Cosmology PDF

Lecture1: Some Fundamentals
[Natural units]
In particle physics and cosmology, natural units are often used. The system of natural units are
defined by assuming
~ = c = kB = 1 (1)
where ~ is the reduced Planck constant, c is the speed of light, and kB is the Boltzmann constant. A
generic feature of natural units is that the dimensions of all physical quantities are just a power of energy
E (or mass M , why?). In such a case, it is easy to figure out the characterized energy scales of various
physical phenomena. Below are some examples:
– energy, mass and momentum have the same dimension: E 2 = m2 c4 + p2 c2 ⇒ E 2 = m2 + p2

– what are the dimensions of velocity (dimensionless), temperature, frequency ([M ])?
– what are the dimensions of time and space ([M ]−1 )? They are the same. This is natural, since they
are unified in relativity.
Then using relations, such as 1eV = 1.78 × 10−36 kg = 11600K = 1.5215 Hz = 51000cm−1 , we can
compare the involved energy scales of physical phenomena.
[Four-vector in flat 4D spacetime]

In physics, vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction, e.g., a vector in 3D Eu-
clidean space. This conception can be generalized to flat 4D spacetime by incorporating a time com-
ponent. This is natural actually. Recall, in special relativity, 1-D time and 3-D space are placed on an
equal/symmetrical footing with each other. If we use 4-vector/tensor notation for relativistic kinemat-
ics and relativistic electrodynamics, the mathematical description of the physics takes on a simpler, and
more elegant appearance; the principles and physical consequences of the physics are also made clearer
/ more profound!
More explicitly, four vector (or contravariant four vector) in 4D spis defined as
xµ = (x0 (or t), x1 , x2 , x3 ) (2)
then the Lorentz transformation takes a more symmetric appearance
x0µ =
X µ ν
Λν x = Λµν xν , (µ, ν = 0, 1, 2, 3) (3)
µ
If Lorentz boost is in the x1 direction, then the transformation matrix Λ is given by

 
γ −γβ 0 0
 −γβ γ 0 0 
Λ=  0
 (4)
0 1 0 
0 0 0 1
with
1
β = v, γ=p . (5)
1 − v2
This can be generalized to all four-vector in the spacetime.
1
For two four-vectors A and B, we can define inner product
gµν Aµ B ν = gµν Aµ B ν
X
A.B = (6)
µν
Here  
−1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0 
gµν =
 0

0 1 0 
0 0 0 1
is the metric of the flat 4D spacetime (what is the metric of the 3D flat space?). For convenience, we can
define covariant four vector
Aµ = gµν Aν = (A0 = −A0 , A1 = A1 , A2 = A2 , A3 = A3 ) (7)
the inner product is then written as
A.B = Aµ B µ = −A0 B 0 + A1 B 1 + A2 B 2 + A3 B 3 (8)
One interesting feature of four-vectors is that their inner-products are Lorentz invariant!
More Lorentz four-vectors:
– Four-vector coordinate element dxµ = {dx0 , dx1 , dx2 , dx3 }. Its inner product represents the
distance interval in 4D Minkovski spacetime:
ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν = −(dx0 )2 + (dx1 )2 + (dx2 )2 + (dx3 )2 (9)
– Four-vector partial derivative ∂µ = { ∂

0,
∂
1,
∂
2
∂
3 }. ∂µ ∂ µ = g µν ∂µ ∂ν with g µν = gµν .
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
– Four-vector energy-momentum p = {E, p }, with E = mγ and pi = mv i γ. What is its inner
i
product with itself?

pµ pµ = −E 2 + (pi )2 = −m2 (10)
It is the square of the particle invariant mass with a minus sign.
[Metric]
Metric in essence defines the distance interval (and inner product of two vectors) in spacetime. It
can be generalized from flat spacetime to curved spacetime straightforwardly
ds2 = gµν (x)dxµ dxν (11)
Some comments on metric:
– The geometry information of spacetime is interpreted by its metric.
– For given spacetime, its metric depends on the choice of the coordinate system. E.g., the metric of
the 4D flat spacetime is given by
−1 0 0
 
0
 0 1 0 0 
gµν = 
 0 0 r2

0 
2 2
0 0 0 r sin θ
in spherical coordinates.
– Question: how can we know whether given spacetime is curved or flat via its metric? (we will
come back to this question later)
2
Lecture 2: Einstein Field Equation
[Introduction]
In 1905, Albert Einstein published his theory of special relativity, which reconciles Newton’s laws
of motion with electrodynamics. Special relativity introduced a new framework for all of physics by
proposing new concepts of space and time. However, Newton’s theory of gravity, which describes the
mutual attraction experienced by bodies due to their mass, is inconsistent with that framework. Several
physicists, including Einstein, started to search for a theory that would reconcile Newton’s law of gravity
and special relativity. Only Einstein’s theory proved to be consistent with experiments and observations.
This is general relativity (GR). This class will focus on the Einstein field equation of GR.
[Tensor]
In mathematics, an nth -rank tensor in m-dimensional space is a object that has indices and com-
ponents and obeys certain rules under coordinate transformation. Each index of a tensor ranges over the
number of dimensions of space. Tensors are generalizations of scalars (that have no indices), vectors
(that have exactly one index), and matrices (that have exactly two indices) to an arbitrary number of
indices. That is, a scalar is a rank-0 tensor and a vector is a rank-1 tensor.
A tensor with rank r + s may be of mixed type , consisting of r so-called "contravariant" (upper)
indices and s "covariant" (lower) indices. Note that the positions of the slots in which contravariant and
covariant indices are placed are significant; so, for example, aµνλ is distinct from aµνλ .
1. Metric tensor
Metric is rank-2 symmetric tensor. In spacetime that we are interested in (so-called “Riemann
space”), where metric is well-defined, the indices of tensors can be lowered or raised by metric
tensor. For example
uµ = gµν uν , uµ = g µν uν (1)
whereas the contravariant and covariant metric tensor are fixed by the relation
gµν g νλ = δµλ = gµλ . (2)
here δµλ is Kronecker delta. The metric of the 4D Minkowski space is

 
−1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0 
gµν = g µν =
 0

0 1 0 
0 0 0 1
in Cartesian coordinate system. It is easy to check the relation in Eq. (2) can be satisfied. Question:
in spherical coordinate system, the covariant metric tensor of the 4D Minkowski space is given by
−1
 
0 0 0
 0 1 0 0 
gµν =
 0 2

0 r 0 
2 2
0 0 0 r sin θ
what is the contravariant metric tensor?
1
Fig. 1: Contravariant energy-momentum tensor.
2. Energy-momentum tensor
The energy-momentum tensor is a tensor quantity in physics that describes the density and flux of
energy and momentum in spacetime.
See fig. 1. T 00 is the energy density in the coordinate frame, T i0 gives the momentum density,
which is equal to the energy flux T 0i and T ij gives the flux of momentum i-component in j-
direction. The energy-momentum tensor incorporates physical quantities which can affect the
spacetime, namely energy density, momentum density, pressure, and stress.
For frictionless continuous matter, a perfect fluid, it has the form
T µν = (ρ + p)U µ U ν + pg µν (3)
where ρ is the energy density and p is the pressure measured by a comoving observer (such an
observer is in the rest frameµ of the fluid, τ is the time measured by the observer), say, moving
with four-velocity U µ = dxdτ . Note for perfect fluid, its pressure is isotropic. So the normalized
four-velocity in the coordinates will be
U µ = (1, 0, 0, 0) . (4)
In cosmology we can usually assume that the energy tensor has the perfect fluid form. Question:
what is Tµν ? Answer (hint: use the covariant metric to simultaneously lower the superscripts of
the terms on both sides of Eq. (3)):
Tµν = (ρ + p)Uµ Uν + pgµν . (5)
[Einstein field equation]

In this course we will not discuss the derivation of the Einstein field equation in much details (as
a matter of fact, the Einstein field equation was discovered by “guess” in history, similar to Newtonian
laws). How to reconcile special relativity and Newtonian gravity? The latter is described by Poison
equation
∇2 Φ = 4πGρ. (6)
Here Φ is gravity potential and ρ is mass density. That is, only the T 00 component of the energy-
momentum tensor will influence gravitation. Here is Einstein’s philosophy:
2
– the key point of special relativity is to treat time and space in the same way. ρ is just the time
component in a density-flux four-vector. In a complete theory, the information carried by spatial
components should be also included. Based on this, the whole energy momentum tensor should
appear on the right hand side of the complete equation. And all components of T µν will influence
gravitation.
– gravitation is geometry of space-time in essence. So on the left hand side of the equation, Φ should
be replaced by a tensor which is a functional of metric tensor.
Thus he guesses that the gravitation should be described by tensor equations with the format.
Aµν (g µν ) = B µν (T µν ) (7)
Then with the requirement that Poison equation in Newtonian gravity be reproduced in the so-called
weak (gravitational) field limit, he found that Einstein field equation has the format
1
Gµν = Rµν − Rgµν = 8πGTµν . (8)
2
Here Rµν and R = Rµµ = µ Rµµ are Ricci tensor and Ricci scalar which can be simply understood as
P
functions of spacetime metric and its first and second derivatives
∂gµν ∂ 2 gµν
gµν , , (9)
∂xσ ∂xσ ∂xτ
G is Newton constant; and Tµν is energy-momentum tensor. Gµν is sometimes called Einstein tensor.
Noting
R = −8πGT (10)
(note T = Tµµ is the trace of Tµν , not of Tµν ) and using this we can rewrite the Einstein equation as
1
Rµν = 8πG(Tµν − T gµν ) . (11)
2
Since the energy-momentum tensor carries information of matter in the spacetime, the Einstein
field equation describes the dependence of metric on the properties and distribution of matter in spacetime
and tells us how the geometry of spacetime reacts to the presence of energy-momentum.
[Limit of weak (gravitation) field]

The Einstein field equation is rather general. It can be applied to describe various gravitational
fields. To reproduce Newtonian gravity, we need to consider the gravitation environment in solar system
where the astrophysical measurements were done in history which yielded the establishment of Newto-
nian gravity. This gravitation environment is often called weak gravity field limit. In the limit of weak
field, the spacetime is Minkowski-like. So the the metric tensor can be perturbatively expanded as
gµν = ηµν + hµν (12)
Here ηµν is Minkovski spacetime metric and |hµν | 1 is a fluctuation. In addition, we assume that the
field is static and changes slowly in space
∂gµν ∂hµν
0 =0 = 0,
∂x ∂x
∂gµν ∂h
= µν 1. (13)
i
∂x ∂xi

3
here i = 1, 2, 3.
Based on a calculation in differential geometry, we can find
1 1
R00 = η ij ∂i ∂j h00 = ∇2 h00 (14)
2 2
which immediately leads to
1 2 g
∇ h00 = 8πG T00 − 00 T
2 2
= 4πG(ρ + 3p) (15)
Here we have applied the results in the limit of weak field

X µ X
Tµν g µν ∼ Tµν η µν = 3p − ρ
X
g00 ∼ η00 , T = Tµ = (16)
µ µν µν
For relativistic matter, where mass is not the dominant contribution to the energy density and p can be
of the same order of magnitude as ρ, this is an important modification to the law of gravity. For non-
relativistic matter, where the particle velocities are v 1, we have p ρ. The equation is reduced
to
1 2
∇ h00 = 4πGρ (17)
2
h00
What is this? If we interpreted 2 as the Newtonian potential, this is exactly the Poisson equation for
the Newtonian potential.
∇2 Φ = 4πGρ. (18)
Below are some comments:
– In the Einstein gravity theory energy-momentum tensor is the source of the gravitational field, just
as mass density is the source of such a field in Newtonian gravity
– The spacetime metric in the Einstein gravity theory plays a role of gravity potential in Newtonian
gravity.
– In 4D spacetime metric has totally 10 components. This implies that the metric contains richer
information compared with the gravity potential (this can be easily understood, since reproducing
the Newtonian gravity equation only involves the 00 component of the Einstein field equations.
4
Lecture 3: The Robertson-Walker Metric
[Objective]
Understand the role of Robertson-Walker metric (particularly the scale factor in R-W metric) in
describing the evolution (including expansion, contraction, acceleration, ...) of the Universe.
[Introduction]
Einstein field equation was invented in a pretty general way. It can be applied to describe physics
in both strong gravitational field, such as black hole dynamics, and in weak gravitational field, such as
the cosmic evolution, where different spacetime metrics get involved. This course will focus on the latter.
[Homogeneity and Isotropy: The Robertson-Walker Metric]

Cosmology is the study of the evolution of the Universe. Given the spatial structure or geometric
properties of the Universe is encoded by its metric, the study of its evolution is basically a study of the
time-dependence of the cosmic metric. Though the Einstein equation is complicated, its cosmic metric
solution has a relatively simple form because of some symmetric requirements. Based on observations,
the universe today has the following features on scales larger than 100 Mpc
– Isotropy: the universe looks the same in all direction. Direct evidence comes from the smoothness
of the temperature of the cosmic microwave background, as we will discuss later.
– Homogeneity: the universe looks the same at every point. It is harder to test directly since all of
us live on the Earth, although some evidence comes from number counts of galaxies.
The metric on such a spacetime is necessarily of the Robertson-Walker (R-W) form,

dr2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

ds = −dt + a (t) + r dθ + sin θdφ , (1)
1 − kr2
Below are comments on the R-W metric:
– The derivation of the R-W metric is purely geometric, with inputs from observation (isotropy and
homogeneity). It is independent of the details of general relativity.
– Geometrically, the k parameter describes the local curvature of the space (not spacetime). Though
in general case, k is space-dependent, but for cosmic solution the requirement of homogeneity
necessarily implies that k is space-independent.
– k = 0: the 3-metric (spatial part) is reduced to the metric of the 3D Euclidean space. So the
space is flat.
– k = 1: there is no way to reduce the spatial part of the metric to the metric of a 3D Euclidean
space by taking coordinate transformation. This is simply because the space is curved in this
case (the spatial
√ part has the metric of a 3-sphere). In this case, the metric has a singularity
at r = 1/ k. Unlike Big-bang and the black hole center, however, this is not a physical
singularity, but an artifact of coordinate choice. It is easy to check that this singularity can be
removed by taking coordinate transformation, e.g., r = sin √ ρ . Then one gets
k
ds2 = −dt2 + a2 (t) dρ2 + sin2 ρ dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2

(2)
– k = −1: similarly, the space is curved (the spatial part has the metric of a 3-hyperbolid). By
taking coordinate transformation r = sinh
√ ρ , one can get
k
ds2 = −dt2 + a2 (t) dρ2 + sinh2 ρ dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2

(3)
1
Fig. 1
– a(t) is so-called scale factor and is a function of time. It represents the “size” of an elementary
unit of length in a coordinate system which follows the revolution of the space (see the coordinate
systems defined on a balloon, Fig. ??). The evolution (including expansion, contraction, acceler-
ation, ...) of the Universe is completely encoded by the time-dependence of the scale factor. For
example,
– ȧ(t) > 0 ⇔ expansion
– ȧ(t) < 0 ⇔ contraction
– ä(t) > 0 ⇔ cosmic acceleration (as we observed in the Universe today)
– The coordinates (t, r, θ, φ) of the Robertson-Walker metric (another example is the coordinate
system defined on the ballon in Fig. ??) are called co-moving coordinates. This means that the
coordinate system follows the expansion of space, so that the space coordinates of objects which
moves only along with the space expansion remain the same. The coordinate spatial distance
between two co-moving objects (e.g., point A and B on the balloon in Fig. ??) stays the same, but
the physical, or proper distance between them grows with time as space expands. They have the
relation
∆Dphy (t) = a(t)∆Dcom (4)
– An frame defined by an co-moving observer who moves only along with the space expansion (or
has constant spatial coordinates), e.g., an observer seated at point A on the balloon in Fig. ??, is
referred to co-moving frame. The time coordinate t, which is the proper time as measured by the
co-moving observer is defined as the cosmic time.
[Content of Next Class]

Next class we will study redshift and Hubble’s law.
2
Lecture 4: Hubble’s Law
[Objective]
Understand the time-dependence of Hubble constant; know the cause of the cosmological redshift.
[Introduction]
Hubble’s law is considered the first observational basis for the expanding space paradigm. Its dis-
covery is thought to be the starting point of modern cosmology. In this class we will introduce Hubble’s
law and its interpretation in R-W metric. We will also introduce cosmological redshift.
[Hubble’s Law]
Fig. 1: Hubble diagrams (showing the relationship between recessional velocities of distant galaxies and
their distances. The left plot shows the original data of Hubble (and a rather unconvincing straight-line
fit through it). To reassure you, the right plot shows much more recent data, using significantly more
distant galaxies (note difference in scale). In both cases, the involved redshifts are smaller than 1.
Although widely attributed to Edwin Hubble, the Hubble’s law was first derived from the General
Relativity equations by Georges LemaŤtre in a 1927 article where he proposed that the Universe is
expanding and suggested an estimated value of the rate of expansion, now called the Hubble constant.
Two years later Edwin Hubble confirmed the existence of that law and determined a more accurate value
for the constant that now bears his name.
The law is often expressed by the equation
v = HD (1)
with H being the Hubble constant, D being the "proper distance" to a galaxy (which can change over
time, unlike the co-moving distance) and v being the galaxy velocity (i.e. the derivative of proper distance
with respect to cosmological time coordinate) (see figure 1)
Hubble parameter can be defined from the scale factor. Recall the measured distance between two
co-moving points D(t) ∝ a(t), we have
dD(t) da(t) dD(t)/dt da(t)/dt
= or = (2)
D(t) a(t) D(t) a(t)
1
here dD(t) and da(t) are changes of D(t) and a(t) during the time interval dt. This immediately leads
to
dD(t) ȧ(t)
v(t) = = D(t) (3)
dt a(t)
Here
ȧ(t)
H(t) = . (4)
a(t)
is just the Hubble parameter. Two comments:
– “Hubble constant” is not a constant, but time-dependent. Its value today is usually denoted by
H0 = 67.80 ± 0.77 (km/s)/Mpc (Planck Mission, 2013).
– The observed value for Hubble constant indicates that ȧ|t=t0 > 0, that is, the universe is expanding.
[Redshift]
In physics, redshift can be caused by a couple of reasons. Here we will focus on “cosmological
redshift” which is is caused by the expansion of the Universe
λ0 a0
1 + z(t) = = (5)
λ(t) a(t)
Here the light is emitted at t and absorbed today; λ0 is the wavelength of the light observed today; a0 is
the scale factor today. Comments:
– For cosmological redshift, the increase of wavelength from emission to absorption of light does
not depend on the rate of change of the scale factor a(t) at the times of emission or absorption, but
on the increase of a(t) in the whole period from emission to absorption (see Fig. 1).
– The redshifts of galaxies can be contributed by both the expansion of the universe (cosmological
redshift), and peculiar motion (Doppler redshift). In physical cosmology, the term peculiar velocity
(or peculiar motion) refers to the components of a receding galaxy’s velocity that is not due to the
universe expansion. For z > 0.01, the latter usually can be neglected.
– Age-redshift relation: If we see a source at redshift z, how old was the universe when the light left
the source? Recall (Eq.(5) is applied for the second “=” in the next equation)
ȧ(t) ż(t)
H(t) = =− (6)
a(t) 1 + z(t)
so the age of the universe at redshift z(t) is
∞
dz 0
Z t Z
0 1
t(z) = dt = (7)
0 z 1 + z H(z 0 )
0
Putting z = 0 immediately gives the present age of the universe

Z ∞
dz 0 1
t0 = t(z = 0) = (8)
0 1 + z H(z 0 )
0
Their difference tells us for how long the light travelled to come to the observer
dz 0
Z z
1
∆t(z) = t0 − t(z) = 0 0
(9)
0 1 + z H(z )
Note, theoretically, the dependence of Hubble constant on either scale factor or redshift is model-
dependent.
2
[Test of Hubble’s Law]
The parameters that appear in Hubble’s law: velocities and distances, are not directly measured.
In reality we determine galaxy brightness, which provides information about its distance, and the redshift
of its spectrum of radiation, which tells us the information of the recessional velocity of galaxies. Hubble
correlated brightness and parameter z.
For relatively nearby galaxies (redshift z much less than unity), the change of v and D caused by
the universe expansion is neglegible during the traveling of the light . Hubble explained the redshift as
Doppler effect, and used the relation z ∼ v to calculate v via redshift. This interpretation is wrong, but
he still reached the right conclusion on Hubble’s law. The reason is in the following: for galaxies with
small redshift,
a0 a0
z= −1= − 1 = H0 (t0 − t) (10)
a(t) a0 (1 + (t − t0 )H0 )
If the distance is not too large, the time interval of light traveling is simply the proper distance divided
by the speed of light:
z = H0 (t0 − t) = H0 D → z ∼ v (11)
That it, the cosmological redshift, if it is not large, it can be also approximated by z ∼ v. Due to this
accidence, Hubble still reached a right conclusion on Hubble’s law.
For distant galaxies, however, the story becomes much more complicated. We can not use z ∼ v
to estimate the recessional velocity of galaxies any more.

