross-cultural research?
(a) Researchers aim to identify the differences and the similarities between cultures.
(b) Researchers aim to identify either the differences or the similarities between cultures.
(c) Cross-cultural research is unique research and is independent from mainstream
psychology.
(d) Unique challenges such as misinterpretations and language barriers are associated with
cross-cultural research.
10
The correct answer is:
(1) (a) & (d)

(2) (b) & (c)
(3) (a), (c) & (d)
(4) (b), (c) & (d)

The correct answer is alternative (1). According to the information in section 1.6.5 Cross-
cultural research of your prescribed book, the aim of cross-cultural research is to discover
both similarities and differences between cultures. Various challenges have to be overcome
when carrying out cross-cultural research, such as misinterpretations and possible suspicion,
communication and language barriers, and proper standardisation of tests.
Conclusion
You, as an individual in one of the adult developmental stages, will now realise that an
informed approach to the challenges of adult development will contribute to a responsible
approach to your life tasks. These include, among others, embarking on a career, marriage
and parenthood; following a healthy lifestyle; making a commitment to community service,
especially during the years of retirement; counteracting developmental decline and
optimising your potential for personal growth; and developing a sense of morality and
profound respect for the dignity of the individual person and the rights of all people. The
journey of adulthood is, however, not an easy ride Ð be prepared to be cognitively, socially
and emotionally challenged as well as in terms of your personality.
Self-reflection activity based on chapter 1

You now have a basic understanding of what developmental psychology and development
during adulthood entail. Reflect on any personal questions about adult development that
have sprung to mind. For example:
. ``What are the characteristics of a person who has developed maturity and wisdom during
the adult years of life and how do I measure up to this standard?''
. ``What do I regard as the value of each period of adulthood?''
. ``How does my perception of my age reflect `personal age' and àgeless self'?''
. ``Do our cognitive abilities necessarily decline during adulthood?''
Make notes of your own personal questions and see whether you can find answers to these
questions in the course of your study of the various aspects of development in adulthood.
11 PYC2603/1
CHAPTER 2
Physical development and

sexuality
Contents
Orientation
Outcomes
STUDY UNIT 2.1 Biological theories of ageing

STUDY UNIT 2.2 Physical changes
STUDY UNIT 2.3 Sexuality in adulthood
Conclusion
Orientation
The way adults develop physically often creates a rather negative impression in people's
minds of the adult years. The peak of physical prowess, energy and health seems to be
reached in young adulthood; this is followed by a slow decline, which becomes all the more
noticeable after the age of 40. However, both the nature of individuals' biological ageing and
their life expectancy are determined by a complex interaction between genetic (biological)
and psychological characteristics and socioeconomic or environmental factors. This
interaction brings individual differences strongly to the fore. Papalia and her co-workers
(2007, p. 73) conclude that `òlder adults vary greatly in health, education, income,
occupation, and living arrangements ... they are individuals with differing needs, desires,
abilities, lifestyles, and cultural backgrounds''.
Realising that we are not going to remain young forever should inspire us to devote
ourselves to the many tasks life presents to us; tasks which, if performed responsibly, will
lead to psychological growth and wellbeing no matter what our age.
Outcomes

. know the theories of biological ageing and, on the basis of this knowledge, be able to
explain to interested people why our bodies grow old
. be able to explain to lay people what the climacteric and menopause are, and that there
can also be a ``male menopause'' and what the symptoms are
. understand why doing research in the area of sexuality is problematic, but also be able
to describe research findings of South African studies
. be able to tell the people in your community what risky sexual behaviour is, and what
they should do to avoid HIV infection
12
Study unit 2.1

Biological theories of ageing
This section introduces you to the fact that we do age physically and that we must grow old
and eventually die. The question ``Why do people grow old?'' does not have an easy answer,
but it is accepted that biological factors, in particular, play a role in physical ageing ± the
various biological theories on ageing all explain one or more of the aspects that influence the
physical changes. It is also interesting to note that physical ageing is more visible than other
forms of ageing, but that physical ageing will always have psychological effects on
individuals and the people who are in contact with them.
. 2.1 Introduction
. 2.2 Biological theories of ageing

Complete the table below by giving the name of the theory of biological ageing that is related
to the statement in the first column of the table.
Statement about biological ageing Theory described by the

statement
Our bodies age because they are used so much, and

are worn out like a machine.
Older people's bodies become stiffer and their skin

tissue becomes less flexible.
The human species has a life expectancy of 120

years.
Cells can divide only a limited number of times.
The DNA of cells is damaged when electrons leave

the nucleus of the atom.
Feedback on the activity based on study unit 2.1

The following theories are related to the statements:

statement
Our bodies age because they are used so much, and Wear and tear theory
are worn out like a machine.
Older people's bodies become stiffer and their skin Cross-linking theory
tissue becomes less flexible.
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statement
The human species has a life expectancy of 120 Genetic programming theory
years.
Cells can divide only a limited number of times. Genetic programming theory
The DNA of cells is damaged when electrons leave Free radical theory
the nucleus of the atom.
Study unit 2.2

Physical changes
In this study unit you are going to pay attention to the physical changes that take place as we
grow older. However, you need to study only the climacteric and the menopause for the
examination. The climacteric and the menopause are described referring to women, but
reference is also made to the ``male menopause''. Both men and women experience
hormonal changes that cause menopausal symptoms.
2.3.9 Climacteric and menopause
Box 2.2: Is there a male menopause?
Although you do not have to study the following sections of the prescribed book for the
examination, you do need to read them to get a more complete picture of the physical
changes that take place during adulthood, especially late adulthood.
. 2.3 Specific physical changes
2.3.1 The brain
2.3.2 The senses
2.3.3 Muscle strength
2.3.4 Stamina
2.3.5 Physical appearance
2.3.6 Height and weight
2.3.7 Internal organs
2.3.8 Physical health

14

Which of the following statements about the climacteric and menopause are true?
(a) Culture and socioeconomic factors influence how the menopause is experienced.
(b) Both men and women lose their ability to reproduce when the menopause occurs.
(c) The andropause refers to the changes in women's follicle-stimulating and luteinising
hormones.
(d) The perimenopause is also referred to as the climacteric, which indicates a transitional
period when women's reproductive capacity stops.

(1) (a) & (d)
(2) (b) & (c)
(3) (a), (c) & (d)
(4) All of the above

You will find the information you need to evaluate options (b) and (c) in the box entitled Is
there a male menopause?, where it is stated that men do not lose their reproductive
ability, and that men's experience of ``menopausal'' symptoms is referred to as the male
andropause ± (b) and (c) are therefore incorrect.
The correct answer is alternative (1), which means that (a) and (d) are correct ± you will find
the information under the heading Climacteric and menopause.
Study unit 2.3

Sexuality in adulthood
Although there seems to be a decline in sexual activity as people grow older, it would be a
mistake to think that sexuality is no longer important in old age. Sexual needs, interest and
capacity can still be alive. However, there are individual differences with regard to sexuality
due to people's health and their culture and environment. Doing research in the area of
sexuality is not easy, due to the personal nature of the topic, but there are a few interesting
findings to take note of.
. 2.4 Sexuality
2.4.2 South African research

* The Pfizer Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviours
* The Ipsos Markinor Study
Box 2.1: Facts about AIDS: Did you know?
2.4.3 Sexual behaviour patterns in adulthood
. Conclusion
15 PYC2603/1
examination, you do need to read them to get a more complete picture of the development of
sexuality during adulthood.
2.4.1 International research
Under 2.4.2:
* The Health24 study

* Research on university students
2.4.4 Sexual orientation

Are the following statements about sexuality in adulthood true or false?
(a) In a South African study it was found that many people prefer to have sex without a
condom, which contributes to the increasing number of people who are becoming HIV
positive.
(b) In middle adulthood, when the individual's identity is fully developed, he or she can, for
the first time, develop real emotional and sexual intimacy with a partner.
(c) Doing research on sexuality poses many problems, such as finding people who are
willing to participate in such a study, because of the personal nature of sexuality and
people's reluctance to reveal such information.
(d) According to the Pfizer Study, sex plays a more important role in the lives of South
African participants than in the lives of participants from other countries.
(e) According to the Ipsos Markinor Study, South Africans' risky sexual behaviour is on the
increase, despite HIV/AIDS campaigns.
(f) Although there is an age-related decline in sexual activity as people grow older, it is a
myth that people in late adulthood are sexless.

