is the general term given to a wide range of cognitive skills and

intellectual dispositions needed to:

 Effectively identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments and truth claims
 To discover and overcome personal preconceptions and biases
 To formulate and present convincing reasons in support of conclusions
 To make reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to believe and what to do.
 Critical thinking standards (CTS):
 Clarity  Consistency
 Precision  Logical correctness
 Accuracy  Completeness
 Relevance  Fairness
 Barriers to critical thinking
- Egocentrism: The tendency to see reality as centered on oneself.
+ Self-interested thinking: The tendency to accept and defend beliefs that harmonize with
one’s self-interest.
+ Self-serving bias: The tendency to overrate oneself — to see oneself as better in some
respect than one actually is.
- Sociocentrism: Group-centered thinking.
+ Group bias: The tendency to see one’s own group (nation, tribe, sect, peer group, and the
like) as being inherently better than others.
+ Conformism: Refers to our tendency to follow the crowd — to conform (often unthinkingly)
to authority or to group standards of conduct and belief.
- Unwarranted Assumptions and Stereotypes
+ Assumption: Something we take for granted, something we believe to be true without any
proof or conclusive evidence.
+ Unwarranted assumption: Something taken for granted without good reason.
+ Stereotype: Generalizations about a group of people in which identical characteristics are
assigned to all or virtually all members of the group, often without regard to whether such
attributions are accurate.
- Relativistic Thinking: Thinking that is based on the idea that there is no “objective” or
“absolute” truth because truth is simply a matter of opinion.
+ Relativism: The view that truth is a matter of opinion.
-> Subjectivism: The view that truth is a matter of individual opinion.
-> Cultural relativism: The view that truth is a matter of social or cultural opinion.
-> Moral relativism (most common form):
 Moral subjectivism: The view that what is morally right and good for an individual, A, is
whatever A believes is morally right and good.
 Cultural moral relativism: The view that what is morally right and good for an individual,
A, is whatever A’s society or culture believes is morally right and good.
- Wishful thinking: Believing something because it makes one feel good, not because there is
good reason for thinking that it is true.
QUESTIONS:
1 - We should not criticize this festival because it is our traditional custom." This argument is a
case of _____________.
A. Self-interested thinking
B. Conformism
C. Stereotyping
D. Relativism
2 - Self-interested thinking is a form of:
A. Emotive thinking
B. Short-term thinking
C. Sociocentrism
D. Egocentrism
3 - "I will buy a Macbook because all my friends now are using Macbooks." This argument is a
case of ____________.
A. Self-interested thinking
B. Conformism
C. Stereotyping
D. Relativism
4 - "Angels do exist. It makes me feel better to think they are with me, so I'm justified in saying
they are." This argument is a case of ____________.
 A. Self-interested thinking
B. Group bias
C. Moral subjectivism
D. Wishful thinking