Next class we will study Friedmann equation, which describes the dynamics of the scale factor in
the R-W metric.
3
Lecture 5: Dynamical Equations for the Spacetime Evolution
[Introduction]
The evolution of the universe (e.g., the Hubble’s law) can be deciphered as the time-dependence
of the scale factor in R-W metric. Next, we will study the dynamics of the scale factor a(t), that is, how
its time-dependence is influenced by the matter in the universe.
[Friedmann Equations]
The differential equations governing the evolution of the scale factor a(t) come from applying
Einstein’s equation,
1
Gµν = Rµν − Rgµν = 8πGTµν (1)
2
to the RW metric. Before diving right in, it is useful to consider the types of energy-momentum tensors
Tµν we will typically encounter in cosmology. For simplicity, and also because it is consistent with what
we have observed about the universe, it is useful to adopt the perfect fluid (frictionless continuous fluid)
form for the energy-momentum tensor of cosmological matter. This form is
Tµν = (ρ + p)Uµ Uν + pgµν , (2)
where U µ is the fluid four-velocity, ρ is the energy density in the rest frame of the fluid and p is the
pressure in that same frame. The pressure is necessarily isotropic, for consistency with the RW metric.
Similarly, fluid elements will be comoving in the cosmological rest frame, so that the normalized four-
velocity in the coordinates of RW metric will be
U µ = (1, 0, 0, 0) . (3)
In Minkowski spacetime, the energy-momentum tensor thus takes the form

 
ρ 0 0 0
 0 p 0 0 
Tµν = 
 0 0 p 0 
 (4)
0 0 0 p
In general, the Einstein equation is a non-linear system of ten partial differential equations. In the
case of the FRW universe, it reduces to two ordinary non-linear differential equations. The first is known
as the Friedmann equation, obtain from the 00-component of the Einstein field equation
2
2 ȧ 8πG k
H ≡ = ρ− 2 , (5)
a 3 a
k
where an overdot denotes a derivative with respect to cosmic time t. 2 is Gaussian curvature at time
a(t)
t. The second equation, which is an evolution equation, is
2
ä 1 ȧ k
+ = −4πGp − 2 . (6)
a 2 a 2a
It is derived from the trace of the Einstein field equation. Combine (5) and (6), we obtain the acceleration
equation and energy continuity equation
ä 4πG
= − (ρ + 3p) , (7)
a 3
1
ρ̇ = −3H (ρ + p) (8)
Note, both equations are independent of the value of the k parameter.
[Critical Energy Density]

The Friedmann equation relates both the evolution of the scale factor and local geometry to the
total energy density of all matter in the universe. To see the latter, we may define a critical energy density
and density parameter
3H(t)2 ρ(t)
ρc (t) ≡ , Ω(t) ≡ . (9)
8πG ρc (t)
Note, these two parameters are time-dependent. With this definition, the Friedmann equation can be
rewritten as
3 k
= ρ(t) − ρc (t) = (Ω(t) − 1)ρc (t) (10)
8πG a(t)2
Then we have
Ω>1 ⇔ k>0
Ω=1 ⇔ k=0 (11)
Ω<1 ⇔ k<0.
It is often convenient to define the fractions of the critical energy density in each different component by
X X ρi (t)
Ω(t) = Ωi (t) = . (12)
ρc (t)
i i
[Equation of State and Energy Density Evolution]

In the two dynamical equations, there are three unknown variables, a(t), ρ(t) and p(t). The
system is underdetermined, reflecting the fact that different matter components affect the expansion
rate differently, and we need to specify which kind of matter there is in the universe. The matter in the
Universe can be classified according to the relation between the pressure and energy density, say equation
of state p = p(ρ). For perfect fluid, the equation of state is given by
p = wρ . (13)
here w is a constant, named state parameter.
A constant state parameter enables us to solve the equations. Using (8), we see that the energy
density evolves with the scale factor according to
1
ρ(a) ∝ 3(1+w)
. (14)
a(t)
The simplest possibilities include:
1
– Dust – any collection of non-relativistic particles. In this case, w = 0, ρ(a) ∝ 3, and p = 0.
a(t)
To understand this, simply consider some fixed comoving volume of the universe whose physical
volume is scaled by a(t)3 at a given time t. The energy of a single non-relativistic particle is
dominated by its invariant mass (that is, its momentum or kinetic energy) is negligible, and hence
is almost not influenced by the spacetime evolution of the universe. As a result, given a fixed
number of dust particles (of mass m) within this comoving volume, the energy density is scaled
by a factor a(t)−3 . Additionally, the pressure p is a measure of momentum transfer between
the boundary of the volume and particles in the volume. Since the momentum of particles are
negligible in this case, it is not strange that we have p = 0.
2
– Radiation – a gas of relativistic particles like photon. Note, radiation can be a collection of massive
particles, as long as their energy is much larger than their invariant mass. In this case, w = 1/3,
ρ(a) ∝ 1 4 . Compared with dust, ρ(a) of radiation is suppressed by an extra factor 1/a(t). This
a(t)
is simply due to the effect of cosmological redshift which scales the wavelength of photons in
the fixed comoving volume by a factor a(t), and correspondingly, suppresses the energy of each
photon by a factor 1/a(t).
– Curvature – the curvature term in Eq.(5) can be effectively interpreted as the curvature contribution
to ρ , by defining
3 k
ρk = − (15)
8πG a(t)2
Then the curvature contribution to pressure can be identified as
1 k
pk = (16)
8πG a(t)2
based on Eq.(6). This yields an effective state parameter for the curvature ωk = ρpk = − 13 . If we
k
define ρeff = ρ + ρk and peff = p + pk , the acceleration equation and energy continuity equation
will be generalized to
ä 4πG
= − (ρeff + 3peff ) , (17)
a 3
ρ̇eff = −3H (ρeff + peff ) . (18)
– Quiz: if the universe expansion is accelerating, i.e., ä(t) > 0, what condition should be satisfied
by the state parameter w? Answer: w < −1/3. A natural question is then: what matter has such a
property, yielding accelerating expansion for the Universe today?
3
Lecture 6: Cosmological Constant and Vacuum Energy
[Introduction]
If the GR is the right classical gravity theory, with cosmological principles, the spacetime evolu-
tion of our universe is completely deciphered by the time-dependence of the scale factor a(t) in R-W
metric. The dynamics is described by Einstein field equation, which is reduced to Friedmann equation
and evolution equation, or acceleration equation and energy continuity equation for the observed uni-
verse. The evolution of spacetime is then influenced by matter with different gravitational properties,
which are characterized by different state parameter values. To yield a universe with its expansion ac-
celerating, the energy in the universe needs to be dominated by matter with ω < −1/3. In this class,
we will introduce such a type matter - cosmological constant, and discuss its role in the evolution of the
universe.
[Cosmological Constant and Vacuum Energy]

The more general format of Einstein field equation is given by
1
Gµν + Λgµν = Rµν − Rgµν + Λgµν = 8πGTµν . (1)
2
Λ is a constant to be determined, named cosmological constant.
So far, we have not included a cosmological constant Λ in the gravitational equations. This is okay
because it is equivalent to treat any cosmological constant as a component of the energy density in the
universe. In fact, adding a cosmological constant Λ to Einstein’s equation is equivalent to including an
energy-momentum tensor of the form
 Λ 
8πG 0 0 0
Λ
Λ  0 − 8πG g11 0 0 
TΛµν = − gµν =  Λ
 (2)
8πG  0 0 − 8πG g22 0 
Λ
0 0 0 − 8πG g33
Recall a perfect fluid has energy-momentum tensor
 
ρΛ 0 0 0
 0 pΛ g11 0 0 
TΛµν = 
 0
 (3)
0 pΛ g22 0 
0 0 0 pΛ g33
we immediately have
Λ
ρΛ =
8πG
pΛ = −ρΛ . (4)
Two comments:
– This implies that the energy density is constant,

ρΛ = constant . (5)
Thus, this energy is constant throughout spacetime; we say that the cosmological constant is equiv-
alent to vacuum energy. (This is a little subtle. Actually, cosmological constant and vacuum en-
ergy are conceptually different, because the latter is a new matter component, and the former is
a modification of the law of gravity. Here it only means that vacuum energy is observationally
indistinguishable from a cosmological constant.)
1
– the equation-of-state parameter is
1
wΛ = −1 < − . (6)
3
This implies that, if ρΛ dominates ρ in the Universe, the expansion of the Universe will be accel-
erating. In another word, the gravitational force caused by cosmological constant is repulsive.
[Evolution of Scale Factor]

Next, let’s study the evolution of the scale factor in flat universe, i.e., the spacetime with k = 0,
dominated by different types of matter. The flatness assumption is based on the CMB measurements,
which will be implicitly taken in the following classes.
In a general case with w 6= −1, the matter energy density evolves as
ρ(t) ∝ a(t)−3(1+w) . (7)
Insert this result into the Friedmann equation

2
2 ȧ 8πG
H ≡ = ρ, (8)
a 3
we have 2
ȧ
∝ a(t)−3(1+w) . (9)
a
This can be immediately solved, giving
2
t 3(1+w)
a(t) = a0 . (10)
t0
here t0 corresponds to the current moment and a0 = a(t0 ). At the time t = 0, the energy density is
infinite and the spacetime becomes a singularity. This singularity is named “big bang”. Space and time
do not continue beyond this event. However, at the big bang (or more properly, as we come near its
vicinity) general relativity does not apply anymore, so we cannot make any definite statements about
what happens very near the beginning.
If Tµν is dominated by TΛµν , i.e., the matter with w = −1, the Friedmann equation is reduced to
r
ȧ Λ
H≡ = = constant (11)
a 3
which leads to
q
Λ
H(t−t0 ) (t−t0 )
a(t) = a0 exp = a0 exp 3 (12)
Comments:
– Non-zero cosmological constant was originally introduced by Einstein because he thought the
universe should be static. Introducing a cosmological constant makes it possible to balance the
gravitational attraction of the energy density of matter against the repulsion due to a positive cos-
mological constant. This model is called the Einstein static universe. (It is, in fact, unstable to
small perturbations and thus does not provide a viable model of the universe.)
– Today, people introduced non-zero cosmological
q
constant again to explain the acceleration of the
Λ
t
Universe, since in this case ä(t) ∝ exp 3 . If the acceleration of the Universe is caused by non-
zero cosmological constant, given ä(t)|t→∞ → ∞, the acceleration of the universe will become
larger and larger (sounds horrible, but it is true).
2
– In geometry, a non-zero cosmological constant yields a curved spacetime - De Sitter spacetime.
This doesn’t contradict with the flatness assumption made for the discussions above. The latter is
defined for 3D space, which never implies a flat 4D spacetime, and vice versa.
In summary, our favorite energy density sources yield table 1.
Type of Energy ρ(a) a(t)

Dust a−3 t2/3
Radiation a−4 t1/2
Cosmological Constant constant eHt
Table 1: A summary of the behaviors of the most important sources of energy density in cosmology. The
behavior of the scale factor applies to the case of a flat universe; the behavior of the energy densities is
perfectly general.
[SCDM model and ΛCDM Model]

The total energy density in the Universe can be a combined contributions from dust, radiation, and
vacuum components, that is,
Ω(t) = Ωd (t) + Ωr (t) + ΩΛ (t) (13)
with
ρd (t) ρr (t) ρΛ Λ
Ωd (t) = , Ωr (t) = , ΩΛ (t) = = (14)
ρc (t) ρc (t) ρc (t) 3H(t)2
Currently, we have Ωr (t0 ) ∼ 10−4 .

Two particular models have special importance. The first is the Einstein-de Sitter model, which
contains dust only
Ωd (t0 ) = Ωregular matter + Ωdark matter = 1, Ωr (t0 ) = 0, ΩΛ (t0 ) = 0 (15)
This model (with radiation added at early times, and coupled to a specific spectrum of perturbations
around homogeneity and isotropy) was known as the Standard CDM (cold dark matter) model in the
1980s onwards.
At the end of the 1990s the SCDM was supplanted by the ΛCDM model, which is identical except
that it also contains vacuum energy (while remaining spatially flat). This model is also known as the
“concordance model” due to the fact that it is able to fit a number of independent observations. If the
model is fitted to observations, the parameters of the model turn out to be
Ωd (t0 ) = 0.27, Ωr (t0 ) = 0, ΩΛ (t0 ) = 0.73 (16)
The precise values depend on the datasets on fits to and some assumptions. (Note, though it is popular,
the ΛCDM model is not the unique model to explain dark energy, since we can still have Λ = 0 and
requires some kind of special matter with w < −1/3 be in charge of the acceleration of the Universe.)
Question: does a non-zero cosmological constant ruin the reduction of the Einstein equation (time-
time component) to the Poisson equation of Newtonian gravity in the limit of weak gravitational field?
3
Lecture 7: Dark Energy
[Introduction]
The discovery of cosmic acceleration is probably most exciting event in cosmology in the past two
decades. Dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy that permeates all of space and tends to accelerate
the expansion of the universe. According to the Planck mission team, and based on the standard model
of cosmology, on a mass-energy equivalence basis the universe contains 26.8% dark matter and 68.3%
dark energy (for a total of 95.1%) and 4.9% ordinary matter.
Fig. 1: Matter budget in the Universe today (from PLANCK).
Note, in spite of its large fraction, the density of dark energy (1.67 × 10−27 kg/m3 ) is very low:
in the solar system, it is estimated only 6 tons of dark energy would be found within the radius of Pluto’s
orbit. However, it comes to dominate the mass-energy of the universe because it is uniform across space.
[Type Ia Supernovae]
A supernova is a stellar explosion that is extremely energetic and cause a burst of radiation that
often briefly outshines an entire galaxy, before fading from view over several weeks or months. During
this interval a supernova can radiate as much energy as the Sun is expected to emit over its entire life
span. The explosion expels much or all of a star’s material at a velocity of up to 30,000 km/s (10% of
the speed of light), driving a shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium.
Type Ia supernovae occur in binary systems (two stars orbiting one another) in which one of the
stars is a white dwarf while the other can vary from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf. A white
dwarf is the remnant of a star that has completed its normal life cycle and has ceased nuclear fusion.
However, white dwarfs of the common carbon-oxygen variety are capable of further fusion reactions that
release a great deal of energy if their temperatures rise high enough. Physically, carbon-oxygen white
dwarfs with a low rate of rotation are limited to below 1.38 solar masses. Beyond this, they re-ignite
and in some cases trigger a supernova explosion. Somewhat confusingly, this limit is often referred to
as the Chandrasekhar mass, despite being marginally different from the absolute Chandrasekhar limit
where electron degeneracy pressure is unable to prevent catastrophic collapse. If a white dwarf gradually
accretes mass from a binary companion, the general hypothesis is that its core will reach the ignition
1
Fig. 2: The formation of a type Ia supernova.
temperature for carbon fusion as it approaches the limit. Within a few seconds of initiation of nuclear
fusion, a substantial fraction of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes a runaway reaction, releasing
enough energy (1 − 2 × 1044 J) to unbind the star in a supernova explosion.
Type Ia supernovae produces extremely consistent peak luminosity because of the uniform mass of
white dwarfs that explode via the accretion mechanism. The stability of this value allows these explosions
to be used as standard candles to measure the distance to their host galaxies because the visual magnitude
of the supernovae depends primarily on the distance. Actually, Type Ia supernovae are the best-known
standard candles across cosmological distances.
[Discovery (direct evidence) of Cosmic Acceleration]

The discovery of the cosmic acceleration is mainly attributed to two collaborations:
2
– 1998, the High-z Supernova Search Team (led by Brian P. Schmidt and Adam G. Riess)
– 1999, the Supernova Cosmology Project (led by Saul Perlmutter)
For this work, the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Saul Perlmutter, Brian P. Schmidt and
Adam G. Riess.
Fig. 3: m − M and ∆(m − M ) vs z.
In astronomy, luminosity is often expressed in terms of magnitude. The magnitude scale is log-
arithmic, so a difference of 5 magnitudes corresponds to a factor of 100 in luminosity. The absolute
magnitude M and the apparent magnitude m of an object are defined as
L
M = −2.5log10
L0
F
m = −2.5log10 (1)
F0
with L being absolute luminosity and
L
F = (2)
4πd2L
being visual luminosity, where L0 = 3.0 × 102 8W and F0 are reference absolute luminosity and visual
luminosity. The reference visual luminosity F0 for the apparent scale is chosen so in relation to the
3
absolute scale that a star whose distance is dL = 10 pc has m = M .
m − M = −5 + 5log10 (dL /pc) (3)
here dL is luminosity distance. Comment: for all type Ia supernovae, M is the same; so dL can be easily
figured out by measuring m. In Fig. 3, the y-axis is m − M . Question, in Fig. 3, why is the fitting curve
with ΩΛ > 0 (case 1) above the fitting curve with ΩΛ = 0 (case 2), given the same ΩM = 0.3? Why is
the fitting curve with a smaller ΩM (case 2) above the fitting curve with a larger ΩM (case 3), given the
ΩΛ = 0?
Answer: (1) for all type Ia supernovae with the same z in Fig. 3, the universes have the same ai
when they emitted the light that we observed today (recall: 1 + z = a1 with ai being the scale factor
i
at the initial moment). (2) Assume that tL is the time taken for a(t) to evolve from ai to a0 = 1, then
we have ȧ1 < ȧ2 < ȧ3 and hence t1L > t2L > t3L , since the cosmic acceleration satisfies the relation
ä1 > ä2 > ä3 . Here the superscript “i” denotes the three different cases. (3) dL is a measure of the
distance that the light traveled during the period that a(t) evolves from ai to a0 = 1. Surely we have
d1L > d2L > d3L .
Since then, these observations have been corroborated by several independent sources. Measure-
ments of the cosmic microwave background, gravitational lensing, and the large-scale structure of the
cosmos as well as improved measurements of supernovae have been consistent with the Lambda-CDM
model.
[Dark Energy Models]