After studying the section on sexuality in the prescribed book, you should have answered as
follows:
(a) true (see the Ipsos Markinor Study)
(b) false (``middle adulthood'' makes it wrong)
(c) true
(d) true
(e) true
(f) true
Conclusion
Physical changes during adulthood, especially late adulthood, are inevitable, yet these
changes do have psychological effects on older people and the people they come into
contact with. The question is not whether we will age physically, but how we react to these
changes and whether we will still grow towards psychological maturity.
16

Many people dread physiological ageing in the adult years and deny their real age or try to
disguise the physiological signs of ageing. Consider, for example, all the products on the
market to counter the development of wrinkles or prevent hair loss. Ask yourself: ``Do I
accept the reality of getting older? And do I regard all the stages of adulthood, namely young
adulthood, the middle years and late adult years, as significant stages of my life?''; ``Does
getting older only mean physical ageing to me or do I also regard adulthood as a time of
growing and achieving psychological maturity?''. Think about these questions again after
you have completed your study of adulthood and you have studied aspects of development
other than physiological ageing. Also keep the following quotation from Stevens-Long and
Commons (1992, p. 383) in mind when you study development in adulthood:
``We grow neither better nor worse as we get old, but more like ourselves.''
References
Papalia, D.E., Sterns, H.L., Feldman, R.D., & Camp, C.J. (2007). Adult development and
aging (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stevens-Long, J., & Commons, M.L. (1992). Adult life. London: Mayfield.
17 PYC2603/1
CHAPTER 3
Cognitive development
Contents
Orientation
Outcomes
STUDY UNIT 3.1 Do cognitive skills decline with age?

STUDY UNIT 3.2 Basic cognitive functions: information processing and memory
STUDY UNIT 3.3 Higher cognitive functions: intelligence, expertise, wisdom and creativity
STUDY UNIT 3.4 Theoretical perspectives on cognitive development during adulthood
Conclusion
Orientation
Most people in early and middle adulthood feel some anxiety about how their cognitive
abilities will change when they grow old. The reason is that there is a common belief that
cognitive abilities decline with age. There is some truth in this belief, but fortunately there are
also research findings to the contrary. Hoyer and Roodin (2009, p. 243) comment on this as
follows: ``Cognitive decline is an inevitable aspect of aging. ... however, older adults usually
show no declines in proficiency. ... some older adults show wisdom and expertise. ... [there
is] proficiency in everyday tasks and wisdom on the one hand, and cognitive losses on the
other''.
Therefore, the most important questions for you as a developmental psychology student are
probably the following: ``Do cognitive abilities grow or decline during adulthood?''; `Ìs there
anything one can do to counteract cognitive decline?''. As you already know, there are no
simple answers to these questions. When we take the research findings into account, it is
clear that, while there is decline, there is also the possibility of remaining stable or even
improving some abilities. What we can say, however, is that there will always be differences
between people in terms of cognitive development during the course of their life. These
differences are the result of dissimilarities in people's genetic make-up, health status,
educational levels, cultures, lifestyles and so forth.
Outcomes

. be able to critically discuss the controversy about the answer to the question: ``Do
cognitive skills decline with age?''
. be able to answer questions about intelligence put to you by laypersons in your
community (especially about whether intelligence grows or declines during adulthood);
and be able to substantiate your views by referring to the findings of well-known
researchers such as Horn, Cattell and Baltes
18
. be able to explain what expertise is and that some older people become specialised in
some areas, but that not all older adults are experts
. know the characteristics of wisdom and also be aware that it is a sign of wisdom to
know that life is full of uncertainties and not wholly predictable
. be able to explain the difference between formal operational thought and postformal
thought
. understand that cognitive development during adulthood is qualitatively different from
that during childhood and adolescence, and be able to explain this by referring to
Schaie's stages of cognitive development
. be able to explain to interested older people how to manage age-related decline by
means of selective optimisation and compensation
Study unit 3.1

Do cognitive skills decline with age?
This section introduces you to the different views and research findings on this topic ± the
controversy continues. We hope that, once you have studied this chapter, you will be able to
critically discuss whether cognitive abilities continue to grow as we age, or whether there is
only decline during old age.
. 3.1 Introduction
Critical thinking
Answer the first question under the heading Review this section (at the end of
`Ìnformation processing speed''), namely: ``David Wechsler had a largely pessimistic view of
adult intelligence. What was his view and how has his view been challenged?'' Write your
answer down in your workbook and keep it.
Then study the rest of the chapter and add the new information it contains to your answer.
Now you should be able to come to your own conclusion about the controversy over
probable decline or not during old age.
Study unit 3.2

Basic cognitive functions: information processing and memory
It is generally believed that memory changes take place during adulthood but, like all other
aspects of adult development, these memory changes are also characterised by striking
individual differences. To explain these individual differences (ie as far as memory is
concerned), scientists point out that memory is not a single process, but a complex system of
processes situated in a person's psyche and biology. Changes in the components of these
processes as we grow older may differ from one individual to another.
In this section you are going to study the basic perspectives on memory processes. The
19 PYC2603/1
working of memory is compared with the way in which computers process information. The
computer must first be switched on (attention must be paid to the stimulus) and then the
information can be encoded (stored) and retrieved (remembered).

. 3.2 Basic cognitive functions: Information processing and memory
3.2.2 Information processing speed
3.2.3 Memory
3.2.3.1 The concepts of memory

3.2.3.2 Ageing and memory
(a) Effects of ageing on short-term memory
(b) Effects of ageing on long-term memory
(c) Metamemory
Table 3.1 Effects of age on types of memory
3.2.1 Attention

Which of the following statements about information-processing speed are true?

(a) The reaction times of older and younger adults when doing simple tasks do not differ
much, but the difference between young and older adults increases as the task's
complexity increases.
(b) Because there is a slowing down of neural transmission as one grows older (caused by
slower synaptic communication), one's reaction time becomes slower.
(c) The slowing down of information-processing speed does not affect general intellectual
functioning.
(d) To be able to process information quickly is important in most activities of our daily
lives, but not so much in sports or driving a vehicle.

(1) (a) & (b)
(2) (c) & (d)
(3) (a), (c) & (d)

The information you need to answer this question is given in your prescribed book under the
heading Information processing speed, where it is stated that slowing down does affect
general intellectual functioning and that information-processing speed is important for
activities such as sports and driving a vehicle ± (c) and (d) are therefore incorrect.
20
The correct answer is alternative (1), since (a) and (b) are correct ± when doing simple tasks,
there is little difference between young and old, but the difference increases as tasks become
more complex; and the general slowing down in older persons is the result of a decline in
transmissions in the nervous system.
Study unit 3.3

Higher cognitive functions: intelligence, expertise, wisdom and creativity
We see and use the products of intelligent and creative behaviour and people's expertise
every day. Whenever we switch on an electric light, travel in a train, talk on the phone or
watch a really good film, we are looking at and using products designed and created by
people who could reason, acquire knowledge and solve high-level problems (characteristics
of intelligence and expertise). Or we are looking at and using products created by people
who could identify and formulate problems and come up with original solutions
(characteristics of creativity).
When you study this study unit, you will realise how difficult it is to come up with definitions
of intelligence, creativity, expertise and wisdom. You will also realise that it can sometimes
be difficult to distinguish between these concepts.
Again, the most important questions for you as a developmental psychology student are
probably the following: ``Do intelligence, expertise, wisdom and creativity grow or decline
during adulthood?''; `Ìs there anything one can do to counteract possible decline?''. As you
have already discovered, there are unfortunately no simple answers to questions such as
these. When we take the research findings into account, it is clear that, while there is decline
in these functions, there is also the possibility of remaining stable or even improving some
abilities, depending on individual differences.

. 3.3 Higher cognitive functions: intelligence, problem-solving, decision-making and
language
3.3.1 Intelligence
3.3.1.1 What is intelligence?
Under this heading, study the following:
The first paragraph
The hierarchical approach (Cattell and Horn)
The mechanics and pragmatics of intelligence (Baltes)
3.3.1.2 Does intelligence change with age?
3.3.4 Expertise, wisdom and creativity

3.3.4.1 Expertise
3.3.4.2 Wisdom
3.3.4.3 Creativity
Under this heading, study the following:
You have to study the first and last paragraphs under this heading for
the examination. The paragraphs highlighted with a star or a bullet
need not be studied for examination purposes.
3.3.5 Factors influencing cognitive development in adulthood
21 PYC2603/1
examination, you do need to read them to get a more complete picture of the development of
higher cognitive functions during adulthood.

3.3.2 Problem solving and decision making
3.3.3 Language

Intelligence is generally believed to be the ability to ...
(a) learn things easily.

(b) give automatic responses.
(c) remember.
(d) have an extensive store of knowledge.

(1) (a) & (b)
(2) (b) & (d)
(3) (a), (c) & (d)

The correct answer is alternative (3), because statements (a), (c) and (d) correspond to how
intelligence is described in your prescribed book in the first paragraph under the heading
What is intelligence?. Option (b) is incorrect because intelligent behaviour is conscious
and deliberate; in other words, it is neither automatic nor accidental ± this is not said
explicitly in the prescribed book, but the descriptions of intelligence imply that it does not
lead to automatic behaviour.

