(Unit I)

1.Brahmo Samaj
We shall study the various reform and revival movements that took place in Hinduism in the
18th and 19th century. We shall also study the teachings and contributions of the various neo-
Vedantins of the 19th and 20th century who re-interpreted the Vedanta philosophy of Hinduism
in the light of modern humanism.
The brahmo samaj was the first important Hindu socio-religious reformation movement. The
samaj was formally founded in 1828, in Calcutta by Rammohan Roy (1774-1833). This
movement was a major force in shaping Hindu response to both western and Christian influences
and thus covered the way for the Indian Renaissance in the late 1800. The prominent leaders of
Brahmo Samaj were: Raja Ram Mohan Ro y 2. Debendranath Tagore3.Keshub Chandra.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy First Period-1828-1842 (Deistic Theology and Christian
Ethics)
From 1796 onwards Roy worked as a revenue officer in East India. Company in Calcutta and got
introduced to the Serampore missionaries. He studied the Bible and was amazed at the moral
standards taught by Jesus Three main activities were conducted in their worship.
(a) Recitation from Vedic Hymns, Upanishads, and translating
them into Bengali (b) Followed by a sermon in Bengali (c) Singing and Musi
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was called the morning star of Indian Renaissance. According to
Rabindranath Tagore, Roy inaugurated the modern period of India. Roy was born on 22nd May
1772 at the village of Radhanagar in the district of Burdwan, West Bengal. His parents were
religious Hindus. His father Ram Kanta Roy belonged to the Chaitanya sect and his mother
belonged to the Shakta family. At the age of twelve Roy went to Patna, Bihar, for higher
education. He had a very liberal education. He learnt Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, as well as a
critical study of Hindu and Islamic law, literature and philosophy, which prepared him in the
later age for reform in religion and society. Some of the important reforms undertaken by
Roy are as follows:
Abolishment of Sati: Roy began agitating against Sati from 1818onwards by publishing
pamphlets and arousing public opinion. He examined the Smriti texts on this subject and pointed
out that all the authorities did not agree in prescribing this practice and even the later authorities
recommended that Sati should be free and voluntary. His constant agitation along with William
Carey enabled Lord William Bentinck to ban Sati on 4th December 1829.
Women’s Rights: By examining the Smritis and their commentaries, Roy also pleaded for
women’s right to inherit their parental property. He wrote two papers on Women’s right, “On

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Modern Encroachments on the Ancient Rights of Females” and “On the Rights of Hindus over
Ancestor Property.” He was also against polygamy which was prevalent during his time.
Modern Education: Roy also promoted modern education. In 1816 he suggested to the Chief
Justice of Supreme Court Sir Hyde East his desire to start a college for the education of Hindu
children on modern lines as in Europe. This led to the founding of the Hindu college in 1817. He
also started an English school of his own called the Anglo-Hindu School in Calcutta in 1822 for
imparting free education in English to Hindu boys. His efforts for the introduction of western
education become successful only two years after his death when in March 1835 Lord William
Bentinck issued his famous educational degree which inaugurated the policy of English
education in India.
Freedom of Press: Roy was a great champion of Press as he was of western education. He
started two journals, The Samvad Kaumadi (1821) and Mirat-Ul-Akbar (1822). He was also
associated with the Bengal Herald in 1829. He wrote petitions against Press regulations and in
1836 the liberty of Press was granted by Sir Charles Metcalfe. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was neither
a theologian nor a philosopher but a social reformer who spoke against Hindu orthodoxy and the
evils in the society. Roy went to England in 1831 at the request of the Mughal Emperor of Delhi
at that time. It was he who gave the title Raja to Roy. When Roy went to England, he spoke there
on administrative reforms which were needed in India. He was the first Indian to be consulted on
Indian Affairs by the British Parliament. He also prepared the Indian people towards political
consciousness. Hence, he is also called as the Father of Indian Nationalism. While he was busy
with his work in England, he died at Bristol on 27thSeptember 1833.
Second Period- 1842-1865 (Theism and Religious Reform) Debendranath Tagore (1817-
1903)
The 2nd period of Brahmo Samaj began with the entry of Debendranath Tagore, the oldest son of
Dwarkanath Tagore into the Samaj. He and his friends founded an association called the Tattva
Bodhini Sabha (The truth teaching society). In 1842 after nine years of Roy’s death,
Debendranath Tagore and the Tattva Bodhini Samaj joined with Brahmo Samaj.
Contributions of Debendranath Tagore:"
i. The Brahmo Samaj was founded in 1843 by integration with the Brahmo Sabha. The
Brahmo Sabha had diverted from its original practices after the death of Raja Ram
Mohan Roy; however, Debendranath Tagore revived the importance of this Samaj.
ii. It was largely through the influence of the Tagore family, following that of the writer
Bankim Chandra in the Indian Renaissance during the 19th century.
iii. In 1844, Debendranath set up a Tatwabodhini Pathshala or Theological School to teach
iv. Vedanta and train young men to teach the Brahmo religion.
v. After the dismissal of Keshab Chandra Sen as acharya in 1865, he and his followers
founded the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1866, while Debendranath Tagore's Samaj came

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 vi. to be known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj. He compiled and published the Brahma Dharma
Grantha, which is a theistic manual of religion and morals.
vii. The nation lost this true saint on January 19th, 1905.
Third period- 1865-1878 (Keshub Chandra Sen and Social
Reform)
After K.C. Keshub Sen broke away from Debendranath Tagore, he founded a separate Samaj
known as Brahmo Samaj of India. He read a great deal of Christian literature and exhorted
people to follow the moral teachings of Jesus. He did not believe in the divinity of Jesus. The
Brahmo Samaj of India under K.C. Keshub supported education for girls and the emancipation of
women. Keshub established a society called The Indian Reformed Association in 1870 with
several departments. One section was devoted for printing books in cheap price. The other
section started a school for girls. The third section organized lecturers and meetings. The fourth
section organized relief to the poor. Besides this, Keshub established an industrial school for
boys, a working men’s institution for the poorer classes. He founded an association called the
Albert Institute for Promotion of Literary and Social Intercourse for all classes of the
community. He also built a public hall called the Albert Hall where newspapers could be read
and lectures delivered. In 1872 the government passed an act decriminalizing Brahmo Samaj
marriages which prohibited child marriage.
Evaluation
Brahmo Samaj was a first major reform movement in modern India and in modern Hinduism.
This Samaj helped people to move away from sectarianism to a universal religion. The Samaj
helped people of India to be politically conscious. It emphasized on service to humanity with
moral teachings. This Samaj set the pattern of reform for other reform movements. The main
theme of this Samaj was Sarva Dharma Samabhava, that is all religion are equal and equal
respect should be given to all religions. Brahmo Samaj introduced rationalism and therefore
shocked the basis of the entire Brahmanical system. It challenged the Brahmin’s monopoly of
priestly functions. It promoted western education through the promotion of schools and colleges.
It also promoted personal freedom and social equality. The all-India tours of K.C. Sen and
Surendranath Banerjee brought together people of various fields on a common platform. Brahmo
Samaj helped to make way for the official intervention on the form of legislation to abolish Sati
as well as other social evils. It was a cosmopolitan movement among the educated class of
people. It aroused orthodox Hindus to work for the revival of their religion. The main objective
of this Samaj was no idol, no sculpture, no statue, no carving, no painting or picture of gods to be
admitted within the premises of the Samaj. It als advocated no sacrifice, offering or oblation of
any kind. Brahmo Samaj helped India to move away from medieval feudalism to national
democracy. It was against the nexus between religion and capitalism. It introduced a new
ideology of rationalism and free spirit in the Indian society. It was an eclectic movement which
attempted to bring a universal religion