Recall the acceleration equation (see lecture 5)
ä 4πG
= − (ρ + 3p) (4)
a 3
To get an accelerating Universe (i.e., ä > 0), we need the state parameter w < −1/3. For radiation, we
have wr = 1/3. For dust, we have wd = 0. There are two main types of possibilities with w < −1/3:
– Cosmological constant. In this case, we have Einstein equation

1
Gµν = Rµν − Rgµν = 8πG(Tµν + TΛµν ) . (5)
2
with
 Λ 
8πG 0 0 0
Λ
Λ  0 − 8πG g11 0 0
 (6)
8πG  0 0 − 8πG g22 0
Λ
0 0 0 − 8πG g33
 
ρΛ 0 0 0
 0 pΛ g11 0 0 
TΛµν = 
 0
 (7)
0 pΛ g22 0 
0 0 0 pΛ g33
so we have w = −1 < − 13 . The Friedmann equation is then reduced to
r
ȧ Λ
a 3
which leads to
q
Λ
(t−t0 )
a(t) = a0 expH(t−t0 ) = a0 exp 3 (9)
4
– Quintessence model. Quintessence differs from the cosmological constant explanation of dark
energy in that it is dynamic, that is, it changes over time, unlike the cosmological constant which
is static, with a fixed energy density and wΛ = −1. It is suggested that quintessence can be either
attractive or repulsive depending on the ratio of its kinetic and potential energy. More explicitly,
quintessence is a scalar field with an equation of state where wq , the ratio of pressure pq and density
ρq , is given by the potential energy V (φ) and a kinetic term:
1 2
pq φ̇ − V (φ)
wq = = 21 2 (10)
ρq
2 φ̇ + V (φ)
Hence, Quintessence is dynamical, and generally has a density and wq parameter that varies with
time. If w < −1, the quintessence is called phantom energy. In this case, the universe expands
even faster than exponentially.
[Fate of the Universe]

Cosmologists estimate that the acceleration began roughly 5 billion years ago. Before that, it is
thought that the expansion was decelerating, due to the attractive influence of dark matter and baryons.
The density of dark matter in an expanding universe decreases more quickly than dark energy, and
eventually the dark energy dominates. Specifically, when the volume of the universe doubles, the density
of dark matter is halved, but the density of dark energy is nearly unchanged (it is exactly constant in the
case of a cosmological constant).
If the cosmic acceleration is caused by non-zero cosmological constant, then in the future, the
Hubble constant will become a “real” constant (why?). Since their distance from the local supercluster
becomes larger and larger, the galaxies outside the local supercluster will eventually have a radial ve-
locity far exceeding the speed of light. This means that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of
cosmological event horizon where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any
time in the infinite future.
Assuming the dark energy is constant (a cosmological constant), the current distance to this cos-
mological event horizon is about 16 billion light years, meaning that a signal from an event happening
at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event were less than 16 billion light
years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event were more than 16 billion light years away.
If the dark energy is phantom energy, the expansion is divergent. Under this scenario, dark energy
would ultimately tear apart all gravitationally bound structures, including galaxies and solar systems, and
eventually overcome the electrical and nuclear forces to tear apart atoms themselves, ending the universe
in a "Big Rip". On the other hand, dark energy might dissipate with time or even become attractive.
Such uncertainties leave open the possibility that gravity might yet rule the day and lead to a universe
that contracts in on itself in a "Big Crunch". Which one is correct? We don’t know.
5
Particle Horizon
τ
o
Particles already seen
τ=τo Particles not yet seen
τ=τe
−rph (τ o) r=0 rph (τ o) r
Friday, February 21, 2014

Event Horizon
r
τ=τo
Never receives message

e Receives message from
emitter at τ e

Horizon Problem
Text
3

Lecture 8: Fundamental Particles (SM) in the Universe
[Introduction]
From this class, we will start the second-stage study of this course - thermal history of the early
Universe. We will study how the evolutions of the spacetime structure and its thermal bath of particles
in the early Universe interfere with each other. We will see why Big-Bang theory is so successful.
[What is the Standard Model?]

Fundamental particles are particles without internal structure (are proton and neutron are funda-
mental particles?). The fundamental particles observed so far are classified into three classes according
to their spin:
– vector particles: spin 1
– spinor particles: spin 1/2
– scalar particles: spin 0
The SM provides an organization principle for the fundamental particles observed so far. It in-
cludes two elements:
– A zoo of fundamental particles discovered so far (Our focus in this course)

– A theory describing their interactions: strong, weak, Electromagnetic (EM) interactions and Yukawa
interaction
[Fundamental Particles in the SM]
1
– Leptons (spinor particle): fermions not involved into strong interaction. Questions:
– Do all leptons get involved into EM or weak interactions? No. Neutrino don’t get involved
into EM interaction while right-handed leptons don’t get involved into W ± weak interaction
(indication of parity violation in weak interaction).
– Are the numbers of left-chiral and right-chiral lepton types in the SM zoo the same? No.
The SM doesn’t include right-chiral neutrinos which have never been observed yet. Actually,
theoretically consistency doesn’t require the existence of right-chiral neutrino.
– Quarks (spinor particle): fermions involved into strong interaction. Because of the strong inter-
action is asymptotic free, the quarks usually are confined and only exist in the form of hadrons.
There are two classes of hadrons: baryon and meson. A baryon is a composite subatomic particle
made up of three quarks, while mesons comprise one quark and one antiquark (e.g., J/ψ(cc̄) and
Υ(bb̄). The discovery of J/ψ(cc̄) and Υ(bb̄) led to the discovery of charm and bottom quarks in
1970’s).
– Do all quarks form a hadron? No. e.g., top quark decays before it get hadronized. So top
quark provides us a good lamppost to study the properties of naked quarks
– Proton and neutron are baryons or mesons? Baryon
– Force carriers (vector particle): photon, W ± , Z, gluon g. How many types of gluons? 8
– Higgs boson (scalar particle). There is only one Higgs boson in the SM which is neutral.
– The SM is a zoo of fundamental particles discovered so far only (including the Higgs boson). In
theories beyond the SM, it is common that there exist extra fundamental particles.
[Mass of Fundamental Particles]
– Top quark is the heaviest fundamental particle discovered so far.

– W ± (∼ 80 GeV) and Z (∼ 91 GeV) are massive
– The recently discovered Higgs particle has a mass ∼ 125GeV. It is the second heaviest fundamental
particle discovered so far
– Among all fundamental particles discovered so far, only photon and gluons are massless
2
[Which Particles have a Problem of Mass Generation?]
– photon and gluons? No.

– W ± and Z? Yes.
– Quarks and leptons? Yes.
– Higgs boson? No.
– Massless fundamental particles don’t have a problem of mass generation. But this doesn’t mean
that a massive fundamental particle necessarily suffers the problem of mass generation. The the-
ory of describing fundamental particles must satisfy some fundamental symmetries like Lorentz
symmetry and gauge symmetry (don’t ask why). Regarding the question whether a massive funda-
mental particle has a problem of mass generation, its answer depends on whether the mass term of
this fundamental particle is allowed by the symmetries - Lorentz symmetry and gauge symmetry
in the theory (i.e., in the Lagrangian or Hamiltonian describing the fundamental particles). If the
existence of its mass term doesn’t violate the imposed symmetries, then there is no problem of
mass generation for this particle, even if it is massive.
[Higgs Mechanism]
Today, we already know - at the Big-Bang, the fundamental particles suffering the problem of
mass generation are massless (so the symmetries imposed to the theory are not violated). As the Universe
cools down, it experiences a so-called electroweak phase transition during which these particles obtain
their mass (not including photon and gluons) by some dynamical mechanism (spontaneous symmetry
breaking). Higgs mechanism describes how the degrees of freedom of particles are transferred during
the electroweak phase transition. It tells us that during the electroweak phase transition, the number of
degrees of freedom for each vector boson is increased by one. That is, massless vector boson has two
degrees of freedom. After it obtains a mass, the number of its degrees of freedom becomes three. On
the other hand, one of the Higgs boson becomes non-physical and hence one degree of freedom is gone
in the Higgs sector. So the total number of fundamental degrees of freedom is not changed during the
phase transition. More explicitly, this relation is given by
Ndof = 2 × NG + NHiggs = 3 × NG + (NHiggs − NG ) (1)
Here NG is the number of gauge bosons which obtain a mass.
3
The Evolution of the Universe

The Zoo of Particles in the SM

Relative Masses of the Fermions in the SM

Before Electroweak Symmetry Breaking
Four massless EW
gauge bosons
+
+ Four Higgs bosons
(Standard Model)
4

As the Universe Cools Down, ...
5
∼ 10−10 s, ∼ 1015 K, or ∼ 102 GeV
After Electroweak Symmetry Breaking
1 � 1 �
W ±
= √ W ∓ iW 2
2
The two electrically charged goldstone bosons are

``eaten’’ by W bosons which then become massive
6

After the Spontaneously EW Symmetry Breaking
� � � ��
Z cos θW − sin θW W3
=
A sin θW cos θW B
The electrically neutral goldstone boson is

``eaten’’ by Z boson which then becomes massive
also. Photon does not eat anything and is still 7
massless
After the Spontaneously EW Symmetry Breaking
There must exist one physical Higgs boson

8

Various Higgs Sectors
The SM is only a
minimal extension of
the EW theory which
can implement the
+ Higgs mechanism. The
variation of the Higgs
9
sector is rich ...

Lecture 9: Equilibrium Thermodynamics I
– Statistical Distributions
[Introduction]
As we look out in space we can see the history of the universe unfolding in front of our telescopes.
However, at redshift z = 1090 our line of sight hits the last scattering surface, from which the cosmic
microwave background (CMB) radiation originates. This corresponds to t ≈ 400000 years. Before that
the universe was not transparent, so we cannot see further back in time, into the early universe. However,
the isotropy of the CMB indicates that matter was distributed almost homogeneously and isotropically in
the early universe, and the spectrum of the CMB shows that this matter, the primordial soup of particles,
was in thermal equilibrium. Therefore we can use thermodynamics to calculate the history of the early
universe. As we will see, this calculation leads to predictions testable by observation (and big bang
nucleosynthesis in particular has been successfully tested). We will now derive the thermodynamics of
the primordial soup starting from statistical physics.
[Thermal Equilibrium Distributions]

Now let us focus on particles in thermal equilibrium. For a gas of weakly-interacting particles, the
particle density in phase space is
g g 1
3 f (p) = 3 (E(p)−µ)/T , (1)
(2π) (2π) e ±1
where f (p) is called distribution function with the three-momentum p satisfying
E 2 (p) = m2 + |p|2 . (2)
and g is the number of spin states of the particles. Some comments:
– In the distribution function, +1 is for fermions (Fermi-Dirac statistics) and −1 is for bosons (Bose-
Einstein statistics)
– In the nonrelativistic limit, T m − µ, so we have
1 1
(E(p)−µ)/T
≈ (E(p)−µ)/T
(3)
e ±1 e
which tells us that the statistics of fermions and bosons are the same. This distribution is called
Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics.
– Chemical potential. In thermodynamics, chemical potential is a form of potential energy that can
be absorbed or released during a chemical reaction. In format, it is the partial derivative of the
free energy of the system with respect to the amount of some particle species (as a comparison,
gravitational potential is the partial derivative of the gravitational potential energy of some object
with respect to its mass; electric potential is the partial derivative of the electric potential energy
of some charged object with respect to its charge). For particles and their antiparticles, we have
µ+ = −µ− . For ideal gas, we have µ → 0. This is the case that we are interested in. So we will
assume implicitly µ = 0 unless it is specified.
The number density, energy density, and pressure of some species labeled i are given by
Z
gi
ni = 3 fi (p)d3 p
(2π)
1
Relativistic Relativistic Non-relativistic
Bosons Fermions (Either)
3/2
ζ(3)
e−mi /T
3 ζ(3)
ni 2 gi T
3
4 2 gi T 3 gi mi T
2π
π π
2 π2
π 4 7 4
ρi 30 gi T 8 30 gi T mi ni
1 1
pi 3 ρi 3 ρi ni T ρi
Table 1: Number density, energy density, and pressure, for species in thermal equilibrium.
Z
gi
ρi = E(p)fi (p)d3 p
(2π)3
|p|2
Z
gi
pi = fi (p)d3 p , (4)
(2π)3 3E(p)
For massless photons we have gγ = 2, while for a massive vector boson such as the Z we have gZ = 3.
In the usual accounting, particles and antiparticles are treated as separate species; thus, for spin-1/2
electrons and positrons we have ge− = ge+ = 2.
We can do the integrals over the distribution functions in two opposite limits: particles which are
highly relativistic (T m) or highly non-relativistic
P∞ (T m). The results are shown in table 2, in
1
which ζ is the Riemann zeta function, and ζ(3) = 1 3 ≈ 1.202. Comments:
n
– Relativistic particles, whether bosons or fermions, remain in approximately equal abundances in

equilibrium. Once they become non-relativistic, however, their abundance plummets, and becomes
exponentially suppressed with respect to the relativistic species. This is simply because it becomes
progressively harder for massive particle-antiparticle pairs to be produced in a plasma with T
m.
– It is easy to check
= 13 ρ T m

p (5)
ρ T m
This is consistent with our assumption made for the state parameter of radiation and dust. Actually
this must be true since

 p2 ≈ 1 E(p) T m
3E(p) 3
2 (6)
 p E(p) T m
3E(p)
in Eq. (4).
– The average particle energy is given by

3.151T T m fermions
ρ 
hEi = = 2.701T T m bosons (7)
n 
m + 32 T T m
So we have E ∼ T unless the particles are nonrelativistic. This provides a nice example on
the advantage of natural units in qualitatively describing physics (e.g, given that at some moment
the thermal bath in the Universe has a temperature T = 100GeV, we immediately know that the
relativistic particles have an energy ∼ 100GeV).
2
[Effective Number of Degrees of Freedom]
According to the Friedmann equation the expansion of the universe is governed by the total energy
density
X
ρ(T ) = ρi (T ) (8)
i
where i runs over particle species. Since the energy density of relativistic species is much greater than
that of nonrelativistic species in the early Universe, it suffices to include the relativistic species only.
(This is true in the early universe, but not at later times. Eventually the rest masses of the particles left
over from annihilation begin to dominate and we enter the matter-dominated era.) Thus we have
π2
ρ(T ) = g (T )T 4 , (9)
30 ∗
where X 7 X
g∗ = gi + gi (10)
8
bosons fermions
is called effective number of relativistic degrees of freedom. Comments:
1. The relative factor 7/8 accounts for the difference in Fermi and Bose statistics.
2. g∗ is a function of T since the sum runs over only relativistic degrees of freedom, say, the particle
species with mi T .
Fig. 1: The evolution of g∗ as a function of the temperature in the SM of particle physics.
3. It is explicitly assumed that the particles of all species are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
This may not be true in reality. The interaction rate Γ for some species of particle is typically
Γ ∝ n, (11)
3
where n is the number density. Since n ∝ a−3 and H = ȧa , the density of particles will eventually
dip so low that
1 1
Γ H or , (12)
Γ H
In this case, the characteristic time scale of the interaction is much longer than the cosmological
timescale 1/H. The equilibrium can no longer be maintained (recall, a(t) ∝ t2/3 for dust and
a(t) ∝ t1/2 for radiation). This species of particles hence get decoupled from the background
plasma (represented by the CMB photons), and its thermadynamics stated to evolve independently.
Actually in our current universe, no species are in equilibrium with the background plasma.
4
1
Tuesday, March 4, 2014

2

Lecture 10: Equilibrium Thermodynamics II
– Entropy
[Introduction] The physical properties of the primordial soup can be well-described by equilibrium
thermodynamics. In last class we studied the thermal distribution of primordial soup. We will study in
this class its entropy.
[State Functions]
In thermodynamics, a state function is a variable to describe the properties of a system in equilib-
rium. Any state function depends only on the current state of the system, not on the way in which the
system acquired that state (independent of path). Below are some examples:
– internal energy (U )
– volume (V )
– particle number (N )
– temperature (T )
[What Is Entropy?]
The introduction of the “entropy” is related to a physical problem that confused physicists about
one and half centuries ago. As we know, in our daily life there are many processes which are “irre-
versible”. For example:
– “don’t cry over spilled milk”

– “fu(4) shui(3) nan(2) shou(1)”
This question is often re-interpreted in the following way: given a process between two equilibrium
states A and B for a thermal system, how do we know whether it is reversible?
Entropy is a state function introduced to address this question. It is usually defined in two ways:
– Definition in thermodynamics or at macroscopic level: it is defined to be
dQrev
dS = (1)
T
Here dS is the change in entropy and dQrev is the heat added to the system for an infinitesimal
thermodynamically reversible process.
– Definition in statistical mechanics or at microscopic level: the entropy is a measure of disorder.
Mathematically it is the natural logarithm of the number of microstates corresponding to a given
macrostate
S = ln Ω (2)
here Ω is the number of microstates.
The second law in thermodynamics gives the answer to this question: given a process between the two
equilibrium states A and B, we always have
Z B
dQ
∆S = SB − SA ≥ (3)
T path

A
1
If “=”, then the process is reversible; otherwise, irreversible. For an isolated system, any process is
adiabatic or dQ ≡ 0, so we always have ∆S ≥ 0.
[Entropy Conservation]
The universe can be considered as an isolated system. Based on the second law in thermodynam-
ics, its total entropy (or co-moving entropy density) must increase or stay constant. If the evolution of the
universe is quasi-static (that is, the matter in the universe are always in thermal equilibrium), its total en-
tropy (or co-moving entropy density) is conserved. In the universe today, the total entropy is dominated
by photon bath, due to its huge amount compared to that of the other particles.
The fundamental thermodynamic relation is given by
dU = dQ − pdV = T dS − pdV (4)
This equation has been derived in the case of reversible changes dS = dQ

T . However, since U , S, and V
are thermodynamic state functions, the above relation holds also for non-reversible changes in a system
of uniform pressure and temperature at constant composition. Here µi = 0 have been assumed for all
particle species. Then we can rewrite this relation as

dS 1 dU
= +p (5)
dV T dV
or
ρ+p
s = (6)
T
dS dU
where s = dV , ρ= dV and p are the equilibrium entropy density, energy density and pressure.
In the early Universe (radiation-domination era), the entropy density is mainly contributed by
relativistic particle species which is given by
2π 2
s= g∗s (T )T 3 . (7)
45
here X 7 X
g∗s (T ) = g∗ (T ) = gi (T ) + gi (T ) (8)
8
bosons fermions
is the effective number of relativistic dof defined in entropy calculation. Recall, g∗ (T ) is defined in the
energy density
π2
ρ(T ) = g (T )T 4 . (9)
30 ∗
According to the second law of thermodynamics the total entropy of the universe never decreases
(i.e., the universe is assumed to be isolated): it either stays constant or grows. Let’s make an more explicit
discussion. Recall, for radiation we have
1
ρ(T ) ∝ 3(1+w)
∝ a(T )−4 (10)
a(T )
Comparing Eq.(9) and Eq.(10), we get
a(T ) ∝ T −1 (11)
2
if g∗ (T ) is not changed. In this case
2π 2
s × a(T )3 ∼ g (T ) (12)
45 ∗
This tells us that in thermal equilibrium, the entropy per comoving volume, dS, is conserved. Actually
we can extend this statement to a more general context with a time-dependent g∗ (T ), as long as the
matter evolution of the universe is quasistatic. In this case, the contributions of nonrelativistic dof to the
total entropy need to be properly included.
[Effective Number of Relativistic DOF]