Column 1 in the table below gives the names of well-known researchers/theorists, views,
definitions/descriptions or aspects relating to intelligence, expertise, wisdom or creativity.
Each statement in column 3 is related to one of the names or aspects in column 1. Match the
name or aspect in column 1 to the statement in column 3 by filling in the correct statement in
column 2.
22
COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3

Name or aspect relating to Statement that fits the Statement relating to name/
intelligence, expertise, first column aspect
wisdom or creativity
1. Characterised by original-
The classic ageing pattern
ity, imagination and
expressiveness.
2. Intelligence test scores
Fluid intelligence
peak at the age of 30 and
then start to decline
steadily.
3. ``Raw'' intelligence, inde-

Terminal drop
pendent of social and
cultural influences or
learning experiences.
4. A dramatic decline on per-

Wisdom
formance scales of
intelligence tests takes
place from age 20.
5. Dual-component theory
Baltes
of intelligence.
6. Cognitive decline takes

Encapsulation
place a few years before
death.
7. Based on accumulated
Creativity
knowledge and is a func-
tion of education, exper-
ience and the environment.
8. Knowledge becomes in-

Crystallised intelligence
creasingly more special-
ised in adulthood ± there
is mastery and compet-
ence in specific domains.
9. Longitudinal research by
Cattell and Horn
................ found that
intelligence shows
stability between the ages
of 40 and about 55 or 60.
10. This person described the

The classic ageing curve
mechanics and pragmat-
ics of intelligence.
11. Characterised by expert-

Schaie
ise and insight as well as
uncertainty about life.
23 PYC2603/1

To complete this task, you should work carefully through all the relevant study material on
intelligence, expertise, wisdom and creativity. The matching statements for the names of
well-known researchers/theorists, views, definitions/descriptions or aspects are as follows:
COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2
Name or aspect relating to Statement that fits the first
intelligence column
The classic ageing pattern 4. A dramatic decline on
performance scales of
intelligence tests takes
place from age 20.
Fluid intelligence 3. ``Raw'' intelligence, in-
dependent of social and
cultural influences or
learning experiences.
Terminal drop 6. Cognitive decline takes
place a few years
before death.
Wisdom 11. Characterised by ex-
pertise and insight as
well as uncertainty
about life.
Baltes 10. This person described
the mechanics and
pragmatics of intelli-
gence.
Encapsulation 8. Knowledge becomes
increasingly more
specialised in adult-
hood ± there is mastery
and competence in
specific domains.
Creativity 1. Characterised by origi-
nality, imagination and
expressiveness.
Crystallised intelligence 7. Based on accumulated
knowledge and is a
function of education,
experience and the
environment.
Cattell and Horn 5. Dual-component theo-
ry of intelligence.
The classic ageing curve 2. Intelligence test scores
peak at the age of 30
and then start to de-
cline steadily.
24
COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2
Name or aspect relating to Statement that fits the first
intelligence column
Schaie 11. Longitudinal research
by ..................... found
that intelligence shows
stability between the
ages of 40 and about
55 or 60.
Study unit 3.4

Theoretical perspectives on cognitive development during adulthood
It is interesting to note, when you study theories of cognitive development during adulthood,
that there are more optimistic views than those of Piaget (who described cognitive
development up to the formal operational stage). Researchers found that adults can develop
ways of thinking that are richer and more complex than the processes Piaget described. The
Neo-Piagetian approach describes postformal thought, while Schaie describes the
development of cognitive competencies to enable one to cope with the responsibilities of
life, which brings meaning to the last stage of life. The theory of selective optimisation and
compensation also provides an interesting view on how one can manage cognitive decline
by maximising gains and minimising losses.
3.3.6.1 Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development in adulthood:

formal operational thought
3.3.6.2 Neo-Piagetian approach: postformal thought
3.3.6.3 Stages of adult cognitive development
3.3.6.4 Selective optimisation and compensation
. Conclusion

Identify the characteristics of and/or criteria for postformal thought by marking the
correct statements:
. Flexible thinking
. Regarding the truth as absolute and unchanging
. Acceptance of perspectives and values that differ from one's own
. Awareness that there is more than one solution to a problem
. The conviction that differing points of view, deviating from what you believe is the truth,
cannot be considered
. Recognising the validity of points of view that differ from one's own
. Preferring structured problems with definite answers
. Seeing everything in terms of ``black and white''
. Having absolute certainty about solutions to problems and choices
25 PYC2603/1
. Accepting that alternative arguments are as valid as one's own

. Forming your own view of a situation and committing to your belief

The characteristics of postformal thought can be found in the prescribed book under the
heading Neo-Piagetian approach: postformal thought. Please note that the incorrect
statements in the above question are characteristic of absolutist thought, which is an
immature way of thinking.
Postformal thinking is characterised by the following:
. Flexible thinking
. Acceptance of perspectives and values that differ from one's own
. Awareness that there is more than one solution to a problem
. Recognising the validity of points of view that differ from one's own
. Accepting that alternative arguments are as valid as one's own
. Forming your own view of a situation and committing to your belief

Complete the following statements about Schaie's stages of cognitive development:
Schaie proposed a model that describes cognitive development from childhood to old age.
According to this model, the people who are responsible for organisations in society are in
the (a) .................................... stage. People with less social involvement, and who
concentrate on tasks that have meaning for them, are in the (b) ....................... stage.
People who are concerned with their responsibilities to family members and employees are in
the (c) .............................. stage.
When people revise their will and give directions for funeral arrangements, the end of life is
anticipated this is called the (d) ....................................................... stage.
Complete the following statements with regard to managing age-related cognitive

decline:
Coordination, refinement and practising refer to (e) ................................. of skills, while the
narrowing down of possible alternatives refers to (f) ........................................ .
Using means such as cues to help one to remember is called (g) ................................... .
Using the above leads to the maximisation of (h) .................................. and the minimisation
of (i) ............................................... .

The following answers to the above questions can be found in the prescribed book under the
headings Stages of adult cognitive development and Selective optimisation and
compensation:
(a) executive
(b) reintegrative
(c) responsible
(d) legacy leaving or legacy creating stage
(e) optimisation
(f) selection
26
(g) compensation
(h) gains
(i) losses
Conclusion
One can feel discouraged after studying the research findings in this chapter showing that
there is a decline in cognitive functions as we grow older. However, the picture is not just
negative: older people can still make a considerable contribution to their communities,
families and workplaces by using their expertise, wisdom and creativity and by managing
possible cognitive decline by being selective, by optimising the skills they have, and by
compensating for declining abilities.

Did your study of the cognitive development in adulthood leave you with a positive or a
negative impression of older people? Think about what you have studied in this chapter ± did
you come to any conclusion about cognitive decline?
If you are in the middle years of adulthood, do you find that your memory is changing or
decreasing slightly? Or if you are younger, do you know older people who tell you that they
cannot remember as well as they did in their younger years? Do you know what to tell them
from the knowledge you gained by studying this chapter?
We hope that you have learnt that decline in memory can be counteracted by exercise and
training and by using effective memory strategies. A general decline is therefore not
inevitable. Instead of worrying about the decline in certain aspects of memory due to
biological ageing, adults should regard the various changes in memory as an incentive to
concentrate on other aspects of development, such as developing a mature grasp of the
paradoxes and complexities of life. This is more likely to contribute to mental and
psychological growth that will, in turn, enable the person to develop inner wisdom.
Reference
Hoyer, W.J., & Roodin, P.A. (2009). Adult development and aging (6th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
27 PYC2603/1
CHAPTER 4
Personality development
Contents
Orientation
Outcomes
STUDY UNIT 4.1 Models of adult personality development: the debate about stability or
change
STUDY UNIT 4.2 Stage models of adult personality development
STUDY UNIT 4.3 Trait models of adult personality
STUDY UNIT 4.4 Cognitive approaches to personality development
STUDY UNIT 4.5 Integrated approaches to personality development
STUDY UNIT 4.6 An African perspective on personality development
Conclusion
Orientation
When we talk about people's basic nature ± what kind of people they are, what makes each
one a unique, recognisable person ± we refer to their personality. Personality is a complex
concept and not easy to define, but the following definition by Mischel gives us quite a good
idea: personality is a set of ``distinctive patterns of behavior, ... thoughts and emotions ... that
characterize each individual's adaptation to the situations of his or her life'' (cited in Papalia,
Sterns, Feldman & Camp, 2007, p. 395).
When people reach late adulthood, they tend to reflect on life; this is known as a life review.
As the hectic pace of life slows down, often accompanied by retirement from paid
employment, this is a time to reflect and contemplate, to think. This seems to be the unique
meaning of what can be the most profound period in the developing person's life, a period
which can result in the development of an even more integrated and mature personality.
Outcomes