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 2.Arya Samaj
Arya samj was founded by swami Dayananda saraswati,his first name was Mula shankara,He
was born in 1824 in a Shaivite family in the toen of Tankara in Kathiawar,Arya Samaj means
‘society of the honorable ones.’ It was one of the most important revival Hindu movement of the
19th Century. It was founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati on 10th April 1875 in Bombay. It
advocated a return to Vedas and Vedic religion. This movement was directly opposite of Brahmo
Samaj. Brahmo Samaj was at the eastern end of India but Arya Samaj was founded in Bombay
and it moved to Punjab.
Arya Samaj movement
The Arya Samaj has started three movements: Shuddhi, Sanghatam and national education.
Shuddhi (Purification): This is done for two classes of people: a) reclaiming those Hindus who
were converted to Christianity or Islam, and b) investing the so-called untouchables and
depressed classes with the sacred thread and giving them equal status with other Hindus.
Sanghatan (union): This is a Hindu organization for self-defense which helps them to cultivate
a militant spirit and to meet the en- emy in their strongholds. It is against Christianity and Islam.
Its main activities include re-converting those Hindus who have been converted to other
religions, defending Hindu religion and society even at the cost of life and cultivating a militant
spirit, manliness and self-respect among the Hindus which they had lost under the Muslims.
National Education: By this is understood primarily the opening of Sanskrit schools and
encouraging Vedic teachings.
Caste system: Arya Samaj repudiated caste by birth. Dayananda considered caste system only as
apolitical institution made by the rulers for the common good of the society. For him caste
system not only brought social and political downfall but also it did not create an alternate
society.
Arya Samaj has played a leading role in all social and educational reforms. Some areas
where Arya Samaj has contributed are:
Arya Samaj was actively involved in struggle for independence. Around 80% of freedom fighters
were influenced by Arya Samaj. Dadabhai Naoroji, Ram Prasad Bismil, Lala Lajpat Rai, Swami
Shardhanand to name a few.Reintroducing the ancient Gurukul system of education by
establishing Gurukul Kangri at Haridwar and thereafter several other Gurukuls for Vedic
research scholars

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  DAV schools & colleges all over India
 Orphanages being run all over the country
 Old Age Homes (Vanprastha Ashram) and homes for destitute
 Promotion of widow remarriage, stopping of Sati Pratha and Polygamy
 Promotion of education for all irrespective of gender or caste
 Movement against Parda (Veil) system and Dowry
 Movement against child marriage
 Eradication of untouchability
 Movements against superstitions and blind-faiths /beliefs

3.Ramakrishna mission
Ramakrishna is a true representative of the religious spirt of in dia. He stood for the whole of
Hinduism and not a mere part of it. he was born in 1836 in Kamarpukur,a village in the Hooghly
district of Bengal. His father was a poor Brahmin priest. Ramakrishna mission was one of the
most important social reform organization in the 20th century. The mission is named after and
inspired by the Indian saint Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and founded by Vivekananda on 1 May
1897, Ramakrishna’s chief disciple Swami.
A) Motives of the organization: The organization chiefly propagates to the Hindu philosophy
of Vedanta-Advaita Vedanta and four yogic ideals-jnana, bhakti, karma, and Raja Yoga.
B) Principles of the organization; Entirely holy and humanitarian and has no connection with
any politics.
• "Renunciation and service" -the work of the mission strive to practice and preach these. The
service actions are based on the message of "Jiva is Shiva" from Ramakrishna and Vivekananda's
message of "Daridra Narayana" to specify that service to poor is service to God.
• The Principles of Upanishads and Yoga in Bhagavad Gita explained in the light of
Ramakrishna's Life and Teachings is the main source of inspiration for the Mission. The service
activities are rendered looking upon all like a real manifestation of the Divine. The Motto of the
organization is Atmano Mokshartham Jagad-hitaya Cha. It means 'for one's own salvation, and
for the good of the world'.
C) Area of Social activities: The principal workers of the mission are the monks. The mission's
actions cover the following areas: schooling• wellbeing and health care• Cultural activities
Rural support• Tribal welfare and Youth movement etc.
D) The important social activities:
• Hospitals, charitable dispensaries, maternity clinics, tuberculosis clinics, and mobile
dispensaries. • Training centers for nurses.

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• Orphanages and homes for the elderly are included in the mission's field of activities, along
with rural and tribal welfare work.
• Renowned educational institutions in India, having its own university, colleges, vocational
training centers, high schools and primary schools, teacher-training institutes, as well as schools
for the visually handicapped. Disaster relief operations during scarcity, epidemic, fire, flood,
earthquake, storm and communal disturbance.
• The installation of photovoltaic (PV) lighting systems in the Sundarbans region of West
Bengal. The PV lighting was used to West Bengal. The PV lighting was used to supply
electricity to the people who were depending on kerosene and diesel. Ramakrishna mission was a
part of religious and holy teaching. At the same time, the organization carries out extensive
educational and charitable work in India. This aspect is the important feature of many other
Hindu movements. The mission bases its work on the principles of karma yoga, the code of
unselfish work done with dedication to God.
4.Narayana Guru
Narayana Guru was born on 22 August, 1856 to Madan Asan and his wife Kuttiyamma in
Chempazhanthy, a village near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
Early Days and Education: His family belonged to the Ezhava caste and was considered
‘avarna’
according to the social mores of the time. Right from his childhood he loved solitude and always
indulged himself in deep contemplation. He was intensely drawn to worship at the local temples
and composed hymns and several devotional songs. From an early age, he was drawn towards
asceticism. He lived as a hermit in a forest for eight years. He learned Vedas, Upanishads,
literature, logical rhetoric of Sanskrit, Hatha Yoga and other philosophies
Important Works: Against Caste Injustice: He gave the famous slogan “One Caste, One
Religion, One God for All” (Oru Jathi, Oru Matham, Oru Daivam, Manushyanu). In 1888, he
built a temple dedicated to Lord Shiva at Aruvippuram which was against the caste-based
restrictions of the time. In one temple he consecrated at Kalavancode, he kept mirrors instead of
idols. This symbolized his message that the divine was within each individual.
Against Conversions: He taught equality but felt the inequalities should not be exploited to
carryout conversions and therefore generate strife in society. Narayana Guru organized an All-
Region Conference in 1923 at Alwaye Advaita Ashram, which was reported to be the first such
event in India. This was an effort to counter the religious conversions Ezhava community was
susceptible to.
Philosophy of Narayana Guru: Narayana Guru became one of the greatest proponents and re-
evaluators of Advaita Vedanta, the principle of non-duality put forward by Adi Shankara.