We see that g∗ is a important parameter to understand the properties of the primordial soup in the
Universe. The value of g∗ is determined by particle physics (without gravity) or the particle species in
the primordial soup. It is temperature-dependent! These particles might be known or unknown to us. As
an illustration, let’s take a look at its value just after the Big-Bang, assuming that the SM is complete. In
this case, all known particles can be considered to be relativistic and are not decoupled from the other
particles. Adding up their internal degrees of freedom we get
gb = 28 gluons 8 × 2, photons 2, W ± and Z 3 × 3, and Higgs 1.

gf = 90 quarks 12 × 6, charged leptons 6 × 2, neutrinos 3 × 2.
g∗ = 106.75. (13)
Question: At the moment just after the Big-Bang, most fundamental particles in the SM are mass-
less. But, the counting above is based on a particle spectrum after electroweak symmetry breaking, where
most of the particles become massless. Why can we do it in such a way?
3
4
1
Thursday, March 6, 2014

2

3

Lecture 11: Thermal History of Primordial Soup − Before Nucleosynthesis
[Introduction]
In Friedmann cosmology, to study the spacetime evolution of the universe, we need the knowledge
on the budget evolution of matter with different gravitational properties (e.g., radiation, dust and dark
energy), or the evolution of their energy densities as the temperature decreases. The energy density of
radiation is dependent on an effective parameter - the number of relativistic dof g∗ . To calculate the
temperature dependence of its energy density, we thus need to know how g∗ (T ) evolves.
Fig. 1: The main events in the early Universe.
[Asymptotic Freedom of Strong Interaction]

Question: Have the light quarks existed in the format of hadrons since the Big-bang?
To answer this question, we need to know what asymptotic freedom is. Quantum field theory tells
us that, due to quantum effects, the strength of gauge interactions are dependent on the related energy
scale. Asymptotic freedom means that the interaction become asymptotically weaker as energy increases
and distance decreases. strong interaction is such an interaction. Asymptotic freedom was discovered
and described in 1973 by Frank Wilczek, David Gross, and independently by David Politzer the same
year. For this discovery, all three shared the Nobel Prize in physics in 2004. That the strong interaction
is asymptotically free means that strong interaction is not “strong” just after the Big-bang. So all quarks
exist in the format of free particles, instead of hadrons.
Fig. 2: The dependence of interaction strength on energy scale. Q is the energy scale.
[QCD Pase Transition]
1
After the EW phase transition, as the temperature of primordial soup decreases, top quarks, Higgs
±
bosons and the gauge bosons W , Z0 becomes non-relativistic one by one and their number densities
get exponentially suppressed. At T ∼ 10 GeV, we have g∗ = 86.25. Next the b quarks and τ leptons
become non-relativistic, followed by c quarks, which leads to g∗ = 61.75.
As the temperature of primordial soup decreases to T ∼ 150 MeV, t ∼ 20µs, the strong forces
between quarks and gluons become important and the QCD phase transition takes place. After that, there
are no more free quarks and gluons; the quark-gluon plasma has become a hadron plasma. The quarks
and gluons have formed bound three-quark systems, called baryons, and quark-antiquark pairs, called
mesons. (Together, these bound states of quarks are known as hadrons.) The lightest baryons are the
± 0
nucleons: the proton and the neutron. The lightest mesons are the pions: π , π .
– There are many different species of baryons and mesons, but all except pions are nonrelativistic
below the QCD phase transition temperature. Thus the only particle species left in large numbers
are the pions, muons, electrons, neutrinos, and the photons.
– For pions, g = 3, so now we have g∗ = 17.25.
[Neutrino Decoupling]
Soon after the QCD phase transition, pions and muons (their mass is about 100 MeV) become
non-relativistic, and for T = 20 MeV → 1 MeV, we have
±
g∗ = 2(γ) + 3.5(e ) + 5.25(ν) = 10.75 (1)
Then neutrinos get decoupled from the primordial soup. As discussed before, that a particle species gets
decoupled means that its interaction rates Γ have fallen below the expansion rate
Γ<H, (2)
where the Hubble constant 1/H sets the cosmological timescale. In such a case, the interactions of the
particle species become too weak to maintain it in touch with the other species as the universe expands.
Next, let’s take a look at when neutrinos get decoupled from the primordial soup, based on dimen-
sional analysis. The interaction rate is given by
Γ ∼ nσ, (3)
where n is number density of the particles, σ is interaction cross section. The cross section has units
of area, and it expresses the strength of the interaction. For the weak interaction processes relevant for
neutrinos, the cross section is
2 2
σ ∼ GF T , (4)
−5 −2
where GF ≈ 1.17 × 10 GeV is the Fermi constant. The interaction rate is then
3 2 2 2 5
Γ ∼ T × G F T ∼ GF T (5)
According to the Friedmann equation,

s 2
p ρ T
H ∼ Gρ ∼ 2 ∼ (6)
MP l MP l
So we have 3
Γ 2 3 T
∼ GF M P l T ∼ (7)
H MeV
2
So, neutrinos decouple close to T ∼ 1MeV, after which they move practically freely, without interac-
tions. Unlike the other particle species in the SM, neutrinos (which have a mass ∼ eV ) get decoupled
from the primordial soup before they become non-relativistic. This means that, neutrinos will still con-
tribute to the effective number of relativistic DOF, or in another word, the energy density and the entropy
density of radiation, after its decoupling.
− +
[e e Annihiation]
After neutrino decoupling, the electrons start to become non-relativistic (recall: what is electron
mass?). Their number density gets exponentially suppressed via the annihilation,
+ −
e +e →γ+γ (8)
As the number of relativistic degrees of freedom is reduced, energy density and entropy are transferred
from electrons and positrons to photons, but not to neutrinos, in the annihilation reactions. Should we
expect
g∗ = 2(γ) + 5.25(ν) = 7.25 ? (9)
The answer is “No”. So far we have assumed that all particle species have the same temperature,
i.e. the interactions among the particles are able to keep them in thermal equilibrium. Such an assumption
doesn’t work well after the neutrino decoupling (there is no reason for the temperature of the neutrino
soup and the photon soup to be the same). Let’s take a look at this in detail. For time 1 before the
annihilation and time 2 after it, the conservation of entropy per comoving volume leads to the relation
3 3 3 3 3 3
2T2 a2 + 5.25Tν2 a2 = 10.75a1 T1 (10)
Before the electron-positron annihilation, the neutrino temperature was the same as the temperature of
the other species, so
3 3 3 3 3 3
a1 T1 = a1 Tν1 = a2 Tν2 (11)
where we have used the fact that Tν ∝ 1/a throughout. We thus have
T2 3

10.75 = 2 + 5.25 (12)
Tν2
+ −
from which we solve the neutrino temperature after e e annihilation,
1/3
4
Tν2 = T2 = 0.714T2 (13)
11
In such a case, g∗ (T ) is not well-defined since we can not define T universally for the decoupled photon
and neutrino soups. Actually, in a general context, we have two definitions for the effective numbers of
DOF which are from ρ(T ) and s(T ), respectively.
4 4
X Ti 7 X Ti
g∗ = gi + gi .
T 8 T
bosons fermions
3 3
X Ti 7 X Ti
g∗s = gi + gi (14)
T 8 T
bosons fermions
Here T is the temperature of the soup containing photons and particles not decoupled from photons yet.
If T = Ti , that is, if no relativistic particle species gets decoupled from the photon soup, then
g∗s = g∗ (15)
3
− +
is reduced to our previous definition for g∗ . For the universe after e e annihilation, the photon soup
and the neutrino soup are decoupled, so we have
4
g∗s = 2 + 5.25 × = 3.909
11
4/3
4
g∗ = 2 + 5.25 × = 3.363 (16)
11
Here we have two comments:
1. The conservation law of comoving entropy density of radiation tells us that a temperature dis-
crepancy is generated for photon bath and neutrino bath after the neutrino decoupling. How does
happen? If the temperature of both background thermal baths is influenced by cosmological ex-
pansion only, their temperature should keep the same. This difference actually results from the
−
e e+ annihilation. As the temperature of the photon bath becomes below me ∼ 0.5 MeV, the
electrons and positrons become non-relativistic and annihilate into a photon pair. Such a process
can reheat the photon thermal bath due to me > T2 . Following the calculations above, we can
explicitly obtain
1/3
T2 11 a1
= (17)
T1 4 a2
As a comparison, if T2 is only influenced by cosmological redshift, we should have TT2 = aa1 .

1 2
2. After its decoupling from photon bath, the thermal distribution of neutrino bath is frozen, with its
temperature uniquely influenced by cosmological expansion. This yields another relic background
of thermal bath in the universe - cosmic neutrino background (CνB), other than cosmic microwave
−
background (CMB). The temperature relation resulting from the e e+ annihilation remains true
for the photon and neutrino baths as long as the neutrinos stay ultrarelativistic (m T ). Today,
we have TCνB ∼ 1.95K and TCM B ∼ 2.73K.
4
1

2

3

4

Lecture 12: Big-bang Nucleosynthesis I
[Introduction]
Soon after e− e+ annihilation (T ∼ 0.1MeV), light chemical elements started to be generated via
the mechanism of Big Bang nucleosynthesis. The history of Big Bang nucleosynthesis began with the
calculations of Ralph Alpher in the 1940s. Alpher published the seminal Alpher-Bethe-Gamow paper
(the addition of Bethe as an author was a joke played by Gamow (sounds like α, β, γ) which was
very helpful as public relations for the article and theory.). This theory successfully predicts the relic
abundances of light chemical elements in the universe today. Alpher-Bethe-Gamow therefore are viewed
as theoretical founders of Big-Bang theory. As for elements heavier than lithium, up to iron, cobalt, and
nickel, they have been made from lighter elements by fusion reactions in stars. These reactions provide
the energy source for the stars. Elements heavier than these have been formed in supernova explosions.
[Equilibrium]
After QCD phase transition, all hadrons except π ±,0 and nuclei are non-relativistic. So they satisfy
Maxwell statistics 2
fi = e−(mi −µi )/T e−pi /2mi T , (1)
where pi is the particle momentum, mi is the rest mass, and µi is the chemical potential. Namely their
number density
d3 pi
Z
ni ≡ gi fi
(2π)3
mT
= gi ( i )3/2 e(µi −mi )/T . (2)
2π
Here gi is the degeneracy factor. If the nuclear reactions needed to build nucleus i (with mass number Ai
and charge Zi ) from the nucleons,
(AI − Zi )n + Zi p ↔ i (3)
occur at sufficiently high rate to maintain chemical equilibrium, we have
µi = Zi µp + (Ai − Zi )µn , (4)
For convenience, we can express ni as
3 (Ai −1)
2π 2
gi Ai 2−Ai i Ai −Zi
3/2
ni = eBi /T nZ
p nn (5)
mN T
where
Bi = Zi mp + (Ai − Zi )mn − mi , (6)
is the binding energy of the nucleus. Here we have approximated mp ≈ mn ≈ mi /Ai outside the
exponent, and denoted it by mN (“nucleon mass”).
For the convenience of discussion, we define relic abundance of nucleus i as fraction
Ai n i
Xi ≡ (7)
nB
P neutron abundance, ζ(3) ≈ 1.202, nB is the baryon number density,

where Xp and Xn are the proton and
with the normalization condition i Xi = 1. Then the equation 5 can be rewritten as
gi Ai Xp Zi 5/2 Ai −1 Bi /T

Ai n i
Xi ≡ = Xn Ai e , (8)
nB 2 Xn
1
with
3/2 3/2 3/2
n 2π 2πT ζ(3)η T
= B = ∼ η (9)
2 mN T mN π2 mN
P
where Xp and Xn are the abundances of free protons and neutrons, ζ(3) ≈ 1.202, nB = Ai n i =
n∗p + n∗n is the baryon number density (Note: n∗p and n∗n are number densities of protons and neutrons,
which include both the free ones and the ones existing in nuclei, whereas np and nn are number densities
of free protons and neutrons only); and
Bi = Zi mp + (Ai − Zi )mn − mi , (10)

np np /nB Xp
is the binding energy of the nucleus. Additionally, we applied the relation nn = nn /nB = Xn and
2 3
nB = nγ η = 2ζ(3)π T η.
[Two Input Parameters for BBN]

The relic abundance Xi depends on two important input parameters:
1. baryon-photon Ratio
nB
η= ∼ 10−10 − 10−9 (from astrophysical observation) (11)
nγ
which is extremely small. At leading order of Eq.(8), the temperature dependence is mainly from
Ai −1 eBi /T . For temperatures T Bi we have eBi /T ∼ 1 and 1. Thus Xi 1 for others
(Ai > 1) than protons and neutrons. The temperature has to fall below Bi by a large factor before
the factor eBi /T wins and the equilibrium abundance becomes large.
2. neutron-proton Ratio
Protons and neutrons are converted into each other in the weak reactions
n + e+ ↔ ν̄e + p (12)
n + νe ↔ p + e− (13)
If these reactions are in equilibrium, we have µn + µe = µp + µe , and the neutron/proton ratio is

mn −mp µe −µν
nn e
= e− T + T (14)
np
where mn − mp = 1.293 MeV.

We need now some estimate of the chemical potentials of electrons and electron neutrinos. The
universe is electrically neutral, so the number of electrons equals the number of protons. For
T > me , we have
2T 3 2 µe µe 3

2
ne− − ne+ = 2 π T + T = n∗p < n∗p + n∗n = nB = ηnγ = η 2 ζ(3)T 3 (15)
6π π
Here n∗p includes both free protons and the protons inside nuclei. This further leads to
µe 6
< 2 ζ(3)η ∼ η ∼ 10−9 (16)
T π
The nonrelativistic limit can be dealt with in a similar manner. It turns out that for T > 30 keV,
µe T , and we can drop it from Eq. (16).
2
As for neutrinos, we don’t know its chemical potentials. Usually it is assumed that the neutrino
asymmetry is small, like the baryon asymmetry, so that |µνe | T . Thus we ignore both µνe and
µe and get as the equilibrium neutron/proton ratio
mn −mp
nn
= e− T (17)
np
These reactions continue until expansion of the universe outpaces the reactions, which occurs at
about T = 0.7
MeV and is called the freeze out temperature. At freeze out, the neutron-proton ratio
∗
nn nn
is about n = n∗ = 1/7.
p before BBN p
3
1

2

3

Lecture 13: Big-bang Nucleosynthesis II
[Introduction]
Though the domination of radiation in the cosmic matter budget lasted for a long time (around
50,000 years, until T ∼ 0.8K) after neutrinos get decoupled or electron positron get annihilated, baryons
which are highly non-relativistic since their formulation started to play a non-trivial role in matter evo-
lution, say, Big-Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN). BBN was initiated when T ∼ 0.06MeV and shut down
when T ∼ 0.03MeV, during which various light chemical elements with a mass number up to seven are
generated.
[Initiation and Shut-down of BBN]

In the early universe the baryon density is too low and the time available is too short for reactions
involving three or more incoming nuclei to occur at any appreciable rate. The heavier nuclei have to be
built sequentially from lighter nuclei in two-particle reactions, so deuterium is formed first in the reaction
n+p↔d+γ (1)
Only when deuterons are available can the nuclei of light chemical elements be formed, via the interac-
tion processes shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: BBN interaction chain.
To estimate the starting and ending moments for BBN, recall that relic abundance is given by
gi Ai Xp Zi 5/2 Ai −1 Bi /T

Ai n i
Xi ≡ = Xn Ai e , (2)
nB 2 Xn
with
3/2 3/2 3/2
n 2π 2πT ζ(3)η T
= B = ∼ η (3)
2 mN T mN π2 mN
under the assumption of both thermal and chemical equilibrium. Here
Bi = Zi mp + (Ai − Zi )mn − mi , (4)
1
is the binding energy of the nucleus. Given T ∼ Bi , we might expect that if the temperature is lower
than the binding energy, it would be easy to form nuclei but difficult to break them. However, η ∼ 10−9
is so small for T ∼ 0.1 MeV. Since there are 109 photons for each baryon, there is a sufficient amount of
photons who can disintegrate a nucleus in the high-energy tail of the photon distribution, even at rather
low temperatures.
Since all light chemical elements except hydrogen can be generated only via the intermediate
elements 2 H, we may define the starting time of BBN as the moment that a large amount of 2 H has
B /T
been produced. Given 2 H has B2 H = 2.22 MeV, we get e 2 H = 1 at Td = 0.06 MeV - 0.07 MeV
(assuming η = 10−10 − 10−9 ). So the deuterium abundance becomes large near this temperature. Since
4 B /T
He has a much higher binding energy, B4 He = 28.3 MeV, the corresponding situation e 4 He = 1
occurs at a higher temperature T4 He ∼ 0.3 MeV. But in reality 4 He doesn’t begins to form until there is
sufficient deuterium available. This is so-called “Deuterium bottleneck effect”.
The nuclei are positively charged and repel each other electromagnetically. Large kinetic energy
is needed for the light nuclei to overcome this Coulomb barrier and get within the range of the strong
interaction, in order to form heavier nuclei. So the cross sections for these fusion reactions fall rapidly
with energy. The nuclear reactions are “shut off” when the temperature falls below T ∼ 30 keV, before
there is time for heavier nuclei (A > 7) to form, Since 4 He has the highest binding energy per nucleon
(of all isotopes below A = 12), almost all neutrons end up in 4 He, and only small amounts of the other
∗
light isotopes, 2 H, 3 H, 3 He, 7 Li, and 7 Be, are produced. We roughly have X4 He ∼ 25% (since nnn∗ = 17 ;
p
see lecture 12).
[Evolution of Relic Abundances]

Obviously, the chemical equilibrium is broken during BBN (otherwise the relic abundances will
not change). So Eq. 2 can not be applied for studying the evolution of relic abundances directly. Ex-
ploring this requires a rather large numerical computation by solving a group of diffusion equations (see
slides), where the influence of chemical interactions are included. The cross sections of these chem-
ical processes are energy-dependent. Integrating them over the energy and velocity distributions and
multiplying with the relevant number densities leads to temperature-dependent reaction rates. The most
important reactions are the weak n ↔ p reactions and the following strong reactions given in Fig. 1.
In principle, all of these nuclear cross sections are determined by the just a few parameters in QCD.
However, calculating these cross sections from first principles is too difficult in practice. As a matter of
fact, most of these cross sections are measured in the laboratory.
Fig. 2: (1) Nuclei binding energy. (2)Time evolution of their relic abundances during BBN.
2
Below are some qualitative comments on time evolution of their relic abundances during BBN:
– The nuclei 2 H and 3 H are intermediate states through which reactions proceed towards 4 He.
Therefore their abundance first rises, is highest at the time when 4 He production is fastest, and
then falls as baryonic matter ends up in 4 He.
– 3 He is also an intermediate state. The conversion of 3 He to 4 He request 2 H and n, which are
extinguished early. Therefore the abundance of 3 He does not fall in the same way as 2 H and 3 H.
– The abundance of 7 Li also rises at first and then falls via 7 Li + p →4 He +4 He. Since 4 He has
a higher binding energy per nucleon, B/A, than 7 Li and 7 Be have, these also want to return into
4
He.
– This does not happen to 7 Be, however, since, just like for 3 He, the free neutrons needed for the
reaction 7 Be + n →4 He +4 He have almost disappeared.
The BBN is extremely successful in explaining the cosmic relic abundances. In addition to the
relic abundance of 4 He (the observation tells us X4 He ∼ 23%), there are extra reasons to support the
BBN mechanism:
– All stars and interstellar gas clouds observed contain at least 23% 4 He. If all 4 He had been
produced in stars, we would see similar variations in the 4 He abundance as we see for the other
elements, such for C, N, and O, with some regions containing just a few % or even less 4 He. This
universal minimum amount of 4 He signifies primordial abundance produced when matter in the
universe was uniform.
– The existence of significant amounts of 2 H in the universe is a sign of BBN, since there are no
known astrophysical sources of large amounts of 2 H.
In all, the BBN provides us the first important landmark for the Big-bang theory.
[Measurement of the η Parameter]