. be able to discuss and compare the various theoretical views on personality change and
personality stability during adulthood
. have formed your own opinion about the issue of stability versus change in the
personality development of adults
. know the various models of personality development and be able to explain which of
these models favour stability and which favour change
. be aware of the normative personality changes as well as the critical transitions during
the different stages in the adult life span (as suggested by the stage models of
personality development of Erikson and Peck)
28
. be familiar with the personality dimensions researchers use to describe the personality of
adults
. know about the cognitive side of the personality, namely how people view themselves
and the way in which they reflect on who they are
. be able to explain to an audience of western people what the African perspective on
personality development is and compare it with the western view
Study unit 4.1

Models of adult personality development: the debate about stability or
change
One of the oldest debates in psychology is about whether or not personality development
continues throughout the entire life span. A century of research, however, has still not given
us a clear-cut answer to this question. Intuitively we know that most people stay the same
person during their lives, but we also know people who have changed in some ways, and
therefore we have to believe that we can also change as we grow older.
. 4.1 Introduction
. 4.2 Models of adult personality development
Self-reflection
Answer the questions at the end of the introduction under the heading: Critical thinking.
Write down your answers in your workbook and keep them. Then study the rest of the
chapter, and once you've reached the end, see for yourself if your answers are still the same.
What did you learn from studying the various models of personality development?
Study unit 4.2

Stage models of adult personality development
Stage models imply that development takes place throughout life, mostly following a certain
pattern. Freud suggested some stages of development, but he described development as
taking place only until adolescence. Good examples of stage models of adult personality
development, which therefore imply that change can still take place during a person's adult
years, are those of Erik Erikson, Daniel Levinson and Robert Peck. Peck described quite a few
crises that older people have to deal with, and maintained that if they confronted these crises
effectively, they would find personal satisfaction and self-worth while also accepting and
finding meaning in their own mortality. Erikson's view of ego integrity and Peck's view of
ego transcendence versus preoccupation give us the hope that we can enjoy a meaningful
existence during late adulthood, despite the decline in our physical and work abilities.
29 PYC2603/1
4.2.1 Stage models of adult personality

4.2.1.1 Erik Erikson: psychosocial development:
(a) Assumptions about development
(b) Psychosocial development stages in adulthood
(c) Evaluation of Erikson's theory (this includes Peck's views)
4.2.1.3 Evaluation of the stage approaches

Table 4.1 Erikson's psychosocial stages of development
Figure 4.1 Erikson's epigenetic principle of development
examination, you do need to read them to get a more complete picture of the stage models of
personality development during adulthood.
4.2.1.2 Daniel Levinson: life structure and life transitions

(a) Assumptions about development
(b) Developmental changes
(c) Evaluation of Levinson's model

Complete the following statements which relate to Erikson's theory about development
throughout life, specifically during adulthood.
Erikson's approach proposed (a) .......................... development, based on the (b) .....................
principle. Erikson divided adult development into (c) ............................................. stages. He
called the first of these stages (d) ................................................... which is characteristic of the
(e) .............................. adulthood stage.
The next stage, which emerges during middle adulthood, is known as (f) .............................. .
Erikson contended that if, during the final and peak stages of psychosocial development,
adults do not reach a sense of integrity, they will experience a sense of
(g).......................................... .

The missing terms and words in the previous paragraph are given below:
(a) psychosocial
(b) epigenetic
(c) three
(d) intimacy versus isolation
(e) early
(f) generativity versus stagnation
(g) despair
30

Study what your prescribed book says about Peck's theory of personality adjustment during
middle and late adulthood (under the heading Evaluation of Erikson's theory). Close
your book and then, without referring to it, answer the following question:
Peck identified seven psychological developments which he regards as necessary for

successful adaptation to ageing. Four of these developments take place during the middle
years and three during old age.
The psychological developments during middle adulthood are:
(1) ................................................................. versus ................................................................

The first psychological development refers to .................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
(2) ................................................................. versus ................................................................

The second psychological development entails that .......................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
(3) .................................................................. versus .................................................................

The third psychological development refers to..................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
(4) ................................................................. versus ................................................................

The fourth psychological development entails that ........................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
The psychological developments during old age are:
(1) ................................................................. versus ................................................................

The first psychological development refers to .................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
31 PYC2603/1
(2) ................................................................. versus ................................................................

The second psychological development means that .......................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
(3) ................................................................. versus ................................................................

The third psychological development refers to ................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................

The correct answers are as follows:
The psychological developments during middle adulthood are:
(1) Wisdom versus physical powers

The first psychological development refers to a decline in physical strength, stamina
and a youthful appearance. Well-adjusted individuals will now rely on their mental
power, that is, their accumulated wisdom, rather than their physical abilities.
(2) Socialising versus sexualising

The second psychological development entails that people regard friendship, trust,
emotional support and companionship as more important than sexuality.
(3) Emotional flexibility versus emotional impoverishment

The third psychological development refers to changes in people's lives during middle
adulthood (children leave home; parents, life partners and friends die; physical
strength declines). All these require new adjustments. To be able to adapt
successfully, people have to be emotionally flexible.
(4) Cognitive flexibility versus cognitive rigidity

The fourth psychological development entails that adults are confronted with new
social and cultural ideas. Cognitive flexibility is necessary if people are to be able to
adapt to these. In other words, individuals should not become so set in their ways that
they close their minds to new ideas.
The psychological developments during old age are:
(1) Ego differentiation versus work role preoccupation

The first psychological development refers to the fact that, when retirement becomes a
reality, individuals who have defined themselves by their work role need to redefine
their worth and give new structure and direction to their lives. This is done by
exploring other interests and taking pride in personal attributes.
(2) Body transcendence versus body preoccupation

32
The second psychological development means that, as physical strength declines,

people now have to invest in aspects of interpersonal relationships and cognitive
activities that do not demand perfect health.
(3) Ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation

The third psychological development refers to human mortality. The task of the aged is
to accept the certainty of death. They need to find meaning in what they have
achieved through raising children, having good relationships, making contributions to
society and becoming involved in the wellbeing of others. The aged then achieve a
sense of lasting significance.
Study unit 4.3

Trait models of adult personality
Personality traits distinguish people from one another and influence their behaviour, for
example with regard to how they shape their relationships, achievements and lifestyle. Costa
and McCrae have identified five dimensions of personality, which they found to be very
stable, especially from the age of 30, but they also found that change takes place within
these dimensions according to certain patterns. Genetic as well as environmental factors
have an influence on personality development, but we will probably never know exactly how
this complex interaction between nature and nurture and the related factors takes place in
adults' personality development.
4.2.2 Trait models of adult personality

4.2.2.1 Theoretical assumptions of trait models
4.2.2.2 Personality traits: a case for stability
4.2.2.3 Personality traits: a case for change
4.2.2.4 Forces that contribute to stability and change
4.2.2.5 Evaluating the trait approach
Box 4.1 What do personality traits do?
Table 4.2 Costa and McCrae's Five-Factor Model

Research on personality stability versus personality change during adulthood has showed
that ...
(a) the five personality dimensions distinguished by Costa and McCrae show a remarkable
degree of stability during adulthood.
(b) personality traits are reinforced by the environment, which contributes to the stability of
the traits. Furthermore, people seek environments that will suit their personalities.
(c) as people grow older, their personality traits change according to distinct patterns. For
example, it was found that openness to experience continues to increase until the end
of life, whereas agreeableness increases in young adulthood, but decreases in old age.
(d) differential stability exists, that is stability in people's rank order in respect of a certain
33 PYC2603/1
trait. This means that the most conscientious individuals during young adulthood will
also be the most conscientious when they are older.
(1) (a) & (d)

(2) (b) & (c)
(3) (a), (b) & (d)

The correct answer to this question is alternative (3). When you read through the relevant
sections on trait models, you will realise that (a), (b) and (d) are correct according to the
research findings.
The first sentence of option (c) is correct, but the statements on openness to experience and
agreeableness do not accord with the research findings Ð it was found that openness
decreases in old age, while agreeableness increases with age. This option is therefore not
correct.
Study unit 4.4

Cognitive approaches to personality development
The cognitive approaches give attention to the way people interpret and evaluate what is
happening to them and around them. The self-concept (the view a person has about her/
himself) and a person's identity (sense of self) are fundamental parts of the personality ±
`Òur view of ourselves is the core of personality'' (Papalia et al., 2007, p. 405). The self-
concept and identity are, like personality, stable constructs that can also change during a
lifetime due to experiences and the context, depending on how the person views her- or
himself and interprets the environment.
4.2.3 Cognitive approaches to personality development

4.2.3.1 Self-concept models
4.2.3.2 Identity models
4.2.3.3 Evaluation of cognitive model

Read the section about self-concept models in your prescribed book. Now close your book
and test your knowledge about what you have just read by completing the following
statements:
According to the self-concept models (a) ........................................... forms the core of the
personality.
According to self-concept theorists, the self-concept consists of (b)......................................
which can be described as (c) ........................................................ around which behaviour is
organised.
34
The self-concept has different domains, namely the (d) .........................., (e) .......................,
(f) ................................. and (g) .............................................. domains [you may give the
answers to (d) to (g) in any sequence]. These domains are (h) equally/not equally important
to all individuals (choose the correct one).