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Literary Works: He wrote various books in different languages. Few of them are:
AdvaithaDeepika, Asrama, Thevarappathinkangal, etc.
Contribution to National Movement: A remarkable social reformer, he was in the forefront of
the movement for universal temple entry and against the societal ills like the social
discrimination of untouchables. Narayana Gurudeva provided the motivation for Vaikom
nervousness which was aimed at temple entry in Travancore for the lower castes. It drew
nationwide attention and appreciation from Mahatma Gandhi. He captured the essence of
Indianness in his poems which highlighted the unity that lies beneath the world’s apparent
diversity.
Contribution to Science: Emphasized the practice of ideals of cleanliness, promotion of
education, agriculture, trade, handicrafts and technical training’s Narayana
Gurudev’sAdyaropadarsanam (Darsanamala) explains the creation of the universe.
Daivadasakam and Atmopadesa satakam are a few examples of how the mystic reflections and
insights closely resemble recent advances in physics.
Current Relevance of Philosophy: Gurudev’s philosophy of Universal Oneness has special
relevance in the contemporary global context where in the social fabric of many countries and
communities are being eroded by hatred, violence, bigotry, sectarianism and other divisive
tendencies. Death:20th September, 1928. This day is observed as Narayana Guru Samadhi in
Kerala.

5.Influential Thinkers: Mahatma Gandhi,Aurobindo Ghose,Radhakrishnan

Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi was born at Porbandar Kathiawar in Gujarat on 2 October 1869. His
grandfather and father were prime ministers of the state of two other States of Rajkot and
Vankaner.Gandhi attended primary school at Rajkot; at twelve years of age when he went to
High in England, he learned Latin, French and English, and passed the London matriculations.
Gandhi returned in 1891 to India.
Philosophy and reforms of Gandhi
God:Gandhi called God "Sat" which means Absolute Being, Reality or Truth. He says, "Truth is
God". God is in us, around Further, perfect non-violence is necessary for us in our search for
God. Gandhi defines the Hindu creed as "Search after truth through non-violent means".
Ahimsa (non-violence): According to Gandhi, ahimsa is nothing but the law of love. It is
extended to the sub-human beings also. He applied it to national and international affairs.
Swadeshi (indigenous): It is making a sacrifice and using what is available in one's immediate
environment which would serve others. Gandhi applies the principle of swadeshi (indigenous)

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not only to eco- nomics but also to education. He was against converting people from one
religion to another, since he felt that no religion is perfect. He taught that people should respect
other religions He said that all religions are branches of the Tree of Truth.
Untouchability: Gandhi said that untouchability is a cancer. It is a breach of the doctrine of
ahimsa. It has brought an evil name to Hinduism: When Hindus treat their own kith and kin as
untouchables, they cannot complain that in South Africa they themselves are treated as
untouchables by the white population."
Women: Gandhi denounced child-marriages, enforced widowhood and devadasi system. He
instructed those daughters and son should be treated as equals. Gandhi Say that women have
more moral power than man.
Aurobindo Ghose
Aurobindo was born in 1872 as the third son of Dr. Krishna Dhan Ghosh near Calcutta. Dr.
Ghosh was a medical Doctor trained in Scotland. When he returned to India, he was an
anglicized, denationalized India.
Education
Sri Aurobindo believes that man is the maker of his own destiny and education is a big
tool to achieve the target. He believes that the best thing in men is their spirituality. According to
Sri Aurobindo, the education must emphasize on the whole aspect of human life such as
physical, psychic, mental, duty, power, knowledge and love etc.
political influence:
Political career of Aurobindo was from 1906-10 though he had been active behind the scene
serving, organising and supporting the national cause, ever since his return to India, especially
during his trip to Bengal. This period of his activity from 1906-10 visualise as a complete change
of India’s political scene.
Some of the techniques used by Sri Aurobindo in politics are:
a.Poorna swaraj: he was critical of moderate leaders of congress who adopted method like
passing resolution, prayers and petitioning and who raise demand of self-government or
dominion within British empire.
passive resistance: the doctrine of passive resistance was articulated by Bipin Chandra pal was
potent economy tool to fight against imperialism and colonialism. It was based on notion of
organize refusal to do anything which would help British administration.
Religious:From the year 1904 onwards Aurobindo started practicing yoga, the purpose of his
yoga was action, by the time he left Baroda in 1906, he was already well advanced in yoga, the
great message of India from Ramakrishna paramahamsa and swami.

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Atma samarpana: this is unconditional surrender of one self to God.
Silent witness: He stands aloof and opens his mind for the grace od God to enter, cleanse and
uplift.

Radhakrishnan,
Rashakrishanan was born of brahmin parents in tiruttani, Tiruvallur district,Tamil nadu,on 5 th
1888.he had his education in Voorhees College ,and Madras Christian collehe,Tambaram.he took
his M.A. degree in philosophy in 1909.
Philosophy of Religion
Radhakrishnan defines philosophy of religion as religion coming to an understanding of itself.
There can be no religious thought without religious experience. Love of God is a fact in Nature.
As testimony of the sense is admitted, the testimony of the religious sense also has to be
admitted. Philosophy of religion is an attempt to organize the data of religious experience.
Philosophy of Religion is neither speculative theology nor dogmatic theology. It is based on
religious experience and tradition and comes to a conclusion that God is a reality.
Suggestions for Improvements in Hindu Social Life
1) Animal sacrifices which are still practiced in some places should be given up.
2) Temple priests should have proper training.
3.Caste system:
a) Get rid of innumerable castes and sub-castes.
b) Untouchability should be removed.
c) Upanayana (initiation to Vedic studies) should extended
all Hindus without distinction of caste, creed or sex.
d) Gayatri prayer must be taught to all Hindus.
e) Spiritual heritage should be available to all Hindus
4) Marriage Laws:
Bhakti Vedanta Prabhupada : ISKCON
Bhakti Vedanta Prabhupada :A. C. Bhaktivedanta, also called Swami Prabhupāda, (born Sept.
1, 1896, Calcutta—died Nov. 14, 1977, Vrindāvan, Uttar Pradesh, India), Indian religious leader
and author who in 1965 founded the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, commonly
known as the Hare Krishna movement.