So far, η is assumed to be an input parameter, with its value given directly. The most straightfor-
ward way to extract its value is probably by fitting the observed relic abundances see Fig. 3, which yields
η ∼ 6 × 10−10 . The non-zero value of η also raises one of the most important cosmic puzzles - why
there is more baryonic matter than its antimatter in the universe. Without this asymmetry, the universe
that we have observed can not be formed, as a result of no chemistry, no biology, ... ...
Fig. 3: The ratio of baryon to photon number densities. The x-axis is in the unit of 10−10 .
3
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Lecture 14: CMB I - Recombination and Decoupling
[Introduction]
Fig. 1: The main events in the early Universe.
Though the BBN consumed a lot of nucleons, most protons (∼ 6/7) are still left after the BBN,
remained in thermal equilibrium with photons and electrons. When the temperature became low enough
(roughly one order lower than the binding energy of Hydrogen atoms) the electrons and nuclei combined
to form neutral atoms, an event known as recombination, and the density of free electrons fell sharply.
Soon after that, photons get decoupled from charged matter and start to freely propagate in the universe.
The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) is a snapshot of such oldest photons or light in our
universe, imprinted on the sky when the Universe was just 380,000 years old. It is a “photo” taken for
the earliest cosmic event that we can “observe” directly. The CMB was first predicted in 1948 by Ralph
Alpher, and Robert Herman, and then observed by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964.
The discovery is considered a landmark test of the Big Bang model of the universe. Because of this,
Penzias and Wilson received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978.
[Recombination]
While the recombination process
p + e− ↔ H + γ , (1)
is rapid compared to the expansion, the ionization fraction obeys an equilibrium distribution just like that
considered for light elements during the BBN. As in the BBN, the qualitative behavior of recombination
is determined by the low baryon-photon ratio of the universe. Recall
mi T 3/2 (µi −mi )/T
ni = gi ( ) e (2)
2π
and µp + µe = µH (since µγ = 0) under the assumption of chemical equilibrium, we obtain
−3/2
gH me T
nH = n n eB/T (3)
gp ge p e 2π
1
where B = mp + me − mH = 13.6eV is the binding energy and we have set gp = ge = 2 gH = 2.
Defining the ionization fraction for a hydrogen only plasma
np
Xp =
nB
and approximately assuming
nH = nB − np = (1 − Xp )nB
1
We can rewrite Eqn. (3) as
√
1 − Xp T 3/2 B/T

4 2ζ(3)
= √ η e . (4)
Xp2 π me
that is, the Saha equation for ionization in thermal equilibrium. Comments:
– When B T TBBN , the RHS 1 so that Xp ∼ 1, and almost all protons and electrons are
free.
– As temperature falls, eB/T grows, but since η, (T /me )3/2 1, the temperature needs to fall to
T B, before the whole expression becomes large (∼ 1 or 1). Again, the main reason is that
η 1. This means that there are very many photons for each hydrogen atom. Even when T B,
the high-energy tail of the photon distribution contains photons with energy E > B so that they
can still ionize a hydrogen atom.
Fig. 2: Recombination. In the top panel the dashed curve gives the equilibrium ionisation fraction as
given by the Saha equation. The solid curve is the ionisation fraction obtained from solving diffusion
equations. The bottom panel shows the free electron number density ne and the photon mean free path.
The latter is given in comoving units, i.e., the distance is scaled to the corresponding present distance.
This figure is for η = 8.22 × 10−10 .
Let us define the recombination temperature Trec as the temperature where Xp = 0.5. Then one
can find (via either Saha equation or Fig. 2)
Trec ∼ 0.3eV, zrec ∼ 1300.

Trec 1
which are related to each other by T0 = arec = 1 + zrec ).
[The CMB and Photon Decoupling]

Despite recombination, the universe didn’t became transparent until photons get decoupled from
protons and electrons. This happened when the characteristic interaction time becomes comparable to or
longer than the lifetime of the universe, say, when Γγ ∼ H. With this, the decoupling temperature can
be determined to be
Tdec ∼ 3000K ∼ 0.26eV, zdec ∼ 1090.
2
Fig. 3: The CMB frequency spectrum as measured by the FIRAS instrument on the COBE satellite. The
final result from FIRAS is T = 2.725 ± 0.002K (95% confidence level).
The photons in the cosmic background radiation have thus travelled almost without scattering
through space all the way since we had T = Tdec ∼ 1100T0 . When we look at this cosmic background
radiation we thus see the universe (its faraway parts near our horizon) as it was at that early time. Because
of the redshift, these photons which were then largely in the visible part of the spectrum, have now
become microwave photons, so this radiation is now called the cosmic microwave background (CMB). It
0
still maintains the thermal equilibrium distribution, with a temperature TCMB ∼ 2.7K. (Question: what
is the temperature of CνB, another relativistic thermal system in the universe today?)
[The Dark Ages]

How would the universe after recombination appear to an observer with human eyes? At first one
would see a uniform red glow everywhere, since the energy distribution of the CMB photons is extended
from the near infrared to the visible range. (It would also feel rather hot, 3000 K). As time goes on this
glow gets dimmer and dimmer as the photons redshift towards the infrared, and after a few million years
it gets completely dark, as the photons are redshifted into the infrared. There are no stars yet. This era is
often called the Dark Ages of the universe.
It lasts several hundred million years. While it lasts, it gradually gets cold. In the dark, however,
gravitationally bound structures start to form as gravity attracts matter into overdense regions. A long
time later (at z ∼ 10), one by one, the first stars light up. and their radiation reionizes the gas that is left
in interstellar space. The gas has now such a low density, however, that the universe remains transparent.
3
Fig. 4
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Lecture 15: CMB II - Anisotropy
[Introduction]
The discovery of the CMB, together with the explanation of the relic abundances of light elements
in the universe using BBN, marks a great success of the Big-Bang theory. However, the subsequent mea-
surements of the CMB fine-structure indicates a small anisotropy. Such a feature carries the information
about cosmic events happened before the photon decoupling, and fluctuations of the energy density yield-
ing the formation of large-scale structure in the universe later. Therefore, the precision measurements
are one of the top priorities of the current and future CMB experiments.
Fig. 1: The CMB according to the DMR instrument aboard the COBE satellite.
[Three Missions]
This anisotropy was first detected by the the NASA Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite
in 1992, which mapped the whole sky in three microwave frequencies. The angular resolution of COBE
was rather poor, 7◦ , so only features larger than this were detected. (John Mather, George Smoot, Nobel
prize in physics, 2006)
The next full-sky map of the CMB was made by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP) satellite. The satellite was launched by NASA in June 2001, and the results of the first year of
measurements were published in February 2003. The WMAP satellite made eight years of measurements
A third space mission, the ESA (European Space Agency) Planck Surveyor, was launched in May
2009 and is currently performing an even more detailed investigation. On 21 March 2013, the European-
led research team behind the Planck cosmology probe released the mission’s all-sky map of the cosmic
microwave background.
[Theoretical Power Spectrum]

The CMB is not a perfectly isotropic radiation bath. Deviations from isotropy at the level of
one part in 105 have developed over the last decade into one of our premier precision observational
tools in cosmology. To quantitatively study this feature, we usually decompose the small temperature
anisotropies on the celestial sphere in terms of spherical harmonics as
∆T X
= alm Ylm (θ, φ) , (1)
T0
l,m
1
Fig. 2: Comparison of CMB results from COBE, WMAP and Planck.
where Z
∗ ∆T (θ, φ)
alm = Ylm (θ, φ) dΩ
T0
are expansion coefficients, θ and φ are spherical polar angles on the sky, and
Z
1
T0 = dΩT (θ, φ)
4π
is the average of the CMB temperature. alm are dimensionless, but often they are defined without the
T0 = 2.725K, and then they have the dimension of temperature and are usually given in units of µK.
The functions Ylm are the spherical harmonics, which form an orthonormal set of functions over
the sphere. So
Z
dΩYlm (θ, φ)Yl∗0 m0 (θ, φ) = δll0 δmm0 (2)
Summing over the m corresponding to the same multipole number l we have the closure relation
2l + 1
|Ylm (θ, φ)|2 =
X
(3)
m
4π
According the the properties of the spherical harmonics, we can easily find that the coefficient al0 is
real but the other alm are complex, and al,−m = a∗lm . The sum begins at l = 1, since Y00 = const
only carries istrotropic information, and hence we must have a00 = 0 for a quantity which represents an
anisotropic deviation from average.
Now let’s discuss how to extract out theoretically predicted or “correct” power spectrum in ideal
experiments. Recall, the average of measuring an ensemble of objects which are rooted in the same
physical law should gradually approach the prediction if the theory is correct (due to the suppression of
statistical errors), as the size of the ensemble increases. Then let’s defining a quantity
1 X
Cl = h|alm |2 i = h|alm |2 i , (4)
2l + 1 m
where the average is taken over an ensemble of universes (in spite of the fact that we live in the Universe,
we can imagine an ensemble of universes, each representing a different realization of the same random
2
process that produces the primordial perturbations). For the second “=”, we have used the fact that these
expectation values depend only on l not m. Recall, the l are related to the angular size of the anisotropy
pattern, whereas the m are related to “orientation” of this “pattern”. Based on cosmological principle,
given a pattern with “l”, any orientation of it “m” doesn’t enjoy a priority over another one “m0 ”. So
certainly we have h|alm |2 i = h|alm0 |2 i. The alm are independent random variables, so
halm a∗l0 m0 i = δll0 δmm0 Cl (5)
For Gaussian perturbations, Cl contains all the statistical information about the CMB temperature anisotropy.
This is all we can predict from theory.
2
The average of the temperature variance δT T(θ,φ) is given by
0
* 2 + * +
∆T (θ, φ)
a∗l0 m0 Yl∗0 m0 (θ, φ)
X X
= alm Ylm (θ, φ)
T0 0 0
lm lm
Ylm (θ, φ)Yl∗0 m0 (θ, φ)halm a∗l0 m0 i

XX
=
0 0
ll mm
|Ylm (θ, φ)|2

X X
= Cl
l m
1 X
= (2l + 1)Cl (6)
4π
l
2
∆T (θ,φ)
Though T0 for any given universe in the ensemble is {θ, φ} dependent, the average over the
ensemble is not.
[Observed Power Spectrum]

Theory prediction for the CMB anisotropy could be extracted from the expectation values h|alm |2 i,
which is defined over an ensemble of universes rooted in the same physical law, in reality however we
can observe only one realization of such physical law, say, the set {alm } based on the CMB measured in
our universe. Then the observed angular power spectrum is given by
1 X
Ĉl = |a |2 . (7)
2l + 1 m lm
2
∆T (θ,φ)
The variance of the observed temperature anisotropy is the average of over the celestial T0
sphere,
δT (θ, φ) 2
Z Z
1 1 X ∗
al0 m0 Yl∗0 m0 (θ, φ)
X
dΩ = dΩ alm Ylm (θ, φ)
4π T0 4π 0 0
lm lm
Z
1
alm a∗l0 m0 dΩYlm (θ, φ)Yl∗0 m0 (θ, φ)
X X
=
4π 0 0 lm l m
1 XX
= |alm |2
4π m
l
1 X
= (2l + 1)Ĉl (8)
4π
l
In contrast with Eq.(6), which gives the variance of ∆T /T0 over an ensemble of universes rooted in the
same physical law, Eq.(8) gives the variance of ∆T /T0 over the celestial sphere in our universe.
3
[Cosmic variance]
The expectation value of the observed spectrum Ĉl is equal to Cl , the theoretical spectrum, i.e.
hĈl i = Cl → hĈl − Cl i = 0 (9)
but its actual, realized, value is not, although we expect it to be close. This fact yields an inherent
uncertainty, named cosmic variance, in all cosmological observations and inferences. Mathematically, it
is defined as the standard deviation between Ĉl and Cl
2
h(Ĉl − Cl )2 i = C2 (10)
2l + 1 l
We see that the expected relative difference between Ĉl and Cl is smaller for higher l. This is because we
have a larger (size 2l + 1) statistical sample of alm available for calculating the Ĉl . The cosmic variance
is probably the most important factor limiting the precision of of the CMB measurements, especially at
large scales (low l).
Fig. 3: The observed angular power spectrum Ĉl according to the Planck satellite. The observational
results are the data points. The solid curve is the theoretical Cl from the best-fit ΛCDM model, and the
gray band around it represents the cosmic variance corresponding to this Cl .
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Lecture 16: CMB III - Anisotropy (continued)
[Objective]
Qualitatively understand the structure of the CMB power spectrum.
[Introduction]
The CMB anisotropy pattern is set by the physics at decoupling (primary anisotropy), and it is
then modified as the CMB passes through the universe to be observed today (secondary anisotropy). It
has a rich structure which we can measure with an accuracy that other cosmological observations cannot
match.So the Cl provides perhaps the most important single observational data set for determining (or
constraining) cosmological parameters
[Correspondence between Multipoles and Scales]

The different multipole numbers l correspond to different angular scales, low l to large scales and
high l to small scales. Examination of the functions Ylm (θ, φ) reveals that they have an oscillatory pattern
on the sphere, so that there are typically l ÒwavelengthsÓ of oscillation around a full great circle of the
sphere.
Thus the angle corresponding to this wavelength is
2π
θλ = (1)
l
The angle corresponding to a Òhalf-wavelengthÓ, i.e., the separation between a Neighbouring minimum
and maximum is then
π
θres = (2)
l
This is the angular resolution required of the microwave detector for it to be able to resolve the angular
power spectrum up to this l.
For example, COBE had an angular resolution of 7◦ allowing a measurement up to l = 180/7 =
26, WMAP had resolution 0.23◦ reaching to l = 180/0.23 = 783, and the European Planck satellite has
resolution 50 , which allows to measure Cl up to l = 2160.
Fig. 1: Comparison of CMB results from COBE, WMAP and Planck.
The angles on the sky are related to actual physical or comoving distances via the angular diameter
1
distance dA , defined as the ratio of the physical length (transverse to the line of sight) λphys and dA ,
λphys λc
θλ = = c
dA dA
2π
Given a mode with comoving wavenumber k = λc , its angular size on the CMB sky should be
2π 2π
θλ = c =
kdA l
Then the correspondence between λphys and l is given by
λphys 2π
= .
dA l
From it we get that the modes with wavenumber k contribute mostly to multipoles around
l = kdcA .
Fig. 2: The rough correspondence between multipoles l and angles.
[Damped Harmonic Oscillator]

In real oscillators, friction, or damping, slows the motion of the system. Due to frictional force, the
velocity decreases in proportion to the acting frictional force. While simple harmonic motion oscillates
with only the restoring force acting on the system, damped harmonic motion experiences friction. In
many vibrating systems the frictional force Ff can be modeled as being proportional to the velocity v of
the object: Ff = −cv, where c is called the viscous damping coefficient.
Balance of forces (Newton’s second law) for damped harmonic oscillators is then
dx d2 x
F = −kx − c =m 2 (3)
dt dt
This is rewritten into the form
d2 x dx
2
+ 2ζω0 + ω02 x = 0 (4)
dt dt
where r
k
ω0 =
m
is called the ‘undamped angular frequency of the oscillator’ and
c
ζ= √
2 mk
2
Fig. 3: Dependence of the system behavior on the value of the damping ratio ζ.
is called the ‘damping ratio’.

This equation can be solved exactly for any driving force
p
x(t) = Ae−ζω0 t sin 1 − ζ 2 ω0 t + φ (5)
The amplitude A and phase φ determine the behavior needed to match the initial conditions. The value
of the damping ratio ζ critically determines the behavior of the system. A damped harmonic oscillator
can be:
– Overdamped (ζ > 1): The system returns (exponentially decays) to steady state without oscillat-
ing. Larger values of the damping ratio return to equilibrium slower.
– Critically damped (ζ = 1): The system returns to steady state as quickly as possible without
oscillating. This is often desired for the damping of systems such as doors.
– Underdamped (ζ < 1): The system oscillates (with a slightly different frequency than the un-
damped case) with the amplitude gradually decreasing p to zero. The angular frequency of the
underdamped harmonic oscillator is given by ω1 = ω0 1 − ζ 2
[Acoustic Oscillation in the CMB]

In a non expanding universe, photon fluid would require
ṅγ + ∇ · (nγ vγ ) = 0 . (6)
Since nγ is the number density of photons per unit physical (not comoving) volume, this equation must be
corrected for the expansion. The effect of the expansion can alternately be viewed as that of the Hubble
flow diluting the number density everywhere in space. Because number densities scale as nγ ∝ a−3 , the
expansion alters the continuity equation as
ȧ
ṅγ + 3nγ + ∇ · (nγ vγ ) = 0 . (7)
a
Since we are interested in small fluctuations around the background, let us linearize the equations nγ ≈
n̄γ + δnγ and drop terms that are higher than first order in δnγ /nγ and vγ . Note that vγ is first order in
the number density fluctuations since it is generated from the pressure gradients associated with density
fluctuations.
The continuity equation (7) for the fluctuations becomes
˙
δnγ
= −∇ · vγ . (8)
nγ
3
Since the number density nγ ∝ T 3 , the fractional density fluctuation is related to the temperature fluctu-
ation Θ as
δnγ δT
=3 ≡ 3Θ . (9)
nγ T
Expressing the continuity equation in terms of Θ, we obtain
1
Θ̇ = − ∇ · vγ . (10)
3
Fourier transforming this equation, we get
1
Θ̇ = − ik · vγ , (11)
3
for the relationship between the Fourier mode amplitudes. Given the Euler equation
v̇γ = −ikΘ . (12)
where the factor of i here represents the fact that the temperature maxima and minima are zeros of the
velocity in real space due to the gradient relation, i.e. temperature and velocity have a π/2 phase shift,
we can eliminate the fluid velocity, we get the simple harmonic oscillator equation
Θ̈ + c2s k 2 Θ = 0 , (13)
√
where the adiabatic sound speed c2s = 1/3 for the photon-dominated fluid, and ω0 = kcs . Below are
comments:
– The acoustic oscillations end at photon decoupling, when the photons are liberated. The CMB
shows these standing waves as a snapshot at their final moment t = tdec . At this moment oscilla-
tions for scales k which have
cs tdec
ω0 tdec = k = krsc (tdec ) = nπ, n = 1, 2, 3, ... (14)
adec
are at their extreme values (maximum compression or maximum decompression). Here k is co-
moving wavenumber and rsc = cas dec
tdec
is comoving sound horizon. Therefore we see strong struc-
ture in the CMB anisotropy at the multipoles
dcA (tdec )
l = kdcA (tdec ) = nπ = nlA (15)
rsc (tdec )
corresponding to these scales, with
dcA (tdec ) π
lA = π c
= ∼ 220 (16)
rs (tdec ) θs
c
being the acoustic scale in multipole space. θs = drcs (t(tdec )
is called “sound horizon angle”. The
A dec )
value of lA or θs is determined by the spacetime evolution of the universe.
– Acoustic oscillation suffers photon diffusion damping before decoupling. This is a physical pro-
cess (e.g., caused by interaction between photon and charged baryons) which can reduce density
inequalities (anisotropies). With this effect included, the oscillation equation will be approximately
modified to
Θ̈ + c2s k 2 f (ci )Θ̇ + c2s k 2 Θ = g(ci ) , (17)
So the damping coefficient
c ∝ k 2 ∝ l2 (18)
Therefore, for small enough scales the effect of photon diffusion smooth out the photon distribution
and the CMB anisotropy.
4
Fig. 4: The angular power spectrum Cl , calculated both with and without the effect of diffusion damping.
– ci represents a set of cosmological parameters, including Ω, η, ΩDM etc. In addition to perturb the
peak locations, it may significantly influence the peak heights (either as a external driving force or
via diffusion damping). Therefore, with the power spectrum measured precisely, we can figure out
the budget of the energy density in the Universe today (though the basic idea is simple, the real
calculations are very messy. For more details, take cosmology as your major.).
Fig. 5: Cosmic recipe before and after Planck.
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Lecture 17: CMB IV - Anisotropy (continued)
[Objective]
Understand the calculation of sound horizon angle.
[Introduction]
According to lecture 16, we know that the positions of the acoustic peaks of the Cl spectrum is
fixed by the sound horizon angle
rsc (tdec )
θs = (1)
dcA (tdec )
here rsc (tdec ) is the sound horizon at photon decoupling, and dcA (tdec ) is the comoving angular diameter
distance to the last scattering. Both of them are sensitive to the spacetime evolution of the Universe. So
we can use the information of the acoustic peaks to determine the values of the cosmological parameters.
[Comoving Sound Diameter Distance]