The missing words or phrases or the correct words in the statements above are as follows:
(a) our view of ourselves

(b) schemas
(c) working models
(d) physical
(e) occupational
(f) social
(g) psychological [from (d) to (g) the answers may be in any sequence]
(h) not equally (because what is important to one individual may be less important to
another)
Study unit 4.5

Integrated approaches to personality development
You do not need to study the section on integrated approaches to personality development
for the examination, but it is necessary for your knowledge of personality development to
read this section and take note of McAdam's concept of a personal life story, which
integrates the past, present and future.
Background reading (not for examination purposes):
4.2.4 Integrated approaches to personality development

Evaluation of integrated approaches
Study unit 4.6

An African perspective on personality development
According to the African perspective, there is a close connection between the person and the
community, and personality development therefore takes place through interaction with the
community. To become a full person one has to comply with certain standards set by the
community. The western view that individuality is denied by the African perspective is not
completely correct ± according to the African perspective people's individual contributions to
the community can have an effect on the community, and they can therefore also shape the
community, while being shaped by it.
4.2.5 Personality development: an African perspective
Table 4.4 Human development in the social phase of selfhood
. Conclusion
35 PYC2603/1

Which of the following statements about the African perspective on personality development
is/are correct?
(a) Individuals, while being shaped by the community, can also have an effect on the
community by making contributions that can transform the community.
(b) Personhood (becoming a person) is achieved by complying with certain standards of
the community, such as showing generosity, compassion, hospitality, benevolence,
humility and respect.
(c) Personality is formed by following one's own heart, because one is born with certain
characteristics that do not necessarily comply with the community's standards.
(d) The phases of personality development are social priming, social induction, adulthood,
and the last phase of old age, which ends when the person dies.
(1) (a) & (b)

(2) (c) & (d)
(3) (a), (b) & (d)

The correct answer to this question is alternative (1). When you read through the relevant
section on the African perspective, you will realise that (a) and (b) are correct according to
this perspective.
Option (c) is incorrect, because the African perspective holds that personality is formed by
complying with the community's standards and ideals.
Option (d) is also incorrect, because the African perspective states that development
continues after death ± this refers to an ancestral selfhood after biological death.
Conclusion
It is clear that personality development in adulthood entails stability as well as change.
Although it might seem that change and stability are contradictory, the fact that our
personalities are both stable and changing reflects the complexities in our personality
makeup. Most of us stay the same people that our families, friends and others know. Yet
certain aspects of our personalities can change during the course of a lifetime.
``Human beings are not born once and for all on the day their mothers give birth to them ... .
Life obliges them over and over again to give birth to themselves'' (Gabriel Garcia Marquez
cited in Papalia et al., 2007, p. 392).

You now have a basic understanding of what personality development during adulthood
entails. Think about the development of your own personality and that of others during the
various stages of adulthood and consider the following:
36
± How did your personality develop during the various stages, or how do you imagine your
personality will develop?
± On the basis of which personality characteristics do you categorise other people?
± What aims are you setting for yourself in terms of what you want to achieve or the kind of
person you want to become over the course of your own life?
± Does gender stereotyping play a role in your own personality development and in the
personality development of your family members and friends?
± After considering these issues, think about what you can do to achieve optimal
personality development in order to realise your life goals and your dreams.
Reference
37 PYC2603/1
CHAPTER 5
Social development
Contents
Orientation
Outcomes
STUDY UNIT 5.1 The adult as a social being

STUDY UNIT 5.2 The characteristics of adult relationships
STUDY UNIT 5.3 Lifestyle choices
STUDY UNIT 5.4 Work, retirement and leisure
STUDY UNIT 5.5 Moral development
Conclusion
Orientation
Humans are social beings. Our lives are deeply embedded in a social milieu and we are
constantly faced with various aspects of our social development. Ultimately though, each
person has to lead his or her own life, and confront his or her unique social situations. Life
comes to each of us in a personal way and events impact on, or affect, each of us differently.
However, if we want to make the best of our lives, what we all do share is responsibility ± the
responsibility that comes with freedom of choice.
Because freedom of choice in making certain personal choices is one of the main
characteristics of the years of adulthood, we need to take note of the different life situations
in which adults exercise the options and choices available to them. In this chapter we focus
on the more common features of adults as social beings, such as the characteristics of adult
relationships, lifestyle choices, the role played by work, retirement and leisure, as well as
moral development as an integral part of being an adult.
Outcomes

. be able to reflect on the life course and the life cycle perspectives as approaches to
conceptualising the divergent lifestyles and developmental pathways that adults may
follow in the course of their development
. show that you have a basic knowledge of the characteristics of adult relationships
. be able to discuss intimacy, love, attachment and social networks during adulthood
. have knowledge of the different lifestyle choices adults make with regard to, for
example, marriage, divorce, parenthood, cohabitation and single life, as well as changes
that result from developmental transitions and events
. understand the role played by work, retirement and leisure in the lives of adults
. be able to discuss moral development during adulthood
38
Study unit 5.1

The adult as a social being
Social contact within the community and the family has unique characteristics that fulfil
important functions in people's lives. The role played by friends and loved ones, especially
children, grandchildren, brothers and sisters, is valuable and should be cherished during the
adult years of one's life. Social development during adulthood, however, follows different
patterns which relate to interpersonal relationships, social networks, lifestyle choices, social
roles and social responsibilities.
. 5.1 Introduction

Which of the following statements regarding the life course and life cycle perspectives are
true?
(a) The life cycle perspective is a useful way of thinking about the sequence of role
transitions.
(b) The life cycle perspective is no longer representative of the contemporary patterns and
divergent lifestyles of adults.
(c) The life course perspective acknowledges divergent lifestyles.
(d) The life course perspective places people in a historical and cultural context and is
therefore much more relevant than the life cycle perspective in conceptualising the
social development of South Africans.
(e) The life cycle perspective does not locate people within their stage or historical context.

(1) (a) & (c)
(2) (b) & (d)
(3) (a), (d) & (e)

The correct answer is alternative (4). After you have studied section 5.1 in your prescribed
book you will realise that all of these statements about the life cycle and life course
perspectives are true.
Study unit 5.2

The characteristics of adult relationships
This section pays attention to aspects of one of the most basic human needs, namely the
need for love and attachment. During adulthood, relationships may take on different
meanings from those of our childhood years. Social interactions and interpersonal
39 PYC2603/1
relationships are experienced on a deep, meaningful level, and long-lasting love and
attachment bonds are formed.
. 5.2 The characteristics of adult relationships

5.2.1 Intimacy
5.2.2 Love
5.2.3 Attachment
Figure 5.2 Internal models of self and other people based on early
attachment relationships
5.2.4 Social networks
Box 5.1 Social networks in South Africa
Task 1 based on study unit 5.2

Sternberg's triangular theory of love refers to a special, loving relationship with a partner of
the same or opposite sex. Complete the following table, which is about Sternberg's view of
the ``three faces of love''.
THE COMPONENT OF LOVE ACCORDING TO STERNBERG
Component Characterised by Description of component
Intimacy
Infatuation (eg
being in love)
A conscious decision to love and to stay

with the beloved
Feedback on task 1 based on study unit 5.2

You can find the information on this theory in section 5.2.1 of your prescribed book. You
should have completed the table as follows (although your wording may be different from
ours):
THE COMPONENT OF LOVE ACCORDING TO STERNBERG
Component Characterised by Description of component
Intimacy Close relationship Self-disclosure takes place and this leads to

(eg marital relation- warmth, trust and attachment or connect-
ship) edness
Passion Infatuation (eg Physical attraction and sexual longing

being in love)
Commitment Care and support A conscious decision to love and to stay

with the beloved
40

Read the following and then answer the multiple-choice question below.
Jane desperately wants to be involved in a relationship with someone, because the attention
of another person makes her feel valued. However, although she has much love to give, her
relationships never seem to work out. She always expresses a fear that her partner may not
love her or may leave her. She therefore becomes overly dependent on her partner for love,
affection and confirmation of her self-worth. According to Bartholomew's model of
attachment relationships in adulthood, Jane is exhibiting an internal working model of
...................... attachment and may have a/an ..................................... attachment history.