--------------------

 DEFINITION
 Argument: A claim defended with reasons. Composed of one or more premises and a
conclusion.
Lưu ý là trong argument thì thường conclusion của nó sẽ là một opinion, mang tính chủ quan của
người viết nha.
 Premises: (luận điểm) Statements in an argument offered as evidence or reasons in support of
another statement. (why we should accept another statement or the conclusion)
 Conclusion: (kết luận) The statement in an argument that the premises are intended to prove
or support.
 Statements: Sentences that can be viewed as either true or false.
 NOTE: (STATEMENTS)
 A sentence may be used to express more than one statement. (“Roses are red and violets are
blue”)
 A statement can sometimes be expressed as a phrase or an incomplete clause. (“With prices
keep increasing, some poor people cannot afford for food”)
 Not all sentences are statements.
What time is it? (câu hỏi)
Hi, Dad! (chào hỏi)
Close the window! (mệnh lệnh)
Please send me your current catalog. (yêu cầu)
Let’s go to Paris for our anniversary. (đề xuất)
Insert tab A into slot B. (chỉ dẫn)
Oh, my goodness! (cảm thán)
  Statements can be about subjective matters of personal experience as well as objectively
verifiable matters of fact. (chủ quan: “I’m having a slight headache”)
 Some sentences that look like nonstatements are actually statements and can be used in
arguments, such as:
+ Rhetorical question: (câu hỏi tu từ) A sentence that has the grammatical form of a question
but is meant to be understood as a statement. (“Don’t you realize that smoking is bad for your
health?”)
+ Ought imperative: A sentence that has the form of an imperative or command but is
intended to assert a value or ought judgment about what is good or bad, right or wrong. (“Close
that window, boy! It’s freezing in here!”) (thường thì dạng này sẽ bao gồm 2 vế, 1 vế nhìn giống
như câu mệnh lệnh. 2 vế hợp lại thành ought imperative)
 IDENTIFYING PREMISES AND CONCLUSIONS
Indicator words: Words or phrases that provide clues that premises or conclusions are being put
forward. However, not all arguments contain indicator words, and sometimes indicator words
are used in passages that are not arguments. (từ báo hiệu cho biết sắp tới premise/conclusion)
+ Premise indicators: since, because, for, given that, seeing that, considering that, inasmuch
as, as, in view of the fact that, as indicated by, judging from, on account of,…
+ Conclusion indicators: therefore, thus, hence, consequently, so, accordingly, it follows that,
for this reason, that is why, which shows that, wherefore, this implies that, as a result, this
suggests that, this being so, we may infer that,…
Tips on Finding the Conclusion of an Argument
• Conclusion là vấn đề chính, câu chủ chốt của bài
• Conclusion thường nằm ở đầu hoặc cuối đoạn (mà không phải 100% sẽ như vậy)
• Đặt câu hỏi “Người viết đang chứng minh cái gì?” thì cái đó là conclusion
• Nếu không có indicator word cho conclusion thì thử đặt “therefore” vào trước câu mình nghi
ngờ là conclusion rồi đọc thử coi nghe có xuôi tai không
• “Because” trick: The writer or speaker believes ________ (conclusion) because _________
(premise). Conclusion là câu ở trước because.
 WHAT IS NOT AN ARGUMENT?
5 types of nonargumentative discourse (sometimes confused with arguments):
+ Reports: Statements that are intended simply to convey information about a subject. (“Today,
many organizations and employees are experiencing the effects of stress on work performance.
The effects of stress can be either positive or negative.” - Dr. Robert J. Olney, The Effects Of Stress On
Business Employees And Programs Offered By Employers To Manage Employee Stress)
 + Unsupported assertions: Statements that indicate what a person believes but don’t offer
evidence for that belief. (“Dresses are only for females”)
+ Conditional statements: if-then statements.
+ Illustrations: Statements intended to provide examples of a claim, rather than evidence or
proof for the claim. (“Professional athletes train long and hard to maintain their skills. For
instance, Peyton Manning – a professional athlete – spends 3 hours a day praticing.”)
+ Explanations: Statements intended to explain why something is the case, rather than to
prove that it is the case. (“I’m so sorry I’m late today, because I helped an old woman to cross
the street.”)
 4 basic tests to distinguish arguments from explanations:
 Common-knowledge test
 Past-event test
 Author’s intent test
 Principle of charity test
QUESTIONS:
1 - Which of the following is best treated as statement?
A. Would you please stop making that noise?
B. Get out of that burning house before the roof collapses.
C. Please pass the salt.
D. Can't you understand that without justice there will be no peace?
2 - Words or phrases that provide clues when premises or conclusions are being offered are called:
A. indicator words
B. signal words
C. signifying phrases
D. markers
3 - "Your report is both good and original, but the part that is good is not original, and the part that
is original is not good." is an example of a/an:
A. Argument
B. Explaination
C. Unsupported assertion
D. Illustration
4 - "The concert was cancelled due to inclement weather conditions" is an example of a/an:
A. Argument
B. Explanation
C. Unsupported assertion
D. Illustration
5 - "You should vote for the Democratic candidate, because she will keep the economy strong." is
an example of a/an:
A. Argument
B. Explanation
C. Unsupported assertion
D. Illustration
6 - "The United States is a very special place. It will stop being special if we take it for granted.
Every generation must renew its commitment to our basic beliefs. That's why you must follow the
election news on TV and in newspaper." is an example of a/an:
A. Argument
B. Explanation
C. Unsupported assertion
D. Illustration

--------------------

 DEDUCTION & INDUCTION

 Deductive argument: The conclusion is claimed to follow necessarily from the premises.
(Ex: “If the president lives in the White House, then he lives in Washington, D.C.
The president does live in the White House.
So, the president lives in Washington, D.C.”)
 Inductive argument: The conclusion is claimed to follow only probably from the premises.
(Ex: “Every ruby so far discovered has been red.
So, probably all rubies are red.”)
 Key Differences between Deductive and Inductive Argument
Deductive Inductive
If the premises are true, then the conclusion If the premises are true, then the conclusion is
must be true. probably true.
The conclusion follows necessarily from the The conclusion follows probably from the
premises. premises.
It is impossible for all the premises to be true It is unlikely for the premises to be true and the
and the conclusion false. conclusion false.
It is logically inconsistent to assert the premises Although it is logically consistent to assert the
and deny the conclusion; if you accept the premises and deny the conclusion, the
premises, you must accept the conclusion. conclusion is probably true if the premises are
true.