The comoving angular diameter distance dcA (tdec ) to the last scattering surface is the comoving
distance that light traveled since the photon decoupling. It is dependent on the spacetime evolution after
the photon decoupling. In a FRW model it is given by
Z r(tdec )
c
dA (tdec ) = dr
0
√
Z zdec
1 0 1
= √ sinh −K dz
−K 0 H(z 0 )
Z 1
da
= H0−1 p (2)
1+z
1 Ω0 (a − a2 ) − ΩΛ0 (a − a4 ) + a2
dec
where the second line holds for a FRW model containing only matter and vacuum energy (Ω0 = Ωm0 +
ΩΛ0 ). In the real universe, the contribution of radiation is small, since the radiation-dominated era ends
early, when the universe is around 50 000 years old. Below are some comments:
– With a fixed ΩΛ0 , increasing Ω0 decreases dcA (tdec ), since it means increasing Ωm0 , which has a
decelerating effect on the expansion. With a fixed present expansion rate H0 , deceleration means
that expansion was faster earlier → universe is younger → there is less time for photons to travel
as the universe cools from Tdec to T0 → last scattering surface is closer to us.
– Increasing ΩΛ0 (with a fixed Ω0 ) increases dcA (tdec ), since it means a larger part of the energy
density is in dark energy, which has an accelerating effect on the expansion. With fixed H0 , this
means that expansion was slower in the past → universe is older → more time for photons → last
scattering surface is further out → ΩΛ0 increases dcA (tdec ).
[Comoving Sound Horizon]

Different from dcA (tdec ), the comoving sound horizon is dependent on the spacetime evolution be-
fore the photon decoupling. In the toy model discussed in last class, the effect of baryons are completely
neglected, and hence we have cs = √13 . For baryon-photon fluid where photons and baryons are not
decoupled, cs = cs (t) is time-dependent. The comoving sound horizon is calculated by
Z tdec Z adec
c cs (t) cs (a)
rs (tdec ) = dt = da (3)
0 a(t) 0 a.ȧ
1
Fig. 1: The Ω0 dependence of the angular power spectrum Cl .
Here
1 1
cs (a)2 = (4)
3 1 + 43 ωωb a
γ
2
H0
and adec = 1+z1dec , with ωx = Ωx0 100km/s/M pc = Ωx0 h2 . The other element in the integrand is the
expansion law a(t) before decoupling, which is given by Friedman equation
da
q
a = H0 ΩΛ0 a4 + (1 − Ω0 )a2 + Ωm0 a + Ωr0 (5)
dt
In the integral Eq. (2) we dropped the Ωr0 , since it is important only at early times, and the integral from
adec to 1 is dominated by late times. Integral Eq. (3), on the other hand, includes only early times, and
now we can instead drop the ΩΛ0 and 1 − Ω0 terms (i.e., we can ignore the effect of curvature and dark
energy in the early universe, before photon decoupling), so that
da p √
a ≈ H0 Ωm0 a + Ωr0 = H100 ωm a + ωr (6)
dt
Thus the comoving sound horizon depends on the two cosmological parameters ωm and ωb ,
Z adec
c c 1 da
rs (tdec ) = rs (ωm , ωb ) = 2998M pc. √ r (7)
3ωr 0 ωm

3 ωb

1 + ωr a 1 + 4 ωγ a
here ωγ = 2.4702×10−5 and ωr = 4.1756×10−5 are accurately known from the CMB temperature T0 =
2.725K (and therefore we do not consider them as cosmological parameters in the sense of something
to be determined from the Cl spectrum).
We see that increasing either ωm or ωb makes the sound horizon at decoupling, rsc (tdec ), shorter:
– ωb slows the sound down

– ωm speeds up the expansion at a given temperature, so the universe cools to Tdec in less time.
Thus we see that the comoving sound horizon angle depends on 4 parameters,
rsc (ωm , ωb )
θs = = θs (Ω0 , ΩΛ0 , ωm , ωb ) (8)
dcA (Ω0 , ΩΛ0 , ωm )
2
Since θs can be measured directly (recall lA = θπs ), we can measure the matter budget in the
Universe using this relation. Below is one simple example:
The CMB observation gives θs = 0.593◦ ± 0.001◦ . In a spatially flat universe where there is no
vacuum energy and particle physics is described by the SM, we have fixed ωm , ωB and rsc (tdec ) = 143
c
Mpc. Then θs = drcs (t(tdec )
gives dcA (tdec ) ≈ 3H0−1 . But, after the decoupling, the universe is dust-
A dec )
dominated. So we have
Z 1
−1 da −1 1
c
dA (tdec ) = H0 √ = 2H0 1− √ ≈ 2H0−1 (9)
1 a 1 + z dec
1+z
dec
by using Eq. (2). The measurement and the theoretical prediction are not consistent! So such a universe
(no vacuum energy or dark energy) is not favored by the CMB measurement.
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Lecture 18: Dark Matter I - Observational Evidence and Properties
[Objective]
Understand why we believe the existence of dark matter and its main properties.
[Introduction]
The name “dark matter” to refer to matter that interacts gravitationally but is not seen via electro-
magnetic radiation was coined by Jacobus Kapteyn in 1922 in his studies of the motions of stars in our
galaxy. He found that no dark matter is needed in in the galactic Solar neighbourhood. In 1932, Jan Oort
suggested the opposite result that there would be twice as much dark matter as visible matter in the Solar
vicinity. This is the first claim of evidence for dark matter. However, later observations have shown this
claim to be wrong, so the discovery of dark matter is usually credited to Fritz Zwicky who made the
first correct claim for the existence of dark matter in 1933. Zwicky concluded from measurements of the
redshifts of galaxies in the Coma cluster that their velocities are much larger than the escape velocity due
to the visible mass of the cluster. Following Zwicky’s work, between 1950 and 1980, Vera Rubin carried
out many influential studies on the dynamics of stars in galaxies In particular, she published a key paper
in 1970 on the motions of stars in the Andromeda galaxy, revealing a large ratio between total mass of
the galaxy and the mass of its visible matter.
[Astrophysical Evidence]
There are nowaways large amounts of evidence for dark matter, including from gravitational lens-
ing, expansion rate of the universe and other measures. One of the earliest, and easiest to understand,
pieces of evidence comes from the rotation curves of galaxies, which have been studied extensively since
the 1970s. According to Newtonian gravity, the velocity v of a body on a circular orbit in an axially sym-
metric mass distribution is
M (r) v2
GN = (1)
r2 r
where M (r) is the mass inside radius r, and the function v(r) is called the rotation curve.
For an orbit around a compact central mass, for example planets in the Solar system, we get
Kepler’s third law v ∝ √1r . For stars orbiting the center of a galaxy the situation is different, since the
mass inside the orbit increases with the distance. Suppose that the energy density of a galaxy decreases
as a power-law,
ρ ∝ r−n (2)
with some constant n. Then the mass inside radius r is

Z
M (r) ∝ drr2 r−n ∝ r3−n (3)
with n < 3. M (r) is divergent for n ≥ 3. Thus the rotation velocity in our model galaxy should vary
with distance from the center as
v(r) ∝ r(2−n)/2 (4)
Observed rotation curves increase with r for small r, i.e., near the center of the galaxy, but then typically
flatten out, becoming roughly v(r) ∼ const. up to the edge of the visible galaxy. This would indicate a
density profile
ρ ∝ r−2 (5)
1
However, the density of stars falls more rapidly towards the edges of the galaxy, i.e., n > 2. Also, the
total mass from stars and other visible objects, like gas and dust clouds, is too small to account for the
rotation velocity at large distances.
Fig. 1: Rotation curve of galaxy.
This seems to indicate the presence of another mass component to galaxies. This mass component
should have a different density profile than the visible, or luminous, mass in the galaxy, so that it would be
subdominant in the inner parts of the galaxy, but would dominate in the outer parts. The dark component
appears to extend well beyond the visible parts of galaxies, forming a dark halo surrounding the galaxy.
Instead of of 1/r2 , the distribution of dark matter in galaxies is well fit by the Navarro-Frenk-White
(NFW) profile,
ρ0
ρ= 2 (6)
r r
rs 1+ rs
where ρ0 and rs are constants. The profile obviously does not hold all the way to the center (the density
does not diverge anywhere!), and close to the centers of galaxies, the observed densities rise less rapidly
than in the NFW case.
[MOND]
Although there are many pieces of evidence in favor of dark matter, they each infer dark matter’s
presence uniquely through its gravitational influence. In other words, we currently have no conclusive
evidence for dark matter’s electroweak or other non-gravitational interactions. Given this, it is natural to
contemplate whether, rather than being indications of dark matter’s existence, these observations might
instead be revealing departures from the laws of gravity.
Modified Newtonian dynamics, or MOND, was suggested in 1983. Its idea is that Newton’s second
law, F = ma, is modified to F = ma × µ(a), where µ is very closely approximated by unity except
in the case of very small accelerations, for which µ behaves as µ = a/a0 . In the low acceleration limit
(large r, a a0 ), the gravitational law is given by
GM m a2 mv 4
F = = maµ = m = , (7)
r2 a0 a0 r 2
Then for a a star outside of a galaxy of mass M , we arrive at
v = (GM a0 )1/4 . (8)
2
In other words, MOND yields the prediction that galactic rotation curves should become flat (independent
of r) for sufficiently large orbits. This result is in good agreement with galaxy-scale observations for a
value of a0 ∼ 1.2 × 10−10 m/s2 , even without the introduction of dark matter. For this value of a0 , the
effects of MOND are imperceptible in laboratory or Solar System scale experiments.
However, there are two main problems on the MOND:
– There are so many different observations for dark matter, in different physical systems: motions
of stars in galaxies, motions of galaxies in clusters, gravitational lensing, large-scale structure,
CMB anisotropies and so on. Gravity has to be adjusted in a different manner for these different
observations, and the resulting models are rather contrived. Expressed another way, the dark matter
scenario is very predictive: the simple hypothesis of a massive particle with weak couplings to
itself and to the Standard Model particles explains a number of disparate observations and has
made several successful predictions.
Fig. 2: Bullet Cluster. It consists of two subclusters of galaxies which recently collided and travelled
through each other. It was found (NASA, Aug 2006) that there exists spatial offset of the center of the
visible mass (pink region, seen through Chandra in X-rays) from the center of the total mass (blue region,
seen through gravitational lensing).
– The observation of the Bullet Cluster can not be explained by MOND. Instead, it can be explained
by DM very well. According to the dark matter scenario the mass of a cluster of galaxies has
three main components: 1) visible galaxies, 2) intergalactic gas and 3) cold dark matter. The last
component is expected have the largest mass, and the first one the smallest. When two clusters
of galaxies collide, it is unlikely for individual galaxies to crash, and the intergalactic gas is too
thin to noticeably slow down the relatively compact galaxies. On the other hand, the intergalactic
gas components do not travel through each other freely but are slowed down and heated up by the
collision. Thus after the clusters have passed through each other, much of the intergalactic gas
is left behind between the receding clusters. DM, in turn, should be weakly interacting, and thus
practically collisionless. Thus the DM components of both clusters should also travel through each
other unimpeded. In the picture of the Bullet cluster, figure 3, the intergalactic gas has indeed been
left behind the galaxies in the collision. The mass distribution of the system has been estimated
from the gravitational lensing effect on the apparent shapes of galaxies behind the cluster. If there
were no dark matter, most of the mass would be in the intergalactic gas, whose mass is estimated
to be about five times that of the visible galaxies.
Therefore, the observation on the Bullet Cluster is usually considered to be the most straightforward
evidence on the existence of DM.
[Properties of DM]
3
– Non-baryonic
Fig. 3: Star evolution.
BDM could be non-luminous Massive Astrophysical Compact Halo Objects (MACHOs) in inter-
stellar space, such as faint stars like black holes, neutron stars, white dwarf stars, brown dwarfs,
etc. Below is a simple review on the star evolution:
– A star requires a mass of about 0.07M to ignite thermonuclear fusion, and to start to shine
as a star. “Failed” stars are called brown dwarfs.
– When most ( 97%, including the Sun) stars run out of nuclear fuel, they compress into objects
about the size of the Earth - white dwarfs
– White dwarfs become fainter as they age; most are 20% to 0.03% as luminous as the Sun
– When massive stars ( 3%) run out of fuel, they explode as supernovae, leaving behind either
a neutron star or a black hole
– Neutron stars are objects made up almost entirely of neutrons; they consist of a solar mass
worth of material within a radius of 10 kilometers
– Black holes are remnants of stars which are so massive that light can not escape.
A way to detect such a dark compact object is gravitational microlensing: if such a massive object
passes near the line of sight between us and a distant star, its gravity focuses the light of that star
towards us, and the star appears to brighten for a while. The brightening has a characteristic time
profile, and is independent of wavelength, which clearly distinguishes it from other ways a star
may brighten (variable stars). But so far, we
– Cold
The candidates for nonbaryonic dark matter can be divided into two classes, hot dark matter
(HDM) and cold dark matter (CDM), based on the typical velocities of the particles making up
this matter at the time they decouple from the thermal bath.
Dark matter particles are called HDM if they decouple while they are relativistic and the number
density is determined by the freeze-out of their interactions (we will discuss this shortly). Then
they retain a large number density, requiring their masses to be small, less than 100 eV, so that
their density is less than the critical density. Because of the small mass, their thermal velocities
are large when structure formation begins, making it difficult to trap them in potential wells of the
forming structures. So, CDM which refers to dark matter particles with negligible velocities is
4
Fig. 4: Gravitational microlensing.
much more favored.

– Long-lived
Stable (don’t decay quickly) or long-lived (at least has a lifetime comparable to or greater than the
Universe age), so that a large portion of them can survive until today. How to make a particle to
be stable?
Lifetime of electron : > 4.6 × 1026 years

Lifetime of muon : ∼ 2.2 × 10−6 seconds
Lifetime of tau : ∼ 2.9 × 10−13 seconds
Age of the Universe : ∼ 1010 years
Why electron and proton are stable? because they satisfy two considtions simultaneously: (1)
they carry some conserved charges, say, electric charge and baryon number, respectively; (2) they
are the lightest particles carry these two type of charges, respectively. The charge conservation
therefore forbids their decays. Theorists invented a new type of charge: Òdark matter chargeÓ
such that the DM particles are the least massive particle with non-zero DM charge. For example,
R-charge in supersymmetric theory.
5
Two Pioneers of Exploring Dark Matter
Fritz Zwicky Vera Rubin

(Swiss astronomer) (American astronomer)
1
Thursday, April 3, 2014

Solar System: Planet Speed vs. R
v
v 2 G MSun
R =
R R2
The moving speed of a planet in the solar

system becomes smaller if its distance
from the Sun becomes larger. Otherwise,
it can not be trapped within the solar
system by gravitation 2

3

4

5

6

7

Lecture 19: Dark Matter II - Relic Abundance
[Objective]
Get a picture on the thermal evolution of dark matter in the early Universe. Know what is “WIMP
miracle”.
[Introduction]
The nucleons, electrons and neutrinos that inhabit our universe can each trace their origin back to
the first fraction of a second following the Big Bang. Although we do not know for certain how the dark
matter came to be formed, a sizable relic abundance of DM is generally expected to be produced as a
byproduct of our universe’s hot youth. In this section, I discuss this process and the determination of the
relic abundance of DM.
[Relic Abundance]
Consider a stable particle, X, which interacts with Standard Model particles, Y , through some
process X X̄ ↔ Y Ȳ (why not X ↔ Y Ȳ ?). In the very early universe, when the temperature was much
higher than mX , the processes of X X̄ creation and annihilation were equally efficient, leading X to be
present in large quantities alongside the various particle species of the Standard Model. As the temper-
ature of the universe dropped below mX , however, the process of X X̄ creation became exponentially
suppressed, while X X̄ annihilation continued unabated. In thermal equilibrium, the number density of
such particles is given by
mX T 3/2 −mX /T

nX, eq = gX e , (1)
2π
where gX is the number of internal degrees of freedom of X.
If these particles were to remain in thermal equilibrium indefinitely, their number density would
become increasingly suppressed as the universe cooled, quickly becoming cosmologically irrelevant. As
the expansion and corresponding dilution of DM increasingly dominates over the annihilation rate, the
number density of X particles becomes sufficiently small that they cease to interact with each other, and
thus survive to the present day. Quantitatively, the competing effects of expansion and annihilation are
described by the Boltzmann equation:
!
dnX n2X
+ 3HnX = nX, eq ΓX 1 − 2
dt nX, eq
= − < σX X̄ v > (n2X − n2X, eq ), (2)
where nX is the number density of DM, H ≡ ȧ/a = (8π 3 ρ/3MPl )1/2 is the Hubble constant, and <
σX X̄ v > is the thermally averaged X X̄ annihilation cross section (multiplied by their relative velocity).
Comments:
– ΓX tries to keep the DM in equilibrium. If ΓX = 0, then Eq. 2 is reduced to Friedmann continuity

equation that we met in lecture 5.
– For sufficiently small values of nX or H ΓX , the annihilation term becomes insignificant
compared to the dilution due to Hubble expansion. When this takes place, the comoving number
density of DM becomes fixed — thermal freeze-out has occurred.
– The DM relic abundance in the Universe today is usually thought to be a result of the competence
between the two effects - DM annihilation and universe expansion, which fixes < σX X̄ v > to
some proper value. If it is too large, then there is no enough DM in the universe today. If it is too
small, then DM will be overproduced.
1
Fig. 1: A schematic of the comoving number density of a stable species as it evolves through the process
of thermal freeze-out.
The temperature at which the number density of the species X departs from equilibrium and
freezes out is found by numerically solving the Boltzmann equation. Introducing the variable x ≡
mX /T , the temperature at which freeze-out occurs is approximately given by (by requiring H = ΓX )
r
mX 45 gX mX MPl (a + 6b/xFO )
xFO ≡ ≈ ln c(c + 2) . (3)
TFO 8 2π 3 1/2 1/2
g? xFO
Here, c ∼ 0.5 is a numerically determined quantity, and a and b are terms in the non-relativistic expan-
sion, < σX X̄ v >= a + b < v 2 > +O(v 4 ). The resulting density of DM remaining in the universe today
is approximately given by
−1/2 −1
2 xFO g? a + 3b/xFO
ΩX h ≈ 0.1 . (4)
20 80 3 × 10−26 cm3 /s
if X has a GeV-TeV scale mass. In other words, if a GeV-TeV scale particle is to be thermally produced
with an abundance similar to the measured density of dark matter, it must have a thermally averaged
annihilation cross section on the order of 3 × 10−26 cm3 /s. Remarkably, this is very similar to the nu-
merical value arrived at for a generic weak-scale interaction. In particular, α2 /(100 GeV)2 ∼ pb, which
in our choice of units (and including a factor of velocity) is ∼ 3 × 10−26 cm3 /s. The similarly between
this result and the value required to generate the observed quantity of dark matter has been dubbed the
“WIMP miracle”. While far from constituting a proof, this argument has lead many to conclude that dark
matter is likely to consist of particles with weak-scale masses and interactions and certainly provides us
with motivation for exploring an electroweak origin of our universe’s missing matter.