(1) avoidant; anxious
(2) preoccupied; resistant
(3) dismissing; avoidant
(4) fearful; disorganised-disorientated

The correct answer is alternative (2). You will find the relevant information in Figure 5.2
Internal models of self and other people based on early attachment relationships
in your prescribed book.
Study unit 5.3

Lifestyle choices
As adults we have freedom of choice about the lifestyle we are going to follow ± marriage,
cohabitation, or singlehood; parenthood, or remaining childless; we can also choose the
people we want to share the chosen lifestyle with. However, some life events are beyond our
control and certain things may happen that we are not responsible for or that we did not
foresee at all. Sometimes these events and our choices have sad consequences that we have
to deal with ± we then have to make even further lifestyle choices.
. 5.3 Lifestyle choices

5.3.1 Marital and non-marital lifestyles
5.3.1.1 Marriage
(a) The status of marriage in South Africa
(b) The effects of marriage on adult development
(c) Marital satisfaction
5.3.1.2 Cohabitation
5.3.1.3 Singlehood
5.3.2 Family lifestyles and relationships
Table 5.2 The family life cycle
41 PYC2603/1
(a) Parents and children
Box 5.4 Factors which promote adjustment to parenthood
(f) Grandparenthood
5.3.2.4 Sibling relationships

5.3.2.5 Friendships
Box 5.2 The demise of marriage

Box 5.3 Pride and prejudice: public attitudes toward homosexuality
(d) Divorce
Table 5.1 Common reasons for divorce

(e) Remarriage
(f) Widowhood
5.3.2.1 Parenthood
(b) Adopted and foster children
Box 5.5 Adopted and foster families
(c) Fatherhood
(d) Same sex parenting
(e) Step-families and step-parenting
Box 5.6 The adjustment of the reconstituted family
(g) Intergenerational relationships
5.3.2.2 Single-parent families

5.3.2.3 Childless couples

Draw a mind map of the marital and non-marital lifestyle choices people make during
adulthood that you need to study for this module.
What is a mind map?

A mind map (schematic representation) is a summary of linear text information in a visual
format. In a mind map, information is organised, for example, from the general to the specific
and by using arrows or lines to indicate the relationships between various aspects of
information. Visual icons or pictures can be used to convey certain messages or ideas.
Because a mind map is a unique way of representing information, it makes the information to
be studied more meaningful and easier to remember. Constructing a mind map is, therefore,
an effective study method.
42

Study the information in section 5.3 Lifestyle choices that you have to study, and draw
your own mind map, taking all the relevant aspects into account. Remember that you may
use lines, arrows, visual icons, pictures or different colours to highlight important aspects in
your mind map.
The following mind map is a very basic one, but it will give you an idea of how a mind map
can be compiled. Try to improve this mind map by adding more detail using the information
in section 5.3 Lifestyle choices of your prescribed book.
Lifestyle choices
during adulthood
!
!
!
"Marriage "Cohabitation "Singlehood
; ; ;
What is marriage? Cohabitation rate SA Statistics
; ; ;
Status of marriage Reasons for increase Reasons

; ; ;
Effects of marriage Why cohabit? Attitudes

; ; ;
Marital satisfaction Stable? Influence on

psychological
development
Study unit 5.4

Work, retirement and leisure
In adulthood, social barriers between generations become less noticeable in education, work
and leisure. The reason for this is that these activities do not belong to certain age groups any
more, but are dispersed, as it were, throughout adulthood. For example, many adults pursue
some form of formal education throughout adulthood ± in other words, education is no
longer an activity engaged in by young adults only.
Work is an important part of most adults' life, but brings with it many stressors. Certain
groups experience more stress at work than others. These groups of people are especially
susceptible to burn out. Losing one's job can also be a very traumatic experience, and coping
with this takes a special ability to adjust to change. Even retirement, which is mostly planned
for and therefore expected, causes stress and requires adjustment on the part of the person
concerned. No matter what kind of adjustments one has to make, social relationships play an
important role ± social support can often serve as a buffer, alleviating the stresses that
accompany many changes.
43 PYC2603/1
. 5.4 Work, retirement and leisure
5.4.1 The importance of work

5.4.2 The career cycle
(a) The pre-career period
(b) The early career period
(c) The mid-career period
(d) The late career period
5.4.3 Women's career cycle
5.4.4 Leisure time

Identify the statements about the value of work which are true by ticking the correct boxes:
& Work contributes to an adult's self-esteem, self-concept and identity.
& Work determines an individual's place and status in society.
& Work gives definition to the days, weeks and months of the year.
& Work is tiring and exhausting.
& Work is an opportunity for self-expression and a means of survival.

& Work to a large extent satisfies the human need to achieve and attain goals.
& Work often caters for our social interactions outside the family circle.
& The value of work should be assessed in terms of extrinsic factors such as salary and
working hours.

The value of work can be seen in the following statements:
T Work contributes to an adult's self-esteem, self-concept and identity.

T Work determines an individual's place and status in society.
T Work gives definition to the days, weeks and months of the year.
T Work is an opportunity for self-expression and a means of survival.
T Work to a large extent satisfies the human need to achieve and attain goals.
T Work often caters for our social interactions outside the family circle.
44
Study unit 5.5

Moral development
Simply reaching adulthood does not necessarily imply that one has reached moral maturity,
although reaching the level of postformal thought does relate to high levels of morality. Not
every person can reach the intellectual, moral and spiritual heights of Gandhi and Nelson
Mandela. But it is possible for an ordinary person who aspires to reach psychological
maturity to strive to develop the characteristics associated with high levels of moral
development and to incorporate them in their lives.
. 5.5 Moral development

Which of the following statements regarding moral development in adulthood is/are true?
(a) Cognitive awareness of higher moral principles develops in adolescence, but people
only start committing themselves to those principles in adulthood.
(b) Higher moral reasoning is not necessarily attained by all adults.
(c) All adults reach the higher levels of moral reasoning because of their life experiences
and cognitive maturity.
(d) Responsibility for the welfare of others contributes to adults' moral reasoning.

(1) (b)
(2) (c) & (d)
(3) (a), (b) & (d)
(4) None of the above.

After you have studied section 5.5 Moral development in your prescribed book you will
realise that the correct answer is alternative (3). You should know that not all individuals
who are cognitively mature and have been through many life experiences attain moral
maturity. Furthermore, one does not need to be clever and educated to be a morally mature
person.
Conclusion
Adults who have been fortunate enough to experience life to its fullest in its different facets,
who have been involved in family and social relationships, who are content with their
lifestyle choices, who have experienced a working environment of whatever nature and who
have reached the peaks of moral development and reasoning have, perhaps, a responsibility
to convey their life experiences to the younger generation and to inspire them to strive to live
life to its fullest.
45 PYC2603/1

One of the key issues currently facing older adults is the lack of formal social roles. Adults, at
present, relinquish many of the major roles of adulthood by the time they reach the later years
of life, and most experience a major decline in societal significance as a result of these role
losses. Establishing ongoing occupational and volunteer roles for adults in future may
safeguard their status and feelings of connectedness and could ensure that their self-esteem
and sense of identity (being a person whom other people need) remain intact. If older people
continue to feel useful and significant, their roles in their families and among friends will be
characterised by greater dignity and their lives will therefore be of a higher quality.
Reflect on these ideas by thinking of yourself and your self-worth in the future, when you are
an older adult. What might be the best way of maintaining social wellness during the
different stages of adulthood?
46
CHAPTER 6
Successful ageing and mental

health
Contents
Orientation
Outcomes
STUDY UNIT 6.1 The Older Persons Act
STUDY UNIT 6.2 Successful ageing
STUDY UNIT 6.3 Old age and mental health
Conclusion
Orientation
In 2010 an act was promulgated in South Africa with the general aim of protecting the
interests of older persons so that they can enjoy a life of good quality. If South Africans will
adhere to the spirit of this act, they can promote the wellbeing of the elderly of our country
and contribute to their life satisfaction, which will also lead to their ``successful ageing''.
The developmental importance of adulthood is emphasised by the fact that the ability to `àge
successfully'' and to live a meaningful life in the remaining years of late adulthood depends
on having a positive outlook on life and being able to cope with social and environmental
circumstances. The central theme of late adulthood is coming to grips with the meaning of
one's life through a process of life review and reflection, which can lead to feelings of
wellbeing and satisfaction (and therefore to successful ageing).
Outcomes

. be able to explain the reasons for the promulgation of the Older Persons Act
. be able to explain the concept ``successful ageing''
. know and understand how certain factors may influence older people's feelings of
wellbeing and life satisfaction and may contribute to their successful ageing
Study unit 6.1

The Older Persons Act
Did you know of the existence of the Older Persons Act in South Africa? The introduction to
this chapter in the prescribed book tells us why it was necessary to promulgate such an act
47 PYC2603/1
and what its objectives are. We have a growing population of older people, who are
sometimes victims of prejudice and do not receive the respect and protection they deserve.
Legislation cannot change people's attitudes towards the elderly, but it could lead to greater
awareness about older people's situations, and that could contribute to the wellbeing of
elderly people in our country.
After studying this topic in the prescribed book, you will be able to answer the first question
at the end of this section in the prescribed book under Review this section ± ``What are the
objectives of the Older Persons Act No 13 of 2006?''
Section you need to study for examination purposes:
. 6.1 Introduction
Activities based on study unit 6.1
Something to think about