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Achievements and contributions of Praphupada
Some of his achievements were:
a) Circling the globe 14 times on lecture tour.
b) Founded the Bhakti Book Trust, which claim to be the largest publisher of ancient and
c) classical Vaishnava religious text.
d) Founded the religious colony know as New Vrindavan at West Virginia.
e) authored more than 80 books on Vedantic Philosophy, religion, literature and culture. He
wrote over 50 volumes of transcendental literature. From an original Sanskrit, Bengali he
would translate it into his famous Bhakti Vedanta purports.
ISKCON
ISKCON theology comes from the Bengali Gaudiya-Vaisnaya of Hinduism in India that dates
back to the eleventh or twelfth century. Prabhupada is seen to be one of a lineage or guru-
parampara of spiritual masters dating to Sri Chaitanya) (1485-1533), whom it regards as an
incarnation of the supreme Lord and god Krishna. The devotees of Krishna base their beliefs on
the Theistic strain of Vedantic literature.
Belife
God: according to Swami Prabhupada, God is personal but human soul is not God. Yet the
movement accepts Buddha as an incarnation of Krishna and Shankaracharya as a great scholar
sent by God. In the beginning of the creation, there was no Bhrama, no siva no fire, no moon, no
start in the sky, and no sun.
Man: Man, he is not the only entity that has soul. All animals and plants as well have souls,
being Slavery, these souls are in bondage and they migrate from one body to another until they
are established in the original state of Krishna Consciousness. These physical pleasures, the
eating of fish, meat, or eggs, the use of intoxicants, illicit sex, and gambling and frivolous sports,
are called the four regulative principles.
Beliefs in chanting the mantra: Hare Krishna, in full International Society of Krishna
Consciousness (ISKCON), popular name of a semimonastic Vaishnava Hindu organization
founded in the United States in 1965 by A.C. Bhaktivedanta (Swami Prabhupada; 1896–1977).
Scripture
Vedas, Bhagavad-Gita, Srimad Bhagavatam, Caitamria, Khrishna are the reversed scriptures of
the movement The Krishnas also behave that truth is found in other scriptures like the Bible
(Torah), Koran
Purpose of ISKCON

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  To systematically propagate spiritual knowledge to society at large and to educate all
people in the techniques of spiritual life in order to check the imbalance of values in life
and to achieve real unity and peace in the world. To propagate a consciousness of
Krishna (god), as it is revealed in the great scriptures of Bhagavad-gita and Srimad
Bhagavatam.
 To bring the members of the society together with each other and nearer to Krishna,the
prime entity, thus developing the idea within the members, and humanity at
 large, that each soul is part and parcel of the quality of godhead (Krishna).
 To teach and encourage the sankritana movement congregational chanting of the holy
name of God, as revealed in the teachings of Lord Sri Castanya Mahaprabhu (teachings
about Supreme Being).
 To erect for the members and for society at large a holy place of transcendental pastimes
dedicated to the personality of Krishna
 To bring the members closer together for the purpose of teaching a simpler andmore
natural way of life."
 With a view towards achieving the mentioned Purposes, to publish and distribute
periodicals, magazines, Books and other writings.
Prajapati Brahmakumaris
Introduction
What is the name of Brahmakumaris
Why do we use God Brahma
Who can be the member (men and woman) as Know men (brahma kumaris)
-Women
-Children of brahmar
Social contribution of Brahma Kumaris
Use a kind of neglected membership
Different religious
Value of the ages
Yogi-teaching
Social and implication

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 Unit III
Islam
a. Aligarh Movement
19 entury first awakening -by Sir,khan in UP and shariatullah of Bengal
(A).Aligrah movement
1.the beginning of Aligarh movement
Pioneer -Sir ahmed khan, founder of Aligarh movement…Reluctance -western culture and
education…initiative education movement in Aligarh in Pakistan history
2.objectively of Aligarh movement:To develop, education, economically in Muslims
3.role of Aligarh movement: In Muslims history, Aligarh Movement has played an important
role in every aspect of Muslims life. Movement has been given below.i. It removed the element
of mistrust between Muslims and British.ii. Imparted modern education to the Muslims.iii.
Brought economic prosperity to the Muslims.iv. Helped in the protection and promotion of Urdu
language.v. Brought political awareness in Muslims.
(B.) Ahmadiyah Movement
Amirza Ahmed founder-1835-1908, district of Northern Punjar, died 1908,
Christian Doctrines opposed by the Ahmadiyah :1. Virgin Birth of Jesus
2.Miracles of Jesus,
3.christ’s moral Character and 4.
resurrection
c. Influential Thinker: sir Muhammad Iqbal
Muhammad Iqbal -philosopher , born in Kashmir
-Iqbal and Re inrerpretation of islam:Iqbal respected traditional,for re interpretation of
Islam.Muslim ,approach, the problem of Today,Man can guide, overcome in the worldm,absorb
of god,and save mankind, and vice regent of God on the earth

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 -Pan-Islamism:
-Iqbal the reformer
-Ideal Man

2.Sikhism
-backgroung of Sikh religious Traditional
Sikh religious ,15 century, Pakistan part of Punjab, funded by Guru Nanak,Punjabi word
have Sanskrit ,sishya meaning Disciple and learner.the sikh usually speak Punjabi,they were
belonging strong community ,believe ten sikh gurus .
a.Singh Sabha Movement
-origin and development
Began 19 century reaction to activities of arya samaj and Christians,1873, four Sikh students of
the Amritsar Christian mission announced
-Aim and objective:1. Restore Sikhism to its original purity.2. Edit and publish
historical and religious books for the Sikhs.3. Propagate current knowledge through Punjabi
medium by starting magazines and newspapers in Punjabi language.4. Reform and bring back
into the Sikh-fold the apostates.5. Evoke interest of highly placed English men in the educational
programmed of the Sikhs.
Contribution: 1. Establishment of Sikh schools and colleges2. Organization and management of
Sikh Gurdwaras by the congregation3. Re-establishment of the Khalsa codes of conduct and
lifestyle, as taught by the Sikh Gurus4. Promotion of the political rights of the individual
b. Gurudwara reform movement
-origin and development: Gurdwara Reform Movement was a reform among the Sikh
community. This movement was originated by the efforts of Singh Sabha Movement. The
Gurdwara Reform Movement came about with an aim to revive the Sikh values and traditions.
During the British rule, a number of Hindu practices like the worship of gods and goddesses
were prevalent among the Sikhs. Each representative had to meet five requirements