 HOW TO TELL WHETHER THE ARGUMENT IS DEDUCTIVE OR

INDUCTIVE
 The Indicator Word Test
+ Deduction indicator words: certainly; definitely; absolutely; conclusively; it logically follows
that; it is logical to conclude that; this logically implies that; this entails that;...
+ Induction indicator words: probably; likely; one would expect that; it is a good bet that; it is
plausible to suppose that; chances are that; it is reasonable to assume that; odds are that;...
 The Strict Necessity Test
Does the conclusion follow with strict logical necessity from the premises?
Yes - The argument should always be treated as deductive.
No - The argument should normally be treated as inductive
 The Common Pattern Test
Consider if the argument has a pattern that is characteristically deductive or inductive. (dạng
– 11 dạng tổng cộng của deductive với inductive)
 The Principle of Charity Test
Interpret a doubtful argument in the way most favorable to the arguer.

 COMMON PATTERNS OF DEDUCTIVE REASONING

 Hypothetical Syllogism: A syllogism that contains at least one hypothetical or conditional (if-
then) premise. (syllogism có ít nhất 1 premise là dạng if-then)
+ Syllogism: A three-line argument, that is, an argument that consists of exactly two premises
and a conclusion. (argument có chính xác là 1 conclusion và 2 premises)
Example:
If I want to get scholarship, I’d better study hard.
 I do want to get scholarship.
Therefore, I’d better study hard.
 Patterns of hypothetical syllogism (5 patterns):
Modus ponens Modus tollens Affirming the consequent
If A then B. If A then B. If A then B.
A. Not B. B.
Therefore, B. Therefore, not A. Therefore, A.
Chain arguments Denying the antecedent
If A then B. If A then B.
If B then C. Not A.
Therefore, if A then C. Therefore, not B.

 Categorical Syllogism: A three-line argument in which each statement begins with the word
all, some, or no. (syllogism thường có chứa từ all, some, no ở đầu. Lưu ý là không phải argument
nào dạng này cũng có mấy từ này ở đầu câu)
Example:
All oaks are trees.
All trees are plants.
So, all oaks are plants.
 Argument by Elimination: Logically rule out various possibilities until only a single possibility
remains. (state ra nhiều khả năng và loại bớt khả năng đi cho đến khi còn duy nhất 1 cái)
Example:
Either Joe walked to the library or he drove.
But Joe didn’t drive to the library.
Therefore, Joe walked to the library.
 Argument Based on Mathematics: The conclusion is claimed to depend largely or entirely on
some mathematical calculation or measurement.
Example:
Light travels at a rate of 186,000 miles per second.
The sun is more than 93 million miles distant from the earth.
Therefore, it takes more than eight minutes for the sun’s light to reach the earth.
 Argument from Definition: The conclusion is presented as being “true by definition”.
Example: Bertha is an aunt. It follows that she is a woman.
 COMMON PATTERNS OF INDUCTIVE REASONING
 Inductive Generalization: An argument in which a generalization is claimed to be probably
true based on information about some members of a particular class. (dựa vào thông tin của 1
vài đối tượng trong nhóm và đưa ra kết luận về tất cả thành viên trong nhóm)
+ Generalization: (khái quát hóa) A statement that attributes some characteristic to all or
most members of a given class.
Example:
All dinosaur bones so far discovered have been more than sixty-five million years old.
Therefore, probably all dinosaur bones are more than sixty-five million years old.
 Predictive Argument: A prediction is defended with reasons.
+ Prediction: (tiên đoán) A statement about what may or will happen in the future.
Example:
Most U.S. presidents have been tall.
Therefore, probably the next U.S. president will be tall.
 Argument from Authority: Asserts a claim and then supports that claim by citing some
presumed authority or witness who has said that the claim is true. (dựa vào thông tin có được
từ nhân chứng hay nguồn có thẩm quyền mà đưa ra kết luận)
Example:
My teacher said that we should pursue our dreams.
My teacher is a reliable person.
Therefore, we should pursue our dreams.
 Causal Argument: Asserts or denies that something is the cause of something else.
Example: I can’t log on. The network must be down.
 Statistical Argument: Rests on statistical evidence — that is, evidence that some percentage
of some group or class has some particular characteristic. (dạng này nhất thiết phải có %)
Example:
My survey shows that 80% of students of International University have a laptop.
Anh is a student of International University.
Therefore, probably Anh has a laptop.
 Argument from Analogy: The conclusion is claimed to depend on an analogy (a comparison
or similarity) between two or more things. (kết luận dựa vào điểm giống nhau giữa các đối
tượng)
+ Analogy: A comparison of two or more things that are claimed to be alike in some relevant
respect.
 Example:
Thu is from class 12A. She is friendly and hard-working.
Oanh is from class 12A. She is friendly and hard-working.
Huyen is from class 12A.
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that Huyen is friendly and hard-working, too.