Reflect on the statement made by Louw and Louw (2009, p. 255) that older persons `àre
often pushed aside and even rejected by others'' and answer the following questions for
yourself:
(a) Is this true in your community, or do you live in a community that respects older adults?
If they are respected, how is this respect shown?
(b) Do you think that legislation (specifically the Older Persons Act) can bring about a
change in attitude towards older people? Whether you answer yes or no, think of a
motivation for your answer.
(c) How could people in South Africa be made aware of the existence of the Act?
A practical application of your knowledge

If you were among people who did not respect older people, and you got a chance to give a
talk about old age, what would you tell them? Use the knowledge from research findings
about late adulthood and successful ageing when preparing your talk.
Study unit 6.2

Successful ageing
Everyone would like to be satisfied with their life, and to be ``happy''. Happy, satisfied older
people could be described as being successful ± they have aged successfully. However, to
define successful ageing is not as simple a task as that.
Under the heading Successful ageing in the prescribed book you will find a definition of
successful ageing by Rowe and Kahn. After reading this, what are your first impressions?
What are the main ideas of their definition? It is important to note that their definition stresses
physical health and being active as determinants of successful ageing.
However, if you read further you will come across a different view of successful ageing that
emphasises that an individual's own subjective experiences determine how she or he feels
about her or his life and that physical health does not necessarily lead to a sense of being
48
successful. From the information provided in this section of the prescribed book, we can
conclude that the following are indicators of successful ageing:
± Effective coping styles

± Optimism, a positive outlook on life
There are also other factors that play a role in successful ageing. Here the ``golden rule''
(according to Louw & Louw, 2009, p. 262) applies: there are individual differences with
regard to the factors associated with successful ageing and you must therefore keep in mind
that there are always exceptions to the rule ± the impact of a specific factor will depend on
the individual and his or her situation. Bear this in mind as you study the various factors
described in the prescribed book that may play a role in successful ageing.
Sections you need to study for examination purposes:
. 6.2 Successful ageing

6.2.1 Ageism
6.2.2 Personality characteristics
6.2.3 Locus of control
6.2.4 Poverty
6.2.5 Dependency
6.2.6 Major life events and daily hassles
6.2.7 Active lifestyle
6.2.8 Religion and spirituality
6.2.9 Loneliness
Box 6.2 Life satisfaction across the life span
. Conclusion (at the end of the chapter)

With reference to the factors that could be related to successful ageing, are the following
statements true or false?
(a) Research has found that physical health is a necessity for feelings of wellbeing.
(b) Most elderly people over the world are victims of ageism, which has a negative impact
on their self-concept.
(c) Research on the relationship between successful ageing and personality traits of older
persons has found that there are particular personality traits that could play a role in
ageing successfully.
(d) Locus of control can have an effect on successful ageing ± an external locus of control
is usually related to people feeling that they are in control of their lives, which will
contribute to feelings of ageing successfully.
(e) Poverty cannot have an effect on successful ageing because housing, the kind of
neighbourhood and material possessions will not affect feelings of life satisfaction.
(f) Older people experience more daily hassles than younger people, which may negatively
affect their feeling of wellbeing.
(g) With regard to activity level, the type of lifestyle that will lead to feelings of wellbeing
and satisfaction with one's life is an individual matter ± some older persons will only be
49 PYC2603/1
satisfied if they can stay active while others will be satisfied with their lives if they can
slow down on all their activities.
(h) Research has found that religious and spiritual older people are in better health than
others because they have healthier lifestyles.
(i) Loneliness is a problem especially in late adulthood, and has a negative influence on
feelings of wellbeing and satisfaction with life.

After studying the section on successful ageing in the prescribed book, you should have
come to the following answers:
(a) false
(b) false
(c) true
(d) false
(e) false
(f) false
(g) true
(h) true
(i) false
Study unit 6.3

Old age and mental health
Although you do not need to study the section on old age and mental health for the
examination, you do need to read it because it contains very important information about
mental disorders associated with old age. It is especially important to acquaint yourself with
the facts about Alzheimer's disease, because it is referred to in many everyday conversations.
Many people make jokes about this condition without having any scientific knowledge
about it.
. 6.3 Old age and mental health

6.3.1 Depression
6.3.2 Anxiety disorders
6.3.3 Delirium
6.3.4 Dementia
6.3.5 Parkinson's disease
6.3.6 Sleep disorders
Conclusion
We all know people in late adulthood who can be described as ageing successfully. What are
their characteristics? Ryff and her colleagues (Papalia et al., 2007) identify six dimensions
which they feel describe successful people, namely self-acceptance, positive relationships
with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth.
Successful and mentally healthy people will score high on all these dimensions.
50
However, nobody's life is perfect. As humans we only attain some aspects of perfection as
we aspire towards the ideal. Perhaps the humble person is the image of the ideal person: the
one who is aware of his or her own weaknesses and failings but whose heart is in the right
place, and whose life is devoted to worthy causes and to doing good to others. Perhaps this
is the kind of person who will have all the characteristics that different researchers have
ascribed to people who are ageing successfully.

Think about your own life ± would you describe it as ``successful''? After you have come to a
conclusion, think carefully about how you got to that point. What criteria did you use to
evaluate your own life? Did you think only about physical health and being active? Are there
other criteria you could use?
If you use the criteria of effective coping styles and a positive outlook on life to evaluate your
life, where do you stand?
Reference
51 PYC2603/1
CHAPTER 7
Death and grief

Contents
Orientation
Outcomes
STUDY UNIT 7.1 The challenge of death and dying
STUDY UNIT 7.2 What is death?
STUDY UNIT 7.3 Death anxiety
STUDY UNIT 7.4 Stages of dying
STUDY UNIT 7.5 The right to die
STUDY UNIT 7.6 Grief
STUDY UNIT 7.7 Specific losses
Conclusion
Orientation
What comes to mind when we hear the terms `death' and `dying'? It might be the picture of
old people in nursing homes. Or the solemnity of black clothing and a cemetery. Or even the
transition to an eternal life. For many of us, it might be the unknowable mystery of it all.
It is ironic, perhaps, that most of us experience contradictory feelings about death and dying.
On the one hand, we are fascinated by death, as demonstrated by the popularity of television
series and films about murders or wars. We easily and quite comfortably watch movies and
TV programmes containing images of people dying or who are being killed in wars or
genocides. When we deal with death and dying in this way, we feel essentially removed from
them. On the other hand, when death becomes more personal (for example when our doctor
tells us we or one of our loved ones has a life-threatening illness), we feel great anxiety and
our deepest emotions are involved. Nor do we ever wish to think about the death of loved
ones, family and friends.
Outcomes

. be able to view death and dying as the greatest challenge of life
. be able to provide a definition of death and discuss various perspectives in this regard
. be able to explain ``death anxiety'' and its role in our experience of death and dying
. recognise the stages in the process of dying identified in KuÈbler-Ross's theory and be
able to use this knowledge to console both the dying and their loved ones
. know that grief takes different forms and presents in various phases
. be able to describe the intensity and manifestation of grief after the death of either a
child, a spouse or life partner, or an older parent
52
Study unit 7.1

The challenge of death and dying
Death and dying hold different meanings for people in different stages of life. During young
and middle adulthood we tend to eagerly live future-oriented lives. For most people, death
only becomes a more personal experience during the middle years, when their parents die.
But it is only during late adulthood that we are really confronted by our own approaching
death. People in their late adulthood years often turn their thoughts reflectively to their past
life. This process of reviewing one's life can be truly creative if the reflections on life are
connected to the unavoidable future event of our own death. A rich reflection on life will
enable us to retain life's meaning in the looming face of death. For many elderly people, such
a life reflection results in a breakthrough of hope which takes them beyond the grave. This is
when death is no longer feared, but rather seen as a challenge. This comes with the
realisation that life is a gift to be lived in such a way that will give it eternal meaning.
. 7.1 Introduction
Self-reflection
Think about the inevitability of your own death and the death of your loved ones. Write
down your feelings and the questions that might come to mind. Then study the rest of the
chapter, and when you reach the end, see whether the content has addressed your feelings
and questions. What did you learn about this topic, which is quite often a taboo subject that
must not be discussed or considered?
Study unit 7.2

What is death?
Death, and the actual moment at which it occurs, is not an experience that is familiar to most
of us. Different cultures hold different views as to when a person can be considered to be
dead. This difficulty in defining death can lead to ethical dilemmas about matters such as
organ donation. Brain death, moreover, may not be regarded as clinical death. These issues
that we so often treat as unimportant need to be put under the spotlight. All of us will
someday be confronted with death in one form or the other.
. 7.2 What is death?