 He had to receive the Amrit (Sikh initiation)

 He had to be regular in reading the daily hymns
 He kept the Sikh form and symbol
 He had to be an early riser
 He should give one tenth of his earnings regularly for religious purpose

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Aim and objective: The aims and objectives of the Gurudwara Reform Movement can be drawn
from the write-up of the first article in the daily Punjabi Newspaper, "Akali" in the 11th
November, 1920 issues. Accordingly, the aims and objectives of the Gurudwara Reform
Movement were: To bring Gurudwaras under the democratic control of the Sikhs, to bring
Khalsa College, Amritsar also under the democratic control of Sikhs, reconstruction of the wall
of Gurudwara

c.Nirankari movement Radha Soami Satsang

-origin and development: Radha Soami Satsang is a spiritual organisation, founded by Dayal
Singh in January 1861 in the city of Agra. Radha means, 'lord of the soul' and Satsang means 'a
company of pious people and the name is derived from its original Founder: the Supreme Being,
Radha Soami.After the death of Dayal Singh, his prominent followers formed individual Satsang
groups in different parts of India is one among the many followers who started a holy shrine of
Radha Soami faith at Beas, Punjab.
Teachings:Supreme Being:) According to Soami, the supreme being is Sat Purush Soami,
higher than Brahman, Allah and the God of the Christians. No religion or scripture could explain
the supreme being adequately, as he belongs to the highest region and his state prior to creation
is the supreme state of sunn samadhi or soundless self-absorption.
Soul or Sura The soul is believed to be of the atomic nature, possessing same qualitiesas that of
the Supreme Being. It descends from above into the physical world during creation."
Salvation: Salvation according to Radha Soami can be achieved by repeating the holy name and
listening to the Shabd in a spiritual state of withdrawal which can enable the devotee to join the
flow and travel through various higher regions.
Surat Shabd Yoga: In the belief and teachings of Radha Soami, the means to achieve salvation
is through the practise of Surat Shabd Yoga, which involves initiation in to a holy name by the
Guru and devotional chanting of the holy name to find the current of divine sound (Shabd)
within oneself.
3.Buddhism
Ambedkar and the Neo-Buddhist Movement/Sri lanka
What was the Neo-Buddhist movement?
The Neo-Buddhist movement started by Ambedkar not only had enormous socio-political
significance but it was a radical religious reform as well. Ambedkar converted to Buddhism on
14 October 1956 at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur after years of contemplating and studying various
religions of the world rigorously.

14
 Unit IV
Guru movements
1.Guru movements general characteristic of the modern guru movement
What the meaning of Guru?
Guru is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. a
guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential number to the disciple in
Sanskrit, literally seeker or student, with the guru serving as a "counselor. What is the role of
Guru in Sikhism?
The guru offers salvation and gives spiritual guidance illuminating the path of the soul through
darkness into light. In Sikhism, beginning in the year 1469 A.D. with First Guru Nanak, the light
of spiritual illumination.
1. Social Action: All modern organizations are committed to social action through the idea of
'seva'. They run health clinics and schools, relief works, campaigns against drugs and alcohol and
also providing resources for the support of families and children. Seva in the key rationale for
their existence.
2. Communication: Modern guru organizations are marked by their effective exploitation of
media channels in order to spread the teachings of the organization. In recent times, the internet
has provided a new public space for the elaboration of modern Guru Organizations.
3. Expansion: The guru movement is assisted by skilled and dedicated workers. Hence, they
expand into a variety of arenas of work and developed extensive branch networks. They are a
transnational movement covering across five continents.
4. Universalism: Open access is frequently associated with an emphasis on the universal
applicability of the teachings of the guru. Their ability is to project core human values such as
tolerance, peace and spirituality.
5. Civilization discourse: The emphasis on spirituality is related to the identification of Indian
culture as a unique civilization with much to offer the world. Modern guru Organizations

15
valorize Indian civilization as sophisticated and regarded as ancient and located their own
genealogy within that arena.
6. Exceeding religion: The significance of particular religious affiliations is frequently
challenged by gurus who aim to operate in a realm beyond such attachments. For eg. Sivananda's
practical spirituality can be adopted by Hindus and non-Hindus alike. Satya Sai Baba says, "do
not give importance to the difference of religion, sect, status or color. Have the feelings of
oneness, penetrate all your acts",

2. Special Study of the following Gurus:

a. Shirdi Sai Baba Tradition with special reference to Sathya Sai Baba
hirdi Sai Baba:
Shirdi Sai Baba claim to be the Original Sai Baba. No one knows the real name, the parents or
the birth place of the original Sai Baba. He came to Shirdi, Ahmednagar district of Maharastra at
the age of Sixteen. (The name Sai Baba comes from Sai, a Persian word used by Muslims to
denote a holy Person, and Baba means Father. Along with this, Sai Baba used to deliver spiritual
teachings. Sai Baba's teachings were greatly influenced by three Hindu Spiritual paths of Bhakti
Yoga, Jnana Yoga, and Karma Yoga. His worship used to include both Hindu and Muslim
rituals.
Sathya Sai Baba:
Sathyanarayan Raju was born on 23rd November, 1926, in a tiny village called Puttarparthi in
South India. He belongs to a Pious family. He was sent to school at the age of Six. He was
especially interested in Drama, Music, poetry and acting.
3. Self-understanding of Sai Baba.
He believes Himself to be the incarnation of Sai Baba of Shirdi. In order to distinguish him from
Sai Baba of Shirdi, the name Sathya is used before Sai Baba as a Short name: He says "Since I
recline on Truth, lam called Sathya Sai". At one time when a Sacrifice was performed, he said,
"lam not the person performing this sacrifice. Iam the person receiving this sacrificial offerings
and awarding this rewards". So he claims to be an Avatar.
4. Sathya Sai Baba's Teachings:
Sathya Sai Baba believes in Nirguna (without attributes) and the Saguna( attributed) aspects of
Brahman. The maighnotto of Baba's teachings are Sathya (Truth which is changeless) Dharma,
( right action which is based on Truth). Shanthi (Peace) and Prema (Love or beloved). The entire
manifestations appear as the projection of divinity."