Sound: Both valid and have

Valid: conclusion follows
all true premises.
necessarily from the
premises
Deductive Unsound: Either are invalid
Validity Invalid: conclusion does not or have at least one false
follow necessarily from the premise
premises

Strong: conclusion follows Cogent: both inductively

Inductive probably from the premises strong and has all true
premises
Strength Weak: conclusion does not
follow probably from the
premises
Uncogent: either is weak or
has at least one false premise

QUESTIONS:
1 - "If it rains, then the garden is wet. The garden is not wet. So it did not rain last night." This
argument is:
A. Modus ponens
B. Modus tollens
C. Denying the antecedent
D. Affirming the consequent
2 - "Jennifer was a brunette when she was freshmen, and she was a blonde when she was a
sophomore. It follows that she will be redhead when she is a junior." What type of argument is
this?
A. Predictive argument
B. Argument by elimination
C. Inductive generalization
D. Argument from analogy
3 - "Since all humans are mortal, and I am a human, then I am mortal." What type of argument is
this?
A. Casual argument
B. Categorical syllogism
C. Argument from authority
D. Inductive generalization
4 - "My keys are either next to my bed, on the coffee table, or in my coat pocket. My keys are not
next to my bed and not on the coffee table. So, my keys are in my coat pocket." What type of
argument is this?
A. Predictive argument
B. Hypothetical syllogism
C. Argument by elimination
D. Inductive generalization

---------------------

 Categorical statement: makes a claim about the relationship between two or more
categories or classes of things.
 STANDARD-FORM CATEGORICAL STATEMENTS
1) All S are P.
2) No S are P. “Some” means “at least one”
3) Some S are P.
4) Some S are not P.
 TRANSLATING INTO STANDARD CATEGORICAL FORM
The standard categorical forms have 4 basic parts:
1. Begin with the word all, no, or some: quantifiers.
2. Have a subject term (S): a word or phrase that names a class or that serves as the
grammatical subject of the sentence.
 3. Have a predicate term (P): a word or phrase that names a class or that serves as the subject
complement of the sentence.
4. Have a copula (linking verb): some forms of the verb “to be”.
Standard form: All/Some/No + S + are/are not + P

Translating steps
Tip 1: Rephrase all nonstandard subject and predicate categorical form. (đổi hết mấy từ loại
ko chuẩn, VD tính từ, động từ đổi thành danh từ...)
Ex: All police officers are good. => All police officers are good people.
Tip 2: Rephrase all nonstandard verb: (are/ are not) (câu nào có động từ ko phải are/are not
thì đổi)
Ex: Some students drive to school. => Some students are people who drive to school.
Tip 3: Fill in any unexpressed quantifiers: to be charitable, it’s better to add “some” instead of
“all”. (Cho thêm từ all, some, no còn thiếu. Lưu ý là câu nào có sẵn subject term số nhiều thì
đổi thành some)
Ex: Vietnamese people are friendly. => Some (not “all”) Vietnamese people are friendly.
Tip 4: Translate singular statement as all or no statement. (câu nào chứa danh từ số ít thì đổi
hết về số nhiều. Lưu ý, trường hợp số ít về số nhiều mà thiếu quantifier thì thêm all (khẳng
định) hay no (phủ định))
+ Singular statement makes a claim about a particular person, place, or thing.
Ex: This flower is blooming. => All things identical with this flower are things that are
blooming.
This flower is not blooming. => No things identical with this flower are things that are
blooming.
Tip 5: Translate stylistic variants into the appropriate categorical form. (cách để paraphrase 1
câu, coi thử nó thuộc dạng nào trong này thì đổi về)
+ Stylistic variants: different way of saying essentially the same thing.
+ Common stylistic variants:

1. “All S are P”
 - Every S is a P - The only S are P
- Whoever is a S is a P - Something is a S only if it is a P
- Any S is P

- Only S are P
“All P are S” [not “All S are P”]
- Only if a thing is a S is it a P

2. “No S are P”
- No P are S - No one who is a S is a P
- S are not P - All S are not P

3. “Some S are P”
- Many S are P - Some P are S
- A few S are P

4. “Some S are not P”