The prescribed book gives definitions of clinical death and brain death. After you have
studied the relevant section, indicate which state of death is described by the following
statements:
53 PYC2603/1
STATEMENT STATE OF DEATH
Often referred to as a near death experience
Also called cerebral death
State of death that can be reversed under certain

conditions
A state in which the person can sometimes still

breathe and have a heart-beat because the lower
centres that control these functions die later
Condition that is usually irreversible
State of death during which all external signs of life

such as consciousness, heartbeat, breathing and
brain functions are absent, but the metabolic
processes are still proceeding
Feedback on task based on study unit 7.2

The correct answers are given in the following table:
STATEMENT STATE OF DEATH
Often referred to as a near death experience Clinical death
Also called cerebral death Brain death
State of death that can be reversed under certain Clinical death

conditions
A state in which the person can sometimes still Brain death

breathe and have a heartbeat because the lower
centres that control these functions die later
Condition that is usually irreversible Brain death
State of death during which all external signs of life Clinical death
such as consciousness, heartbeat, breathing and
brain functions are absent, but the metabolic
processes are still proceeding

Consider reasons why a clear definition of ``death'' has become more important in recent
times.

Although it has always been rather difficult to provide a definition of death that is acceptable
54
to all people in all instances, it has become even more complicated in recent years due to the
influence of various factors such as politics, ethics, the law and human rights. But a proper,
acceptable definition is necessary if we want to avoid confusion about matters such as organ
transplantation and a person's right to die under certain conditions.
Study unit 7.3

Death anxiety
Although death is an inescapable reality, most of us have an intense fear of it. Reasons for
this death anxiety, as it is known, range from fear of physical suffering to fear of the death of
a loved one. The occurrence and intensity of death anxiety are determined by aspects such as
age, gender, religious orientation and personality characteristics.
. 7.3 Death anxiety

Death anxiety is related to the fear of ...
(a) physical suffering, isolation and loneliness.

(b) non-being, the unknown and punishment.
(c) cowardice and humiliation.
(d) failing to achieve important goals and the impact of death on those who may outlive the
person.
(e) being able to cope with the process of death.

(2) None of the above
(3) (a), (c) & (e)
(4) (a), (b), (c) & (d)

The correct answer is alternative (4) and can be found in section 7.3 Death anxiety in the
prescribed book. The only incorrect option is (e) because death anxiety does not relate to
coping with the process of death. Death anxiety, or fear of death, involves a fear of physical
suffering, isolation and loneliness, non-being, cowardice and humiliation, failing to achieve
important goals, the impact of death on one's loved ones, punishment or the unknown and
the death of others.
Study unit 7.4

Stages of dying
The most prominent contributor to our limited understanding of the process of dying is
Elizabeth KuÈbler-Ross, according to whom facing the inevitability of death is a key to growth
55 PYC2603/1
and, through this, old people are given a last opportunity to live meaningfully, express their
best qualities and find the courage to become what they are destined to be.
Although KuÈbler-Ross distinguishes specific stages in dying, we need to keep in mind that
death is a highly individual experience. Not everyone goes through all the stages of dying
and people may go through these stages in different sequences. People may experience
certain stages more than once or they may go back and forth between different stages. There
is no rigid pattern to the process of dying. Like living, dying is pre-eminently an individual
experience.
. 7.4 Stages of dying

Consider KuÈbler-Ross's theory about the stages of dying by giving an example of each stage.
Give your opinion about the validity of this theory by considering the statement: ``Just as
people differ in their experience of life, so they differ in their experience of death'' (Louw &
Louw, 2009, p. 296).

In the answer to this question you need to discuss KuÈbler-Ross's five stages in the process of
dying, namely denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance (section 7.4 Stages of
dying in the prescribed book). Also give examples that explain each stage. However, you
need to make it very clear that death is an individual experience, as we explain in the
introduction to this study unit. You could also briefly mention criticisms of KuÈbler-Ross's
theory of death.
Study unit 7.5

The right to die
You do not need to study the section on a person's right to die for the examination. You
should, however, read through it as it provides interesting information that will enrich your
knowledge of the importance of death and dying and the implications thereof for issues such
as euthanasia.
. 7.5 The right to die
Study unit 7.6

Grief
Grief and mourning are integral and natural responses to the loss that accompanies death
and dying. Positive outcomes of grief include a new perspective on life, a new appreciation
of loved ones and life in general, and increased levels of confidence and mental strength.
56
. 7.6 Grief

John Bowlby and Colin Murray Parkes describe the following phases of grief:
(1) numbness, yearning, disorganisation and despair, reorganisation
(2) numbness, disorganisation and despair, yearning, reorganisation
(3) disorganisation and despair, numbness, reorganisation, yearning
(4) disorganisation and despair, reorganisation, yearning, numbness

The correct answer to this question is alternative (1). See a discussion of these stages in your
prescribed book in section 7.6 Grief.
Study unit 7.7

Specific losses
No matter whose death we are mourning, it is an emotional and often traumatic experience.
However, people's reactions to the loss are to some extent determined by their relationship
with the person who has passed away. For parents it is particularly devastating to lose a child
as this experience goes against the laws of nature.
. 7.7 Specific losses

Which of the following statements regarding the death of an older parent are true?
(a) The death of a parent is always very traumatic regardless of the life phase the child is in.
(b) Adults who have lost a parent often report changes in many aspects of their lives.
(c) The loss of a parent may have a symbolic meaning for adult children.
(d) The death of an elderly parent is less traumatic than the death of a younger parent.
(e) The grief and resulting symptoms may be determined by the quality of the relationship.
(1) None of the above

(3) (d) & (e)
(4) (a), (b) & (c)
57 PYC2603/1

Study a discussion of people's reactions to specific losses in your prescribed book in section
7.7 Specific losses. It will be clear that the reaction to the death of a loved one is often
determined by the meaningfulness and importance of the role the deceased person played in
the surviving person's life. The correct answer to this question is alternative (2).
Conclusion
Death in itself is senseless. The meaning of death, however, can be found in the meaning of
life. Viktor Frankl testifies that, if we can find meaning in suffering and death, then we will
discover that life is unconditionally meaningful. This is why we should always strive to
preserve and protect life and why we need to live it, each day, appreciatively and well.

The value of a person's life is to be found in the legacy it leaves behind. A person who has
passed away continues to live in the memories of those who are left behind: the influences of
that life, its impact on others, will continue, no matter how brief or afflicted with suffering it
might have been. The timely or untimely death of a loved one holds a challenge: how will
those who survive the death of a loved one live the rest of their lives? What legacy will they
leave behind?
Think about your own views and feelings about death and dying. Consider the following:
± How will the process of dying, as described by KuÈbler-Ross, be experienced by someone

who has led a full and meaningful life, and who feels at peace?
± Is it possible to end life in triumph and even joy?
± Is it possible to find meaning in the seemingly senseless death of a child or young person?
± Many people die long before the period of late adulthood. Are their deaths therefore
meaningless?
You have now come to the end of the module `Àdulthood and maturity''. We trust that
you have found this a positive learning experience.
We hope that you will now realise, even more clearly than before, that adulthood not
only covers the largest portion of your life, but that it is the developmental period
during which you can make a unique contribution and give expression to the person
you truly are.
58

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What does it mean to be an adult?

What does it mean to be mature?

Purpose of the study guide

Format of the study guide

. Sections of the prescribed book you have to study

. Questions and tasks

Basic concepts of adult

. be able to distinguish between physical, cognitive, personality and social development

Study unit 1.1

Recommended reading, not for examination purposes:

Sections you have to study for examination purposes:

1.1.1 Sub-stages of adulthood

Activity based on study unit 1.1

Question 1 based on study unit 1.1

Feedback on question 1 based on study unit 1.1

Question 2 based on study unit 1.1

Feedback on question 2 based on study unit 1.1

Study unit 1.2

Section you have to study for examination purposes:

. 1.2 A life span developmental perspective

Question based on study unit 1.2

Feedback on question based on study unit 1.2

. Development is a lifelong process.

Study unit 1.3

Section you have to study for examination purposes:

. 1.3 The forces and influences of development

Task based on study unit 1.3

. Normative age-graded influences:

. Normative history-graded influences:

Feedback on the task based on study unit 1.3

Study unit 1.4

Section you have to study for examination purposes:

. 1.4 Issues in development

Question based on study unit 1.4

Feedback on the question based on study unit 1.4

Study unit 1.5

Section you have to study for examination purposes:

. 1.5 Domains of development

Task based on study unit 1.5

Period and age Physical Cognitive Personality Social

Feedback on the task based on study unit 1.5

Study unit 1.6

Sections you have to study for examination purposes:

. 1.6 Research in adult development

1.6.1 Kinds of research

1.6.2 Methods of gathering information

(a) Systematic observation of behaviour

(c) Psychological tests

1.6.3 General research designs

1.6.3.1 Experimental research

1.6.3.2 Correlational research

1.6.3.3 Case studies

1.6.4 Research designs for studying adult development

1.6.4.1 The longitudinal design

1.6.4.2 The cross-sectional design

1.6.4.3 The sequential design

1.6.5 Cross-cultural research

1.6.6 Research ethics

Task 1 based on study unit 1.6