16
Sai Baba's teachings regarding bhakti marga can be Totted up thus:, Realize the absolute
triviality and unimportance of the things, honours, emoluments of this world or of the next.,Turn
away from wrong doings and compose yourself so that your mind is at rest., Lead a life of truth,
penance, insight and right conduct.and Choose the good, not the pleasant.
Sathya Sai Mission:
He defines his mission as: Vedaposhna (preservation of Vedas); Vidvatwa Poshna (Preservation
of Wisdom); Bhakta rakshana( Salvation of devotees) and Dharmarakshanan preservation of
righteousness) He declares that Mission is to reconstruct the ancient high way to god restoring
people's knowledge of faith in the spiritual heritage of India.

b. Maharshi Mahesh Yogi and Transcendental Meditation

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (born Mahesh Prasad Varma, 12 January 19185 February 2008) was an
Indian yoga guru known for developing and popularizing Transcendental Meditation (TM) and
for being the leader and guru of a worldwide organization that has been characterized in multiple
ways, including as a new religious movement and as non-religious.
Who is Maharishi Mahesh Yogi?
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi:The Founder of the Transcendental Meditation™ Technique “Through
Transcendental Meditation, the human brain can experience that level of intelligence which is an
ocean of all knowledge, energy, and intelligence.
Yogi teaching of transcendental meditation
Teaching of Transcendental Movement, Creative intelligence is the name given for the Ultimate
Reality or God in Transcendental Movement.
1. A profound state of rest: Much deeper than ordinary relaxation, even deeper than sleep.
2. Inner peace and happiness: Significant decrease of stress hormones and increase of happiness
hormones .
3. Whole brain development: Measurable through EEG brain wave coherence measurements.
The Practice of Transcendental Meditation
a. Transcendental Meditation can deal with the fundamental problems of life and this meditation
gives solution to eradicate all suffering. b. Transcendental Meditation claims that an individual
establishes contact with pure consciousness or creative intelligence during this meditation.c. A
devotee increases his or her consciousness, creativity and intelligence."
Five Paths to Liberation

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1. The psychological or intellectual approach - Jnana marga (Self hypnotism)
2.The emotional approach Bhakti marga.
3. The physiological approach - Hatha marga-physical exercises.
4. Psycho-physiological approach - combination of the physiological with the intellectual or the
emotional. Accord- ing to Mahesh Yogi, all these four are difficult for ordinary people.
Therefore, he recommends the fifth path:
5. The Mechanical approach- Karma yoga of the Gita. TM is, "the most natural, the easiest and
the best". "God -realiza- tion is possible in a mechanical way, because it is a matter of
perception".

c. Rajneesh and His Movement

The Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh was the spiritual leader of the Rajneeshee religious
sectheadquartered at Rancho Rajneesh in the Central Oregon desert from 1981 to 1985. The
purpose of Rajneesh movement aimed at removing all religious and social conditioningand the
destruction of the“false individual separateness, the ego, so that the real self mightemerge.” He
asked people to drop their ego. He expected that by the end of this century, manwould become a
new man.
Brief Biography of Rajneesh:Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, also called Osho or Acharya Rajneesh,
original name ChandraMohan Jain, he was born in December 11,1931, Kuchwada (now in
Madhya Pradesh), India.He died January 19, 1990, Pune, he was an Indian spiritual leader who
preached an eclecticdoctrine of Eastern mysticism, individual devotion, and sexual freedom.
Traditional philosophy:Rajneesh philosophy was also in a sense of anti-philosophy due to his
pronounced anti-Intellectualism. There was a wide spread that Rajneesh’s philosophy was too
anarchistical though he did not intend to bring disorder but a new kind of order. He said that he is
not a part of any tradition but the beginning of a tradition.
Traditional religion:Rajneesh extended his offensive against all orthodoxies, Indian ancient
religion in particular. Osho was convince that the ancient spiritual tradition of India was in
themselves an obstacle to spiritual progress. His main target was the concept of renunciation,
which he saw as responsible not only for the material poverty of India, but also for the serious,
sorrowful and moralizing.
Traditional scripture:
Rajneesh argues that religion scripture and Guru have been painful to man for thousands of
years According to Rajneesh the root cause of man’s problem is his ignorance to his freedom, the
solution in all problem he advocates lies in self-realization.

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Rajneesh Philosophy
Rajneesh philosophy is based on the three C's, namely, consciousness, compassion &creativity.
He was of the opinion that, a person who is accomplished of developing these three . According
to Osho, there are basically four things that restrict creative living. These are self-consciousness,
intellectual level, belief and perfectionism.

d. Mata Amritananda Mayi

Early Life:Mata Amritanandamayi Devi, known to her admirers simply as Amma, a name that
means "mother" in Malayalam, is a Hindu spiritual leader and guru. She is the founder of Mata
Amritanandamay Math and estimated that Amritanandamayi has hugged more than 33 million
people throughout the world during her 30 years of being the hugging guru.
Background:Mata Amritanandamayi was born in the Parayakadavu village, (district of Kollam,
Kerala) into a low caste family whose traditional work was fishing She was said to be "gifted"
and had supernatural powers. She informally commenced an ashram with international leanings
and three years later on 6th May. 1981. Mata Amntanandamayi Math and a registered Mission
Trust was founded in Kerala.
Teachings of Mata AmritanandaMayi:Most people around her could not comprehend Amma's
divine nature as a child. She expresses profound truth in a simple, motherly way. She teaches
through experience.
1. Guruhood: Amma is considered to be the Satguru or Supreme Guru who speaks directly from
the state of Oneness. She has initiated many educated youth, both male and She herself had no
formal guidance or initiation into spiritual life by a guru.
2. Motherhood: She maintains celibacy, but she has become known as the mother for
many .Through her extraordinary acts of love and self-sacrificeAmmachi shares her boundless
love with all. Be they young or old, sick or poor, everyone who comes to her receives the same
unconditional love. Ammachi's compassion has given rise to a vast network of charitable and
spiritual activities, which is drawing attention throughout the world At the root of these services
lies her teaching that the Divine exists in every person, plant and animal.
3. Temple: The inner shrine of Amma's temple, symbolizing the essential unity in diverse forms
worshipped as God in the Indian tradition. Amma allows women priests to serve in the temples