DM direct detection.
2
A Discovery Announced Last Week
The strong force binds quarks together to form hadrons. Until last Monday,
only two types of hadron were known, say, meson and baryon, but the LHCb
experiment at CERN has just proved there is a third way (though a couple of
hints have been observed before) - tetraquark

Freeze Out

Three Main Methods
The DM theory is mainly based on gravitational experiments. To understand
Text
better its properties, we also need non-gravitational detection methods

DM Direct Detection
Go deep underground and wait for DM

particles from the Universe to hit the detector
Text
Text

DM Direct Detection
Why deep underground?
Visible
The background or the matter
normal matter particles
from cosmic rays can be
shielded from the
detector, because their
interaction with rock is
strong. Dark matter

DM Direct Detection Exps in China
China owns the

deepest laboratory
in the world, 2,400
meters under the
marble mountain of
JinPing in Sichuan
province
Deeper

Observation Bounds

Lecture 20: Dark Matter III - Direct Detection
[Objective]
Understand the mechanisms of the main DM non-gravitational detections.
[Introduction]
To better understand the properties of DM non-gravitational methods are required. Usually, non-
gravitational detection of dark matter is divided into three different categories: measuring the interactions
between baryonic matter with dark matter in the laboratory (direct detection), measuring the end prod-
ucts of astrophysical dark matter annihilation or decay (indirect detection), and producing dark matter
particles at colliders (collider detection).
Fig. 1: Non-gravitational DM detections.
[Mechanism of Direct Detection]

Since dark matter is everywhere with our galaxy, including on (and in) the Earth, and is expected
to interact with normal matter weakly, we should be able to see its interactions with baryonic matter. But,
as dark matter interactions with ordinary matter have to be weak in order to agree with cosmological ob-
servations, and they can pass through the Earth without interacting at all (similar to neutrinos), sensitive
dedicated experiments are required.
The basic idea of DM direct detection was proposed by E. Witten and his collaborator. It is based
on elastic scattering between a WIMP and a nucleus. Given the expected weak interaction scale (to get
the correct relic abundance), galactic WIMPs may deposit a measurable amount of energy (recoiling
energy of nuclei) in an appropriately sensitive detector apparatus (including crystal, liquid, etc.). If the
recoiling energy is large enough, such events may be observed by the detectors.
The rate of the WIMPs scattering with nuclei is given by
Z Emax Z vmax
2ρ dσ
R≈ v f (v) dv dErecoil , (1)
Emin vmin m X d|~ q|
where mρX is the WIMP number density, σ is the WIMP-nuclei elastic scattering cross section, f (v) is
the velocity distribution of WIMPs (Usually it is assumed to satisfy Maxwell statistics), and Erecoil is
1
Fig. 2: DM direct detection (nuclei recoil).
Fig. 3: Experiments of DM direct detection, based on different depositing mechanisms of nucleus recoil-
ing energy.
recoil energy. The limits of integration are set by the galactic escape velocity, vmax ≈ 650 km/s, and
kinematically by vmin = (Erecoil Mnucleus /2µ2 )1/2 . The minimum energy is set by the energy threshold
of the detector, which is typically in the range of several keV to several tens of keV. Obviously, to get a
better sensitivity, we need a larger recoil energy and a smaller threshold.
The recoil energy is given by
|~q|2 2µ2 v 2 (1 − cos θ) m2 Mnucleus v 2 (1 − cos θ)

Erecoil = = = X , (2)
2Mnucleus 2Mnucleus (mX + Mnucleus )2
where ~q is the WIMP’s momentum, v is its velocity, and µ is the reduced mass. Given DM mass mX , in
which case we can get a larger recoil energy, Mnucleus mX or Mnucleus mX ? (The complication
is from the fact that we don’t know mX ) The recoil energy is then converted into various detection
signals: (1) heat; (2) scintillation; or (3) ionization. Because of these complications, there are many dark
matter direct detection experiments in the world, which are sensitive to various parameter regions of DM
theories.
2
[Experiments of DM Direct Detection]
One of the main difficulties is background events from cosmic rays. How to solve this problem?
Go to underground (see slides).
How to encode the current experimental bounds on the DM direct searches? The y-axis of Fig. 4 is
related to WIMP-nucleus elastic scattering cross section. The (spin-independent) WIMP-nucleus elastic
scattering cross section is given by
4m2X m2nucleus
σ≈ [Zfp + (A − Z)fn ]2 , (3)
π(mX + mnucleus )2
where Z and A are the atomic number and atomic mass of the nucleus. fp and fn are the WIMP’s
couplings to protons and neutrons, given by
X (p,n) mp,n 2 (p,n) X mp,n
fp,n = fTq aq + fT G aq , (4)
mq 27 mq
q=u,d,s q=c,b,t
(p) (p) (p)

where aq are the WIMP-quark couplings and fTu ≈ 0.020 ± 0.004, fTd ≈ 0.026 ± 0.005, fTs ≈
(n) (n) (n)
0.118 ± 0.062, fTu ≈ 0.014 ± 0.003, fTd ≈ 0.036 ± 0.008, fTs ≈ 0.118 ± 0.062 are quantities
measured in nuclear physics experiments. The first term in Eq. 4 corresponds to interactions with the
quarks in the target nuclei. The second term corresponds to interactions with the gluons in the target
(p) (p) (p) (p)
through a colored loop diagram. fT G is given by 1 − fTu − fTd − fTs ≈ 0.84, and analogously,
(n)
fT G ≈ 0.83. Below are some comments on Fig. 4:
– Because of isospin symmetry, it turns out fn ≈ fp in a general case. The experimental limits of
DM direct detection are added on fn (or fp ). More explicitly, Eq. (3) is reduced to
4 2 2 µ2 2

σ ≈ m f A
π n n m2n
µ2
= σn 2 A2 (5)
mn
Here σn is the cross section between a DM particle and per nucleon (mn is neutron mass) and is
correspondent to the y-axis of Fig. 4.
– Circle: some signal events are observed. The circle indicates the favored parameter region (mX
and σn (or σp )) to explain the observed events. Curve: exclusion curve; no signal events have been
observed; the parameter region above the curves have been excluded at 90% confidence level.
– Why the limits of the exclusion curves are weaker for a small mX and a large mX (compared
with the parameter region of mX ∼ 50 GeV)? For small mX , the recoiling energy of nuclei tends
ρX
to be small; for large mX , the number density of DM particles m X
is small. In both cases, the
interaction rate of DM particles with nuclei is smaller, so the experimental bounds are weaker.
– The current results from DM direct detections are very controversial! Some signal events have
been observed in the experiments of DAMA, COGent, etc. But the favored parameter regions have
been excluded by the null results in some other experiments like Xenon.
3
Fig. 4: Bounds of DM direct detections on the WIMP-nucleon cross section (σn ).
4
Three Main Methods
Text

DM Direct Detection

DM Direct Detection

DM Direct Detection
Go deep underground and wait for DM

particles from the Universe to hit the detector
Text
Text

DM Direct Detection
Why deep underground?
Visible
The background or the matter
normal matter particles
from cosmic rays can be
shielded from the
detector, because their
interaction with rock is
strong. Dark matter

Space:
180,000 m^3

China owns the

deepest laboratory
in the world, 2,400
meters under the
marble mountain
of JinPing in
Sichuan province
Still under
construction,
Deeper eventually the lab
space will
reach100,000 m^3

Jinping, Sichuan, China

In addition to PANDA-X,
PANDA-X there is another
Experiment experiment, CDEX
(Xenon, led by Shanghai (Germanium), led by
JiaoTong Univ.) Tsinghua University

Observation Bounds
10

Lecture 21: Dark Matter IV - Indirect Detection and Collider Detection
[Objective]
Understand the mechanisms of the main DM non-gravitational detections.
[Introduction]
To better understand the properties of DM non-gravitational methods are required. Usually, non-
gravitational detection of dark matter is divided into three different categories: producing the dark matter
particle at colliders (collider detection), measuring the interactions baryonic matter with dark matter in
the laboratory (direct detection) and measuring the end products of astrophysical dark matter annihilation
or decay (indirect detection).
Fig. 1: Non-gravitational DM detections.
[Indirect Detection]
Direct detection experiments are not the only technique being pursued in the hope of identifying
the particle nature of dark matter. Another major class of DM searches are those which attempt to
detect the products of WIMP annihilations, including gamma rays, neutrinos, positrons, electrons, and
antiprotons.
– Gamma Rays From WIMP Annihilations

Searches for the photons generated in DM annihilations have a couple of advantage over other
indirect detection techniques in that these particles travel essentially unimpeded:
– unlike charged particles, the diffusion effect is small. So the spectrum that is measured is
basically the same as the spectrum generated in the DM annihilations.
– unlike charged particles, gamma rays are not deflected by magnetic fields, and thus can po-
tentially provide valuable angular information. For example, point-like sources of DM anni-
hilation radiation might appear from high density regions such as the Galactic Center.
1
Fig. 2: The gamma ray spectrum per WIMP annihilation for a 100 GeV (left) and 500 GeV (right) WIMP.
Each curve denotes a different choice of the dominant annihilation mode: bb̄ (solid cyan), ZZ (magenta
dot-dashed), W + W − (blue dashed), τ + τ − (black solid), e+ e− (green dotted) and µ+ µ− (red dashed).
The gamma ray flux from DM annihilations is given by

Z
1 dNγ 1
Φγ (Eγ , ψ) = < σXX |v| > ρ2 (r)dl(ψ)dψ. (1)
2 dEγ 4πm2X los
Here, < σXX |v| > is the WIMP’s annihilation cross section, and dNγ /dEγ is the gamma ray
spectrum generated per WIMP annihilation. ψ is the angle observed relative to the direction of the
Galactic Center, ρ(r) is the DM density as a function of distance to the Galactic Center, and the
integral is performed over the line-of-sight.
The spectrum of photons produced in DM annihilations depends on the details of the WIMP being
considered. Depending on the WIMPs properties, there are two main gamma ray spectra:
– Continuous spectra. In this case, the WIMPs annihilate into some intermediate particles
first and the photons or the gamma rays are generated by the intermediate particles. In this
case, there exist a big flexibility for the energy of photons inherited from the intermediate
particles, so the gamma ray spectra is continuous. In Fig. 2, we show the predicted gamma
ray spectrum, per annihilation, for several possible WIMP annihilation modes.
– Gamma-ray line. DM particles can produce gamma rays directly, leading to monoenergetic
spectral signatures. If a gamma ray line could be identified, it would constitute a “smoking
gun” for DM annihilations. By definition, however, WIMPs do not annihilate through tree
level processes to final states containing photons (if they did, they would be EMIMPs rather
than WIMPs). On the other hand, they may be able to produce final states such as γγ, γZ
or γh through loop diagrams. These final states lead to gamma ray lines with energies of
Eγ = mdm and Eγ = mdm (1 − m2Z,h /4m2dm ), respectively. Such photons are produced
in only a very small fraction of neutralino annihilations, however. So the Galactic Center is
probably the most promising regions of the sky in which to search for gamma rays from dark
matter annihilations due to possible DM accumulation.
– Charged Cosmic Rays From WIMP Annihilations
In addition to gamma rays, WIMP annihilations throughout the galactic halo are expected to cre-
ate charged cosmic rays, including electrons, positrons, protons and antiprotons. Unlike gamma
rays, which travel along straight lines, charged particles move under the influence of the Galactic
Magnetic Field, diffusing and steadily losing energy, resulting in a diffuse spectrum at Earth. So,
though potentially we can identify signatures of DM annihilation by studying the spectrum,
2
– the spectrum is distorted
– the angular information is lost
Compared to antiprotons and antideuterons, cosmic positrons are more attractive probes of dark
matter, because positrons lose the majority of their energy over typical length scales of a few
kiloparsecs or less. The cosmic positron spectrum, therefore, samples only the local DM distribu-
tion and is thus subject to considerably less uncertainty than the other anti-matter species. Once
electrons and positrons are injected into the local halo through DM annihilations (or from pul-
sars), they propagate under the influence of the Galactic Magnetic Field, gradually losing energy
through synchrotron emission and through inverse Compton scattering with radiation fields. At
energies of a few GeV and higher, the resulting spectrum at Earth can be calculated by solving the
diffusion-loss equation:

∂ dne ~ ~ dne ∂ dne
= 5 · K(Ee , ~x)5 + b(Ee , ~x) + Q(Ee , ~x), (2)
∂t dEe dEe ∂Ee dEe
where dne /dEe is the number density of positrons/electrons per unit energy, K(Ee , ~x) is the diffu-
sion constant, b(Ee , ~x) is the rate of energy loss, and Q(Ee , ~x) is the source term, which contains
all of the information regarding the dark matter annihilation modes, cross section, and spatial
distribution. Below are some comments:
Fig. 3: Left: AMS-02 positron fraction energy spectrum. Right: Spectra given by DM annihilation with
different mX .
– DM particles which annihilate directly to e+ e− are predicted to generate a distinctive feature

in the cosmic ray electron spectrum: an edge that drops off suddenly at Ee = mX (with a
sudden edge). In contrast, pulsars and other astrophysical sources of cosmic ray electrons
are expected to produce spectra which fall off more gradually (with graduate cutoff). See the
right panel in Fig. 3.
– So far, no sudden edge in the spectrum is observed yet. Some people think that the Pamela
(AMS02) spectra is caused by DM, but it is not convincing.
[Collider Detection]
Collider detection is to create WIMPs using a particle accelerator, e.g., the Large Hadron Collider
at CERN laboratory. However, WIMPs interact with the collider detectors very weakly. That is, they can
escape from the detectors without any difficulty. Here are two questions:
3
– The question is - how to detect WIMPs, if any of them are produced at colliders? Using missing
energy. Approximately we have
X X
p⊥ + p⊥ ≈ 0 (3)
vis invis
in the beam transverse direction because of momentum conservation. Here the first term sums
over transverse momenta of all visible particles in the final state of a collision event, and the
second term sums over transverse momenta of all of the other particles in the final state. Missing
energy is defined to be
X X
missing energy = p⊥ = − p⊥ (4)
invis vis
If WIMPs are produces in a collision event, then its missing energy is very likely not equal to zero.
Actually, large missing energy is probably the most important collider signature of WIMPs.
– Can we use the momentum conservation in the beam direction to detect WIMPs? No. Though
the total momentum of the two protons in collision is close to zero in the beam direction, the
total momentum of the two fundamental particles (say, quarks and gluons) in the initial state (and
hence the total momentum of all particles in the final state) is not necessary to be zero in the beam
direction. So we have
X X
| pk + pk | 0 (5)
vis invis
for particles in the final state. So basically it is impossible for us to define missing energy by using
the momentum information in the beam direction. (Understand these discussions!)
Fig. 4: A proton-proton collision event with missing particles.
Note: the production of WIMPs in a collision event may lead to a signature with missing energy,
but missing energy is not necessarily from WIMPs. There exist other sources for missing energy. Any
examples? Neutrinos.
In all, it it very challenging to detect DM by using non-gravitational methods. So far, no convinc-
ing signals have been observed. We need to combine them to get more complete information.

Dark energy
4
Three Main Methods
Text

Indirect Detection
Use “telescopes” to look for energetic particles that are
produced when dark matter particles annihilate

Indirect Detection

Indirect Detection
IceCube
AMS
Fermi/GLAST
ATIC PAMELA 4

Indirect Detection
AMS Leader:
Samuel Chao Chung Ting (丁肇中)
AMS Nobel Prize in

Physics in 1976
(Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, based at
for the discovery
the International Space Station)
of charm quark
5

Indirect Detection
Is the observed electron/

positron spectrum caused
by dark matter annihilation
or by astrophysics?
6

Indirect Detection

Collider Detection
WIMP
p p
WIMP 8

Collider Detection
WIMP
p p
• Protons (anti-protons) are composite particles

• Total momentum along beam is unknown for each collision event
WIMP
• Total momentum in the transverse plane is zero
9

Lecture 22: Dark Energy
[Objective]
Know why type Ia supernovae are used as standard candle; understand the m − M vs. z diagram;
know the two main classes of dark energy models and their implications for the fate of the Universe.
[Introduction]
The discovery of cosmic acceleration is probably most exciting event in cosmology in the past two
decades. Dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy that permeates all of space and tends to accelerate
the expansion of the universe. According to the Planck mission team, and based on the standard model
of cosmology, on a mass-energy equivalence basis the universe contains 26.8% dark matter and 68.3%
dark energy (for a total of 95.1%) and 4.9% ordinary matter.
Fig. 1: Matter budget in the Universe today (from PLANCK).
Note, in spite of its large fraction, the density of dark energy (1.67 × 10−27 kg/m3 ) is very low:
in the solar system, it is estimated only 6 tons of dark energy would be found within the radius of Pluto’s
orbit. However, it comes to dominate the massÐenergy of the universe because it is uniform across space.
[Type Ia Supernovae]
A supernova is a stellar explosion that is extremely energetic and cause a burst of radiation that
often briefly outshines an entire galaxy, before fading from view over several weeks or months. During
this interval a supernova can radiate as much energy as the Sun is expected to emit over its entire life
span. The explosion expels much or all of a star’s material at a velocity of up to 30,000 km/s (10% of
the speed of light), driving a shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium.
Type Ia supernovae occur in binary systems (two stars orbiting one another) in which one of the
stars is a white dwarf while the other can vary from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf. A white
dwarf is the remnant of a star that has completed its normal life cycle and has ceased nuclear fusion.
However, white dwarfs of the common carbon-oxygen variety are capable of further fusion reactions that
release a great deal of energy if their temperatures rise high enough. Physically, carbon-oxygen white
dwarfs with a low rate of rotation are limited to below 1.38 solar masses. Beyond this, they re-ignite
1
Fig. 2: The formation of a type Ia supernova.
and in some cases trigger a supernova explosion. Somewhat confusingly, this limit is often referred to
as the Chandrasekhar mass, despite being marginally different from the absolute Chandrasekhar limit
where electron degeneracy pressure is unable to prevent catastrophic collapse. If a white dwarf gradually
accretes mass from a binary companion, the general hypothesis is that its core will reach the ignition
temperature for carbon fusion as it approaches the limit. Within a few seconds of initiation of nuclear
fusion, a substantial fraction of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes a runaway reaction, releasing
enough energy (1 − 2 × 1044 J) to unbind the star in a supernova explosion.
Type Ia supernovae produces extremely consistent peak luminosity because of the uniform mass of
white dwarfs that explode via the accretion mechanism. The stability of this value allows these explosions
to be used as standard candles to measure the distance to their host galaxies because the visual magnitude
of the supernovae depends primarily on the distance. Actually, Type Ia supernovae are the best-known
standard candles across cosmological distances.
2
[Discovery of Cosmic Acceleration]
The discovery of the cosmic acceleration is attributed to two collaborations:
– 1998, the High-z Supernova Search Team (led by Brian P. Schmidt and Adam G. Riess)
– 1999, the Supernova Cosmology Project (led by Saul Perlmutter)
For this work, the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Saul Perlmutter, Brian P. Schmidt and
Adam G. Riess.
Fig. 3: m − M and ∆(m − M ) vs z.
In astronomy, luminosity is often expressed in terms of magnitude. The magnitude scale is log-
arithmic, so a difference of 5 magnitudes corresponds to a factor of 100 in luminosity. The absolute
magnitude M and the apparent magnitude m of an object are defined as
L
M = −2.5log10
L0
F
m = −2.5log10 (1)
F0
with L being absolute luminosity and
L
F = (2)
4πd2L
3
being visual luminosity, where L0 = 3.0 × 102 8W and F0 are reference absolute luminosity and visual
luminosity. The reference visual luminosity F0 for the apparent scale is chosen so in relation to the
absolute scale that a star whose distance is dL = 10 pc has m = M .
m − M = −5 + 5log10 (dL /pc) (3)
here dL is luminosity distance. Comment: for all type Ia supernovae, M is the same; so dL can be easily
figured out by measuring m. In Fig. 3, the y-axis is m − M . Question, in Fig. 3, why is the fitting curve
with ΩΛ > 0 (case 1) above the fitting curve with ΩΛ = 0 (case 2), given the same ΩM = 0.3? Why is
the fitting curve with a smaller ΩM (case 2) above the fitting curve with a larger ΩM (case 3), given the
ΩΛ = 0?
Answer: (1) for all type Ia supernovae with the same z in Fig. 3, the universes have the same ai
when they emitted the light that we observed today (recall: 1 + z = a1i with ai being the scale factor
at the initial moment). (2) Assume that tL is the time taken for a(t) to evolve from ai to a0 = 1, then
we have t1L > t2L > t3L , since the cosmic acceleration satisfies the relation ä1 > ä2 > ä3 . Here the
superscript “i” denotes the three different cases. (3) dL is a measure of the distance that the light traveled
during the period that a(t) evolves from ai to a0 = 1. Surely we have d1L > d2L > d3L .
Since then, these observations have been corroborated by several independent sources. Measure-
ments of the cosmic microwave background, gravitational lensing, and the large-scale structure of the
cosmos as well as improved measurements of supernovae have been consistent with the Lambda-CDM
model.
[Dark Energy Models]