- A few S are not P
- Not all S are P

 VENN DIAGRAMS

All A are B No A are B

 Some A are B Some A are not B
- Venn Diagram allows you to determine whether a categorical syllogism is valid or invalid.
- A Venn Diagram consists of three overlapping circles which represent the three terms in the
syllogism and their relationship with each other.
3 steps in the drawing process:
1. Draw premise one.
2. Draw premise two.
3. Check the validity (xét xem khi vẽ hết tất cả premise ra rồi thì conclusion đã được tự động thỏa
chưa, nếu thỏa rồi thì valid, chưa thỏa thì invalid.)
3 rules in the drawing process:
1. Always do any necessary shading before placing an X: ALL or NO statements should be done first.
2. When placing an X in an area, if one part of the area has been shaded, place the X in the
unshaded part.

3. When placing an X in an area, if neither part of the area has been shaded, place the X precisely
on the line separating the two parts.
 NOTE:
1. Chuyển hết statement về standard form.
2. Chú ý thống nhất các ký hiệu trong diagram
3. Vẽ premise theo trình tự (vẽ statement có all hay no trước, some vẽ sau)
4. Chú ý quy tắc shade (gạch bỏ 1 phần diagram) & quy tắc đặt dấu x
5. Không vẽ conclusion, chỉ dựa vào các premises đã vẽ để xem là valid hay invalid.
QUESTIONS:
1 - The correct standard-form translation of the sentence "Only alphas are betas" is:
A. All alphas are betas
B. Some alphas are betas
C. No alphas are not betas
D. All betas are alphas
2 - Which of the following statements is not a standard-form categorical statement?
A. All fruits are not apples.
B. No Democrats are Republicans.
C. Some trees are not conifers.
D. Some politicans are golfers.

--------------------

 Propositional logic: a way to symbolize the parts of arguments so that we can analyze
whole argument for validity.
 TRUTH TABLES
- Truth table: A list of all possible truth values.
- Each claim variable:
+ Stands for a complete sentence
+ Has a truth value: either true or false.
  A single statement: A is tall (P)
B is tall (Q)
 A compound statement: A is tall and B is tall. (P & Q)
Numbers of possibility: 2n
Validity of truth table:
- If there is any line in which all the premises are true and the conclusion is false, then the
argument is invalid. (Trong table có hàng nào mà tất cả premise nhận giá trị T trong khi
conclusion nhận giá trị F thì table đó invalid)
- If there is no such line, then the argument is valid. (Còn nếu không có hàng nào như trên thì
valid)
 CONJUNCTION (&)
- Conjunction: A compound claim asserting both of the simpler claims contained in it. True if and
only if both of the simpler claims are true. (conjunction chỉ nhận giá trị T khi tất cả các variable
cấu thành nên nó đều nhận giá trị T)
- Words can be symbolized as conjunction: and, but, yet, while, whereas, although, though,
however

Conjunction using the “&” symbol.

P&Q
It is pronounced “P and Q.”
For example: Truth table for P & Q
P Q P&Q
T T T Conjunction is true if and only if
T F F both of the simpler claims are true
F T F
F F F

Symbolize the argument for the P & Q above: P

Q
∴P&Q

 NEGATION (~)
- Contradictory claim: has the opposite truth value
- Use the ~ to represent the negation; pronounce as “not.”
 DISJUNCTION (v)
- Disjunction: A compound claim asserting either or both of the simpler claims contained in it.
False if and only if both of the simpler claims are false. (disjunction chỉ nhận giá trị F khi tất cả
các variable cấu thành nên nó đều nhận giá trị F)
Disjunction using the “v” symbol. It is
PvQ
pronounced “P or Q.”
P Q PvQ
T T T
T F T
F T T The only way “P or Q” is false is
F F F the case where both “P” is false
and “Q” is false.

- The word "unless" is sometimes used in place of "or" to form a disjunction.

 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
- Conditional: a compound claim asserting the second simpler claim on the condition that the
first is true. False if and only if the first claim is true and the second false. (Câu điều kiện chỉ
nhận giá trị F khi variable đầu tiên là T và variable thứ hai là F)
Conditional using the ”→” symbol.
P→Q
It is pronounced “if P then Q.”
P Q P→Q
T T T The only way “if P then Q” is
T F F false is the case where “P” is
F T T true and “Q” is false
F F T

NOTE:
QUESTIONS:
1 - A disjunction is symbolized by:
A. v
B. *
C. ^
D. ~
2 - The statement "If Joan comes to the party, then Harry won't come to the party" is correctly
symbolized as:
A. p v ~q
B. p ~q
C. J & ~H
D. None of the above