19
consecrated by herShe says, "As I see everything as the Truth, or Brahman, I bow to that Truth; I
bow to my self. I serve everyone, seeing them as the self."
4. Chanting (Japa):Japa is the vocal and mental repetition of the divine name or sound.or
mantra. Ammachi says that the purpose of mantra japa (chanting) is to lead us to the ultimate
silence of the Self, Japa can be done at any time, anywhere without observing any rule. regarding
the purity of mind and body. Japa can be done while engaged in any task.
e. Sri Sri Ravi Shankar
Biography of Sri Sri Ravi Shankar:SriSri Ravi Shankar was bom on 13 May 1956 in Tamil
Nadu in a Brahmin family, Sri Ravi Shankar is a famous spiritual leader of India. He is credited
with being the initiator of a foundation, known as the Art of Living Foundation. He is also the
founder of a number of charitable organizations, like the International Association for Human
Values
Art of Living:The art of Living is an educational and humanitarian movement engaged in stress-
management and service initiatives.The Art of Living movement has spread peace across
communities through diverse humanitarian projects, including conflicts resolution, disaster
reliefs, sustainable rural development, empowerment of women ete .A combination of gentle and
vigorous series of asana in taught in this yoga According to him, the mind, and the body and the
spirit of an individual are importantAccording to him the essence of every religious is the quest
for truth and the knowledge of being a part of divinity.
Philosophy and Teachings:According to Sri Sri Ravi Shankar philosophy and teachings God
lies within every heart. He says that, each one of us God lying inside.
Spirituality:Shankar teaches that spirituality is that human values such as loves and
compassion .In Shankar views violence-free society, confusion-free mind, and trauma-free
memory, disease-free body, sorrow-free soul, quiver- free breadth, inhibition-free intellect is the
birthright of every human being Spirituality is the food every human being.
Religion:Shankar preaches that every religion has three features associated with it, namely
customs, symbols and values However, it is basically the custom and symbol that differ and
make one religion different from the other. for increasing the level of intolerance and
fundamentalism in this world.
Universal Love: According to Shankar, the true nature is love and love infuses the whole world
or creation. He believes that love has the capability to melt hearts and dissolve anything and
everything that is added in it. He teaches people to love all, irrespective of their caste, creed, and
race.
Social Initiative: International Association for Human Values (IAHV) an NGO was founded in
1997 which was based Geneva to coordinate sustainable development projects, nurture human

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values with The Art Living.Volunteer for a better India as initiated case, free health camps, and
voter awareness and registration in India.
Unit V.
Religio-Political and Secular Movements
1. Muslim League and Jamaat-e-Islami Hind
Muslim League:In 1906, the Muslim League was established as a political organization in
British India. The British Empire divided India in 1947 as a result of its ardent support, starting
in 1930, for the establishment of a separate nation-state, Pakistan, with a Muslim majority. The
party was founded because Muslims in British India needed political participation, especially in
the event of strong Hindu opposition to Bengal’s partition in 1905, which was supported by the
Indian National Congress.
Muslim League Objectives: The goal was to protection Muslims’ political rights, draw the
government’s attention to them, and stop Muslims from protecting towards other Indian groups.
The goal was to increase Indian Muslims’ allegiance to the British government. Without
affecting the League’s above-mentioned goals, the goal is to stop any feelings of hostility
towards other groups among Indian Muslims.
Muslim League Features:When British India was divided, the All-India Muslim League was a
political group that spearheaded the effort to create a distinct Muslim country (1947). Indian
Muslims’ liberties were safeguarded by the Muslim League, which was founded in 1906. After
Pakistan gained its independence in 1947, Jinnah and the Muslim League took the lead in the
battle to divide British India into distinct Hindu and Muslim states.
What is Jamaat-e-Islami Hind:Jamaat-e-Islami Hind. Jamaat-e-Islami Hind ( JIH) is an Islamic
organization in India, founded as an offshoot of the Jamaat-e-Islami, which divided into separate
independent organizations in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Jammu following the Partition of
India in 1947. JIH has been described as having experienced an "ideological. Jamaat-e-Islami
was founded on 26 August 1941 at Lahore under the leadership of Maulana Syed Abul Ala
Maududi in the undivided India.
Islamic Society:Jamaat shall present the authentic and comprehensive concept of Islam,
identifying its implications for individual and social life; in order to awaken in Muslims,
Necessary social institutions reflecting the sublime Islamic values, should be created and
developed like mosques, Maktabs, Darul Qaza and social service units.
Justice:In the light of revealed divine guidance, Jamaat would make efforts to establish peace
and justice and to develop the country on the basis of universal ethical. It would seek to protect
the autonomy of institutions, human values recognized by India’s constitution and freedom of
thought and action. Jamaat will mobilise noble elements in society to rid the country of global
imperialism, capitalist system and aggressive nationalism.

21
Serving People:To serve humanity is an important Islamic teaching. Jamaat shall work for
eradication of poverty, sickness, illiteracy, hunger and unemployment; Jamaat shall cooperate
with other collective efforts of service.
Education:Jamaat shall reform educational system, private and public, to ensure universal
access to education. All citizens should get an opportunity to be educated, and instruction should
be available in mother tongue. The curriculum should not violate religious sensitivities. Cultural
and religious groups should continue to enjoy the right to establish and run educational
institutions of their choice.

2. Sarvodaya and Bhoodan Movement

Sarvodaya:When Gandhi translated John Ruskin's book Unto This Last (based on Matthew
25:30) into Gujarati, he called it Sarvodaya This means welfare of all. Gandhi's concept can be
summa rized as follows:
Democracy only guarantees the welfare of the majority and not the welfare of all. The ideal of
Sarvodaya is based on a spiritual foundation. Since the goal is spiritual the means should also be
spiritual Untouchability should never be allowed. It is not right to eat without working for it This
idea has various phases.
Education
Gandhi says that whatever gives liberation is education. Liberation is to be achieved from
slavery to various things Therefore, every young person should be trained in farming and
weaving. Hence) A) Elementary education should be for seven years. General knowledge gained
by 10th standard children should be included in the seven years of elementary education. B)
Higher education can be the concern of private agencies. Giving importance to the learning of an
occupation, Gandhi developed what is known as "Basic education".
Economics: There should be equal opportunity for all.
a) Occupation has to be according to one's talents. b) Economic system has to be de-centralized.
c) In the economic system of ancient India, farming, rearing of cattle and cottage industries were
considered most important. Physical labour is basic to occupations.)
Gandhi denied the importance given to capital. nomics, he accepted the following concept of
"Trusty ship":

22
1). There would be a limit to the ownership of property for the good of society.2).It does not
overlook the importance of legislation to control ownership and distribution of
wealth.3)Production will be determined by the needs of the society.
Ownership of land: Gandhi believed that all land belongs to God; is man who made the
boundaries. Zamindars and big landlords should be brought within the limits of the trusty ship.
Land should be cultivated on a co-operative basis.
Politics: Gandhi taught: a) Every village should grow food-materials, and cotton for cloth; the
cattle should have grazing land; children and adults should have entertainment facilities; money
crops can also be raised except tobacco, opium and ganja. b) Every village should have a theatre,
school and public hall and drinking water system.
Social Living: Gandhi envisaged a society based on truth and ahimsa, without exploitation. In
Sarvodaya, the individuals as well as society are important.