Recall the acceleration equation (see lecture 5)
ä 4πG
= − (ρ + 3p) (4)
a 3
To get an accelerating Universe (i.e., ä > 0), we need the state parameter w < −1/3. For radiation, we
have wr = 1/3. For dust, we have wd = 0. There are two main types of possibilities with w < −1/3:
– Cosmological constant. In this case, we have Einstein equation

1
Gµν = Rµν − Rgµν = 8πG(Tµν + TΛµν ) . (5)
2
with
 Λ 
8πG 0 0 0
Λ
Λ  0 − 8πG g11 0 0
 (6)
8πG  0 0 − 8πG g22 0
Λ
0 0 0 − 8πG g33

 
ρΛ 0 0 0
 0 pΛ g11 0 0 
TΛµν = 
 0
 (7)
0 pΛ g22 0 
0 0 0 pΛ g33
so we have w = −1 < − 13 . The Friedmann equation is then reduced to

r
ȧ Λ
a 3
4
which leads to
q
Λ
H(t−t0 ) (t−t0 )
a(t) = a0 exp = a0 exp 3 (9)
– Quintessence model. Quintessence differs from the cosmological constant explanation of dark
energy in that it is dynamic, that is, it changes over time, unlike the cosmological constant which
is static, with a fixed energy density and wΛ = −1. It is suggested that quintessence can be either
attractive or repulsive depending on the ratio of its kinetic and potential energy. More explicitly,
quintessence is a scalar field with an equation of state where wq , the ratio of pressure pq and density
ρq , is given by the potential energy V (φ) and a kinetic term:
1 2
pq φ̇ − V (φ)
wq = = 21 (10)
ρq 2
2 φ̇ + V (φ)
Hence, Quintessence is dynamic, and generally has a density and wq parameter that varies with
time. If w < −1, the quintessence is called phantom energy. In this case, the universe expands
even faster than exponentially.
[Fate of the Universe]

Cosmologists estimate that the acceleration began roughly 5 billion years ago. Before that, it is
thought that the expansion was decelerating, due to the attractive influence of dark matter and baryons.
The density of dark matter in an expanding universe decreases more quickly than dark energy, and
eventually the dark energy dominates. Specifically, when the volume of the universe doubles, the density
of dark matter is halved, but the density of dark energy is nearly unchanged (it is exactly constant in the
case of a cosmological constant).
If the cosmic acceleration is caused by non-zero cosmological constant, then in the future, the
Hubble constant will become a “real” constant (why?). Since their distance from the local supercluster
becomes larger and larger, the galaxies outside the local supercluster will eventually have a radial ve-
locity far exceeding the speed of light. This means that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of
cosmological event horizon where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any
time in the infinite future.
Assuming the dark energy is constant (a cosmological constant), the current distance to this cos-
mological event horizon is about 16 billion light years, meaning that a signal from an event happening
at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event were less than 16 billion light
years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event were more than 16 billion light years away.
If the dark energy is phantom energy, the expansion is divergent. Under this scenario, dark energy
would ultimately tear apart all gravitationally bound structures, including galaxies and solar systems, and
eventually overcome the electrical and nuclear forces to tear apart atoms themselves, ending the universe
in a "Big Rip". On the other hand, dark energy might dissipate with time or even become attractive.
Such uncertainties leave open the possibility that gravity might yet rule the day and lead to a universe
that contracts in on itself in a "Big Crunch". Which one is correct? We don’t know.
5
1

2

Matter Budget in the Universe Today

What Is Normal Supernova?

What Is Type Ia Supernova?

What Is Type Ia Supernova?

Lecture 23: Inflation
[Objective]
Understand how an inflationary theory solves the three cosmic puzzles: the flatness problem, the
Horizon problem and the relic abundance problem. Qualitatively understand the mechanism of the CMB
polarization.
[Introduction]
So far we have studies what is known as the standard cosmology which describes to great accuracy
the physical processes leading to the present day universe. However, there remain outstanding issues in
cosmology. Many of these come under the heading of initial condition problems and require a more
complete description of the sources of energy density in the universe. The most severe of these problems
eventually led to a radical new picture of the physics of the early universe - cosmological inflation, which
is the subject of this lecture.
[Three Cosmological Puzzles]
– The Flatness Problem
Fig. 1: Energy density in the Universe today. For the influence of Ω on the anisotropy of the CMB, see
lecture 16.
Recall the Friedmann equation can be written as

k
Ω(t) − 1 = , (1)
a(t)2
where for brevity we are now writing Ω instead of Ωtotal . Given that there is no fundamental
k
principle to protect the value of a(tinit )2
and hence the value of a(tk0 )2 (though a(t0 ) > a(tinit ))
from being large, naively we would expect that Ω0 is not close to 1, a value indicating a flat
universe.
1
– The Horizon Problem (see lecture 7 also)
Fig. 2: Past light cones in a universe expanding from a Big Bang singularity, illustrating particle horizons
in cosmology. Points at recombination, observed today as parts of the cosmic microwave background on
opposite sides of the sky, have non-overlapping past light cones (in conventional cosmology); no causal
signal could have influenced them to have the same temperature.
The horizon problem stems from the existence of particle horizons in FRW cosmologies. Recall
in general context, the comoving and proper horizons are given by
Z t2
dt
∆rcom =
t1 a(t)
∆rphy = a(t2 )∆rcov (2)
2/3
For simplicity let’s imagine we are in a matter-dominated universe, for which a = tt0 . The
Hubble parameter is therefore given by
2
H = t−1 = a−3/2 H0 . (3)
3
Then the photon travels a comoving distance between the moments t1 and t2
√ √
∆rcom = 2H0−1 ( a2 − a1 ) . (4)
The horizon problem is simply the fact that the CMB is isotropic to a high degree of precision,
even though widely separated points on the last scattering surface are completely outside each
others’ horizons. When we look at the CMB we were observing the universe at a scale factor
aCMB ≈ 1/1200; meanwhile, the comoving distance between a point on the CMB and an observer
on Earth is
√
∆rcom (a0 ) = 2H0−1 (1 − aCMB ) ≈ 2H0−1 . (5)
However, the comoving horizon distance for such a point is

√
∆rcom (aCMB ) = 2H0−1 aCMB ≈ 6 × 10−2 H0−1 . (6)
Hence, if we observe two widely-separated parts of the CMB, they will have non-overlapping hori-
zons; distinct patches of the CMB sky were causally disconnected at recombination. Nevertheless,
they are observed to be at the same temperature to high precision. The question then is, how did
they know ahead of time to coordinate their evolution in the right way, even though they were
never in causal contact (see Fig.2)?
2
– The Relic Density Problem
The third problem is model-dependent. It is motivated by the grand unified theory (GUT). In par-
ticle physics, gauge coupling constants are not “real” constants (similar to Hubble constant). They
are dynamical. Their values are energy scale dependent. The GUT told us that all gauge inter-
actions are different manifestations of the same force, and their coupling constants have the same
value at the beginning moment of the Universe. When the temperature decreases to ∼ 1016 GeV,
the Universe experiences a phase transition and the unified force starts to behave differently. Dur-
ing this process, a number of stable monopoles are produced, with their relic abundance predicted
to be 3
11 TGUT mmono
Ω0,mono ∼ 10 . (7)
1014 GeV 1016 GeV
This number is far too big; the monopole abundance in GUTs is a serious problem for cosmology
if GUTs have anything to do with reality. (Though this problem is model-dependent, it is the one
that originally leads to the birth of the inflation theory!)
[The General Idea of Inflation]

The fundamental idea is that the universe undergoes a period of accelerated expansion, defined as
a period when ä > 0, at early times. The effect of this acceleration is to quickly expand a small region
of space to a huge size.
Fig. 3: Inflation.
– The Flatness Problem

k k a(tinit
Thus if Ω(tend ) − 1 = a(tend ) = a(tinit ) a(tend ) initially takes any arbitrary value, a period of
a(tinit
inflation can force it down towards 0 and leave it extremely small as long as a(t end )
is small enough.
Thus the sensitive dependence of Ω0 on the initial value of Ω(tinit ) has been removed
– The Horizon Problem
Because of inflation, a(t2 < tdec ) is overestimated. So ∆rcom (tdec ) is underestimated. If a(t2 <
tdec ) is extremely small during some period, then ∆rcom (tdec ) can be large enough so that the two
patches overlap with each other at the Big-Bang moment.
– The Relic Density Problem.
3
If the GUT phase transition occurs before the inflation, the mean distance of the produced monopoles
is increased as the universe inflates, greatly lowering their observed density by many orders of
magnitude.
– Another success of the inflation theory is that the formation of both anisotropy in the CMB and the
large-scale structures in the universe can be explained by the fluctuation of an inflaton field (the
scalar degree of freedom in charge of inflation, similar to quintessence field used to explain dark
energy in the universe today). In order to achieve that, a(t end ) 60
a(tinit ) ∼ e is required.
[Analytical Description]
Consider modeling matter in the early universe by a real scalar field φ (inflaton field), with poten-
tial V (φ). The energy-momentum tensor for φ is

1 αβ
Tµν = (∇µ φ)(∇ν φ) − gµν g (∇α φ)(∇β φ) + V (φ) . (8)
2
For simplicity we will specialize to the homogeneous case, in which all quantities depend only on cos-
mological time t and set k = 0. A homogeneous real scalar field behaves as a perfect fluid with
1 2
ρφ = φ̇ + V (φ) (9)
2
1 2
pφ = φ̇ − V (φ) . (10)
2
The equation of motion for the scalar field is given by
ȧ dV
φ̈ + 3 φ̇ + =0, (11)
a dφ
which can be thought of as the usual equation of motion for a scalar field in Minkowski space, but with a
friction term due to the expansion of the universe. The Friedmann equation with such a field as the sole
energy source is
2 8πG 1 2
H = φ̇ + V (φ) . (12)
3 2
To achieve a successful inflation, generally the “slow-roll” conditions need to be satisfied:
– (1) | 21 φ̇2 | V (φ). Why is it helpful? The sate parameter is close −1.
– (2) |φ̈| 3 aȧ φ̇. Why is it helpful? The value of | 12 φ̇2 | and hence the value of the state parameter
is ensured to be small and be close to −1 respectively for enough-long time, so that we can get
a(tend ) 60
a(tinit ) ∼ e .
Recall ȧ = Ha, we have R tend

H dt
a(tend ) = a(tinit )e tinit
(13)
1 2 2
If V (φ) = 2m φ , we have

1
a(t) = a(tinit ) exp (φ(tinit )2 − φ(t)2 ) . (14)
4G
Question: is it possible that the inflation is caused by cosmological constant in the early univrese?
[Gravitational Wave - Echoes of the Big Bang]
4
The most indirect way to probe gravitational wave caused by inflation is via the polarization of the
CMB radiation. The CMB radiation is polarized by the last scattering of photons before their decoupling,
which is named Thomson scattering. Thomson scattering is given by
γ + e → γ + e, (15)
which is just the low-energy limit of Compton scattering: the particle kinetic energy and photon fre-
quency are the same before and after the scattering.
Fig. 4: Polarization by Thomson Scattering.
Consider incoming radiation from the left being scattered by 90 degrees out of the screen. Polar-
ization by Thomson Scattering Since light cannot be polarized along its direction of motion, only one
linear polarization state gets scattered (see Fig. 4).
Of course there is nothing particularly special about light coming in from the left. Consider instead
light coming in from the top. Now the outgoing radiation possesses both polarization states. If the
incoming radiation from the left and top are of equal intensity, the result is no polarization in the outgoing
direction (see Fig. 5).
5
Only if the intensity of the radiation varies at 90 degrees, i.e. the distribution has a quadrupole
pattern, does a net linear polarization result (see Fig. 6).
Fig. 7: Quadrupole anisotropy of the CMB and the B-mode of its radiation polarization
In particular there is a net linear polarization that is aligned with the cold (red) axis of the quadrupole
anisotropy . The gravitational wave can lead to a a quadrupole anisotropy (m = 2) in the CMB temper-
ature. At the hot spots (blue) and the cold spots (red) the photon number densities are different, which
therefore lead to the polarization of the CMB radiation. The curled polarization patter is called “B-
mode”. The B-mode polarization is observed this March in the experiment BICEP2. If confirmed in the
future, this will be a milestone of cosmology since it provides the first direct evidence on the inflation.
6
Flatness Problem
Thursday, May 8, 2014

Horizon Problem

The Relic Density Problem
Grand unified theory: strong, weak and EM gauge couplings

are unified at some high energy scale close to Planck scale.
During the GUT phase transition, lots of stable monopoles
were produced. But we didn’t see any of them so far. 3

Polarization of the CMB Radiation



Gravitational Wave - Echoes of the Big-Bang
The explosive expansion of space during inflation would have

created ripples in the fabric of space. Its direct detection is
extremely difficult ...... So far, we didn’t see any signature yet.
7

Perturbation of Primordial Soup
However, the ripples in the fabric of space can perturb the

primordial soup of photons, electrons, protons, ....... in the
universe. Just like tsunami caused by the change of ocean basin8

Perturbation Caused by Gravitational Wave
The perturbation leaves a fingerprint in the CMB - a

quadrupole mode of temperature fluctuation, and a
special pattern of photon polarization around the hot
and cold spots - primordial B-mode 9

BICEP
10

March 17, 2014
11

Cosmic Microwave Background
Discovered in 1964 by
Penzias and Wilson
(Nobel Prize in Physics,
1978)
12

Standard picture of
the universe evolution
This enables us study

the Unerverse younger
than 380,000 years
13

BBN: Alpha-Beta-Gamma Theory
14

Standard picture of
15

Large Hadron Collider
Create particles which exist in the early Universe, using a

particle accelerator, e.g., the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. 16
The LHC is a time machine!
Standard picture of
Without mass, the Universe would be a chaotic sea

of particles zipping about at the speed of light. Stars
and galaxies would never form and life would never
evolve.
17

March 17, 2014
18

Standard picture of
Our probe is getting closer and closer to

the Big Bang
19

Standard picture of
20

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Lecture1: Some Fundamentals

– energy, mass and momentum have the same dimension: E 2 = m2 c4 + p2 c2 ⇒ E 2 = m2 + p2

[Four-vector in flat 4D spacetime]

xµ = (x0 (or t), x1 , x2 , x3 ) (2)

then the Lorentz transformation takes a more symmetric appearance

If Lorentz boost is in the x1 direction, then the transformation matrix Λ is given by

– Four-vector partial derivative ∂µ = { ∂

product with itself?

gµν g νλ = δµλ = gµλ . (2)

here δµλ is Kronecker delta. The metric of the 4D Minkowski space is

what is the contravariant metric tensor?

[Einstein field equation]

[Limit of weak (gravitation) field]

gµν = ηµν + hµν (12)

Here we have applied the results in the limit of weak field

[Homogeneity and Isotropy: The Robertson-Walker Metric]

The metric on such a spacetime is necessarily of the Robertson-Walker (R-W) form,

ds2 = −dt2 + a2 (t) dρ2 + sin2 ρ dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2

ds2 = −dt2 + a2 (t) dρ2 + sinh2 ρ dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2

∆Dphy (t) = a(t)∆Dcom (4)

[Content of Next Class]

Putting z = 0 immediately gives the present age of the universe

[Content of Next Class]

Tµν = (ρ + p)Uµ Uν + pgµν , (2)

In Minkowski spacetime, the energy-momentum tensor thus takes the form

[Critical Energy Density]

[Equation of State and Energy Density Evolution]

Then the curvature contribution to pressure can be identified as

[Cosmological Constant and Vacuum Energy]

– This implies that the energy density is constant,

[Evolution of Scale Factor]

ρ(t) ∝ a(t)−3(1+w) . (7)

Insert this result into the Friedmann equation

In summary, our favorite energy density sources yield table 1.

Type of Energy ρ(a) a(t)

[SCDM model and ΛCDM Model]

Ω(t) = Ωd (t) + Ωr (t) + ΩΛ (t) (13)

Currently, we have Ωr (t0 ) ∼ 10−4 .

Ωd (t0 ) = Ωregular matter + Ωdark matter = 1, Ωr (t0 ) = 0, ΩΛ (t0 ) = 0 (15)

Ωd (t0 ) = 0.27, Ωr (t0 ) = 0, ΩΛ (t0 ) = 0.73 (16)

Fig. 1: Matter budget in the Universe today (from PLANCK).

[Discovery (direct evidence) of Cosmic Acceleration]

Fig. 3: m − M and ∆(m − M ) vs z.

[Dark Energy Models]

– Cosmological constant. In this case, we have Einstein equation

[Fate of the Universe]

Friday, February 21, 2014

Never receives message

Friday, February 21, 2014

Friday, February 21, 2014

[What is the Standard Model?]

– A zoo of fundamental particles discovered so far (Our focus in this course)

[Fundamental Particles in the SM]

[Mass of Fundamental Particles]

– Top quark is the heaviest fundamental particle discovered so far.

– photon and gluons? No.

Ndof = 2 × NG + NHiggs = 3 × NG + (NHiggs − NG ) (1)

Here NG is the number of gauge bosons which obtain a mass.

Friday, February 28, 2014

Friday, February 28, 2014

Friday, February 28, 2014

Friday, February 28, 2014