Untouchability:Sarvodaya the society does not practice untouchability. He encouraged mixed

marriages between different castes, between those who follow different religions.
a) Security of homes is very important, but many evil practices exist in the relationships in the
homes:
1. Men and women should have equal freedom.
2. Child marriage should be forbidden.
3. Widowhood should not be enforced.
4. He opposed artificial methods of birth control.
The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement initiated inspired by Vinoba brought Vinoba to the
international scene.
The Bhoodan Movement or Land Gift Movement, was a voluntary land reform movement in
India, started by Acharya Vinoba Bhave in 1951 at Pochampally village in Telangana.
background

 Vinoba Bhave, a humble spiritual leader, the first nonviolent resister to the Britishers and
reformer of Independent India started this.
 The mission was to persuade wealthy landowners to willingly give a small share of their
land to the landless people.
 He travelled across all of India to convince the wealthy land-owners or land-lords to
share a small area of their land with their poor and downtrodden neighbors with the

23
 condition that they can’t sell the land. Over a span of 20 years, a total of 4 million acres
of land was shared across the country through this movement.
Objectives

 To bring about a social order based on equality of opportunities by ensuring balanced

economic distribution.
 Decentralization of economic holdings and powers. Vinobaji writes, while describing the
objectives of Bhoodan movement, “In fact, objective is of three-fold.”
 Firstly, power should be decentralised from village to village.
 Secondly, everybody should have a right on land and property.
 Thirdly, there should be no distribution in the matter of wages etc.

Vinobaji was interested in the creation of a new social order.

3. Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Vishwa Hindu Parishad, and Sangh Parivar

4. Reform and Independence Movements: Dravidian, Dalit, Tribal and Adivasi

Unit VI
Contemporary Issues and the Response of Churches
1. Fundamentalism and Communalism
Fundamentalism
"fundamentalism is the belief that the traditional principles of a religion or set of beliefs should
be maintained word 'fundamentalism' means belief in the literal truth of the religious book,
against modernism or liberalism. It also includes the whole human life such as religious,
cultural, social, political and economic life.
Hindu Fundamentalism/Hindu Cultural Nationalism:(New Face of Hinduism "Hindutva", in
short, stands for Hindu Nationalism: Hindutva means, Hinduness or conscious of being a Hindu
or Hindu as the dominant identity. It aims at a Hindu nation state (Hindu rashtra).Nationalism as
an ideology originated in the west either using language or religion seeking political expression.
It attempts to create a national identity by a process of inclusion and exclusion. The activities of
Hindutva organizations are varied. There are three main right wing Hindu organizations, the
Rashtriya SwayamsevakSangh (RSS), the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and the Bharatiya
Janta Party (BJP)

24
Islamic Fundamentalism:The Coronation of Aurangzeb in 1658 laid the foundation for
subsequent Islamic fundamentalism in Indian sub-continent. The Emperor Aurangzeb became a
symbol of piety, simplicity and the strict adherence to the Islamic Shariah The modem Islamic
fundamentalist movements have their origins in the late 19th century) The Wahhabi movement,
an Arabian fundamentalist movement that began in the 18th century, gained traction and spread
during the 19th and 20th centuries whose intention is to induce Muslims to return to the
traditional teachings of Islam as a way to reform their societies, establish an Islamic state, and
deal with the many internal and external challenges they face. Islamic fundamentalism has
moved from being a sociocultural movement seeking to reform Islamic societies, to being a
sociopolitical movement with an agenda to replace the existing state systems with an Islamic one
to being a radical movement using violence to achieve its objective.""
Christian Fundamentalism: Pentecostalism that began in the 1920s in India has been
experiencing extraordinary growth since 1980. It is fast becoming the face of Christianity in
India. It is fundamentalist in the sense that it is based on the implicit politics of eventual
Christian domination.
Sikh Fundamentalism:The development of Sikkhism centers around the ten Gurus who arose in
Punjab in the 16th and 17 centuries. They preached a synthesis of Hinduism and Islam.Sikhism
is one of the youngest religions of the world and has been particular associated with Hinduism.
Communalism: The ideology that rises from the religious pluralism, and is to be considered as a
social menace. Communalism can also be defined as a tool that is given rise to, in the presence of
diverse religions, to gain political benefits in a state.
As a point of debate, the issues attached to Communalism are:

 It is a threat to national integrity

 It is a catalyst to political and social tensions in the state
 It leads to divisions between the people, groups of communities or groups of states in the
country
Weak Economic Status: Due to their educational backwardness, they have not been represented
sufficiently in the public service, industry and trade etc. This causes the feeling of relative lack
and such feelings contain the seeds of communalism.
Geographical Causes: The territorial settlement of different religious groups especially Hindus
Muslims and Christians causes in them wide variation in the mode of life, social standards and
belief system.
Social Causes: Social institutions, customs and practices of Hindus and Muslims are so different
that they think themselves to be two distinct communities.
Psychological Causes: Psychological factors play an important role in the development of
communalism. The Hindus think that the Muslims are zealots and fundamentalists. They also

25
believe that Muslims are unpatriotic. On the opposing, the Muslims feel that they are being
treated as second rate citizens in India and their religious beliefs and practices are inferior.

2. Secularism, Minority Rights, Freedom of Religion and Conversion

What is Secularism?
It means the separation of religion from political, economic, social and cultural aspects of life,
religion being treated as a purely personal matter.
Western - Secularism
In the West, all religious institutions and organizations are distinct from the operation of the
state.
The state thinks that religion should be free of all interference. If religion is interfering with the
state's ability to function, the state has the authority to limit citizens' rights.
Secularism in the Western sense opposes open displays of religion, with the exception of places
of worship.
The line between state and religion is obvious and unmistakable.
Indian – Secularism
Secularism in India means that the state is neutral to all religious groups but not necessarily
separate
The concept is not limited to the topic of how religious groups should be treated in India. The
essence of secularism, on the other hand, is the creation of constructive interaction between the
state and religion.
In India, all forms of religion are tolerated and supported by the government.
In India, there is no obvious boundary between state and religion.
Minority Right: In India, all these categories of minorities exist. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the
architect of the Indian Constitution, by providing space for upholding of minority rights asserted
that the rights of the minority should be 'absolute rights. i. All minorities whether based on
religious or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of
their choice. The state shall not, in granting aid to an educational institution, discriminate against
any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether
based on religion or language.
Freedom of Religion and conversion
Niyogi committee report in madhyapradesh in1956

26
The first freedom of religious in 1967
The second freedom of religion act-1968, Madhya Pradesh
The third freedom of religion act 1978

3. A post-colonial, post-modern Christian critique of the events of the 19 and 20 centuries

in India
1.Conditions of India during the 19 century: Renaissance during the 19 centuries, Caste
system and untouchability, Prohibition of foreign travel and Low status of women
2.Post-colonial and postmodern issues of the event of the 20 Century in India: Conversion
issues during British Raj, freedom of Religious Bill, anti-conversion bills, conversion and Indian
today
4. Political parties, civil society movements and the church.

27